Jump to content

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
No edit summary
Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
No edit summary
Tags: Visual edit Mobile edit Mobile web edit Advanced mobile edit
Line 110: Line 110:


===On Sufism===
===On Sufism===
Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab praised [[Sufism|Tasawwuf]]. He stated the popular saying: “From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a ''faqih'' and a scholar who is an ascetic (''zahid'').”<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hafiz Al-Makki|first=Mawlana Abd-Al|date=1 January 2011|title=SHAYKH MUHAMMAD BIN ‘ABD AL-WAHHAB AND SUFISM|url=http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-‘abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|access-date=|website=Deoband Org|quote=“From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).”}}</ref> He describes Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of ''Suluk"'' and considered it as an important branch of religious sciences.<ref>{{Cite web|last=‘Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki|first=Mawlana|date=1 January 2011|title=Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=https://www.deoband.org/2011/01/sufism/shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|access-date=|website=Deoband org|quote="Mu’allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, chapter regarding fiqh (vol. 2, page 4). The shaykh writes in a treatise entitled Arb‘at Qawa‘id Tadur al-Ahkam ‘alayha:

Know — may Allah have mercy on you — religion revolves around these four sentences, in spite of their brevity; this is regardless of whether the speaker is speaking regarding the science of tafsir, the science of usul (principles of fiqh), the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk,[2] the science of hadith, the science of that which is permissible and impermissible and ahkam which is known as the science of fiqh, or regarding the knowledge of the rewards and punishments that aspire from good and bad deeds (wa‘d and wa‘id), or regarding any other religious science apart from these…"}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=|first=|title=Mu’allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab|publisher=|year=|isbn=|volume=2|location=|pages=4|chapter=Kitab al Fiqh}}</ref>

At the end of his treatise, ''Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of [[tazkiah]] (purification of the inner self).<ref>{{cite web|last1=al-Makki|first1='Abd al-Hafiz|title=Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|website=Deoband.org|publisher=Deoband.org|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rida|first1=Rashid|title=Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah|date=1925|publisher=Al Manar Publishers|location=Egypt|page=50}}</ref>
At the end of his treatise, ''Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah'', Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of [[tazkiah]] (purification of the inner self).<ref>{{cite web|last1=al-Makki|first1='Abd al-Hafiz|title=Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|website=Deoband.org|publisher=Deoband.org|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rida|first1=Rashid|title=Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah|date=1925|publisher=Al Manar Publishers|location=Egypt|page=50}}</ref>

Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:

We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari‘ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (''ta’wil'') his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best ''mawla'' and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.<ref>{{Cite web|last=al-Makki|first=Mawlana ‘Abd Al-Hafiz|date=1 January 2011|title=Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism|url=https://www.deoband.org/2011/01/sufism/shaykh-muhammad-bin-abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111012457/http://www.deoband.org/2011/01/tasawwuf/shariah-and-tariqah-tasawwuf/shaykh-muhammad-bin-%E2%80%98abd-al-wahhab-and-sufism/|archive-date=11 January 2015|access-date=|website=Deoband org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rida|first=Rashid|title=Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah|publisher=Al-Manar Publishers|year=1925|isbn=|location=Egypt|pages=50}}</ref>


===On non-Muslims===
===On non-Muslims===

Revision as of 10:39, 11 February 2021

Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaimān at-Tamīmī
Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb's name in Islāmic calligraphy
Personal
Born1703 (1115 A.H)
Al-‘Uyainah, Najd
Died22 June 1792 (1206 AH) (aged 88-89)
Dir‘iyah, First Saudi State
ReligionIslām
Children
List
  • ‘Alī (first)
  • Ḥasan
  • Ḥusain
  • Ibrāhīm
  • ‘Abd Allāh
  • ‘Alī (second)
  • Fāṭimah
  • ‘Abd al-‘Azīz
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceḤanbalī[1][2][3][4][5]
CreedAtharī[6]
Main interest(s)‘Aqīdah (Islamic theology)
Notable idea(s)Wahhābism[1][2][3][7][8][9][10]
Salafī puritanism[1][3][10][11][12][13]
Opposition to Taṣawwuf[1][3][9][10][11][12][13]
Notable work(s)Kitāb at-Tawḥīd (Template:Lang-ar; "The Book of Unity")[3][14][15]
Senior posting
Influenced by
Influenced
Arabic name
Personal (Ism)Muḥammad
Patronymic (Nasab)ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaimān ibn ‘Alī ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rāshid
Teknonymic (Kunya)Abū al-Ḥasan[16]
Epithet (Laqab)an-Najdī
Toponymic (Nisba)at-Tamīmī[17]

Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaimān at-Tamīmī (/wəˈhɑːb/; Template:Lang-ar; 1703 – 22 June 1792) was a religious leader,[3] reformer,[18] scholar and theologian[1][2][4][19] from Najd in central Arabia, founder of the Islamic doctrine and movement known as Wahhabism.[1][2][4][9][20][21][22][23][24][25]

The name "Wahhabi" is not claimed by his followers but rather employed in criticism.[26] Born to a family of jurists,[4] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning a fairly standard curriculum of orthodox jurisprudence according to the Hanbali school of Islamic law, which was the school most prevalent in his area of birth.[4] He promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic Law, proclaiming the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations and insisted that every Muslim -male and female- personally read and study the Qur'an.[27] He opposed taqlid(blind following) and called for the use of ijtihad(independent legal reasoning through research of scripture).[28][29] Despite his initial rudimentary training in classical Sunni Muslim tradition, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab gradually became opposed to many of the most popular Sunni practices such as the visitation to and veneration of the shrines and tombs of Muslim saints,[2][4][9][23] which he felt amounted to heretical religious innovation or even idolatry.[4][9][10][23][30] His call for social reform in society was based on the key doctrine of Tawhid (oneness of God).[31][32] Despite his teachings being rejected and opposed by many of the most notable Sunni Muslim scholars of the period,[1][4][30] including his own father and brother,[1][4][30] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab charted a religio-political pact with Muhammad bin Saud to help him to establish the Emirate of Diriyah, the first Saudi state,[2][33] and began a dynastic alliance and power-sharing arrangement between their families which continues to the present day in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[2][3][34] The Al ash-Sheikh, Saudi Arabia's leading religious family, are the descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab,[3][34] and have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[34][35] dominating the state's clerical institutions.[34][36]

The Austro-Hungarian born Muslim scholar Muhammad Assad noted that all modern Islamic Renaissance movements took inspiration from the spiritual impetus set in motion in 18th-century by Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab.[37]

Early years

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is generally acknowledged[Note 1] to have been born in 1703[4][38] into the sedentary and impoverished Arab clan of Banu Tamim[39][40][41] in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd region of central Arabia.[38][42] Before the emergence of Wahhabism there was a very limited history of Islamic education in the area.[41][43] For this reason, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab had modest access to Islamic education during his youth.[41] Despite this,[41][44][45][46] the area had nevertheless produced several notable jurists of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, which was the school of law most prominently practiced in the area.[4] In fact, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's own family "had produced several doctors of the school,"[4] with his father, Sulaymān b. Muḥammad, having been the Hanbali jurisconsult of the Najd and his grandfather, ʿAbd al-Wahhāb, having been a judge of Hanbali law.[4]

Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab's early education consisted of learning the Quran by heart and studying a rudimentary level of Hanbali jurisprudence and Islamic theology as outlined in the works of Ibn Qudamah (d. 1223), one of the most influential medieval representatives of the Hanbali school, whose works were regarded "as having great authority" in the Najd.[4] As the veneration of Muslim saints and the belief in their ability to perform miracles by the grace of God had become one of the most omnipresent and established aspects of Sunni Muslim practice throughout the Islamic world, being an agreed-upon tenet of the faith by the vast majority of the classical scholars,[47][48][49][50][51][52][53] it was not long before Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab began to encounter the omnipresence of saint-veneration in his area as well; and he probably chose to leave Najd and look elsewhere for studies to see if the honoring of saints was as popular in the neighboring places of the Muslim world.[4]

After leaving 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab performed the Greater Pilgrimage in Mecca, where the scholars appear to have held opinions and espoused teachings that were unpalatable to him.[4] After this, he went to Medina, the stay at which seems to have been "decisive in shaping the later direction of his thought."[4] In Medina, he met a Hanbali theologian from Najd named ʿAbd Allāh b. Ibrāhīm al-Najdī, who had been a supporter of the neo-Hanbali works of Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 1328), the controversial medieval scholar whose teachings had been considered heterodox and misguided on several important points by the vast majority of Sunni Muslim scholars up to that point in history.[54][55][56][57]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teacher, Abdallah ibn Ibrahim ibn Sayf, introduced the relatively young man to Mohammad Hayya Al-Sindhi in Medina, who belonged to the Naqshbandi order (tariqa) of Sufism,[58][59] and recommended him as a student.[60][61][62] Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab and al-Sindhi became very close, and Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab stayed with him for some time.[60] Muhammad Hayya also taught Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab to reject popular religious practices associated with walis and their tombs that resemble later Wahhabi teachings.[60][better source needed] Following his early education in Medina, Ibn ʿAbd-al-Wahhab traveled outside of the Arabian Peninsula, venturing first to Basra.[44][63][better source needed]

Early preaching

After his return home, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to attract followers, including the ruler of 'Uyayna, Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. With Ibn Mu'ammar, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab agreed to support Ibn Mu'ammar's political ambitions to expand his rule "over Najd and possibly beyond", in exchange for the ruler's support for Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's religious teachings. Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab began to implement some of his ideas for reform. First, he persuaded Ibn Mu'ammar to help him level the grave of Zayd ibn al-Khattab, a companion of Muhammad, whose grave was revered by locals. Secondly, he ordered the cutting down of trees considered sacred by locals, cutting down "the most glorified of all of the trees" himself. Third, he organized the stoning of a woman who confessed to having committed adultery.[64][65]

These actions gained the attention of Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr of the tribe of Bani Khalid, the chief of Al-Hasa and Qatif, who held substantial influence in Najd. Ibn Ghurayr threatened Ibn Mu'ammar by denying him the ability to collect a land tax for some properties that Ibn Mu'ammar owned in al-Hasa if he did not kill or drive away from Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab. Consequently, Ibn Mu'ammar forced Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab to leave.[65][66]

Emergence of Saudi state

Pact with Muhammad bin Saud

First Saudi State (1744–1818)

Upon his expulsion from 'Uyayna, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was invited to settle in neighboring Diriyah by its ruler Muhammad bin Saud. After some time in Diriyah, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab concluded his second and more successful agreement with a ruler.[67] Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud agreed that, together, they would bring the Arabs of the peninsula back to the "true" principles of Islam as they saw it. According to one source, when they first met, bin Saud declared:

This oasis is yours, do not fear your enemies. By the name of God, if all Nejd was summoned to throw you out, we will never agree to expel you.

— Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab replied:

You are the settlement's chief and wise man. I want you to grant me an oath that you will perform jihad against the unbelievers. In return, you will be imam, leader of the Muslim community and I will be leader in religious matters.

— Madawi al-Rasheed, A History of Saudi Arabia: 16

The agreement was confirmed with a mutual oath of loyalty (bay'ah) in 1744.[68][better source needed] Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would be responsible for religious matters and Ibn Saud in charge of political and military issues.[67] This agreement became a "mutual support pact" [69][70] and power-sharing arrangement[71] between the Al Saud family, and the Al ash-Sheikh and followers of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, which has remained in place for nearly 300 years,[72] providing the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[73]

Emirate of Diriyah (First Saudi State)

Main article: Emirate of Diriyah
Further information: Demolition of al-Baqi, Wahhabi sack of Karbala, and Wahhabi War

The 1744 pact between Muhammad bin Saud and Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab marked the emergence of the first Saudi state, the Emirate of Diriyah. By offering the Al Saud a clearly defined religious mission, the alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion.[36] First conquering Najd, Saud's forces expanded the Salafi influence to most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia,[36] eradicating various popular practices they viewed as akin to polytheism and propagating the doctrines of ʿAbd al-Wahhab.[36][74]

Family

Main article: Al ash-Sheikh

According to academic publications such as the Encyclopædia Britannica while in Baghdad, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab married an affluent woman. When she died, he inherited her property and wealth.[75][76] Muhammad ibn 'Abd Al-Wahhab had six sons; Hussain, Abdullah, Hassan, Ali and Ibrahim and Abdul-Aziz who died in his youth. All his surviving sons established religious schools close to their homes and taught the young students from Diriyah and other places.[citation needed] The descendants of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, the Al ash-Sheikh, have historically led the ulama in the Saudi state,[35] dominating the state's religious institutions.[36] Within Saudi Arabia, the family is held in prestige similar to the Saudi royal family, with whom they share power, and has included several religious scholars and officials.[77] The arrangement between the two families is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Salafi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[78] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[79]

Teachings

Part of a series on
Islamism
Fundamentals
Ideologies
Islamic fundamentalism
Concepts
Influences
Movements
Scholastic

Political

Militant

Key texts
Heads of state
Key ideologues
Criticism of Islamism
Related topics

Islam portal

icon Politics portal

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab considered his movement an effort to purify Islam by returning Muslims to what, he believed, were the original principles of that religion. He taught that the primary doctrine of Islam was the uniqueness and unity of God (Tawhid).[80][81] He also denounced popular beliefs as polytheism (shirk), rejected much of the medieval law of the scholars (ulema) and called for a new interpretation of Islam.[82]

The "core" of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching is found in Kitab al-Tawhid, a short essay which draws from material in the Quran and the recorded doings and sayings (hadith) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[83] It preaches that worship in Islam includes conventional acts of worship such as the five daily prayers (salat); fasting (sawm); supplication (Dua); seeking protection or refuge (Istia'dha); seeking help (Ist'ana and Istighatha) of Allah.[84][page needed][non-primary source needed]

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab was keen on emphasizing that other acts, such as making dua or calling upon/supplication to or seeking help, protection or intercession from anyone or anything other than Allah, are acts of shirk and contradict the tenets of tawhid and that those who tried would never be forgiven.[84][page needed][non-primary source needed][85][page needed]

Traditionally, most Muslims throughout history have held the view that declaring the testimony of faith is sufficient in becoming a Muslim.[86] Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab did not agree with this. He held the view that an individual who believed that there could be intercessors with God was actually performing shirk. This was the major difference between him and his opponents[87] and led him to declare Muslims outside of his group to be apostates (takfir) and idolators (mushrikin).[88]

Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's movement is today often known as Wahhabism, although many adherents see this as a derogatory term coined by his opponents, and prefer it to be known as the Salafi movement.[89][90][91][92] Scholars point out that Salafism is a term applied to several forms of puritanical Islam in various parts of the world, while Wahhabism refers to the specific Saudi school, which is seen as a more strict form of Salafism. According to Ahmad Moussalli, professor of political science at the American University of Beirut, "As a rule, all Wahhabis are Salafists, but not all Salafists are Wahhabis".[93] Yet others say that while Wahhabism and Salafism originally were two different things, they became practically indistinguishable in the 1970s.[94][95]

