Unit 5

Module 1
Thermal Effect

Thermal Effects:
Temperature coefficient of resistance, Thermo-electricity, Thermocouples, Thermal
and temperature sensors.
Thermal effects

• Thermal effects in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) components refer to the impact of temperature variations
on the performance, reliability, and behavior of these tiny mechanical and electronic systems. These effects can arise due to
several factors:

1. Thermal Expansion: Materials used in MEMS components have different coefficients of thermal expansion. When the
temperature changes, these materials expand or contract at different rates, leading to mechanical stress within the device. This
stress can cause deformation, warping, or even structural failure over time.

2. Temperature-Dependent Material Properties: The electrical and mechanical properties of materials used in MEMS can vary
with temperature. For instance, the conductivity of conductive materials, such as silicon, changes with temperature, affecting
the performance of electronic components. Similarly, mechanical properties like stiffness, elasticity, and viscosity can be
temperature-dependent, influencing the mechanical behavior of MEMS devices.

3. Thermal Drift: Thermal variations can cause shifts in the baseline performance characteristics of MEMS devices. This is
often referred to as thermal drift. For example, temperature changes can alter the calibration of sensors, causing inaccuracies in
measurements over time.
Thermal effects

4. Thermal Management: Excessive heat can degrade the performance and reliability of MEMS devices. Proper
thermal management is crucial to prevent overheating, which can lead to thermal expansion mismatches,
material degradation, and even device failure. Techniques such as incorporating thermal insulation layers, heat
sinks, and temperature sensors are employed to manage thermal effects in MEMS devices.

5. Thermal Noise: In microscale devices like MEMS, thermal fluctuations at the atomic level can induce noise
in electrical signals. This is known as thermal noise or Johnson-Nyquist noise. It's particularly relevant in
MEMS sensors and actuators, where precise signal detection or control is necessary.

Understanding and mitigating thermal effects are critical in the design, fabrication, and operation of MEMS
devices to ensure their reliability, accuracy, and longevity in various operating conditions.
Coefficient of resistance (TCR)

• In MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) components, the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) refers to
how the electrical resistance of the materials used in MEMS devices changes with temperature. Just like in macroscopic
electronic components, the resistance of materials in MEMS devices can vary with temperature, and the TCR quantifies this
change.

• MEMS devices often utilize materials like silicon, various metals, and polysilicon, among others, which can have different
TCR values. Understanding the TCR of these materials is crucial for designing MEMS devices, especially for those
applications where the electrical properties need to remain stable over a wide range of temperatures.

• For instance, in MEMS-based sensors, such as temperature sensors or pressure sensors, the TCR of the sensing element's
material determines the sensor's sensitivity and accuracy across different temperature ranges. Similarly, in MEMS actuators,
where precise control of electrical resistance is necessary, knowing the TCR of the actuator materials helps ensure
consistent performance over changing environmental conditions.

• Designers and engineers need to consider the TCR of materials during the design and fabrication of MEMS devices to
account for any variations in electrical properties caused by temperature changes. Compensating for TCR effects may
involve incorporating temperature compensation circuits, selecting materials with suitable TCR characteristics, or
implementing feedback mechanisms to adjust for temperature-induced changes in resistance.
Seebeck effect
The Seebeck effect, also known as thermoelectric effect, is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two
points in a conductive material generates an electric voltage. This effect occurs in materials that exhibit a thermoelectric
response, meaning they can convert a temperature gradient into an electrical voltage.

The Seebeck effect is the basis for thermocouples, which are widely used for temperature measurement and thermal energy
harvesting. A thermocouple consists of two different conductive materials joined at one end to form a junction. When there is a
temperature gradient along the length of the thermocouple, it creates a voltage difference between the two junctions. This
voltage, known as the thermoelectric voltage, is proportional to the temperature difference and follows a characteristic
relationship described by the Seebeck coefficient of the materials.

