Hydraulics

Fundamentals Of Fluid Flow

UTPAL GHOSH
OFFICER-IN-CHARGE
KALNA POLYTECHNIC
KALNA , BURDWAN
Unit – 3 Fundamentals Of Fluid Flow
 Concept of flow, Gravity flow and pressure flow.
 Types of flow – steady and Unsteady, uniform and non-
uniform and their combination with practical example
 Laminar and turbulent. Various combinations of flow with
practical examples,
 Reynolds number and its application,
 one, two and three dimensional flow,
 description of flow pattern - stream line, pathline,
stream tube, streak line.
Unit – 3 Fundamentals Of Fluid Flow
 Basic principles of fluid flow – principle of
conservation of mass, principles of conservation of
energy and conservation of momentum, concept of
control volume, discharge and its units, Continuity
equation for fluid flow, Datum head, pressure head,
velocity head and total head,
 Bernoulli’s theorem
(no deduction, statement only), Loss of head and
modified Bernoulli’s theorem, limitation of bernouli's
theorem, Impulse momentum theorem,
 Numerical Problems based on the above principles.
Unit – 3 Fundamentals Of Fluid Flow

 Concept of flow net and its properties, stream

line and equipotential line and their salient
features
and practical use of flow net.
 Introduction
 Discusses the analysis of fluid in motion: fluid dynamics.
 When a fluid flows through pipes and channel or around bodies
such as aircraft and ships, the shape of the boundaries, the
externally applied forces and the fluid properties cause the
velocities of the fluid particles to vary from point to point
throughout the flow field.
 The motion of fluids can be predicted using the fundamental laws
of physics together with the physical properties of the fluid.
 The geometry of the motion of fluid particles in space and time is
known as the kinematics of the fluid motion.
 A fluid motion may be specified by either tracing the motion of a
particle through the field of flow or examining the motion of all
particles as they pass a fixed point in space.
 This course will use the second method where the emphasis is on
the spatial position rather than on the particle, or known as
Eulerian Approach.
5
Objectives
1. comprehend the concepts necessary to analyse fluids
in motion.
2. identify differences between steady/unsteady,
uniform/non-uniform and
compressible/incompressible flow.
3. construct streamlines and stream tubes.
4. appreciate the Continuity principle through
Conservation of Mass and Control Volumes.
5. derive the Bernoulli (energy) equation.
6. familiarise with the momentum equation for a fluid
flow.

6
3.1 Uniform Flow, Steady Flow
uniform flow: flow velocity is the same magnitude
and direction at every point in the fluid.
non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not
the same at every point the flow. (In practice, by this
definition, every fluid that flows near a solid boundary
will be non-uniform - as the fluid at the boundary
must take the speed of the boundary, usually zero.
However if the size and shape of the of the cross-
section of the stream of fluid is constant the flow is
considered uniform.)
steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity,
pressure and cross-section) may differ from point to
point but DO NOT change with time.
unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with
time, the flow is described as unsteady. (In practice
there is always slight variations in velocity and
pressure, but if the average values are constant, the
flow is considered steady.) 7
3.1 Uniform Flow, Steady Flow (cont.)
Steady uniform flow:
 Conditions: do not change with position in the stream or with time.
 Example: the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant
velocity.
Steady non-uniform flow:
 Conditions: change from point to point in the stream but do not change
with time.
 Example: flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the inlet-
velocity will change as you move along the length of the pipe toward the
exit.
Unsteady uniform flow:
 At a given instant in time the conditions at every point are the same, but
will change with time.
 Example: a pipe of constant diameter connected to a pump pumping at
a constant rate which is then switched off.
Unsteady non-uniform flow:
 Every condition of the flow may change from point to point and with
time at every point.
 Example: waves in a channel. 8
3.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow
 all the particles proceed along smooth parallel
paths and all particles on any path will follow it
without deviation.
 Hence all particles have a velocity only in the
direction of flow.

Typical
particles
path

Figure 3.1a: Laminar flow

9
Turbulent Flow
 The particles move in an irregular manner through the flow field.
 Each particle has superimposed on its mean velocity fluctuating velocity
components both transverse to and in the direction of the net flow.

Particle
paths

Figure 3.1b: Turbulent

flow
Transition Flow
 exists between laminar and turbulent flow.
 In this region, the flow is very unpredictable and often changeable back
and forth between laminar and turbulent states.
 Modern experimentation has demonstrated that this type of flow may
comprise short ‘burst’ of turbulence embedded in a laminar flow.