On Sufism

Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab praised Tasawwuf. He stated the popular saying: “From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid).”[96] He describes Tasawwuf as "the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk" and considered it as an important branch of religious sciences.[97][98]

At the end of his treatise, Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah, Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's son 'Abd Allah speaks positively on the practice of tazkiah (purification of the inner self).[99][100]

Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab ends his treatise saying:

We do not negate the way of the Sufis and the purification of the inner self from the vices of those sins connected to the heart and the limbs as long as the individual firmly adheres to the rules of Shari‘ah and the correct and observed way. However, we will not take it on ourselves to allegorically interpret (ta’wil) his speech and his actions. We only place our reliance on, seek help from, beseech aid from and place our confidence in all our dealings in Allah Most High. He is enough for us, the best trustee, the best mawla and the best helper. May Allah send peace on our master Muhammad, his family and companions.[101][102]

On non-Muslims

According to the political scientist Dore Gold,[103] Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab presented a strong anti-Christian and anti-Judaic stance in Kitab al-Tawhid,[103] describing followers of both the Christian and Jewish faiths as sorcerers[103] who believed in devil-worship,[103] and cited a hadith attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad[Note 2] stating that punishment for the sorcerer is "that he be struck with the sword".[103][104] Wahhab asserted that both religions had improperly made the graves of their prophet into places of worship and warned Muslims not to imitate this practice.[103][105] Wahhab concluded that "The ways of the people of the book are condemned as those of polytheists."[103][106]

However, the scholar Natana J. DeLong-Bas defended Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, stating that

despite his at times vehement denunciations of other religious groups for their supposedly heretical beliefs, Ibn Abd al Wahhab never called for their destruction or death … he assumed that these people would be punished in the Afterlife …"[107]

Historical accounts of Wahhab also state that "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab saw it as his mission to restore a more purer and original form of the faith of Islam. […] Anyone who didn't adhere to this interpretation were considered polytheists worthy of death, including fellow Muslims (especially Shi'ite who venerate the family of Muhammad), Christians and others. He also advocated for a literalist interpretation of the Quran and its laws".[108]

On saints

Despite his great aversion to venerating the saints after their earthly passing and seeking their intercession, it should nevertheless be noted that Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab did not deny the existence of saints as such; on the contrary, he acknowledged that "the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ) are not to be denied, and their right guidance by God is acknowledged" when they acted properly during their life.[109]

Reception

By contemporaries

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teachings were criticized by a number of Islamic scholars during his life for disregarding Islamic history, monuments, traditions and the sanctity of Muslim life.[110] A handful of Arabian Hanbalis participated on the Ottoman side of the controversy. Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Humayd's 19th century biographical dictionary sheds light on those Hanbali scholars.[111] However the reliability of his biography itself is disputed for it's inherent biases, which portrays Ibn Abdul Wahhab and his followers as heretics. It also misrepresents many Najdi Hanbali scholars as on the side of Ottoman Hanbalis.[112] Ibn Humayd’s maternal lineage, Al Turki, was of some local renown for its religious scholars, including two men who opposed the Wahhabisn. One of them,named Ibn Muhammad compared Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab with Musaylimah.[113] He also accused Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab of wrongly declaring the Muslims to be infidels based on a misguided reading of Qur'anic passages and Prophetic traditions[113] and of wrongly declaring all scholars as infidels who did not agree with his "deviant innovation". In contrast to this anti-Wahhabi family tradition, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive studies under two Wahhabi Shaykhs, both praised in his biographical dictionary. He then travelled to Damascus and Mecca wherein he attended lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions. Ibn Humayd's compatibility with Ottoman religious outlook made him eligible for the post of Ottoman Mufti in Mecca. [113]

Another Hanbali scholar whom Ibn Humayd portrays as a central figure in rejecting Ibn Abdul Wahhab was Ibn Fayruz Al-Tamimi al-Ahsai(1729/30 - 1801/2). Ibn Fayruz publicly repudiated Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's teachings when he sent an envoy to him. Ibn Fayruz then wrote to Sultan Abdul Hamid I and requested Ottoman assistance to subjugate Ibn Abdul Wahhab's followers whom he referred to as the "seditious Kharijites" of Najd. The Wahhabis, in turn, came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.[114]

According to Ibn Humayd, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's father criticized his son for his unwillingness to specialize in jurisprudence and disagreed with his doctrine and declared that he would be the cause of wickedness.[115] Similarly his brother, Suleyman ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab wrote one of the first treatises' refuting Wahhabi doctrine[115] claiming he was ill-educated and intolerant and classing Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's views as fringe and fanatical.[110]

The Shafi'i mufti of Mecca, Ahmed ibn Zayni Dehlan, wrote an anti-Wahhabi treatise, the bulk of which consists of arguments and proof from the sunna to uphold the validity of practices the Wahhabis considered idolatrous: Visiting the tombs of Muhammad, seeking the intercession of saints, venerating Muhammad and obtaining the blessings of saints.[116] He also accused Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab of not adhering to the Hanbali school and that he was deficient in learning.[116] However, Ibn Abdul Wahhab himself considered visting the grave of the Prophet as a righteous deed, referring to it as "among the best of deeds" while condemning it's excesses.[117][118] On the other hand, Ibn Taymiyya considered visting the Prophet's grave to be forbidden.[119][120]

Ali Bey Al Abbasi a Spanish explorer who was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of Hejaz, presented a starkly different view of Wahhabis. He was surprised to find that they were fairly moderate,reasonable and civilized. He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were actually quite orderly and peaceful.Puzzled by the contradiction between popular image and reality, Ali Bey examined the historical record for clues.He found an important difference between the reign of Muhammad Ibn Saud, when Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was active in political life, and that of his son,Abd al-Aziz Ibn Muhammad Ibn Saud, when Ibn Abd al-Wahhab withdrew from active political activity. Ali Bey noted that Muhammad Ibn Saud had supported the teachings of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab but did not use a “convert or die” approach to gaining adherents. This practice was used only during the reign of Abd al-Aziz, who made selective use of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s teachings for the purpose of acquiring wealth and property for state consolidation—a contention supported by Ibn Bishr’s chronicle.Ali Bey declared that he "discovered much reason and moderation among the Wahhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation."[121]

British diplomat Harford Jones-Brydges, who was stationed in Basra in 1784 attributed the popular hysteria about Wahhabis to a different cause. Unlike Ottoman depictions, Brydges believed that Ibn Abdul Wahhab's doctrine was in keeping with the teachings of Qur'an, was "perfectly orthodox" , "consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume" and that Ottomans feared it's spread precisely on that basis.[122]

Modern reception

Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab is accepted by Salafi scholars as an authority and source of reference. 20th century Albanian scholar Nasiruddin Albani refers to Ibn Abdul Wahhab's activism as "Najdi da'wah."[123][better source needed]

A list of scholars with opposing views, along with names of their books and related information, was compiled by the Islamic scholar Muhammad Hisham.[124]

In 2010, Prince Salman bin Abdul-Aziz at the time serving as the governor of Riyadh said that the teaching of Muhammad Ibn Abdul-Wahab was pure Islam, and said regarding his works, "I dare anyone to bring a single alphabetical letter from the Sheikh's books that goes against the book of Allah ... and the teachings of his prophet, Mohammed."[125]

Contemporary recognition

The national mosque of Qatar is named after him.[126] The "Imam Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab Mosque" was opened in 2011, with the Emir of Qatar presiding over the occasion.[127] The mosque can hold a congregation of 30,000 people.[128] In 2017 there has been a request published on the Saudi Arabian newspaper Okaz signed by 200 descendants of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab that the name of the mosque be changed, because according to their statement "it does not carry its true Salafi path", even though most Qataris adhere to Wahhabism.[129]

