Dutch phonology

Obstruents

This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2017)

• The glottal stop [ʔ] is not a phoneme because it only occurs optionally in a few specific, predictable environments. It often occurs at the beginning of vowel-initial words after a pause. The glottal stop can also separate vowel articulations within words, such as in IQ-onderzoek, milieu-imago, toe-eigenen, coöperatie, and beaam. This is particularly common in the case of compounds where both elements have the same vowel at the syllable-boundary, examples being /i/ hippie-ideaal, /eː/ mee-eten, /ɛɪ̯/ glijijzer, /œʏ̯/ bui-uitdoving, kilo-ohm, /ɔʊ̯/ trouwauto, and /aː/ na-apen.
• Apart from /r/, all alveolar consonants are laminal^[3][4] and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium.
• /b/ and /d/ are fully voiced.^[3]
• /ɡ/ is not a native phoneme of Dutch and occurs only in loanwords, like goal ('goal'); however /ɡ/ is nevertheless analyzed as a phoneme because minimal pairs exist—e.g. goal /ɡoːl/ and kool /koːl/ ('cabbage'). Additionally, in native words, [ɡ] occurs as an allophone of /k/ when it undergoes regressive voicing assimilation, like in zakdoek [ˈzɑɡduk].^[5]
• In the north, /ɣ/ often devoices and merges with /x/; the quality of that merged sound has been variously described as a voiceless post-velar [x̠] or uvular [χ] fricative.^[6]
• In the south, the distinction between /x/ and /ɣ/ is generally preserved as velar [x, ɣ] or post-palatal [x̟, ɣ˖].^[6][7][8] Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel. Post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g "hard g", while the post-palatal and velar variants are called zachte g "soft g".^[9] There is also a third variant called zwakke harde g "weak hard g", in which /ɣ/ is realized as [ɦ] and /x/ is realized as [h] and is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which are h-dropping areas, so that /ɦ/ does not merge with glottal variants of /ɣ/ and /x/.^{[citation needed]}
• In the Netherlands, /v/ can devoice and merge with /f/.^[6][10] According to Collins & Mees (2003), there are hardly any speakers of Northern Standard Dutch who consistently contrast /v/ with /f/.^[10]
• In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch (such as the Amsterdam accent)^[10] also /z/ can devoice and merge with /s/.^[6][10]
• Speakers who devoice /v/ and /z/ may also hypercorrectively voice /f/ and /s/: concert "concert" may thus be [kɔnˈzɛrt] compared to the more usual [kɔnˈsɛrt].
• Some speakers pronounce /ɦ/ as a voiceless [h]. Some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping.
• In the Netherlands, /s/ and /z/ may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, and for many Netherlandic speakers, they are retracted. In Belgium, they are more similar to English /s, z/.^[3][11]
• The sequences /sj/ and /zj/ are often assimilated to palatalized [sʲ, zʲ], alveolo-palatal [ɕ, ʑ], postalveolar [ʃ, ʒ] or similar realizations.
• The onset sequence /tj/ is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate [t͡ɕ],^[12] or intervocalically as a stop [c] or fricative [ç], barring some loanwords and names.
• The onset sequence /dj/ is commonly realized as a tenuis alveolo-palatal affricate [d͡ʑ].^[13] or intervocalically as a stop [ɟ] or fricative [ʝ], barring some loanwords and names.
• Before /j/, /k/ is realized as a voiceless post-palatal affricate [c̠͡ç̠].^[12]
• [ʃ, ʒ] are not native phonemes of Dutch and usually occur only in borrowed words, like show and bagage "baggage". Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realizations of the clusters /sj, zj/. If they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realizations noted above.
• Unlike English and German, in Dutch the voiceless stops are unaspirated in all positions: English tip and German Tipp are both [tʰɪp], but Dutch tip is [tɪp] with an unaspirated [t].

