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Chapter 4
Evolutionary Origin of Cells
and Their General Features
Lecture Outline

BIOLOGY
Sixth Edition
Robert J. Brooker, Eric P. Widmaier,
Linda E. Graham, Peter D. Stiling

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No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.
 Key Concepts

• Origin of Living Cells on Earth

• Microscopy
• Overview of Cell Structure and Function
• The Cytosol
• The Nucleus and Endomembrane System
• Semiautonomous Organelles
• Protein Sorting to Organelles
• Systems Biology of Cells: A Summary

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 Cell Biology

• Study of individual cells

and their interactions
with each other
• Topics such as cancer
are part of cell biology

Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source;

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 Overview of Cell Structure and Function 2

Two categories of life:

Prokaryotes
• Simple cell structure

• No membrane-enclosed nucleus

Eukaryotes
• More complex cells

• DNA enclosed within membrane-bound nucleus

• Internal membranes form organelles

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 Prokaryotic cells

Two categories of prokaryotes:

• Bacteria
• Small cells, 1 micrometer to 10 micrometer in diameter
• Very abundant in environment and our bodies
• Vast majority are not harmful to humans
• Some species cause disease
• Archaea
• Also small cells, 1 micrometer to 10 micrometer in diameter
• Less common
• Often found in extreme environments

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 Typical bacterial cell

Plasma membrane – double

layer of phospholipids and
embedded proteins; barrier
between interior of the cell and
external environment
Inside the plasma membrane:
• Cytoplasm – contained
within plasma membrane
• Nucleoid region – where
DNA is located
• Ribosomes – synthesize
proteins

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 Typical bacterial cell

Outside the plasma membrane:

• Cell wall – provides support and
protection. Contains peptides and
carbohydrates. Allows nutrients to come
in and out
• Glycocalyx –an outside viscious
membrane surrounding the bacterium.
Traps water, helps protect the bacterium
from drying out.
• Appendages – pili (attachment to
surfaces), flagella (movement)

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 Overview of Cell Structure and Function 2

Two categories of life:

• Prokaryotes
• Simple cell structure

• No membrane-enclosed nucleus

Eukaryotes
• More complex cells

• DNA enclosed within membrane-bound nucleus

• Internal membranes form organelles

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 Eukaryotic cells

DNA is housed inside membrane-bound nucleus

Exhibit compartmentalization, have membrane bound
organelles that separate cells into different regions
• Size and shape of eukaryotic cells show great variation
• Even cells that share the same genome can have
very different morphologies

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 Animal cell

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 Plant cell

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 The Cytosol

• Cytosol: Region of a eukaryotic cell that is outside the

cell organelles but inside the plasma membrane
• Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm includes everything inside the
plasma membrane
• Nucleus (blue)

• Endomembrane system (golgi apparatus, endoplasmic

reticulum, nucleus).

• Semiautonomous organelles (mitochondria and

chloroplasts)

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 Figure 4.13

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 Molecular synthesis and breakdown

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions by cells

• Cytosol is the coordinating region for many metabolic
processes.
• Often involves a series of steps called metabolic
pathway.
• Each step in a metabolic pathway catalyzed by an
enzyme- a protein that accelerates chemical reactions.

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 Molecular synthesis and breakdown

Metabolic Pathways
Catabolism
• Breakdown of a molecule into smaller components

Anabolism
• Synthesis of cellular molecules and macromolecules

Cytosol is central coordinating region for metabolic

activities of eukaryotic cells

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 Cytoskeleton

Network of three types of protein filaments

• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments
• Actin filaments

Each type constructed from many protein monomers

Found primarily in the cytosol and the inner nuclear
membrane

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 Microtubules

• 25 nm diameter
• Long, hollow, cylindrical structures
composed of a- and b-tubulin;
have a plus end and minus end
• Grow only at the plus end but can
shorten at both

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 Microtubules
• Dynamic instability – single microtubule
can oscillate between growing and
shortening phases

• Microtubule-organizing center (M T O
C) – site in a eukaryotic cell from which
microtubules grow

• Animals have a centrosome containing

centrioles as an M T O C

• Plant cells lack centrosomes & centrioles.