10
3.1.2 Relative Motion
Observer

Observer

Boat moving Boat stationary

Flow pattern moves along Fluid moving past boat
channel with boat pattern stationary relative to
 changes with time boat
 UNSTEADY  does not change with time
 STEADY

Figure 3.2: Relative motion

11
3.1.3 Compressible or Incompressible
 All fluids are compressible - even water - their density
will change as pressure changes.
 Under steady conditions, and provided that the
changes in pressure are small, it is usually possible to
simplify analysis of the flow by assuming it is
incompressible and has constant density.
 As you will appreciate, liquids are quite difficult to
compress - so under most steady conditions they are
treated as incompressible.

12
3.1.4 One, Two or Three-dimensional Flow
 In general, all fluids flow three-dimensionally, with
pressures and velocities and other flow properties
varying in all directions.
 In many cases the greatest changes only occur in
two directions or even only in one.
 In these cases changes in the other direction can
be effectively ignored making analysis much more
simple.

13
 Flow is one dimensional if the flow parameters (such as velocity,
pressure, depth etc.) at a given instant in time only vary in the
direction of flow and not across the cross-section. The flow may be
unsteady, in this case the parameter vary in time but still not across
the cross-section.

 An example of one-dimensional flow is the flow in a pipe. Note that

since flow must be zero at the pipe wall - yet non-zero in the center
- there is a difference of parameters across the cross-section.

 Should this be treated as two-dimensional flow? Possibly - but it is

only necessary if very high accuracy is required. A correction factor
is then usually applied.

14
 Flow is two-dimensional if it can be assumed that the flow
parameters vary in the direction of flow and in one direction at
right angles to this direction.

 Streamlines in two-dimensional flow are curved lines on a

plane and are the same on all parallel planes.

 An example is flow over a weir for which typical streamlines

can be seen in the figure below. Over the majority of the length
of the weir the flow is the same - only at the two ends does it
change slightly. Here correction factors may be applied.

15
3.1.5 Streamlines
• In analysing fluid flow it is useful to visualise the flow
pattern.
• This can be done by drawing lines joining points of
equal velocity - velocity contours. These lines are
known as streamlines.

Figure 3.5: A streamline

16
Close to a solid boundary streamlines are
parallel to that boundary
 At all points the direction of the streamline is the direction
of the fluid velocity: this is how they are defined. Close to
the wall the velocity is parallel to the wall so the streamline
is also parallel to the wall.
 It is also important to recognise that the position of
streamlines can change with time - this is the case in
unsteady flow. In steady flow, the position of streamlines
does not change.

Some things to know about streamlines

 Because the fluid is moving in the same direction as the
streamlines, fluid can not cross a streamline.
 Streamlines can not cross each other. If they were to cross
this would indicate two different velocities at the same
point. This is not physically possible.
 The above point implies that any particles of fluid starting
17
on one streamline will stay on that same streamline
3.1.6 Streamtubes
 A useful technique in fluid flow analysis is to consider only a
part of the total fluid in isolation from the rest.
 This can be done by imagining a tubular surface formed by
streamlines along which the fluid flows.
 This tubular surface is known as a streamtube.
 In a two-dimensional flow, we have a streamtube which is
flat (in the plane of the paper).

Figure 3.7:
(a) A
streamtube

18
• The "walls" of a streamtube are made of streamlines.
• As we have seen above, fluid cannot flow across a
streamline, so fluid cannot cross a streamtube wall.
• The streamtube can often be viewed as a solid walled pipe.
• A streamtube is not a pipe - it differs in unsteady flow as the
walls will move with time. And it differs because the "wall" is
moving with the fluid.

3.2 Mass and volume flow rate

3.2.1 Mass flow rate
mass of fluid
mass flow rate = m =
time taken to collect the fluid

mass
time =
mass flow rate
19
3.2.2 Volume flow rate - Discharge

volume of fluid
discharge = Q =
time

= (
mass of fluid
density =
density x time
)
mass
volume


mass fluid rate m
= = 
density

20
3.2.3 Discharge and mean velocity

Figure 3.8:
Discharge in pipe

 If the area of cross section of the pipe at point X is A, and the

mean velocity here is um, during a time t, a cylinder of fluid will
pass point X with a volume A  um  t. The volume per unit time
(the discharge) will thus be :
Q
volume
= time 
A u t
t
m
Q= A u m
Q
or um=A
Q
Let um= V  um = VA=
21
 Figure 3.9: A typical
velocity profile across
a pipe

• Note how carefully we have called this the mean velocity. This is because
the velocity in the pipe is not constant across the cross section.
• Crossing the centre line of the pipe, the velocity is zero at the walls,
increasing to a maximum at the centre then decreasing symmetrically to
the other wall.
• This variation across the section is known as the velocity profile or
distribution. A typical one is shown in the figure
• This idea, that mean velocity multiplied by the area gives the discharge,
applies to all situations - not just pipe flow.