The Seebeck effect can be explained by considering the behavior of charge carriers (such as
electrons or holes) in the material. When one end of the material is heated, the increased thermal
energy causes the charge carriers to move preferentially towards the cooler end, creating an
accumulation of charge. This accumulation of charge creates an electric field, resulting in a voltage
difference between the two ends of the material.
Seebeck effect
The Seebeck coefficient, denoted by α, quantifies the magnitude of the thermoelectric voltage per unit temperature

difference for a given material. It is typically expressed in units of microvolts per degree Celsius (µV/°C) or millivolts per

Kelvin (mV/K). The Seebeck coefficient depends on the material properties, temperature, and the type of charge carriers

(e.g., electrons or holes).

The Seebeck effect has various practical applications, including:

Thermocouples: Used for temperature measurement in a wide range of industries, including HVAC systems, automotive,

aerospace, and industrial processes.

Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs): Convert waste heat into electrical power in applications such as automotive exhaust

systems, industrial processes, and energy harvesting from body heat.

Temperature Sensors: Integrated into electronic devices and systems for monitoring temperature variations in real-time.

Overall, the Seebeck effect plays a crucial role in thermoelectric devices and systems, enabling temperature measurement,

thermal energy harvesting, and temperature control in diverse applications.

Thermo-electricity

In the context of MEMS components, thermo-electricity refers to the generation of an electrical voltage or current as a result of a
temperature gradient within a material. This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect or thermoelectric effect.

The Seebeck effect occurs when there is a temperature difference between two points in a conductive material, resulting in the migration of
charge carriers (such as electrons or holes) from the hotter region to the cooler region. This migration of charge carriers creates a voltage
difference between the two points, generating an electrical potential across the material.

In MEMS devices, thermo-electricity can have both positive and negative implications:

1. Thermoelectric Generators: In some cases, thermo-electricity can be harnessed to generate electrical power from waste heat or temperature
differentials within the MEMS device or its surrounding environment. Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) based on the Seebeck effect can
convert heat energy directly into electrical energy, providing a power source for MEMS sensors, actuators, or other electronic components.

2. Thermal Noise: On the other hand, thermo-electric effects can also contribute to electrical noise in MEMS devices, particularly in sensors
and signal processing circuits. Temperature gradients within the device can induce unwanted electrical signals, which may interfere with the
desired functionality of the device or degrade its performance.

Understanding thermo-electric effects is essential for optimizing the performance of MEMS devices, especially in applications where
temperature variations are significant. Designers may need to consider strategies to mitigate or exploit these effects, depending on the

specific requirements of the MEMS device and its operating environment.

Thermocouples

In the context of MEMS components and beyond, thermocouples are temperature sensors that utilize the Seebeck effect to
measure temperature. They consist of two dissimilar conductors joined at one end, called the junction. When there is a
temperature gradient between the two junctions, it generates a voltage proportional to the temperature difference. This
voltage can be measured and used to determine the temperature.

Thermocouples are widely used for temperature measurement in various applications due to their simplicity, ruggedness,
wide temperature range, and fast response time. They are commonly employed in industries such as automotive, aerospace,
HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), and manufacturing processes.

In MEMS devices, thermocouples can be integrated as temperature sensors to monitor the device's temperature or its
surrounding environment. They can provide valuable feedback for thermal management, temperature compensation, or
temperature-dependent calibration of MEMS sensors and actuators.

However, it's essential to note that integrating thermocouples into MEMS devices may require careful consideration of
fabrication techniques, material selection, and calibration procedures to ensure accurate and reliable temperature
measurement. Additionally, miniaturization challenges may arise when implementing thermocouples in MEMS devices due
to their small size and the need for precise positioning of the junctions.
Thermal sensor" VS ”Temperature sensor"

The terms "thermal sensor" and "temperature sensor" are often used interchangeably, but there can be slight
differences in their interpretations depending on context.

