Nuclear Power

Plants
Macalin Cawsey
Like a fossil-fueled plant, a nuclear
power plant boils water to produce
electricity. Unlike a fossil-fueled plant,
the nuclear plant’s energy does not
come from the combustion of fuel, but
from the fissioning (splitting) of fuel
atoms.
Nuclear energy, it is the
energy released during
nuclear reactions like
nuclear fission or nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear fission, subdivision of a
heavy atomic nucleus, such as that
of uranium or plutonium, into two
fragments of roughly equal mass.
The process is accompanied by the
release of a large amount of energy.
In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom
breaks up into two lighter nuclei. The
process may take place spontaneously in
some cases or may be induced by the
excitation of the nucleus with a variety of
particles (e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons,
or alpha particles) or with
electromagnetic radiation in the form of
gamma rays. In the fission process, a large
quantity of energy is released, radioactive
products are formed, and several neutrons
are emitted.
These neutrons can induce fission in a
nearby nucleus of fissionable material and
release more neutrons that can repeat the
sequence, causing a chain reaction in which
a large number of nuclei undergo fission and
an enormous amount of energy is released.
If controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a
chain reaction can provide power for
society’s benefit. If uncontrolled, as in the
case of the so-called atomic bomb, it can
lead to an explosion of awesome destructive
force.
Xe – Xenon
Sr – Strontium
Zr- Zirconium
Life Cycle of a Neutron

Fission reactions occur as an atom absorbs a

nearby neutron. The atom becomes unstable and
splits into two semi-stable atoms, releasing
neutrons and a tremendous amount of heat. Let η
be the fast neutrons created by a fission reaction.
Fast neutrons contain a large amount of energy
and travel at a speed of more than 14,000 km/s
(30 million mph).
One common reaction in nuclear reactors
is the capture of a neutron by uranium-
235 which creates two daughter neutrons
and atomic nuclei of barium-144 and
krypton-90. This reaction releases about
200 megaelectronvolts (MeV) which is
equivalent to just 0.000000000032 Joules.
The amount of heat generated by
burning 1 kg of nuclear fuel is
equivalent to the energy
generated by burning 3000
tones of coal or 1600 tones of
oil.
The most common fuel for the electrical producing
reactor plants in the United States is uranium. The
uranium starts out as ore, and contains a very low
percentage (or low enrichment) of the desired atoms (U-
235).
The U-235 is a more desirable atom for fuel, because it is
easier to cause the U-235 atoms to fission (split) than the
much more abundant U-238 atoms. Therefore, the fuel
fabrication process
includes steps to increase the number of U-235 atoms in
relation to the number of U-238 atoms
(enrichment process).
Once the fuel has been enriched, it is fabricated into ceramic pellets.

The pellets are stacked into 12-foot long, slender metal tubes, generally

made of a zirconium alloy. The tube is called the “fuel cladding.”

When a tube is filled with the uranium pellets, it is pressurized with

helium gas, and plugs are installed and welded to seal the tube. The

filled rod is called a “fuel rod.” The fuel rods are bundled together into

“fuel assemblies” or “fuel elements.” The completed assemblies are

now ready to be shipped to the plant for installation into the reactor

vessel.
There are two basic types of reactor plants being
used in the United States to produce electricity,
the boiling water reactor (BWR) and the
pressurized water reactor (PWR). The boiling
water reactor operates in essentially the same
way as a fossil-fueled generating plant. Inside
the reactor vessel, a steam/water mixture is
produced when very pure water (reactor coolant)
moves upward through the core absorbing heat.
The major difference in the operation of a
boiling water reactor as compared to other
nuclear systems is the steam void formation in
the core. The steam/water mixture leaves the top
of the core and enters two stages of moisture
separation, where water droplets are removed
before the steam is allowed to enter the steam
line. The steam line, in turn, directs the steam to
the main turbine, causing it to turn the turbine
and the attached electrical generator.
The unused steam is exhausted to the
condenser where it is condensed into water.
The resulting water (condensate) is pumped
out of the condenser with a series of pumps
and back to the reactor vessel. The
recirculation pumps and the jet pumps
allow the operator to vary coolant flow
through the core and to change reactor
power.
The pressurized water reactor (PWR) differs
from the boiling water reactor in that steam is
produced in the steam generator rather than in
the reactor vessel. The pressurizer keeps the
water that is flowing through the reactor vessel
under very high pressure (more than 2,200
pounds per square inch) to prevent it from
boiling, even at operating temperatures of more
than 600 degree F. Pressurized water reactors
make
up about two-thirds of the power reactors in the
United States.
Boiling water reactors are manufactured in the
United States by the General Electric Company, San
Jose, California. Boiling water reactors comprise
about one-third of the power reactors in the United
States.