22
Example 3.1
 An empty bucket weighs 2.0 kg. After 7 seconds of
collecting water the bucket weighs 8.0 kg, then:

mass of fluid in bucket

mass flow rate = ṁ time
= taken to collect the fluid

8.0 -2.0
= = 0.857 kg/s (kg s-1)
7

Example 3.2
 If we know the mass flow is 1.7 kg/s, how long will it
take to fill a container with 8 kg of fluid?

mass
time =
mass flow rate

8
23
= = 4.7s
1.7
Example 3.3
 If the density of the fluid in the above example is 850
kg/m3 what is the volume per unit time (the
discharge)? mass fluid rate m
= 
density
Q =
0.857
850
=

= 0.00108 m3/s (m3s-1)

= 1.008  10-3 m3/s
but 1 litre = 1.0 10-3m3,
Example
so 3.4
Q = 1.008 l/s
 If the cross-section area, A, is 1.2 x 10-3 m2 and the
discharge, Q is 24 l/s, what is the mean velocity, of the
fluid?
Let mean velocity, um =2.4V x 10-3 m3/s
1.2 x 10-3
 um = V = = 2.0 m/s
3.3 The Fundamental Equations of Fluid
Dynamics
1. The law of conservation of matter
 stipulates that matter can be neither created nor
destroyed, though it may be transformed (e.g. by a
chemical process).
 Since this study of the mechanics of fluids excludes
chemical activity from consideration, the law reduces to
the principle of conservation of mass.
2. The law of conservation of energy
 states that energy may be neither created nor destroyed.
 Energy can be transformed from one guise to another (e.g.
potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy),
but none is actually lost.
 Engineers sometimes loosely refer to ‘energy losses’ due to
friction, but in fact the friction transforms some energy into
heat, so none is really ‘lost’. 25
3. The law of conservation of momentum
 states that a body in motion cannot gain or lose
momentum unless some external force is applied.
 The classical statement of this law is Newton's
Second Law of Motion, i.e.
force = rate of change of momentum

26
3.3.1 Continuity (Principle of Conservation of
Mass)
• Matter cannot be created nor destroyed - (it is simply
changed in to a different form of matter).
• This principle is known as the conservation of mass
and we use it in the analysis of flowing fluids.
• The principle is applied to fixed volumes, known as
control volumes or surfaces

CONTROL Outflow
Inflow
VOLUME

Control surface

Figure 3.10: A control volume

27
 For any control volume the principle of conservation of
mass says
Mass entering = Mass leaving + Increase of mass in the
control
per unit time per unit time volume per unit time
For steady flow:
(there is no increase in the mass within the control volume)
 Mass entering per unit time = Mass leaving per unit time

Mass entering per

unit time at end 1 =
Mass leaving per unit
time at end 2

Figure 3.11: A streamtube section 28

 flow is incompressible, the density of the fluid is
constant throughout the fluid continum. Mass flow, m,
entering may be calculated by taking the product
(density of fluid, )  (volume of fluid entering per second
Q)
 Mass flow is therefore represented by the product Q,
hence
 Q (entering) =  Q (leaving)
 But since flow is incompressible, the density is
constant, so
Q (entering) = Q (leaving) (3.5a)
 This is the ‘continuity equation’ for steady
incompressible flow.

29
 If the velocity of flow across the entry to the control
volume is measured, and that the velocity is constant
at V1 m/s. Then, if the cross-sectional area of the
streamtube at entry is A1,
Q (entering) = V1 A1
 Thus, if the velocity of flow leaving the volume is V2
and the area of the streamtube at exit is A2, then
Q (leaving) = V2A2
 Therefore, the continuity equation may also be
written as
V1 A1 = V 2 A2 (3.5b)

30
Application of Continuity Equation
 We can apply the principle of continuity to pipes with cross
sections which change along their length.
 A liquid is flowing from left to right and the pipe is narrowing in the
same direction. By the continuity principle, the mass flow rate
must be the same at each section - the mass going into the pipe is
equal to the mass going out of the pipe. So we can write:
1 A1V1= 2 A2V2