1. Temperature Sensor:

- A temperature sensor is a device that measures the temperature of its surrounding environment or a specific
object or medium. It provides a quantitative measurement of temperature, typically in degrees Celsius (°C) or
Fahrenheit (°F), indicating how hot or cold the environment is.

- Temperature sensors can operate using various principles, such as detecting changes in electrical resistance
(e.g., thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors), sensing infrared radiation (e.g., IR sensors), or utilizing
semiconductor properties (e.g., IC temperature sensors).

2. Thermal Sensor:

- A thermal sensor is a broader term that encompasses sensors used to detect any form of thermal energy, not
just temperature. While temperature sensors specifically measure the temperature of an object or environment,
thermal sensors may also detect heat flux, infrared radiation, or thermal gradients.
Thermal sensor" VS ”Temperature sensor"

- Thermal sensors can include devices like infrared sensors (which detect infrared radiation
emitted by objects), heat flux sensors (which measure the rate of heat transfer through a
surface), and pyroelectric sensors (which generate an electrical signal in response to changes in
temperature or infrared radiation).

In summary, while temperature sensors specifically measure temperature, thermal sensors can
encompass a broader range of devices that detect thermal energy in various forms. However, in
many contexts, especially in everyday language, the terms "thermal sensor" and "temperature

sensor" are often used synonymously to refer to devices that measure temperature.
Module 2: Applications of MEMS in RF

MEMS Resonator Design Considerations, One-Port Micromechanical Resonator Modeling Vertical

Displacement Two-Port Microresonator Modeling, Micromechanical Resonator Limitations.
Applications of MEMS in RF

RF (Radio Frequency) systems are systems that operate within the radio frequency spectrum, typically ranging from a few kilohertz
(kHz) to several gigahertz (GHz). These systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive information wirelessly. RF
systems are widely used in various applications, including communication, radar, navigation, wireless networking, and remote
sensing.

1. Switches and Relays: MEMS-based RF switches and relays offer fast switching speeds, low insertion loss, and high isolation,
making them suitable for applications such as RF front-end modules, communication systems, and reconfigurable RF circuits.

2. Filters: MEMS-based RF filters provide tunable and reconfigurable filtering capabilities, allowing for dynamic adjustment of
filter characteristics such as center frequency, bandwidth, and selectivity. These filters find applications in wireless communication
systems, radar systems, and spectrum analyzers.

3. Antenna Systems: MEMS technology enables the fabrication of miniaturized, tunable, and reconfigurable antennas for wireless
communication devices, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) systems, and phased array antennas. MEMS-based antenna
systems offer improved performance, flexibility, and adaptability to changing RF environments.

4. Resonators: MEMS resonators, such as MEMS-based oscillators and resonant cavities, provide stable frequency references for
RF signal generation and processing in communication systems, frequency synthesizers, and RF test equipment. MEMS resonators
offer advantages such as low phase noise, high Q-factor, and compact size.
Applications of MEMS in RF

5. Variable Capacitors and Inductors: MEMS-based variable capacitors and inductors offer tunable and reconfigurable impedance
matching, frequency tuning, and impedance transformation in RF circuits and systems. These components find applications in tunable
RF filters, impedance matching networks, and RF front-end modules.

6. Microphones and Sensors: MEMS-based RF microphones and sensors, such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and pressure sensors,
can be integrated into RF systems for various applications, including wireless audio devices, inertial navigation systems, and
environmental monitoring.

7. Reconfigurable RF Circuits: MEMS technology enables the implementation of reconfigurable RF circuits, where circuit parameters
such as impedance, resonance frequency, and bandwidth can be dynamically adjusted to adapt to changing RF requirements.
Reconfigurable RF circuits find applications in cognitive radio systems, software-defined radios, and adaptive RF transceivers.

Overall, MEMS technology plays a crucial role in advancing RF systems by providing miniaturized, low-power, and high-performance
components and subsystems for a wide range of applications in wireless communication, radar, navigation, and sensing.
Resonance
Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs when an object or system vibrates at its natural frequency in response to an external force or stimulus. When
the frequency of the external force matches the natural frequency of the object or system, resonance occurs, resulting in a significant increase in the
amplitude of vibration.