Pressurized water reactors were manufactured in the

United States by Westinghouse Electric Corporation
(Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania), Babcock and Wilcox
Company (Lynchburg, Virginia), and the Combustion
Engineering Company (Windsor, Connecticut).
The most important advantage of nuclear energy is
that it has no combustion by-products and under safe
working conditions contributes no pollutant to air.
Site selection for producing nuclear energy is
completely independent of geographical area and it
requires no fuel transportation networks and large
storage facilities. However, nuclear wastes from a
power plant are more hazardous and face severe
disposing problems
Main components of nuclear power plants: Working

i) Moderators

In any chain reaction, the neutrons produced are fast

moving neutrons. These are less effective in
causing fission of U 235 and they try to escape from
the reactor. It is thus implicit that speed of
these neutrons must be reduced if their effectiveness
is carrying out fission is to be increased.
This is done by making these neutrons
collide with lighter nuclei of other
materials, which does not absorb these
neutrons but simply scatter them. Each
collision causes loss of energy and thus the
speed of neutrons is reduced.
ii) Reflectors
Some of the neutrons produced during fission
will be partly absorbed by the fuel elements,
moderator, coolant and other materials. The
remaining neutrons will try to escape from the
reactor and will be lost. Such losses are
minimized by surrounding (lining) the reactor
core with a material called a reflector which will
reflect the neutrons back to the core. They
improve the neutron economy.
iii) Shielding

During Nuclear fission particles and neutrons are

also produced. They are harmful to human life.
Therefore it is necessary to shield the reactor
with thick layers of lead, or concrete to
protect both the operating personnel as well as
environment from radiation hazards.
iv) Cladding

In order to prevent the contamination of the coolant by

fission products, the fuel element is
covered with a protective coating. This is known as cladding.

Control rods are used to control the

reaction to prevent it from becoming violent. They control
the reaction by absorbing neutrons.
These rods are made of boron or cadmium. Whenever the
reaction needs to be stopped, the rods are fully inserted and
placed against their seats and when the reaction is to be
started the rods are pulled out.
v) Coolant
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is
to transfer the heat produced inside the reactor.
The same heat carried by the coolant is used in
the heat exchanger for further utilization in the
power generation.
Some of the desirable properties of good coolant
are listed below.

1. It must not absorb the neutrons.

2. It must have high chemical and radiation
stability.
3. It must be non-corrosive.
4. It must have high boiling point (if liquid) and
low melting point (if solid).
5. It must be non-oxidizing and non-toxic.
The above-mentioned properties are essential to keep the reactor
core in safe condition as well as for the better functioning of the
content.

6. It must also have high density, low viscosity, high conductivity

and high specific heat. These properties are essential for better
heat transfer and low pumping power.
The water, heavy water, gas (He, CO2), a metal in liquid form
(Na) and an organic liquid are used as coolants.
The coolant not only carries large amounts of heat from the
core but also keeps the fuel
assemblies at a safe temperature to avoid their melting and
destruction.
Coolant used
(i) Gas-cooled reactor – Air, H2, He, CO2
➤ Uses natural uranium, graphite moderator
➤ Low pressure coolant, high reactor temperature
➤ Large size reactor
➤ Low power density (kW/l of core volume)
➤ Steam pressure and temperature low
➤ High pumping power
(ii) Water-cooled reactors
Water is used as coolant and moderator.
(a) Light water (LW) (ordinary water) reactor
These are the thermal reactor systems in which water serves as both
the coolant and the moderator.
➤ High hydrogen concentration
➤ Good thermal properties
➤ Cheapest coolant and moderator
➤ Cooling system is simple
➤ Hot water is corrosive
➤ Must be highly pressurized to operate at moderate temperature
➤ Costly reactor vessel, leak proof primary cooling circuit
➤ Enriched Uranium (2–3 per cent) is used
(b) Heavy water (D2O) reactor (HWR)
These are the thermal reactor systems in which ordinary water serves as the
coolant and
the heavy water as moderator or heavy water serves as both the coolant and the
moderator.
➤ Low electron cross section
➤ Good neutron economy
➤ High fuel burn-up, lower fuel cost
➤ High initial cost and limited by critical temperature
vi) Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor may be regarded as a substitute
for the boiler fire box of a steam power plant.
Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear
fission of the fuel . The heat liberated in the
reactor is taken up by the coolant circulating
through the core. Hot coolant leaves the reactor
at top and flows into the steam generator
(boiler).
Radiation hazards and Shieldings
The reactor is a source of intense
radioactivity. These radiations are very
harmful to human life.
It requires strong control to ensure that this
radioactivity is not released into the
atmosphere to avoid atmospheric pollution. A
thick concrete shielding and a pressure vessel
are provided to prevent the escape of these
radiations to atmosphere.
vii) Steam generator

The steam generator is fed with feed water

which is converted into steam by the heat
of the hot coolant. The purpose of the
coolant is to transfer the heat generated in
the reactor core and use it for steam
generation. Ordinary water or heavy water
is a common coolant
viii) Turbine

The steam produced in the steam generator

is passed to the turbine and work is done by
the expansion of steam in the turbine.
ix) Coolant pump and Feed pump

The steam from the turbine flows to the

condenser where cooling water is
circulated. Coolant pump and feed pump
are provided to maintain the flow of
coolant and feed water respectively.
Advantages of Nuclear Power Plant
The various advantages of a nuclear power plant are as follows:
1. Space requirement of a nuclear power plant is less as compared to other
conventional power plants is of equal size.