Despite Wahhabi destruction of many Islamic, cultural, and historical sites[130] associated with the early history of Islam and the first generation of Muslims (Muhammad's family and his companions),[130] the Saudi government undertook a large-scale development of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab's domain, Diriyah, turning it into a major tourist attraction.[131][132] Other features in the area include the Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab Foundation, which is planned to include a light and sound presentation[133] located near the Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab.[134]

Works

  • Risālah Aslu Dīn Al-Islām wa Qā'idatuhu
  • Kitab al-Quran (The book of Allah)
  • Kitab at-Tawhid (The Book of the Oneness of God)
  • Kashf ush-Shubuhaat (Clarification of the Doubts)
  • Al-Usool-uth-Thalaatha (The Three Fundamental Principles)
  • Al Qawaaid Al 'Arbaa (The Four Foundations)
  • Al-Usool us Sittah (The Six Fundamental Principles)
  • Nawaaqid al Islaam (Nullifiers of Islam)
  • Adab al-Mashy Ila as-Salaa (Manners of Walking to the Prayer)
  • Usul al-Iman (Foundations of Faith)
  • Fada'il al-Islam (Excellent Virtues of Islam)
  • Fada'il al-Qur'an (Excellent Virtues of the Qur'an)
  • Majmu'a al-Hadith 'Ala Abwab al-Fiqh (Compendium of the Hadith on the Main Topics of the Fiqh)
  • Mukhtasar al-Iman (Abridgement of the Faith; i.e. the summarised version of a work on Faith)
  • Mukhtasar al-Insaf wa'l-Sharh al-Kabir (Abridgement of the Equity and the Great Explanation)
  • Mukhtasar Seerat ar-Rasul (Summarised Biography of the Prophet)
  • Kitaabu l-Kabaair (The Book of Great Sins)
  • Kitabu l-Imaan (The Book of Trust)
  • Al-Radd 'ala al-Rafida (The Refutation of the Rejectionists)

See also

Sources

There are two contemporary histories of Muhammed ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and his religious movement from the point of view of his supporters: Ibn Ghannam's Rawdhat al-Afkar wal-Afham or Tarikh Najd (History of Najd) and Ibn Bishr's Unwan al-Majd fi Tarikh Najd. Husain ibn Ghannam (d. 1811), an alim from al-Hasa was the only historian to have observed the beginnings of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement first-hand. His chronicle ends at the year 1797.[135][136] Ibn Bishr's chronicle, which stops at the year 1854, was written a generation later than Ibn Ghannam's but is considered valuable partly because Ibn Bishr was a native of Najd and because he adds many details to Ibn Ghannam's account.[135]

A third account, dating from around 1817 is Lam' al-Shihab, written by an anonymous Sunni author who respectfully disapproved of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's movement, regarding it as a bid'ah. It is also commonly cited because it is considered to be a relatively objective contemporary treatment of the subject. However, unlike Ibn Ghannam and Ibn Bishr, its author did not live in Najd and his work is believed to contain some apocryphal and legendary material concerning the details of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life.[46][137]