 As we are considering a liquid,

usually water, which is not very
compressible, the density changes
very little so we can say 1 =2 =.
This also says that the volume flow
rate is constant or that
 Discharge at section 1 = Discharge
at section 2
A1 V1 Figure 3.12:
Q1 = Q 2
Pipe with a
A2 contraction
A1V1 = A2V2 or V2 =

31
 As the area of the circular pipe is a function of the
diameter we can reduce the calculation further,

A1 d12/4 d 12
VV21=
= V1 = V1
A2 d22/4 d 22

( ) d 12
2

V2 =Vd1 2 (3.6)
2

Another example is a diffuser, a pipe which expands or

diverges as in the figure below

32
The continuity principle can also be used to determine
the velocities in pipes coming from a junction.

Total mass flow into the junction = Total mass flow out of the
junction
1Q1 = 2Q2 + 3Q3
When the flow is incompressible (e.g. water) 1 = 2 = 
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
33
A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3 (3.7)
Example 3.5
 If the area in Figure 3.12 A1 = 10  10-3 m2 and A1 =
10  10-3 m2 and and the upstream mean velocity, V1
= 2.1 m/s, what is the downstream mean velocity?
A1 V1 10 x 10-3 x 2.1
V2 =
=A2 3 x 10-3

= 7.0 m/s
Example 3.6
 If the diameter of a diffuser (Figure 3.13) at section 1
is d1 = 30 mm and at section 2 d2 = 40 mm and the
mean velocity at section 2 is V2 = 3.0 m/s. Calculate
the velocity entering the diffuser.

( )
2
40 34
3.0 = 5.3m/s
V2 =30
Example 3.7
 For a junction (Figure 3.14), if pipe 1 diameter = 50
mm, mean velocity 2 m/s, pipe 2 diameter 40 mm
takes 30% of total discharge and pipe 3 diameter 60
mm. What are the values of discharge and mean
velocity in each pipe?

Q1 = A1V1 = = 0.00392 m3/s

But Q2 = 0.3Q1 = 0.001178 m3/s
Also Q1 = Q2 + Q3
Q3 = Q1 – 0.3Q1 = 0.7Q1 = 0.00275 m3/s
V2 = Q2 / V2 = 0.936 m/s
V3 = Q3 / V3 = 0.972 m/s

35
3.3.2 Work and Energy
(Principle Of Conservation Of Energy)
 friction: negligible
 sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy is constant. Recall :
 Kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Gravitational potential energy = mgh
(m: mass, V: velocity, h: height above the
datum).

36
To apply this to a falling body we have an initial velocity
of zero, and it falls through a height of h.
 Initial kinetic energy = 0
 Initial potential energy = mgh
 Final kinetic energy = ½ mV2
 Final potential energy = 0
We know that,
 kinetic energy + potential energy = constant

Initial Initial Final Final

{ kinetic
Energy } +{ Energy } ={
potential Kinetic
Energy } +{ Potential
Energy }
mgh = ½ mV2 orV  2 gh

37
continuous jet of liquid
Figure 3.15 :
The
trajectory of a
jet of water

 a continuous jet of water coming from a pipe with velocity V1.

 One particle of the liquid with mass m travels with the jet and falls
from height z1 to z2.
 The velocity also changes from V1 to V2. The jet is traveling in air
where the pressure is everywhere atmospheric so there is no force
due to pressure acting on the fluid.
 The only force which is acting is that due to gravity. The sum of the
kinetic and potential energies remains constant (as we neglect energy
losses due to friction) so :
mgz1 + mV12 = mgz2 + mV22
 As m is constant this becomes :
V12 + gz1 = V22 + gz2 38
Flow from a reservoir
• The level of the water in the reservoir is z1.
Considering the energy situation - there is no
movement of water so kinetic energy is zero
but the gravitational potential energy is mgz1.
• If a pipe is attached at the bottom water
flows along this pipe out of the tank to a level
z2. A mass m has flowed from the top of the
reservoir to the nozzle and it has gained a
velocity V2. The kinetic energy is now ½mV22
and the potential energy mgz2. Summarising :
 Initial kinetic energy = 0
 Initial potential energy = mgz1
Figure 3.16 :  Final kinetic energy = ½ mV22
Flow from a reservoir  Final potential energy = mgz2
So
mgz1 = ½ mV22 + mgz2
mg ( z1 - z2 ) = ½ mV22
2 g ( z1  z 2 )
 V2 = (3.8)
39
Example 3.8
A reservoir of water has the surface at 310 m above the outlet nozzle of a pipe
with diameter 15mm. What is the
 velocity;
 the discharge out of the nozzle; and
 mass flow rate. (Neglect all friction in the nozzle and the pipe)
Solution:
a)
V 2  2 g ( z1  z 2 )
 2 g 310
78.0 m / s
b) Volume flow rate is equal to the area of the nozzle multiplied by the velocity
Q = AV
=
 d2 
   V 
 4 
= 0.0152 
    78.0
 4 
= 0.01378 m /s 3

c) The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 so the mass flow rate is