Microtubules are scattered and nuclear
membrane appears to have this function

• Microtubules important for cell shape and

organization; movement of chromosomes

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 Intermediate Filaments

• Found in many but not all

animal species
• Intermediate in diameter
between actin filaments and
microtubule.
• Intermediate filament
proteins bind and form
ropelike structures – function
as tension-bearing fibers
that maintain cell shape and
rigidity
• Their length is permanent

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 Intermediate Filaments

• Can be composed of
different proteins such as:
• Keratins form IF in skin,
intestinal and kidney
cells, where they are
important for cell shape
and mechanical
strength.
• Nuclear lamins- network
of IF that line the inner
nuclear membrane and
anchorage of nuclear
membranes.

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 Actin Filaments

• Also known as
microfilaments
• Thinnest cytoskeletal
filaments (7nm in diameter)
• Have plus and minus ends
and are dynamic structures
• Are composed of two
strands of actin monomers
that spiral around each
other
• Play a key role in cell shape,
strength and movement

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 Table 4.1

(left): Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/Getty Images; (middle): Alvin Telser, PhD/Cultura Science/Getty Images; (right): Dr. Gopal Murti/SPL/Science Source

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 Motor Proteins

Proteins that use ATP as a source of energy for

movement
Three domains— the head, hinge, and tail
• Head is where ATP hydrolysis occurs
• ATP hydrolysis causes a bend in the hinge, which results
in movement. The tail region attaches to other proteins

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 Motor Proteins

• Proteins that use ATP to

promote movement
• The head is attached with the
cytoskeletal filament
• The head detaches from the
filament, cocks forward,
binds to another point father
on the filament and cocks
backward.

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 Motor Proteins

Motor proteins can cause 3

types of movement:
• Movement of cargo via
the motor protein
• Movement of the filament
• Bending of the filament

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 Flagella and cilia

Flagella
• Usually longer than cilia
• Present singly or in pairs
Cilia
• Often shorter than flagella
• Tend to cover all or part of the cell surface

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 Flagella and cilia

• Both flagella and cilia

generate movement by
bending
• Both contain an axoneme
containing microtubules, the
motor protein dynein, and
linking proteins
• Microtubules form a 9+2
array; emanate from basal
bodies anchored to the
cytoplasmic membrane
• Movement of both involves
propagation of a bend. It
occurs because of the
movement of dynein and its
relationship with linking
proteins.
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 Endomembrane System

• Network of membranes enclosing the nucleus

• Include nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and peroxisomes.
• Also includes plasma membrane

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 Nucleus

• Nucleus is a compartment enclosed by a double

membrane structure called the nuclear envelop
• Composed of inner and outer membrane
• Nuclear pores are formed where inner and outer
nuclear membranes make contact with each other

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 Nucleus

Chromosomes composed of chromatin

• DNA wrapped around proteins
Nuclear matrix – network of filamentous proteins
• Nuclear lamina- composed of intermediate filaments
• Internal nuclear matrix- Connected to the lamina and fills the interior of the
nucleus.
• Nuclear matrix serves to organize chromosomes

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 Nucleus

Functions
• Protection, organization, replication and
expression of genetic material.
• Ribosome assembly occurs in the
nucleolus (a sphere structure in nucleus)
 A structure involved in producing
polypeptides
 A ribosome is composed of a small
and a large subunit
 The ribosomal proteins and RNA
molecules that make up the ribosome
are transported from the cytosol to the
nucleolus and are assembled into
ribosomal subunits.
 The assembled ribosome exits the
nucleolus, where they would carry out
protein synthesis.

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 Endoplasmic reticulum

• Network of membranes that form flattened, fluid-filled

tubules or cisternae
• ER membrane encloses a single compartment called the
ER lumen (internal space of the organelle).

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 Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Rough ER
• Studded with ribosomes
• Involved in protein synthesis and
sorting of proteins destined for the
E R, Golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles,
plasma membrane, or extracellular
environment
• Proteins are packaged into
membrane vesicles and moved
from one location in the
endomembrane system to another
• Attaches carbohydrates to proteins
and lipids - glycosylation

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 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth ER
• Involved in metabolism– have enzymes
involved in the detoxification of drugs and
ethanol. They turn hydrophobic toxic
molecules into more hydrophilic molecules,
which are easily excreted from the body.
• Carbohydrate metabolism- when energy is
needed, enzymes break down glycogen to
G6P. An enzyme in the Smooth ER
removes phosphate group from G6P, and
glucose is exported to the liver in the
bloodstream.
• Storage of calcium ions- when needed
calcium is released into the cytosol for
cellular processes.
• Lipid synthesis and modification. Primary
site for synthesis of phospholipids.
Enzymes in smooth ER are important to
produce steroid hormones such as
estrogen and testosterone.