Notes

  1. ^ While there is some consensus over these details, the opinion is not unanimous over the specifics in regard to his place and date of birth. Seemingly his recognition with the Banu Tamim tribe thought is in line with the justification by some scholars of being the inheritor of the teachings of Ibn Taymiyyah.
  2. ^ The attribution of this hadith is disputed; according to other sources it should be attributed to 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Brown 2009, p. 245.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Esposito 2004, p. 123.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Haykel 2013, pp. 231–232.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Laoust, H. (2012) [1993]. "Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_3033. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4.
  5. ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Oxford University Press. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 July 2020. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
  6. ^ Halverson 2010, p. 48.
  7. ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 57–58, 62–63.
  8. ^ Silverstein 2010, pp. 112–113.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Ágoston & Masters 2009, p. 260.
  10. ^ a b c d Armstrong, Karen (27 November 2014). "Wahhabism to ISIS: how Saudi Arabia exported the main source of global terrorism". New Statesman. London. Archived from the original on 27 November 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  11. ^ a b Khatab 2011, pp. 62–65.
  12. ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, pp. 56–65.
  13. ^ a b Van Bruinessen 2009, pp. 125–157.
  14. ^ Khatab 2011, pp. 65–67.
  15. ^ Saeed 2013, pp. 29–30.
  16. ^ "ترجمة الشيخ محمد بن عبد الوهاب رحمه الله". www.alukah.net. 12 January 2017. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  17. ^ https://hadithanswers.com/the-banu-tamim-tribe/
  18. ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016.
  19. ^ Delong-Bas 2004, pp. 41–42.
  20. ^ Moosa 2015, p. 97.
  21. ^ White 2017, pp. 252–253.
  22. ^ Asad, Talal (2003). Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-8047-4768-4. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  23. ^ a b c Alastair Crooke, former MI6 agent (30 March 2017) [First published 27 August 2014]. "You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia". The Huffington Post. New York. Archived from the original on 28 August 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Hubbard, Ben (10 July 2016). "A Saudi Morals Enforcer Called for a More Liberal Islam. Then the Death Threats Began". The New York Times. New York. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 15 December 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  25. ^ Michael Sells, Professor of History and Literature of Islam and Comparative Literature at the Divinity School of the University of Chicago (22 December 2016). "Wahhabist Ideology: What It Is And Why It's A Problem". The Huffington Post. New York. Archived from the original on 8 April 2020. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  26. ^ Commins, David (2015). https://web.archive.org/web/20160627013416/https://scholar.dickinson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1256&context=faculty_publications. Saudi Arabia in Transition: Insights on Social, Political, Economic and Religious Change (Chapter 8 From Wahhabi to Salafi). New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–166. Archived from the original on 27 June 2016. Naming the doctrine preached by Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab has never been a simple matter. Early foes classified it as a Kharijite sectarian heresy. The name that stuck, Wahhabi, stigmatized the doctrine as the ravings of a misguided preacher. Naturally, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and his disciples preferred other names for themselves and their movement: at first, the folk who profess God's unity (ahl al-tawhid and al-muwahhidun), later, the Najdi call (al-da 'wa al-najdiyya). Naming, then, is part of arguments over Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab's doctrine. If the doctrine is known as Wahhabi, it cannot claim to represent correct belief. The tendency to refer to it as Salafi is a recent development that first emerged among Wahhabism's defenders outside Arabia well before Wahhabis themselves adopted the term. {{cite book}}: |archive-url= missing title (help)
  27. ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: Oxford University Press. pp. 29, 30, 117, 28, 37. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's insistence that every Muslim,both male and female, personally read and study the Quran and hadith served not only to undercut the authority of the ulama but in many cases to bypass them altogether. Why did he take such a stance? Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's problem with the ulama was not the fact that they existed. In fact, he did not seek to do away with them altogether, since he recognized the value of the ulama as repositories of specialized religious knowledge. What he did seek to do was to reserve the title 'alim for a person who was able to back his religious opinions and interpretations with citations from the Quran and hadith rather than simply relying on interpretations. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's major concern with the ulama of his time was that their knowledge consisted of legal manuals and exegetical literature alone and did not include direct study and knowledge of the Quran and hadith."... "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab clearly does not fit into a literalist mode with respect to Islamic law because he did not allow literal adherence to the law to supplant adherence to the intent of the law. This is why he believed that it was so important for Muslims to possess individual and personal knowledge of the scriptures. Without education, one cannot know and adhere to the requirements of Islam or distinguish between Islamic and customary practices. He pointed out that various types of legal trickery came about long before his time and had been practiced so widely in the area in which he lived as to have been sanctified by the leadership. Thus, he made it clear that the declaration of the leadership of the permissibility of an action was not sufficient to render it so".. "The final outcome of this case was due to the woman's deliberate choice to continue in her immoral sexual behavior. There is no indication that either her honor or that of her family was impugned by her interactions with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.The case also serves as evidence of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's concern for justice for women. Throughout the case, he tended to reject condemnation in favor of conversation and education, even where women were concerned. The woman's ultimate punishment was due to her failure to cease her immoral behavior"... "Similarly, the conquest of Washm took seven years to accomplish.As with Riyadh, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab first engaged in a letter-writing campaign with the inhabitants of Washm. Although some of the leaders rejected and resisted his teachings, this did not result in an immediate military response.In fact, no overt military action was taken against the region at this time. Instead, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab persisted with his invitations to religious discussions, supporting the notion of a gradual conversion process through education and dialogue rather than a "convert or die" mentality. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 126 (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  28. ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Proclaimed the necessity of returning directly to the Quran and hadith, rather than relying on medieval interpretations."... "Promoted strict adherence to traditional Islamic law. Opposed taqlid (adherence to tradition). Called for the use of ijtihad (independent reasoning through individual study of scripture).
  29. ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. pp. 14, 21, 29. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Like his contemporaries, he called for the sociomoral reconstruction of his society through greater adherence to monotheism (tawhid) and renewed attention to the Quran and hadith. He rejected imitation of the past (taqlid) in favor of fresh and direct interpretation(ijtihad) of the scriptures and Islamic law by contextualizing them and studying their content"... "Although it is always difficult to determine the exact degree of influence that any teacher has over any student, it is clear that Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was inspired by the key themes taught by al-Sindi and Ibn Sayf: the importance of the hadith as a source of scripture, attention to the content of the hadith rather than just the chains of transmission, opposition to the imitation of past scholarship (taqlid), support for individual interpretation (ijtihad), and the urgent need for sociomoral reform"... "The major fear that the ulama had with respect to Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings was that they would become not only less powerful but also potentially irrelevant. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's radical rejection of the imitation of past juridical rulings (taqlid) threatened to reduce their control over religious matters, interpretations of the sacred texts and Islamic law, and ultimately the local population's worldview {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 40 (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  30. ^ a b c Khatab 2011, pp. 56–76.
  31. ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad (d. 1791 )". Oxford Islamic Studies Online. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016. Plans for socioreligious reform in society were based on the key doctrine of tawhid (oneness of God)
  32. ^ J. Delong-Bass, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. p. 13. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Like other eighteenth-century reformers, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab taught that the remedy for such sociopolitical ills was simple: the revival and reform of Islam as evidenced by stricter adherence to tawhid. Only this could lead to the reestablishment of a just, stable, and powerful society.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  33. ^ Hourani 1992: 257–258
  34. ^ a b c d Nawaf E. Obaid (September 1999). "The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders". Middle East Quarterly. 6 (3). Middle East Forum: 51–58. Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  35. ^ a b Abir 1987: 4, 5, 7
  36. ^ a b c d e Metz 1992