ṁ = density  volume flow rate
=Q
= 1000  0.01378
= 13.78 kg/s
40
Bernoulli's Equation
2 2
p1 V1 p 2 V2
  z1    z2
g 2 g g 2 g
We see that from applying equal pressure or zero velocities we
get the two equations from the section above. They are both just
special cases of Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's equation has some restrictions in its applicability, they
are:
 Flow is steady;
 Density is constant (which also means the fluid is
incompressible);
 Friction losses are negligible.
 The equation relates the states at two points along a single
streamline, (not conditions on two different streamlines).
41
 Figure 3.19 :
A contracting
expanding pipe

• A fluid of constant density = 960 kg/m3 is flowing steadily through

the above tube. The diameters at the sections are d1 = 100mm and
d2 = 80mm. The gauge pressure at 1 is P1 = 200 kN/m2 and the
velocity here is V1 = 5m/s. What is the gauge pressure at section 2.
• Bernoulli equation is applied along a streamline joining section 1
with section 2.
• The tube is horizontal, with z1 = z2 so Bernoulli gives us the following
equation for pressure at section 2:
P2 = P1 + (V12 – V22)
42
 But we do not know the value of V2. We can calculate this from the continuity
equation: Discharge into the tube is equal to the discharge out i.e.

A1V1  A2V2
A1V1
V2 
A2
2
d 
V2  1  V1
 d2 
= 7.8125 m/s 2
 0.1 
  5
 0.08 
So we can now calculate the pressure at section 2

 960
P 2 = P 1+ (V12 – V22) = 200000 + 2 (52 – 7.81252)
2
p2 = 200000 -17296.87
= 182703 N/m2
= 182.7 kN/m2

43
Modifications of Bernoulli Equation
• In practice, the total energy of a streamline does not remain
constant. Energy is ‘lost’ through friction, and external energy may
be either :
 added by means of a pump or
 extracted by a turbine.
• Consider a streamline between two points 1 and 2. If the energy
head lost through friction is denoted by Hf and the external energy
head added (say by a pump) is or extracted (by a turbine) HE, then
Bernoulli's equation may be rewritten as :

± HE = H2 + Hf (3.11)

2 or 2
p1 V1 p V
  z1 H E  2  2  z2  H f (3.12)
g 2 g g 2 g

HE = energy head added/loss due to external source such as pump/turbines

This equation is really a restatement of the First Law of Thermodynamics for an
incompressible fluid. 44
The Power Equation
In the case of work done over a fluid the power input
into the flow is :
P = gQHE (3.13)

where Q = discharge,
HE = head added / loss
If p = efficiency of the pump, the power input
required,
gQH E
Pin =
p (3.14)

45
 3.4 Application of Bernoulli Equation
• The Bernoulli equation can be applied to a great many
situations not just the pipe flow we have been
considering up to now.
• In the following sections we will see some examples of
its application to flow measurement from tanks, within
pipes as well as in open channels.
Objectives
• Acknowledge practical uses of the Bernoulli and
momentum equation in the analysis of flow
• Understand how the momentum equation and
principle of conservation of momentum is used to
predict forces induced by flowing fluids
• Apply Bernoulli and Momentum Equations to solve
fluid mechanics problems 46
3.4.1 Pitot tube

 A point in a fluid stream where the

X
0 velocity is reduced to zero is known
as a stagnation point.
 Any non-rotating obstacle placed in
the stream produces a stagnation
point next to its upstream surface.
Figure 3.20:
Streamlines passing  The velocity at X is zero: X is a
a non-rotating stagnation point.
obstacle

 By Bernoulli's equation the quantity p + ½V2 + gz is constant

along a streamline for the steady frictionless flow of a fluid of
constant density.
 If the velocity V at a particular point is brought to zero the
pressure there is increased from p to p + ½V2.
 For a constant-density fluid the quantity p + ½ V2 is therefore
known as the stagnation pressure of that streamline while ½ V2
– that part of the stagnation pressure due to the motion – is
termed the dynamic pressure.
 A manometer connected to the point X would record the
stagnation pressure, and if the static pressure p were also 47
known ½V could be obtained by subtraction, and hence V
2
 Figure 3.21:
Simple Pitot
Tube

