Oxidoreductase
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Oxidoreductases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. This document discusses several oxidoreductase enzymes - glucose oxidase (GOx), catalase, polyphenol oxidase (PPO), and L-ascorbate oxidase. It provides details on their reactions, sources, applications, and history. GOx oxidizes glucose to produce hydrogen peroxide. Catalase decomposes hydrogen peroxide. PPO causes browning reactions in fruits. L-ascorbate oxidase acts in ascorbate metabolism.
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1. It defines gene interaction as two or more genes affecting the expression of a single character in an organism.
2. It classifies gene interactions into allelic/non-epistatic interactions which follow classical Mendelian ratios, and non-allelic/epistatic interactions where genes on the same or different chromosomes interact.
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LinkageHarshraj Shinde - Linkage refers to the tendency of genes located near each other on the same chromosome to be inherited together during meiosis. This is because genes located close together on a chromosome move together to the same pole during cell division.
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Multiple alleleHarshraj Shinde Multiple alleles occur when there are more than two allelic forms of a given gene in a species. Examples include blood groups in humans and coat color in mice. The ABO blood group gene in humans has three alleles - IA, IB, and i - which determine blood types A, B, AB, and O. Coat color in mice is also determined by multiple alleles at a single gene locus, with alleles for black, brown, agouti, gray, and albino hair colors exhibiting a dominance hierarchy. Multiple alleles always influence the same trait and occupy the same locus on chromosomes, with no crossing over between member alleles of a multiple allelic series.
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PleiotropismHarshraj Shinde One gene can influence multiple unrelated traits through pleiotropy. Pleiotropy occurs when a single gene affects multiple phenotypic traits through its effect on metabolic pathways. For example, phenylketonuria is caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. This single gene mutation can cause both mental retardation and reduced hair and skin pigmentation.
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Iucn red listHarshraj Shinde The IUCN Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of species. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and publishes its assessments. Major goals are to convey the urgency of conservation and provide information to guide actions to conserve biological diversity. Key findings from assessments over the years have shown increasing numbers of threatened species, including many moving into critically endangered categories. Major taxonomic groups like corals, amphibians, and mammals are particularly at risk.
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PhotosynthesisHarshraj Shinde Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae and some bacteria use sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. It takes place in two stages - the light-dependent reactions that take place in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and produce ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions known as the Calvin cycle that uses these products to capture and reduce carbon from carbon dioxide into organic compounds. C4 and CAM plants have evolved specialized mechanisms to concentrate carbon dioxide around the enzyme RuBisCO to increase photosynthetic efficiency.
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Restriction enzymes (mc qs)Harshraj Shinde The discovery of restriction enzymes by Nathan, Arber and Smith in the 1970s led to the development of recombinant DNA technology. Restriction enzymes are molecular scissors that cut DNA at specific recognition sites. Type II restriction enzymes cut within their recognition sites and generate sticky ends, which allow for cutting and joining of DNA from different sources. This key discovery of restriction enzymes that enabled cutting and joining of DNA laid the foundation for genetic engineering.
Vacuoles
VacuolesHarshraj Shinde Vacuoles are large fluid-filled vesicles that occupy 30-90% of the volume in most plant cells. They are separated from the cytoplasm by a single membrane called the tonoplast. Vacuoles store a variety of substances like sugars, salts, acids, pigments, and sometimes rubber. They also contain hydrolytic enzymes and act as a storage site for both nutrients and waste products. Vacuoles help control turgor pressure and cell shape in plants.
Viruses
VirusesHarshraj Shinde Viruses are submicroscopic infectious agents that lack cellular organization and require a host cell to replicate. They contain either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Viruses have different structures depending on their symmetry - icosahedral, helical, or complex. They multiply through lytic or lysogenic cycles, depending on if they cause host cell lysis or integrate into the host genome. Important plant, animal, and bacterial viruses are described along with their structures and life cycles. Viruses, viroids, and prions are compared in terms of their genetic material and ability to infect hosts.
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Biochemistry mc qsHarshraj Shinde The document contains questions and answers related to biochemistry, techniques in biochemistry, animal biotechnology, and bioinformatics. Some key topics covered include the first person to introduce the term biochemistry, the first protein sequenced, discoveries related to nucleic acids and viruses, techniques like paper chromatography, electrophoresis, and ultracentrifugation, molecular farming in animal biotechnology, early bioinformatics databases, tools for sequence alignment and analysis, and relationships between genomics and drug identification.