  37. ^ Assad, Muhammad (2004). The Road to Makkah. Noida Printing Press, C-31, Sector-7, Noida (Ghaziabad) U.P: Islamic Book Service. p. 160. ISBN 81-7231-160-5. In Wahhabism, however, there are no scparate doctrines - on the contrary: this movement has made an attempt to do away with all the accretions and superimposed doctrines which in the course of many centuries have grown up around the original teachings of Islam,and to return to the pristine message of the Prophet. In its uncompromising clarity, this was certainly a great attempt, which in time could have led to a complete freeing of Islam from all the superstitions that have obscured its message. Indeed, all the renaissance movements in modern Islam - the Ahl-i-Hadith movement in India, the Sanusi movement in North Africa, the work of Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani and the Egyptian Muhammad Abduh-can be directly traced back to the spiritual impetus set in motion in the eighteenth century by Muhammad ibn Abd al- Wahhab. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 640 (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  38. ^ a b Philby 1930: 8
  39. ^ "Hadith - Book of Manumission of Slaves - Sahih al-Bukhari - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 7 October 2020.
  40. ^ Glassé 2003: 470
  41. ^ a b c d Shahi, Afshin (4 December 2013). The Politics of Truth Management in Saudi Arabia. Routledge. p. 46. ISBN 9781134653195.
  42. ^ EI1: 1086
  43. ^ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, p 13 Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
  44. ^ a b ibn Ghannam: 75–76
  45. ^ Hopwood 1972: 55
  46. ^ a b EI2: 677–678
  47. ^ Al-Nasafī, Majmūʿat al-ḥawāshī al-bahiyya ʿalā sharḥ al-ʿaqāʾid al-nasafiyya, 4 vols. (Cairo: Dār al-Muṣṭafā, 2007), 1:194: "The miracles of saints are a reality (ḥaqq)."
  48. ^ Al-Ashʿarī, al-Ibāna ʿan uṣūl al-diyāna, ed. Fawqiyya Ḥusayn Maḥmūd (Cairo: Dār al-Anṣār, 1397/1977), 31, 33: "It is possible for God to single out the righteous (ṣāliḥīn) by making signs (āyāt) appear at their hands."
  49. ^ Al-Ṭaḥāwī, Matn al-ʿaqīda al-ṭaḥāwiyya, ed. Muḥammad Nāṣir al-Dīn al-Albānī (Beirut: al-Maktab al-Islāmī, 1398/1978), 59: "[W]e believe in what has come via sound transmission through trustworthy narrators (ṣaḥḥa ʿan al-thiqāt min ruwātihim) from among their [the saints'] miracles."
  50. ^ Al-Shaʿrānī, Laṭāʾif al-minan, 2 vols. (Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿĀmira, 1311/1894), 1:218: "Believing in the miracles of saints is a required truth (wājib ḥaqq)."
  51. ^ Al-Qushayrī, al-Risāla al-qushayriyya (Cairo: [al-Maṭbaʿa al-ʿĀmira], 1870), 186–7: "Believing in the possibility of the miracles of saints is an obligation."
  52. ^ Ibn Qudamah: "As for the people of the Sunna who follow the traditions and pursue the path of the righteous ancestors, no imperfection taints them, not does any disgrace occur to them. Among them are the learned who practice their knowledge, the saints and the righteous men, the God-fearing and pious, the pure and the good, those who have attained the state of sainthood and the performance of miracles, and those who worship in humility and exert themselves in the study of religious law. It is with their praise that books and registers are adorned. Their annals embellish the congregations and assemblies. Hearts become alive at the mention of their life histories, and happiness ensues from following their footsteps. They are supported by religion, and religion is by them endorsed. Of them, the Quran speaks, and the Quran they themselves express. And they are a refuge to men when events afflict them: for kings, and others of lesser rank, seek their visits, regarding their supplications to God as a means of obtaining blessings, and asking them to intercede for them with God" (cited in Ahmet T. Karamustafa, Sufism: The Formative Period (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), p. 132).
  53. ^ Radtke, B.; Lory, P.; Zarcone, P.; DeWeese, Th.; Gaborieau, D.; Denny, M., F. M.; Aubin, Françoise; Hunwick, J. O.; Mchugh, N. (2012) [1993]. "Walī". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1335. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ʿAlī Hujwirī: "God has saints (awliyā) whom He has specially distinguished by His friendship and whom He has chosen to be the governors of His kingdom […] He has made the saints governors of the universe […] Through the blessing of their advent, the rain falls from heaven, and through the purity of their lives the plants spring up from the earth, and through their spiritual influence the Muslims gain victories over the truth concealers".{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. ^ Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 305.
  55. ^ Ibn Hajar al-Haythami: "Make sure you do not listen to what is in the books of Ibn Taymiyya and his student Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya and other such people who have taken their own whim as their God, and who have been led astray by God, and whose hearts and ears have been sealed, and whose eyes have been covered by Him... May God forsake the one who follows them, and purify the earth of their likes" (in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 274.
  56. ^ Ibn Hajar al-Haythami: "Ibn Taymiyya is a servant whom God has forsaken, led astray, made blind and deaf, and degraded. Such is the explicit verdict of the leading scholars who have exposed the rottenness of his ways and the errors of his statements" (in Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271.
  57. ^ Taqi al-Din al-Hisni referred to Ibn Taymiyyah as a "heretic from Harran"; see Rapoport, Yossef; Ahmed, Shahab (1 January 2010). Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Oxford University Press. p. 271
  58. ^ John L. Esposito (edited by), The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press (2004), p. 296
  59. ^ Islamic Law and Society. E.J. Brill. 1 January 2006. p. 216.
  60. ^ a b c Voll 1975: 32–39
  61. ^ ibn 'Hajar: 17–19
  62. ^ Official sources on Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's life put his visits to these cities in different chronological orders, and the full extent of such travels remains disputed among historians. As well, dates are missing in a great many cases, making it difficult to reconstruct a chronology of his life up until his return to 'Uyayna in 1740.
  63. ^ ibn Bishr: 7–8
  64. ^ Lacey 1983: 56
  65. ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 24.
  66. ^ ibn 'Hajar: 28
  67. ^ a b Delong-Bas 2004, p. 34.
  68. ^ Ibnsaud.info 2008
  69. ^ Parker T. Hart (1998). Saudi Arabia and the United States: Birth of a Security Partnership. Indiana University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-253-33460-8.
  70. ^ Sebastian Maisel; John A. Shoup (February 2009). Saudi Arabia and the Gulf Arab States Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Arab States. Greenwood Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-313-34442-8. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  71. ^ Hunt Janin; André Kahlmeyer (22 February 2007). Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present. McFarland. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4766-0881-5. Archived from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  72. ^ Obaid 1999: 51–58
  73. ^ Faksh 1997: 89–90
  74. ^ EBO History of Arabia 2011
  75. ^ EBO Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb 2011
  76. ^ "Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 7 November 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
  77. ^ Ottaway 2008: 176
  78. ^ Nyrop 2008: 50
  79. ^ Bligh 1985: 37–50
  80. ^ Esposito 2003, p. 333
  81. ^ "Allah". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
  82. ^ Esposito, John L. (13 November 2003). Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199840229. Archived from the original on 24 June 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  83. ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. 12. This brief essay is of tremendous significance for the Wahhabi mission and the subject of enduring controversy between supporters and detractors. It represents the core of Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab's teaching and the foundation of the Wahhabi canon.
  84. ^ a b Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid
  85. ^ Kashf ush-Shubuhaat
  86. ^ Commins, David (20 February 2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. vii. ISBN 9781845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020. It is well known that Muslims profess belief in one God, and that such belief is a cardinal tenet of Islam. The profession of faith (shahada) states, 'There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God.' The controversy between Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his critics turns on the implication of the first clause and its sincere proclamation. Most Muslims throughout history have accepted the position that declaring this profession of faith makes one a Muslim. One might or might not regularly perform the other obligatory rituals – the five daily prayers, fasting, almsgiving, and pilgrimage – and one might or might not scrupulously conform to Islamic ethical and moral standards. But as long as one believed that God is one and that Muhammad is His messenger, then any shortcomings would render one a sinner, not an unbeliever.
  87. ^ Commins, David (20 February 2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. vii. ISBN 9781845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab included in the category of such acts popular religious practices that made holy men into intercessors with God. That was the core of the controversy between him and his adversaries, including his brother.
  88. ^ Commins, David (20 February 2006). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. pp. 23. ISBN 9781845110802. Archived from the original on 5 January 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020. The Wahhai mission.
  89. ^ "Wahabi & Salafi". Alahazrat.net. Archived from the original on 22 September 2012. Retrieved 17 September 2012.
  90. ^ The National, March 18, 2010: There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says Archived 27 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
  91. ^ Commins, David (2009). The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. I.B.Tauris. p. ix. Thus, the mission's devotees contend that 'Wahhabism' is a misnomer for their efforts to revive correct Islamic belief and practice. Instead of the Wahhabi label, they prefer either salafi, one who follows the ways of the first Muslim ancestors (salaf), or muwahhid, one who professes God's unity.
  92. ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 4.
  93. ^ Moussalli, Ahmad (30 January 2009). Wahhabism, Salafism and Islamism: Who Is The Enemy? (PDF). A Conflicts Forum Monograph. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 June 2014. Retrieved 8 June 2014.