2. A nuclear power plant consumes very small quantity of fuel. Thus fuel
transportation cost is less and large fuel storage facilities are not needed
Further the nuclear power plants will
conserve the fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas etc.) for other energy need.

3. There is increased reliability of operation.

4. Nuclear power plants are not affected by adverse weather conditions.

5. Nuclear power plants are well suited to meet large power demands.
They give better performance at higher load factors (80 to 90%).
6. Materials
expenditure on metal structures, piping, storage
mechanisms are much lower for a
nuclear power plant than a coal burning power plant.

For example for a 100 MW nuclear power plant the weight of

machines and mechanisms,
weight of metal structures, weight of pipes and fittings and weight
of masonry and bricking up
required are nearly 700 tonnes, 900 tonnes, 200 tonnes and 500
tonnes respectively whereas for a
100 MW coal burning power plant the corresponding value are 2700
tonnes, 1250 tonnes, 300
tonnes and 1500 tonnes respectively. Further area of construction
site required aired for 100 MW
nuclear power plant is 5 hectares whereas was for a 100 MW coal
burning power plant the area
of construction site is nearly 15 hectares.
7. It does not require large quantity of water.
Disadvantages

1. Initial cost of nuclear power plant is higher as compared to hydro or

steam power plant.

2. Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying load conditions.

3. Radioactive wastes if not disposed carefully may have bad effect on

the health of workers and other population. In a nuclear power plant the
major problem faced is the disposal of highly radioactive waste in form
of liquid, solid and gas without any injury to the atmosphere. The
preservation of waste for a long time creates lot of difficulties and
requires huge capital.

4. Maintenance cost of the plant is high.

5. It requires trained personnel to handle nuclear power plants .

RADIATION HAZARDS
Effects of nuclear radiation, biological damage by interaction of radiation and tissue:
(i) Ionization – λ, β, γ – radiations ionize tissues into which they penetrate, resulting
in
complete damage of tissue.
(ii) Displacement – atom in the tissue is displaced by neutron and γ-radiation.
(iii) Absorption – Absorption of neutron by a tissue nucleus leads to radioactive
nucleus,
which results in change in chemical nature, malfunctioning of cell. Due to this,
cell gets damaged leading to genetic modification. Inhalation of radioactive
material through air, food and water results in radiation hazard.
Handling of Nuclear Waste and Safety Measures
Wastes associated with nuclear power are as follows:
1. Gaseous effluents (waste)
Under normal operation, these are released slowly from the power
plants into the biosphere and become diluted and dispersed harmlessly.
2. Uranium mine and mill tailings (Uranium waste)
Tailings are residues from uranium mining and milling operations.
They contain low concentration of naturally occurring radioactive
materials. They are generated in large volumes and are stored at the
mines or mill sites.
Radioactive Waste Disposal
One of the major problems in the nuclear plants is the disposal of waste
products that are highly radioactive. They emit large quantities of γ rays
and these high-energy γ rays destroy all living matter through which they
pass.
The radioactive products of 400 MW power station would be
equivalent to 100 tons of radium (chemical element)daily and the
radioactive effect of these plant products if exposed to atmosphere would
kill all the living organisms within an area about 100 square miles.
The disposal of nuclear waste is a very difficult problem for the
engineers and scientists. In a nuclear fuel cycle, the solid, liquid and
gaseous radioactive wastes are produced at Different stages.
These radioactive wastes must be disposed off in such a manner that
there is no hazard to human and plant life. Moderate active solid
wastes are buried in the ground. Moderate liquid wastes after
preliminary treatments are discharged in deep pits or dry wells to
keep them from seeping out into the surrounding ground. Active
liquids are kept in concrete tanks and these tanks are buried in the
ground till the radioactivity decays. Many times the radioactivity
increases the temperature of the liquid waste or sometimes these liquids
boil and the activity decreases with time. Gaseous wastes are
discharged to atmosphere through high stacks if the wind permits.
The waste is disposed to air, ground and ocean.
Nuclear accidents
1. SL-1 accident (1961)
2. Three Mile Island accident (1979)
3. Chenobyl disaster (1986)
4. Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster
(2011)
Atomic Bombs
Atomic bombs dropped on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in
1945.