Sonorants

• /m/ and /n/ assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases:
  • Both become [m] before /p, b/, and [ɱ] before /f, v/.
  • /n/ merges into /ŋ/ before velars (/k, ɡ, x, ɣ/). The realisation of /ŋ/, in turn, depends on how a following velar fricative is realized. For example, it will be uvular [ɴ] for speakers who realise /x, ɣ/ as uvulars.
  • /n/ is realized as [ɲ] before /j/.^[3] That occurs also before /ʃ/ or /ʒ/ and, under assimilation, before /sj/ and /zj/.
• The exact pronunciation of /l/ varies regionally:
  • In the North, /l/ is 'clear' before vowels and 'dark' before consonants and pauses. Intervocalic /l/ tends to be clear except after the open back vowels /ɔ, ɑ/. However, some speakers use the dark variant in all intervocalic contexts.^[14]
  • Some accents, such as the Amsterdam and the Rotterdam ones, have dark /l/ in all positions. Conversely, some accents in the eastern regions, along the German border (for example around Nijmegen), as well as some Standard Belgian speakers, have clear /l/ in all contexts.^[14]
  • The quality of dark /l/ varies; in the North it is pharyngealized [lˤ], but in a final position, many speakers produce a strongly pharyngealized vocoid with no alveolar contact ([ɤˤ]) instead. In Belgium, it is either velarized [lˠ] or post-palatalized [l^j̠].^[15]
• The realization of /r/ phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area:
  • The historically original pronunciation is an alveolar trill [r], with the alveolar tap [ɾ] as a common allophone.
  • The uvular trill [ʀ] is a common alternative, found particularly in the central and southern dialect areas. Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad.^[16] Syllable-finally, it may be vocalized to [ɐ], much as in German. This is more common in the (south)eastern areas (Limburg, southeast Brabantian, Overijssel).
  • The coastal dialects of South Holland produce a voiced uvular fricative [ʁ].
  • In the center of the country, more specifically in Amsterdam and especially Nijmegen, and in Flanders, the voiced uvular approximant [ʁ̞] is a minority.^[17]
  • The velar bunched approximant [ɹ̈] (the Gooise R, which sounds similar to the retroflex approximant) is found at the end of a syllable in the pronunciation of some speakers in the Netherlands, especially those from the Randstad, but not in Belgium. Its use has been increasing in recent years.^[18]
  • Other variants include [ɹ̝]^[19] and [ɽ͡r]^[20] in North Brabant and North Holland.
• The realization of /ʋ/ also varies by area (and less so by speaker):
  • The main realisation is a labiodental approximant [ʋ], found in central and northern Netherlands.^[21]
  • Speakers in southern Netherlands and Belgium use a bilabial approximant [β̞].^[21] It is like [w] but without velarization.
  • In Suriname and among immigrant populations, [w] is usual.^{[citation needed][clarification needed]}
• An epenthetic [ə] may be inserted between /l, r/ and word-final /m, n, p, k, f, x/. Thus melk /mɛlk/ "milk" may be pronounced [ˈmɛlək]. This may extend to compounds, e.g. melkboer [ˈmɛləkbuːr] "milkman". Although this pronunciation is mistakenly thought of as non-standard, it is found in all types of Dutch, including the standard varieties. There is also another type of [ə]-insertion that occurs word-medially (e.g. helpen [ˈɦɛləpə] "to help"), which is considered non-standard.^[22]

In many areas the final 'n' of the ending -en (originally /ən/, with a variety of meanings) is pronounced only when a word is being individually stressed; this makes -en words homophonous with otherwise identical forms ending in -e alone. The -n is dropped both word-finally and, in compound words, word-internally. This pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and serve to distinguish words since the -n is dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending -en and not when the word consists of an indivisible stem that happens to end in -en. Thus, the teken of ik teken ('I draw') always retains its -n because it is part of an indivisible stem whereas in teken ('ticks') it is dropped because it is part of a plural ending. Such pairs (teken = 'draw'; teken = 'ticks') are therefore not homophones in dialects that drop -n, despite being written identically.

Final -n is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish), where it is the schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic [n] or (after velars) syllabic [ŋ] sounds: laten [ˈlaːtn̩]; maken [ˈmaːkŋ̍]. Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ and /x/ (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, like in lagen and/or lachen [ˈlaːχɴ̩]

Final devoicing and assimilation

Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, which is partly reflected in the spelling. The voiced "z" in plural huizen [ˈɦœy̑zə(n)] becomes huis [ɦœy̑s] ('house') in singular. Also, duiven [ˈdœy̑və(n)] becomes duif [dœy̑f] ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural baarden [ˈbaːrdə(n)] is retained in singular spelling baard ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is [baːrt], and plural ribben [ˈrɪbə(n)] has singular rib ('rib'), pronounced [rɪp].