  94. ^ Abou El Fadl, Khaled M., The Great Theft, HarperSanFrancisco, 2005, p.79
  95. ^ Navalk Post Graduate School Thesis, September 2009, Michael R. Dillon: Wahhabism: Is it a factor in the spread of global terrorism?, pp 3-4 Archived 7 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine Linked 3 March 2015
  96. ^ Hafiz Al-Makki, Mawlana Abd-Al (1 January 2011). "SHAYKH MUHAMMAD BIN 'ABD AL-WAHHAB AND SUFISM". Deoband Org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. "From among the wonders is to find a Sufi who is a faqih and a scholar who is an ascetic (zahid)."
  97. ^ ‘Abd al-Hafiz al-Makki, Mawlana (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Mu'allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, chapter regarding fiqh (vol. 2, page 4). The shaykh writes in a treatise entitled Arb'at Qawa'id Tadur al-Ahkam 'alayha: Know — may Allah have mercy on you — religion revolves around these four sentences, in spite of their brevity; this is regardless of whether the speaker is speaking regarding the science of tafsir, the science of usul (principles of fiqh), the science of the deeds of the heart, which is known as the science of Suluk,[2] the science of hadith, the science of that which is permissible and impermissible and ahkam which is known as the science of fiqh, or regarding the knowledge of the rewards and punishments that aspire from good and bad deeds (wa'd and wa'id), or regarding any other religious science apart from these… {{cite web}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 180 (help)
  98. ^ "Kitab al Fiqh". Mu’allafat al-Imam al-Shaykh Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. Vol. 2. p. 4.
  99. ^ al-Makki, 'Abd al-Hafiz. "Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband.org. Deoband.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015. Retrieved 3 April 2015.
  100. ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al Manar Publishers. p. 50.
  101. ^ al-Makki, Mawlana ‘Abd Al-Hafiz (1 January 2011). "Shaykh Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab and Sufism". Deoband org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015.
  102. ^ Rida, Rashid (1925). Commentary of Shaykh 'Abd Allah bin Shaykh Muhammad bin 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Najdi's Al-Hadiyyah al-Suniyyah. Egypt: Al-Manar Publishers. p. 50.
  103. ^ a b c d e f g Gold, Dore (2003). Hatred's Kingdom: How Saudi Arabia Supports the New Global Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing. p. 25. ISBN 0-89526-135-9.
  104. ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996) Chapter 24, particularly page 97
  105. ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, page 83)
  106. ^ Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab, Kitab al-Tawhid (Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications, 1996, Chapter 9, page 51)
  107. ^ Delong-Bas 2004, p. 61.
  108. ^ Ranjbar, Vahid Houston (12 September 2019). "Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab and Shaykh Ahmad". Medium.
  109. ^ Peskes, Esther and Ende, W., "Wahhābiyya", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.
  110. ^ a b El Fadl 2007: 56–57
  111. ^ Weismann,Zachs, Itzchak,Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010: I.B Taurus. p. 81. ISBN 1 85043 757 2. One of the unexamined dimensions of that controversy is the participation of a handful of Arabian Hanbalis on the Ottoman side of the controversy. To shed light on what I call here the traditional Hanbalis, who bore the brunt of the Wahhabis' criticisms, I examine a nineteenth-century biographical dictionary by Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Humayd(1820-78){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  112. ^ Weismann,Zachs, Itzchak,Fruma (2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010: I.B Tauris. pp. 84–86. ISBN 1 85043 757 2. The overwhelming majority of his work consists of verbatim or nearly verbatim renderings from a handful of sources whose authors lived and wrote in Egypt and Syria, so most of the men in Ibn Humayd's collection come from those regions, with a mere handful from parts of Arabia.Najdi Hanbalism thus appears as a peripheral offshoot, the religious pupils and 'ulama of which regarded the Syrian and Egyptian schools as the wellsprings of learning.Arabian pupils and 'ulama travelled north to acquire advanced learning; we find no instances of traffic in the opposite direction.Ibn Humayd gives a polemical slant to his work by seamlessly blending this traditional Hanbali tradition with a clear bias against Wahhabis.For the middle to later parts of the eighteenth century, Ibn Humayd included twenty-four Arabian Hanbalis, all of them either indifferent or bitterly opposed to Wahhabi doctrine. For that portion of the nineteenth century covered in his work, he composed entries on twenty-one men, roughly half of them from al-Zubayr, located in southern Iraq, but culturally part of Najd, and a gathering place for anti-Wahhabi scholars" ... "One way to put Ibn Humayd's bias into sharper focus is to compare a list of his Arabian Hanbalis with those found in the chronicle of his contemporary, the Saudi partisan 'Uthman ibn Bishr. Ibn Bishr identified Wahhabi 'ulama when he named the qadis under each Saudi ruler to 1850, and he wrote obituaries on the most prominent Wahhabi 'ulama. Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, naturally one of the central personalities in Ibn Bishr's chronicle, does not have a separate entry in Ibn Humayd but is mentioned as a heretic or innovator. Ibn 'Abd al- Wahhab's sons and grandsons, known in Wahhabi circles as Al al-Shaykh, appear as spiritual guides, qadis, scholars, and teachers in Ibn Bishr's narrative, but are completely omitted from Ibn Humayd's compilation because he regarded them as deviants from the historical Hanbali tradition"... "Only two men appear in both Ibn Humayd's and Ibn Bishr's works. One of them, 'Abdallah ibn 'Abd al-Rahman Abu Butayn, was a major figure in the second Saudi amirate. Ibn Humayd crafts his biography into an occasion to disparage the Wahhabis, calling him 'indisputably the foremost jurist of Najd of the thirteenth [hijri] century." .... "Ibn Humayd not only minimized Abu Butayn's connection to the Wahhabis, he also slanted it in ways to smear them. For instance, he wrote that the people of Ta'if praised Abu Butayn for his conduct when he was qadi under the first Saudi amirate because he did not violate anyone's life, honor, or property even though it was a time when foxes acted like lions,implying that other Saudi appointees plundered and killed their unfortunate subjects. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 49 (help)CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  113. ^ a b c Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (11 June 2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B.Tauris. p. 83. ISBN 9781850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017. According to the 'Unayzan chronicler, Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab declared Muhammad's community to be infidels on the basis of a misguided reading of Quranic passages and Prophetic traditions pertaining to infidels and Jews. His whim led him to declare as infidels all pious scholars who did not agree with his deviant innovation. In contrast to this family tradition of hostility to the Wahhabi mission, Ibn Humayd's early education included extensive attendance at the lessons of two Wahhabi shaykhs, both of whom he praised in his biographical dictionary. Ibn Humayd then travelled to Damascus and Mecca, where he attended the lessons of men known for strong anti-Wahhabi convictions.At some point he became embroiled in a controversy with Wahhabi scholars over the religious legality of certain verses in al-Burda, a famous Sufi devotional poem to Muhammad.Ibn Humayd's learning and the compatibility of his religious outlook with Ottoman hostility toward Wahhabism made him suitable for the post of Hanbali imam and mufti in Mecca, and thus a member of the empire's religious officialdom.It is noteworthy that his intellectual background is similar to that of other nineteenth-century 'Unayzan dissidents. First,they had kinship or scholastic connections to the town's eighteenth-century scholars, many of whom rejected the Wahhabi movement. Second, they pursued learning outside of Najd in Iraq,Syria, or Hijaz, where they studied under Hanbalis and other shaykhs hostile to the Wahhabis. This dissident tradition left few traces on the historical record, and that makes Ibn Humayd's biographical dictionary all the more valuable to historians. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 703 (help)
  114. ^ Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (11 June 2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B.Tauris. pp. 86–87. ISBN 9781850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017. However, a reading of Ibn Humayd's entries on Arabian Hanbalis would lead one to conclude that the central figure of the eighteenth century was Muhammad ibn 'Abdallah ibn Muhammad ibn Fayruz al-Tamimi al-Ahsa'i (1729/30-1801/2), 'the shaykh of the age.' Ibn Humayd achieves this effect by depicting Ibn Fayruz as the fount of a generation of 'ulama who rejected Wahhabi doctrine. The dramatic elements in his biography include a foreshadowing of his auspicious scholarly future, his overcoming a physical handicap, showing bravery against a treacherous opponent, performing a lifesaving miracle,exodus,and triumph in his new setting."..... "When Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab began his mission, he sent envoys to various parts of Arabia to exhort 'ulama like Ibn Fayruz to accept it, but the latter publicly repudiated Wahhabi teachings.The Wahhabis came to view him as one of their worst enemies and an exemplar of idolatry.According to Ibn Humayd, the Saudis offered a reward for his murder, and a group of would-be assassins went to his home one night only to be defeated by a miraculous intervention. As the Saudis grew more powerful, Ibn Fayruz wrote to Sultan Abdülhamid I to request Ottoman assistance against what he termed the 'seditious Kharijis' of Najd,but Ottoman military expeditions launched from Iraq failed. It became clear that the Saudis would conquer al-Ahsa, so Ibn Fayruz and his entourage moved to Basra. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 421 (help)
  115. ^ a b Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (11 June 2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B.Tauris. p. 89. ISBN 9781850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  116. ^ a b Mannah, Buṭrus Abū; Weismann, Itzchak; Zachs, Fruma (11 June 2005). Ottoman Reform and Muslim Regeneration. I.B.Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 9781850437574. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