Resonance can occur in various physical systems, including mechanical, electrical, acoustic, and electromagnetic systems. Some common examples of
resonance include:

1. Mechanical Resonance: A swinging pendulum resonates when it receives small pushes at the right frequency. Similarly, a tuning fork resonates when
struck, producing a pure tone at its natural frequency.

2. Electrical Resonance: An electrical circuit containing inductors, capacitors, and resistors can resonate at a specific frequency. This phenomenon is
utilized in radio circuits, where resonant circuits are used for tuning and filtering.

3. Acoustic Resonance: Musical instruments, such as guitars and violins, resonate when their strings are plucked or bowed, producing sound at specific
frequencies determined by their physical characteristics.

4. Electromagnetic Resonance: Antennas and cavity resonators in electromagnetic systems can resonate at specific frequencies, enhancing their
efficiency in transmitting or receiving electromagnetic waves.
Resonators
Resonators are devices designed to exhibit resonance at specific frequencies. They are used in various applications to generate, filter, or amplify signals at
particular frequencies. Resonators can be classified into different types based on their operating principles and physical properties:

1. Mechanical Resonators: These resonators consist of mechanical structures, such as strings, beams, or membranes, that vibrate at specific frequencies.
Examples include tuning forks, quartz crystals, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) resonators.

2. Electrical Resonators: Electrical circuits containing inductors, capacitors, and resistors can exhibit resonance at specific frequencies. Examples include
LC circuits, RLC circuits, and resonant cavity filters.

3. Acoustic Resonators: Acoustic resonators, such as the air columns in wind instruments or the sound boxes in stringed instruments, resonate at specific
frequencies to produce sound.

4. Optical Resonators: Optical resonators, such as Fabry-Perot interferometers and optical cavities, resonate at specific wavelengths of light, enhancing the
intensity of light at those wavelengths.

Resonators play a crucial role in various technologies and applications, including telecommunications, signal processing, sensing, metrology, and
spectroscopy. They provide a means of generating, filtering, and amplifying signals at specific frequencies, enabling the operation of numerous electronic,
acoustic, and optical systems.
MEMS RESONATORS
MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) resonators are microscopic mechanical structures that vibrate at specific frequencies, similar to the
strings of a guitar or the tines of a tuning fork. These resonators are fabricated using microfabrication techniques, often on silicon wafers, and they can
be used in a variety of applications ranging from timing references to RF filters.

The distinction between one-port and two-port MEMS resonators lies in their electrical connectivity:

1. One-Port MEMS Resonators:

- One-port resonators have a single electrical terminal through which both excitation and sensing signals are applied and detected.

- They are typically excited using an AC signal applied to this single port, causing the resonator to vibrate.

- The resonant behavior of the device, such as its resonant frequency and quality factor, can be determined by analyzing the impedance or admittance
at this single terminal.

- One-port resonators are simpler in design and construction, making them suitable for applications where simplicity and compactness are important.
MEMS RESONATORS
2. Two-Port MEMS Resonators:

- Two-port resonators have separate input and output terminals, allowing for independent excitation and sensing of the resonant
behavior.

- One port serves as the input, where an AC signal is applied to excite the resonator, while the other port serves as the output,
where the response of the resonator is measured.

- The resonant behavior of the device, including its resonance frequency, bandwidth, and phase response, can be characterized by
analyzing the signals at both ports.

- Two-port resonators offer more flexibility and versatility in signal processing and measurement compared to one-port resonators.

Both one-port and two-port MEMS resonators have their advantages and are chosen based on the specific requirements of the
application. One-port resonators are simpler and more compact, while two-port resonators offer enhanced measurement
capabilities and flexibility in signal processing, particularly in RF (Radio Frequency) applications.