A right-angled glass tube, large enough for capillary effects

to be negligible, has one end (A) facing the flow. When
equilibrium is attained the fluid at A is stationary and the
pressure in the tube exceeds that of the surrounding stream
by ½V2. The liquid is forced up the vertical part of the tube
to a height :
h = p/g = ½V2/g = V2/2g
above the surrounding free surface. Measurement of h
therefore enables V to be calculated.
V  2 gh (3.15)
48
 Measurement of the static
pressure may be made at the
boundary of the flow, as
illustrated in (a), provided
that the axis of the
piezometer is perpendicular
to the boundary and the
connection is smooth and
that the streamlines adjacent
to it are not curved
 A tube projecting into the
flow (Tube c) does not give a
satisfactory reading because Figure 3.22:
Piezometers
the fluid is accelerating connected to a
round the end of the tube. pipe

49
 Two piezometers, one as normal and one as a Pitot tube
within the pipe can be used in an arrangement shown below
to measure velocity of flow.
 From the expressions above,

1
p 2  p1  V1 2
2

1
gh2  gh1  V1 2
2
V  2 g h2  h1 

Figure 4.23 : A Piezometer and a Pitot

tube

50
3.4.2 Pitot static tube
 The tubes recording static pressure
and stagnation pressure are
frequently combined into one
instrument known as a Pitot-static
tube
 The ‘static’ tube surrounds the
‘total head’ tube and two or more
small holes are drilled radially
through the outer wall into the
annular space.
 The position of these ‘static holes’
is important. This instrument,
when connected to a suitable
manometer, may be used to
measure point velocities in pipes,
channels and wind tunnels.
Figure 3.24: Pitot static tube

51
 Consider the pressures on the level of the centre line
of the Pitot tube and using the theory of the
manometer,
PA = P2 + gX
PB = P1 + g(X-h) + maxgh
PA = PB
P2 + gX = P2 + g(X – h) + mangh
 We know that , substituting this in to the above gives
2 gh(  max   )
V1 


52
3.4.3 Venturi meter
 The Venturi meter is a device for
measuring discharge in a pipe.
 It consists of a rapidly converging
section, which increases the
velocity of flow and hence
reduces the pressure.
 It then returns to the original
dimensions of the pipe by a
gently diverging ‘diffuser’ section.
By measuring the pressure
differences the discharge can be
calculated.
 This is a particularly accurate
method of flow measurement as Figure 4.25: A Venturi
energy losses are very small. meter

53
Applying Bernoulli Equation between (1) and (2), and using continuity equation to
eliminate V2 will give :

 p  p2 
(3.16)
2 g  1  Z1  Z 2 
V1   g 
2
 A1 
and Qideal = V1A1    1
 A2 

To get the actual discharge, taking into consideration of losses due to friction, a
coefficient of discharge, Cd, is introduced.

Qactual = Cd Qideal = (3.17)

 p1  p2 
It can be shown that the discharge2 g can also
 Z1be 2
 Zexpressed
 in terms of manometer reading
 g 
: Cd A1 2
 A1 
   1
Q =  A2  (3.18)
actual

where man = density of manometer fluid

 
2 gh  man  1
C d A1   
2
 A1 
   1
 A2  54
Example 3.9
 A Venturi meter with an entrance diameter of 0.3 m and a
throat diameter of 0.2 m is used to measure the volume of
gas flowing through a pipe. The discharge coefficient of the
meter is 0.96. Assuming the specific weight of the gas to be
constant at 19.62 N/m3, calculate the volume flowing when
the pressure difference between the entrance and the
throat is measured as 0.06 m on a water U-tube
manometer.
Solution:
What we know from the problem
statement :
gg = 19.62 N/m2
Cd = 0.96
d1 = 0.3m
d2 = 0.2m
Calculate Q:
55
V1 = Q/0.0707 V2 = Q/0.0314
For the manometer :
P1   g gz1 P2   g g ( z 2  RP )   w gRP
--- (1)
P1  P2 19.62( z 2  z1 )  587.423

For the Venturi meter :

2 2
P1 V1 P2 V2
  z1    z2
 g g 2g  g g 2g
--- (2)
2
P1  P2 19.62( z 2  z1 )  0.803V2

Combining (1) and (2) :