  117. ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). "The Theology and Worldview of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab". Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. Consequently, Ibn Abd al-Wahhab noted that although visiting Muhammad's grave was a worthy act it must not be done in a spirit or intent that compromises monotheism. Finally, prayer should never be conducted in a cemetery{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  118. ^ ibn Abdul Wahhab, Muhammad. "CHAPTER No: 22 The protectiveness of Al-Mustafa (May Allah be pleased with him) of Tawhid and his blockading every path leading to Shirk". Kitab At-Tauhid (PDF). Dar us Salam Publications. 4) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade visiting his grave in a certain manner, though visiting his grave is among the best of deeds. 5) The Prophet (May the peace and blessing of Allah be upon him) forbade us making excessive visits to his grave {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 99 (help)
  119. ^ Beranek,Tupek, Ondrej,Pavel (2009). "From Visiting Graves to Their Destruction The Question of Ziyara through the Eyes of Salafis". Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies: 2 – via Brandeis University. The vigorous opposition with respect to certain practices can be confidently traced to Hanbalite scholarship. Among which stood out Ibn Taymiyya (1263–1328), one of the most famous medieval Islamic jurists and theologians, whose influence is still palpable in current Sunni discourse. Ibn Taymiyya spent a large portion of his life in prison for his teachings; his last imprisonment was caused by his issuance of a legal opinion reportedly denouncing the visitation of the Prophet's grave. Ibn Taymiyya was defeated by his opponents, the ulama of Egypt and Syria, and died in prison together with his legal opinions condemning grave visitation and the belief in intercession. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 541 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 43 (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. ^ "Travel Towards Prophet's Resting Place". ISLAMIEDUCATION. Hafiz Ibn Taymiyya has a statement, found in his book called ar-Rad al-akh-Nai, that it is not permitted to travel to visit the grave of our Prophet (may Allah bless him and grant him peace). Ibn Taymiyya's proof is derived from the hadith about travelling: "You can travel to the three Mosques, i.e. Haramayn in Makka, Masjid an-Nabawi in Madina and Masjid Aqsa in Jerusalem."The real meaning of this hadith would be that no one can claim that prayer in one Mosque is more rewarded than another.The understanding of Hafiz Ibn Taymiyya is wrong about visiting our Prophet's (may Allah bless him and grant him peace) grave.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  121. ^ J. Delong-Bas, Natana (2004). Wahhabi Islam:From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. pp. 244–245. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. "Ali Bey was in Mecca in 1803, shortly after the Wahhabi conquest of the Hijaz. Popular hysteria about the Wahhabis led him to expect violence, fanaticism, intolerance, and ignorance on their part. During his own first encounter with them, he noted that those surrounding him literally "fled at the sight" of the incoming Wahhabis out of fear. Curious to see for himself what the notorious Wahhabis were really like, Ali Bey, rather than fleeing with the masses,climbed atop a pile of rubbish "to observe them better." He was surprised to find that the Wahhabis were actually quite moderate, reasonable, and civilized. He described his expectations and experiences as follows:"When we represent to ourselves a crowd of naked armed men, without any idea of civilization, and speaking a barbarous language, the picture terrifies the imagination, and appears disgusting; but if we overcome this first impression, we find in them some commendable qualities. They never rob either by force or stratagem, except when they know the object belongs to an enemy or an infidel. They pay with their money all their purchases, and every service that is rendered them. Being blindly subservient to their chiefs, they support in silence every fatigue, and would allow themselves to be led to the opposite side of the globe. In short, it may be perceived that they are men the most disposed to civilization, if they were to receive proper instruction." He further observed that, rather than engaging in rampant violence and destruction, the Wahhabis were actually quite orderly and peaceful—a fact that he found relatively surprising given the large number of guns and women in the Wahhabi contingent: "I must praise the moderation and good order which reigned amidst this number of individuals, belonging to different nations. Two thousand women who were among them did not occasion the least disorder; and though there were more than forty or fifty thousand guns, there was only one let off, which happened near me. At the same instant one of the chiefs ran to the man who had fired, and reprimanded him, saying, "Why did you do this? Are we going to make war here?" Puzzled by the contradiction between popular image and reality, Ali Bey examined the historical record for clues. He found an important difference between the lifetime of Muhammad Ibn Saud, when Ibn Abd al-Wahhab was active in the political life of the Saudi-Wahhabis, and the accession of his son, Abd al-Aziz Ibn Muhammad Ibn Saud, when Ibn Abd al-Wahhab withdrew from active political activity. Ali Bey noted that Muhammad Ibn Saud had supported the teachings of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab but did not use a "convert or die" approach to gaining adherents. This practice was used only during the reign of Abd al-Aziz, who made selective use of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's teachings for the express purpose of acquiring wealth and property through a convert or die approach to state consolidation—a contention supported by Ibn Bishr's chronicle. Thus, it can be argued that the violence and militancy associated with the Saudi-Wahhabis during this time period had more to do with the political concerns of the state than it did with Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's theological teachings. The question of Ibn Abd al-Wahhab's theological teachings formed the heart of the critique of Wahhabism. Opponents claimed that the Wahhabis subscribed to a literal and extremely narrow interpretation of Islam that deviated from the broader teachings of the Quran and hadith and rejected classical scholarship in its entirety. However, those who had contact with the Wahhabis found them to be scholars in their own right. Although he found their doctrine lacking in some respects, Ali Bey nevertheless declared that he "discovered much reason and moderation among the Wehhabites to whom I spoke, and from whom I obtained the greater part of the information which I have given concerning their nation." {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 619 (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  122. ^ J. DELONG-BAS, NATANA (2004). Wahhabi Islam: From Revival and Reform to Global Jihad. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. pp. 245–246. ISBN 0-19-516991-3. "A British observer, Harford Jones Brydges, who was stationed in Basra,Iraq, in 1784, also noted popular hysteria about the Wahhabis, although he attributed it to a different cause. Brydges believed that the Ottomans were well aware that the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam was in keeping with the teachings of the Quran and feared its spread on precisely that basis. The Ottoman Empire had worked to stir up popular fear and hatred of the Wahhabis, including the coining of the term Wahhabi, claiming that their interpretation of Islam was innovative and therefore heretical.Brydges noted: "When I arrived at Bassora in the year 1784, his [the Wahhabite commander's] proceedings and marauding marches caused great anxiety and alarm to the pacha of Baghdad, to his governor at Bassora, as well as to the best informed Turks. For these last were aware that his doctrines, when examined by the simple text of the Koran,were perfectly orthodox, and consonant to the purest and best interpretations of that volume." {{cite book}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 146 (help); line feed character in |title= at position 33 (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
  123. ^ Qadhi, Dr. Yasir. "On Salafi Islam". Muslim Matters. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2015.
  124. ^ Zahawi (1994), pages 7-15.
  125. ^ "There is no such thing as Wahabism, Saudi prince says". The National. Archived from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 20 August 2019.
  126. ^ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. Archived from the original on 12 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
  127. ^ "Qatar's state mosque opens to the public". Doha News. Doha News. 6 December 2011. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
  128. ^ "Imam Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab Mosque in Doha - Qatar". Beautiful Mosque. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  129. ^ "Descendants of Saudi Wahhabism founder distance themselves from Qatar". Reuters. 29 May 2017. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
  130. ^ a b Editors (9 June 2020). "Wahhābī (Islamic movement)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Edinburgh: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020. Because Wahhābism prohibits the veneration of shrines, tombs, and sacred objects, many sites associated with the early history of Islam, such as the homes and graves of companions of Muhammad, were demolished under Saudi rule. Preservationists have estimated that as many as 95 percent of the historic sites around Mecca and Medina have been razed. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  131. ^ Hubbard, Ben (31 May 2015). "Saudis Turn Birthplace of Wahhabism Ideology Into Tourist Spot". Archived from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 27 May 2016 – via NYTimes.com.
  132. ^ Estimo Jr, Rodolfo (5 January 2017). "Diriyah on course to become world-class tourist spot". Arab News. Archived from the original on 19 October 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  133. ^ Humaidan, Muhammad (22 November 2011). "Diriyah — a symbol of Saudi heritage". Arab News. Archived from the original on 30 July 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  134. ^ "Mosque of Sheikh Mohammad bin Abdulwahab". Saudi Tour. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 2 August 2017.
  135. ^ a b Vasilʹev 1998: 13
  136. ^ EI2
  137. ^ Vasilʹev 1998: 14

Bibliography

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.
Arabic Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Muhammad_ibn_Abd_al-Wahhab&oldid=1006155864"