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 Golgi apparatus

Also called the Golgi body, Golgi complex, or simply Golgi

Stack of flattened, membrane-bounded compartments

• Cis Golgi is near the ER

• Trans Golgi is closest to the plasma membrane

• Medial Golgi is in the middle

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 Golgi apparatus function

Three overlapping functions

• Processing, protein sorting and secretion
• Enzymes in Golgi Apparatus process or modify proteins
and lipids.
• Carbohydrates can be attached to proteins and lipids in
the ER.
• Glycosylation continues in the Golgi. Proteins/lipids are
sent from the ER to the Golgi for glycosylation

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 Golgi apparatus function

Three overlapping functions

• Processing, protein sorting and secretion
• Proteolysis – enzymes called proteases make cuts in
polypeptides
• Insulin is made as a large molecule called proinsulin.
• Proteases in Golgi apparatus cut out a portion of
proinsulin to create smaller insulin polypeptides

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 Golgi apparatus function

Three overlapping functions

• Processing, protein sorting and secretion
• Use secretory vesicles to package different materials.
• Proteins to be secreted are synthesized in the ER, travel
to the Golgi, transported by vesicle to the plasma
membrane, are secreted – secretory pathway

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 Lysosomes

Small organelles that are found in animal cells and break

down molecules and macromolecules
Contain acid hydrolases that perform hydrolysis
Many different types of acid hydrolases to break down
proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids

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 Lysosomes

• Digestion of substances that are taken up from the

outside of the cell by endocytosis
• Breakdown intracellular molecules and macromolecules
to recycle their components in a process called
autophagy

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 Vacuoles
Functions are extremely varied, and they differ among cell types and
environmental conditions

• Vacuoles in animal cells are used for temporary storage and transport
materials. Are small.

• Vacuoles in plants are large (Central vacuoles) and used for storage and
support

• Contractile vacuoles in protists expand as water enters the cell. Once they
reach a certain size, the vacuoles fuse with the plasma membrane an expel
their contents

• Food vacuoles in protists contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down

macromolecules within foods.

• Macrophages, a cell important for the immune system, engulf bacterial cells
into phagocytic vacuoles, which then fuse with lysosome to destroy
bacteria.

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 Figure 4.24

a: Biophoto Associates/Science Source; b: Dr. David Patterson/Science Source

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 Peroxisomes

• Consist of a single membrane that encloses a fluid filled

lumen.
• Catalyze chemical reactions that break down organic
molecules that are biosynthetic.
• Found a lot in liver cells, where toxic molecules
accumulate and are broken down.

o A common by product of the breakdown of toxin

is Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) that has the potential to
damage cells

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 Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes contain Catalase that breaks down

dangerous H2O2 into water and oxygen instead of
generating free radicals that can damage the cell

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 Peroxisomes

• Play a role in metabolism of fats and amino acids

• Glyoxysomes in plants seeds - similar to peroxisomes;
• Seeds often store fats instead of carbs
• Glyoxysomes contain enzymes that are needed to
convert fats to sugars
• They become activated when seed germinates and
begin to grow.

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 How peroxisomes form

(inset): Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

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 Plasma membrane

Boundary between the cell and the extracellular

environment
Functions
• Membrane transport
 Movement of ions or molecules in and out of the plasma
membrane.
 It is selective permeability; it allows only certain substances to go
in and out.

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 Plasma membrane

Boundary between the cell and the extracellular

environment
Functions
• Cell signaling using receptors
 Cells must be able to sense changes in their environment

 Contain receptors- recognize signals such as environmental

agents or molecules secreted by other cells.
 When the signal binds to the receptor; it activates a signal
transduction pathway- steps that cause cells to respond.

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 Plasma membrane

Boundary between the cell and the extracellular

environment
Functions
• Cell adhesion
• Protein- protein interactions in the plasma membranes of
adjacent cells promote cell to cell adhesion

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 Figure 4.26

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