Because of assimilation, the initial /v z ɣ/ of the next word is often also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is [(ɦ)ət feː]. The opposite may be true for other consonants: ik ben ('I am') [ɪɡ bɛn].^[23]

Example words for consonants

Monophthongs

• Dutch vowels can be classified as lax and tense,^[31] checked and free^[32] or short and long.^[33] Phonetically however, the close vowels /i, y, u/ are as short as the phonological lax/short vowels unless they occur before /r/.^[34][35]
• Phonologically, /ɪ, ʏ, ʊ/ can be classified as either close or close-mid. Carlos Gussenhoven classifies them as the former,^[36] whereas Geert Booij says that they are the latter and classifies /ɛ, ɔ/ and the non-native mid vowels as open-mid.^[24]
• /ʏ/ has been traditionally transcribed with ⟨œ⟩, but modern sources tend to use ⟨ʏ⟩ or ⟨ɵ⟩ instead.^[37][38] Beverley Collins and Inger Mees write this vowel with ⟨ʉ⟩.^[39]
• The phonemic status of /ʊ/ is not clear. Phonetically, a vowel of the [ʊ̞ ~ ɔ̽]^[40] type appears before nasals as an allophone of /ɔ/, e.g. in jong [jʊŋ] ('young'). This vowel can also be found in certain other words, such as op [ʊp] ('on'), which can form a near-minimal pair with mop [mɔp] ('joke'). This, however, is subject to both individual and geographical variation.^[41][42]
• Many speakers feel that /ə/ and /ʏ/ belong to the same phoneme, with [ə] being its unstressed variant. This is reflected in spelling errors produced by Dutch children, for example ⟨binnu⟩ for binnen [ˈbɪnə(n)] ('inside'). Adding to this, the two vowels have different phonological distribution; for example, /ə/ can occur word-finally, while /ʏ/ (along with other lax vowels) cannot. In addition, the word-final allophone of /ə/ is a close-mid front vowel with some rounding [ø̜], a sound that is similar to /ʏ/.^[24][43]
• The native tense vowels /eː, øː, oː, aː/ are long [eː, øː, oː, aː] in stressed syllables and short [e, ø, o, a] elsewhere. The non-native oral vowels appear only in stressed syllables and thus are always long.^[44]
• The native /eː, øː, oː, aː/ as well as the non-native nasal /ɛ̃ː, œ̃ː, ɔ̃ː, ɑ̃ː/ are sometimes transcribed without the length marks, as ⟨e, ø, o, a, ɛ̃, œ̃, ɔ̃, ɑ̃⟩.^[45]
• The non-native /iː, yː, uː, ɛː, œː, ɔː/ occur only in stressed syllables. In unstressed syllables, they are replaced by the closest native vowel. For instance, verbs corresponding to the nouns analyse /aːnaːˈliːzə/^ⓘ ('analysis'), centrifuge /sɛntriˈfyːzjə/^ⓘ ('spinner'), and zone /ˈzɔːnə/^ⓘ ('zone') are analyseren /aːnaːliˈzeːrən/^ⓘ ('to analyze'), centrifugeren /sɛntrifyˈɣeːrən/^ⓘ ('to spin-dry'), and zoneren /zoːˈneːrən/ ('to divide into zones').^[46]
• /œː/ is extremely rare, and the only words of any frequency in which it occurs are oeuvre [ˈœːvrə]^ⓘ, manoeuvre [maˈnœːvrə]^ⓘ and freule. In the more common words, /ɛː/ tends to be replaced with the native /ɛ/, whereas /ɔː/ can be replaced by either /ɔ/ or /oː/ (Belgians typically select the latter).^[28]
• The non-native nasal vowels /ɛ̃ː, œ̃ː, ɔ̃ː, ɑ̃ː/ occur only in loanwords from French.^[3][27][47] /ɛ̃ː, ɔ̃ː, ɑ̃ː/ are often nativized as /ɛn, ɔn, ɑn/, /ɛŋ, ɔŋ, ɑŋ/ or /ɛm, ɔm, ɑm/, depending on the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, restaurant /rɛstoːˈrɑ̃ː/ ('restaurant') and pardon /pɑrˈdɔ̃ː/ ('excuse me') are often nativized as /rɛstoːˈrɑnt/^ⓘ and /pɑrˈdɔn/^ⓘ, respectively.^[47] /œ̃ː/ is extremely rare, just like its oral counterpart^[48] and the only word of any frequency in which it occurs is parfum /pɑrˈfœ̃ː/ ('perfume'), often nativized as /pɑrˈfʏm/ or /ˈpɑrfʏm/^ⓘ.
• The non-native /ɑː/ is listed only by some sources.^[49] It occurs in words such as cast /kɑːst/^ⓘ ('cast').^[27][50]

The following sections describe the phonetic quality of Dutch monophthongs in detail.