Dna replication
Dna replicationHarshraj Shinde DNA replication occurs through a semiconservative process where the parental DNA strands separate and act as templates for the synthesis of new complementary strands. Key experiments by Meselson and Stahl provided evidence for this semiconservative model. DNA polymerase, discovered by Arthur Kornberg in 1955, is the main enzyme that catalyzes DNA synthesis. It requires DNA templates, dNTPs, and magnesium ions to carry out the step-wise addition of nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction to form new DNA strands.
Mol bio
Mol bioHarshraj Shinde The document discusses various topics in molecular biology including:
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Applied community nutrition
Applied community nutritionHarshraj Shinde Applied community nutrition programs aim to improve nutritional status and overcome diseases. Key programs target preschoolers, school-aged children, and pregnant/lactating women. The Mid Day Meal Programme provides meals to schoolchildren to improve attendance and nutrition. The Balwadi Nutrition Programme provided preschoolers with 300kcal and 10g protein daily. The Iodine Deficiency Disorder Control Programme eliminated iodine deficiency through iodized salt. Immunization programs prevent diseases like polio and tetanus. Supplementary Nutrition Programs provide extra food and growth monitoring to prevent undernutrition. Health Check-up programs monitor health and refer malnourished individuals for treatment. However, sustainability challenges like food poisoning incidents threaten
Malnutrition consequences, causes, prevention and control
Malnutrition consequences, causes, prevention and controlHarshraj Shinde Malnutrition can be caused by both under-nutrition and over-nutrition, resulting in nutritional disorders. Under-nutrition can cause protein-energy malnutrition, vitamin and mineral deficiencies, and specific deficiency diseases like beriberi, pellagra, rickets, and anemia. Over-nutrition can cause obesity. Malnutrition has wide-ranging consequences and is both caused by and exacerbates poverty. Prevention strategies include improving agricultural production, educating people, food fortification, genetic engineering of crops, and government assistance programs.
International aspects of the quality and safety of
International aspects of the quality and safety ofHarshraj Shinde This document summarizes the rules and regulations regarding genetically modified foods in India. It discusses:
1) The Rules of 1989 which govern GMOs and were established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. This includes several competent authorities responsible for implementation.
2) The framework for safety assessment of GM foods, which follows a step-by-step process considering various factors like identity, composition, and effects of processing.
3) The general considerations for developing GM foods, which include characterizing the genetic modification and assessing possible toxicity, allergenicity, nutritional modifications, and unintended effects.
Enrichment and fortification
Enrichment and fortificationHarshraj Shinde Food enrichment refers to adding micronutrients back to foods that were lost during processing to restore their original nutritional value. Food fortification deliberately increases a food's micronutrient content, whether or not those nutrients were originally present, in order to improve nutritional quality. There are four main methods of food fortification: biofortification, microbial/synthetic biology, commercial and industrial fortification, and home fortification. Common examples of fortified foods include milk with vitamin D, salt with iodine, and flour with folic acid. The purpose of food fortification is to improve nutritional quality, reduce nutritional disorders, and support body building and medical treatment.
Protease enzymes
Protease enzymesHarshraj Shinde This document discusses various proteolytic enzymes, including their sources and applications. It describes proteases such as papain from papaya, used as a meat tenderizer, and bromelain from pineapple, also used for meat tenderizing. Pepsin from the stomach aids protein digestion. Rennin produces curdling in milk. Trypsin and cathepsins break down proteins, with trypsin used in cell culture and proteomics. These enzymes degrade proteins through hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
biochemistry of fruit ripening
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Oxidoreductase
- 1. Oxidoreductase Prof. Harshraj. S. Shinde K. K. Wagh College of Agril. Biotech, Nashik. India
- 2. Introduction • Oxidoreductase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. • The reductant is called as electron donor. • The oxidant, also called the electron acceptor. • This group of enzymes usually utilizes NADP or NAD+ as cofactors.
- 3. Example • For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be an oxidoreductase: • A– + B → A + B– • In this example, A is the reductant (electron donor) and B is the oxidant (electron acceptor) • Pi + glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate + NAD+ → NADH + H+ + 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate • In this reaction, NAD+ is the oxidant (electron acceptor), and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is the reductant (electron donor).
- 4. Glucose oxidase • The glucose oxidase enzyme (GOx) is an oxido-reductase that catalyses the oxidation of glucose to hydrogen peroxide and D- glucono lactone. • In cells, it aids in breaking the sugar down into its metabolites. • In order to work as a catalyst, GOx requires a cofactor, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). FAD is a common component in biological oxidation-reduction (redox reactions).