2
0.803V2 587.423
V2 ideal 27.047 m / s
2
 0 .2 
Q ideal 27.047   3
 0.85 m / s
 2 
Q C d Qideal 0.96 0.85 0.816 m 3 / s
56
3.4.4 Sharp edge circular orifice
(1)

h
streamline
(2)

datum

 Consider a large tank, containing an ideal fluid, having a small

sharp-edged circular orifice in one side.
 If the head, h, causing flow through the orifice of diameter d is
constant (h>>d), Bernoulli equation may be applied between two
points, (1) on the surface of the fluid in the tank and (2) in the jet
of fluid just outside the orifice. Hence :
2 2
P1 V1 P V
  h  2  2  0  losses
g 2 g g 2 g
57
 Now P1 = Patm and as the jet in unconfined, P2 = Patm. If the flow
is steady, the surface in the tank remains stationary and V1
 0 (z2=0, z1=h) and ignoring losses we get :
2
V2
 z1  z 2  h
2g

or the velocity through the orifice,

V2  2 gh
(3.19)

This result is known as Toricelli’s equation.

Assuming no loses, ideal fluid, V constant across jet at (2), the
discharge through the orifice is
Q  A 0 V2
where A0 is the area of the orifice

Q  A 0 2gh
58
For the flow of a real fluid, the velocity is less than that given
by eq. 3.19 because of frictional effects and so the actual
velocity V2a, is obtained by introducing a modifying coefficient,
Cv, the coefficient of velocity:

Velocity,
V2 a  Cv 2 gh (3.20)
or actual velocity
Cv  (typically about 0.97)
theoretical velocity

59
 Vena contracta

d0

P = Patm

approx. d0/2

Figure 3.26: The formation of vena contracta

As a real fluid cannot turn round a sharp bend, the jet

continues to contract for a short distance downstream
(about one half of the orifice diameter) and the flow
becomes parallel at a point known as the vena
contracta (Latin : contracting vein).
60
The area of discharge is thus less than the orifice area and a
coefficient of contraction, Cc, must be introduced.
areaof jetat venacontracta
Cc 
areaof orifice
Hence the actual discharge is :

(typically about 0.65)

Qa  Cc A0 C v 2gh
or introducing a coefficient of discharge, Cd, where :

(typically 0.63)
actual discharge
Cd 
theoretical discharge
(3.21)

Q a  C d A 0 2gh
(3.22)

Cd = Cc . Cv

61
3.4.5 Nozzles

dnozzle

contraction within
nozzle

Figure 3.27: Contraction within a nozzle

 In a nozzle, the flow contracts gradually to the outlet and hence

the area of the jet is equal to the outlet area of the nozzle.
i.e. Cc = 1.0
therefore Cd = Cv
 Taking a datum at the nozzle, Torricelli’s equation gives the total
energy head in the system as it assumes an ideal fluid and hence
no loss of energy, i.e. theoretical head :
2
V
ht  2 (3.23)
2g
62
But the actual velocity is :
V2a = Cv V 2
and the actual energy in the jet is :
2
V2a
ha 
as P2 and z2 are zero. Therefore the actual2energy
g head is :

(3.24)
2 2
Cv V2
ha 
2 ghead, h
And the loss of energy f , in the nozzle due to friction is :

2 2
V CV
hf  ht  ha  2  v 2
2g 2g

theoretical actual

2 (3.25)
V2 2
 (1  C v )
2g
2
hf  (1  C v ) ht 63
3.4.6 Flow over notches and weirs
Notch
 is an opening in the side of a tank or reservoir, which
extends above the surface of the liquid.
 It is usually a device for measuring discharge.
 A weir is a notch on a larger scale – usually found in rivers.
 It may be sharp crested but also may have a substantial
width in the direction of flow – it is used as both a flow
measuring device and a device to raise water levels.
Weir Assumptions
 assume that the velocity of the fluid approaching the weir
is small so that kinetic energy can be neglected.
 assume that the velocity through any elemental strip
depends only on the depth below the free surface.
 These are acceptable assumptions for tanks with notches
or reservoirs with weirs, but for flows where the velocity
approaching the weir is substantial the kinetic energy must64
be taken into account (e.g. a fast moving river).
A General Weir Equation
To determine an expression for the theoretical flow through a notch we will
consider a horizontal strip of width b and depth h below the free surface, as
shown in the figure
velocity through the strip
V = 2 gh
discharge through the strip,Q  AV b h 2 gh

Integrating from the free surface, h = 0, to the weir crest, h = H gives the
expression for the total theoretical discharge,
H
Qtheoretical = 2 g bh 2 dh
1