Diphthongs

Dutch also has several diphthongs, but only three of them are unquestionably phonemic. All three of them end in a non-syllabic close vowel [i̯, y̑, u̯] (henceforth written [i, y, u] for simplicity), but they may begin with a variety of other vowels.^[51][78][79]

• /ɔu/ has been variously transcribed with ⟨ɔu⟩,^[80] ⟨ɑu⟩,^[81] and ⟨ʌu⟩.^[82]
• The starting points of /ɛi, œy, ɔu/ tend to be closer ([ɛɪ, œ̈ʏ, ɔ̈ʊ]) in Belgian Standard Dutch than in Northern Standard Dutch ([ɛ̞ɪ, œ̞̈ʏ, ʌ̞̈ʊ]). In addition, the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of /ɔu/ tends to be fully rounded, unlike the typical Northern Standard Dutch realization of the vowel. However, Jo Verhoeven reports rather open starting points of the Belgian Standard Dutch variants of /œy, ɔu/ ([œ̞̈ʏ, ɔ̞̈ʊ]) and so the main difference between Belgian and Northern Standard Dutch in this respect may only be in the rounding of the first element of /ɔu/, but the fully rounded variant of /ɔu/ is also used by some Netherlandic speakers, particularly of the older generation. It is also used in most of Belgium, in line with the Belgian Standard Dutch realization.^[51][52][83]
• In conservative Northern Standard Dutch, the starting points of /ɛi, œy, ɔu/ are open-mid and rounded in the case of the last two vowels: [ɛɪ, œʏ, ɔʊ].^[70]
• The backness of the starting point of the Belgian Standard Dutch realization of /ɛi/ has been variously described as front [ɛɪ]^[68] and centralized front [ɛ̈ɪ].^[52]
• In Polder Dutch, which is spoken in some areas of the Netherlands (especially Randstad and its surroundings), the starting points of /ɛi, œy, ɔu/ are further lowered to [aɪ, aʏ, aʊ]. This is typically accompanied by the lowering of the starting points of /eː, øː, oː/ to [ɛɪ, œʏ, ɔʊ]. These realizations have existed in Hollandic dialects since the 16th century and are now are becoming standard in the Netherlands. They are an example of a chain shift similar to the Great Vowel Shift in English. According to Jan Stroop, the fully lowered variant of /ɛi/ is the same as the phonetic diphthong [aːi], making bij 'at' and baai 'bay' perfect homophones.^[70][84]
• The rounding of the starting point of the Northern Standard Dutch realization of /œy/ has been variously described as slight [œ̜ʏ]^[85] and non-existent [ɐ̜ʏ].^[56] The unrounded variant has also been reported to occur in many other accents, such as Leiden, Rotterdam and in some Belgian speakers.^[84]
• Phonetically, the endpoints of the native diphthongs are lower and more central than cardinal [i, y, u], i.e. more like [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] or even [e, ø, o] (however, Jo Verhoven reports a rather close ([ï]) endpoints of the Belgian Standard Dutch variant of /ɛi/, so this might be somewhat variable). In Belgian Standard Dutch, the endpoints are shorter than in Northern Standard Dutch, but in both varieties the glide is an essential part of the articulation. Furthermore, in Northern Standard Dutch there is no appreciable difference between the endpoints of /ɛi, œy, ɔu/ and the phonetic diphthongs [eɪ, øʏ, oʊ], with both sets ending in vowels close to [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ].^[51][52][79]
• In some regional varieties of Standard Dutch (Southern, regional Belgian), the endpoints of /ɛi, œy, ɔu/ are even lower than in Standard Dutch: [ɛe̞, œø̞, ɔo̞ ~ ʌo̞], and in the traditional dialect of The Hague they are pure monophthongs [ɛː, œː, ɑː]. Broad Amsterdam speakers can also monophthongize /ɛi/, but to [aː]. It typically does not merge with /aː/ as that vowel has a rather back ([ɑː]) realization in Amsterdam.^[86]

While [eɪ, øʏ, oʊ] occur only in Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, all varieties of Standard Dutch have phonetic diphthongs [iu, yu, ui, eːu, ɔi, oːi, ɑi, aːi]. Phonemically, they are considered to be sequences of /iʋ, yʋ, uj, eːʋ, ɔj, oːj, ɑj, aːj/ by Geert Booij and as monosyllabic sequences /iu, yu, ui, eːu, oːi, aːi/ by Beverley Collins and Inger Mees (they do not comment on [ɔi] and [ɑi]).^[87][88] This article adopts the former analysis.