- 5. Source of glucose oxidase • Most common source of glucose oxidase is Aspergillus niger
- 6. Applications of glucose oxidase • Glucose oxidase is widely used for the determination of free glucose in body fluids (diagnostics) • Glucose oxidase is found in honey and acts as a natural preservative. GOx at the surface of the honey reduces atmospheric O2 to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which acts as an antimicrobial barrier • GOx similarly acts as a bactericide in many cells (fungi, immune cells).
- 7. Cont….. • Glucose oxidase removes D-glucose from egg white to prevent browning. • GOx also used to monitor glucose levels in fermentation, bioreactors, and to control glucose in food products.
- 8. Glucose assay • In the glucose oxidase assay, the glucose is first oxidized by glucose oxidase to produce gluconate and hydrogen peroxide. • The hydrogen peroxide is then oxidatively coupled with a chromogen to produce a colored compound • which is then measured spectroscopically at 505nm.
- 9. Catalase • Catalase catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. • It is a very important enzyme in protecting the cell from hydrogen peroxide • Catalase has one of the highest turnover numbers of all enzymes; one catalase molecule can convert approximately 5 million molecules of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen each second.
- 10. Cont… • Catalase is a tetramer of four polypeptide chains, each over 500 amino acids long • It contains four porphyrin heme (iron) groups that allow the enzyme to react with the hydrogen peroxide • he pH optimum for other catalases varies between 4 and 11 depending on the species. The optimum temperature also varies by species.
- 11. History of Catalase • Catalase was not noticed until 1818 when Louis Jacques Thénard, who discovered H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide), suggested its breakdown is caused by an unknown substance. • In 1900, Oscar Loew was the first to give it the name catalase • In 1937 catalase from beef liver was crystallised by James B. Sumner
- 12. Reaction of catalase • The reaction of catalase in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in living tissue: • 2 H2O2 → 2 H2O + O2. • The presence of catalase in a microbial or tissue sample can be tested by adding a volume of hydrogen peroxide and observing the reaction. • The formation of bubbles, oxygen, indicates a positive result.
- 13. Application • Catalase is used in the food industry for removing hydrogen peroxide from milk prior to cheese production. • Removing hydrogen peroxide from fabrics to make sure the material is peroxide-free to prevent browning
- 14. Polyphenol oxidase • Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) also known as monophenol monooxygenase tetramer that contains four atoms of copper per molecule • PPO causes the rapid polymerization of quinones to produce black, brown or red pigments (polyphenols) that cause fruit browning. • The amino acid tyrosine contains a single phenolic ring that may be oxidised by the action of PPOs to form o-quinone. Hence, PPOs may also be referred to as tyrosinase.
- 15. Source of Polyphenol oxidase • Enzyme mainly present in plastid (chlroplast) • Common plant food examples producing the enzyme are mushrooms, apples and lettuce
- 16. Application of Polyphenol oxidase • Used to remove toxic phenol (pollutant) • To remove toxic pesticides from food product
- 17. L-ascorbate oxidase • L-ascorbate oxidase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction • 2 L-ascorbate + O2 2 dehydroascorbate + 2 H2O • Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are L- ascorbate and O2, whereas its two products are dehydroascorbate and H2O. • This enzyme participates in ascorbate metabolism. It employs one cofactor, copper.
- 18. Applications of L-ascorbate oxidase • Ascorbate Oxidase is useful for enzymatic determination of ascorbic acid and for • Enzyme also used in elimination of ascorbic acid in clinical analysis.
- 19. MCQs
- 20. • ….. Is the most commonly used electron acceptor • NAD • FAD • NADH • FADH
- 21. • ….. Enzyme has the highest turnover number • Ascorbate oxidase • Catalase • Glucose oxidase • Amylase
- 22. • Most common source of glucose oxidase is … • E. Coli • Aspergillus niger • Glucose oxidizing bacteria • Fig
- 23. • ……removes D-glucose from egg white to prevent browning • GOx • Glucose oxidation • Peroxidase • PPO
- 24. • ….enzyme requires Cu as a cofactor • PPO • GOx • Catalase • Both a and b
- 25. • Term catalase was coined by • Louis Jacques Thénard • Oscar Loew • James B. Sumner • Jacobs Monod
- 26. • ….is the chloroplastic enzyme • PPO • GOx • Catalase • Peroxidase