0 65
Rectangular Weir
For a rectangular weir the width does not
change with depth so there is no
relationship between b and depth h. We
have the equation, b = constant = B.
Substituting this with the general weir
equation gives:
H
Figure 3.28 :
h 2 dh
1
Qtheoretical  B 2 g
A
O
rectangular
2 3
(3.26) weir
 B 2g H 2
3
To calculate the actual discharge we introduce a coefficient of
discharge, Cd, which accounts for losses at the edges of the weir
and contractions in the area of flow, giving :
2 3
Qactual C d B 2g H 2 (3.27)
3

66
Example 3.10
 Water flows over a sharp-crested weir 600 mm wide. The
measured head (relative to the crest) is 155 mm at a point where
the cross-sectional area of the stream is 0.26 m2. Calculate the
discharge, assuming that Cd = 0.61.
H = 155 mm

Cross sectional
Area = 0.26 m2

2 3
Q
 As first approximation, actual C d B 2 g H 2

3
2 2 3
0.61  0.6 m  19.62 m / s (0.155 m) 2
3
= 0.0660 m3/s
67
 0.0660 m 3 / s
Velocity of approach =
0.26 m 2

= 0.254 m/s
V 2 (0.254 m / s ) 2 3
 3.28 10 m
2 g 19.62 m / s 2
H + V12/2g = (0.155 + 0.00328) m = 0.1583 m

2
0.61 19.62 x0.60.1583 m 3 / s 0.0681m 3 / s
3/ 2
Second approximation: 3

Further refinement of the value could be obtained by a new

calculation of V1 (0.0681 m3/s  0.26 m2), a new calculation of
H + V12/2g and so on. One correction is usually sufficient,
however, to give a value of Q acceptable to three significant
figures.

68
3.5 The momentum equation
We have all seen moving fluids exerting forces. The lift force on an
aircraft is exerted by the air moving over the wing. A jet of water
from a hose exerts a force on whatever it hits. In fluid mechanics
the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in solid
mechanics - by use of Newton’s laws of motion. Account is also
taken for the special properties of fluids when in motion.

The momentum equation is a statement of Newton’s Second Law and

relates the sum of the forces acting on an element of fluid to its
acceleration or rate of change of momentum. You will probably
recognise the equation F = ma which is used in the analysis of
solid mechanics to relate applied force to acceleration.

In fluid mechanics it is not clear what mass of moving fluid we should

use so we use a different form of the equation.
69
Newton’s 2nd Law can be written:

The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant

force acting on the body, and takes place in the direction of the
force.
To determine the rate of change of momentum for a fluid we will
consider a streamtube as we did for the Bernoulli equation, We
start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform
flowing in a stream tube.

70
71
72
73
74
3.6 Application of the momentum equation
3.6.1 The force due the flow around a pipe bend

Why do we want to know the

forces here? Because the fluid
changes direction, a force (very
large in the case of water supply
pipes,) will act in the bend. If the
bend is not fixed it will move and
eventually break at the joints.
We need to
know how much force a support
(thrust block) must withstand.

75
76
77
 3.6.2 The force on a pipe nozzle

Force on the nozzle at the outlet of a pipe. Because the fluid is contracted
at the nozzle forces are induced in the nozzle. Anything holding the nozzle
(e.g. a fireman) must be strong enough to withstand these forces.

78
79
 3.6.3 Impact of a Jet on a plane
We will first consider a jet hitting a flat plate (a plane) at an angle of 90 o,
as shown in the figure below. We want to find the reaction force of the
plate i.e. the force the plate will have to apply to stay in the same
position.

80
81
Summary
This chapter has outlined and discussed on the fundamental of
fluid in motion. Students are aspect to be able to discuss and
visualise on the following aspect:
 Able to classify FOUR (4) types of flow- Steady uniform flow,
Steady non-uniform flow, Unsteady uniform flow and Unsteady
non-uniform flow
 The differences between Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow and
also Transition Flow
 The idea of using the streamline to visualise the flow
pattern
 The calculation of mass flow rate, volume flow rate and the
mean velocity of the flow
 Able to explain and apply the THREE (3) laws- conservation
of matter (conservation of mass); conservation of energy
and conservation of momentum
The important of Bernoulli Equation and the derivation
82
Summary (cont)
• Chapter 3 emphasized basically on the
application of Bernoulli equation in order to solve
problems related to fluid mechanics and the
application of momentum equation to solve type
of flows problem.
• Students should concentrate more on the
examples given in chapter 3 and try to relate the
concept in the real scenario.

83