In Northern Standard Dutch, the second elements of [iu, yu, eːu] can be labiodental [iʋ, yʋ, eːʋ]. This is especially common in intervocalic positions.^[63]

In Northern Standard Dutch and regional Netherlands Standard Dutch, the close-mid elements of [eːu, oːi] may be subject to the same kind of diphthongization as /eː, oː/, so they may be actually triphthongs with two closing elements [eɪu, oʊi] ([eːu] can instead be [eɪʋ], a closing diphthong followed by [ʋ]). In Rotterdam, [oːi] can be phonetically [əʊi], with a central starting point.^[89][90]

[aːi] is realized with more prominence on the first element according to Booij and with equal prominence on both elements according to Collins and Mees. Other diphthongs have more prominence on the first element.^[89][91]

The endpoints of these diphthongs tend to be slightly more central ([ï, ü]) than cardinal [i, u]. They tend to be higher than the endpoints of the phonemic diphthongs /ɛi, œy, ɔu/.^[92]

Example words for vowels and diphthongs

Onset

Notes on individual consonants:

• /s/ is the only phoneme that can occur at the beginning of a sequence of three consonants: /spr/ spreeuw, /spl/ splinter, /str/ struik, /skr/ scriptie, /skl/ sclerose, /sxr/ schram.^[95] It is the only consonant that can occur before /m/: /sm/ smart. It cannot occur immediately before /r/, though it does phonetically for speakers who drop /x/ in the /sxr/ sequence (very common in schrijven).
• The only possible consonant cluster with /z/ is /zʋ/: zwabber.
• /x/ is infrequent as the first element, mostly occurring in roots coming from Greek: chiropracticus, chronologisch, chlamydia. It is very common in the sequence /sx/.
• /ɦ/, /ʒ/ and /ʔ/ only occur outside clusters.
• /ŋ/ cannot appear in onsets except as an ambisyllabic word-internal consonant.^[96]

A sequence of CCC always begins with /s/. The CC-structure can be realized by almost all stops and non-sibilant, non-glottal fricatives followed by the sonorants /r/ or /l/, exceptions are that /dl/ and /tl/ are impossible: /br/ brutaal, /bl/ bling, /pr/ /pl/ printplaat, /kr/ krimp, /kl/ kloot, /ɡr/ grapefruit, /ɡl/ glossy, /tr/ truck, /dr/ droevig, /vr/ vrij, wreken, /vl/ vlaag, /fr/ fris, /fl/ flodder, /ɣr/ groen, /ɣl/ glunderen, /xr/ chrisma, /xl/ chloroform. Voiced obstruents cannot appear in other clusters except for /ɣ/. Voiceless obstruents can occur in stop-fricative and fricative-stop clusters. Sequences of a voiceless obstruent or /ɣ/ and /n/ are also possible, for /m/ only /sm/ occurs:

• Stop-fricative clusters primarily occur in loan words: /ts/ tsaar, tsunami, /tʃ/ Tsjechisch, /pf/ pfeiffer.
  • /ps/ psoriasis, psalm, /ks/ xylofoon and the rare /pt/ pterodactylus are typical of words derived from Greek.
• An obstruent followed by /n/ appears in many native words: /kn/ knecht, /sn/ snikken, more rarely /ɣn/ gniffelen (also in Greek words, gnostiek), /fn/ fnuiken.
  • /pn/ pneumatisch appears only in Greek words.

Nasals rarely begin clusters.

Coda

• Voiced consonants appear only in loan words: /z/ jazz.
• /x/ appears alone, preceded by /r/ or /l/, or followed by /s/, /t/, /ts/ or a combination of these.
• /n/ does not occur before labials and dorsals, /ŋ/ does not occur before labials and /m/ does not occur before dorsals. /ŋ/ cannot follow long vowels or diphthongs.
• /r/ cannot occur after diphthongs.^[97]
• /ɦ/, /ʒ/ and /ʔ/ do not occur.

Northern Standard Dutch

The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful colloquial style.^[51]

Belgian Standard Dutch

The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent.^[99]