Ket language

Documentation

The earliest observations about the language were published by Peter Simon Pallas in 1788 in a travel diary (Путешествия по разным провинциям Русского Государства, Puteshestviya po raznim provintsiyam Russkogo Gosudarstva). Matthias Castrén was one of the last known to study the Kott language. Castrén lived beside the Kan river with five people of Kott, in which is believed were the last remaining people who spoke the language.^[8] In 1858, Castrén published the first grammar and dictionary (Versuch einer jenissei-ostjakischen und Kottischen Sprachlehre), which also included material on the Kott language. During the 19th century, the Ket were mistaken for a tribe of the Finno-Ugric Khanty. A. Karger in 1934 published the first grammar (Кетский язык Ketskij jazyk), as well as a Ket primer (Букварь на кетском языке Bukvar' na ketskom jazyke), and a new treatment appeared in 1968, written by A. Kreinovich.

Decline and current use

Ket people were subjected to collectivization in the 1930s. In the 1950s and 1960s, according to the recollections of informants, they were sent to Russian-only boarding schools, which led to the ceasing of language transmission between generations.^[9] Now, Ket is taught as a subject in some primary schools, but only older adults are fluent and few are raising their children with the language. Kellog, Russia, is the only place where Ket is still taught in schools. Special books are provided for grades second through fourth but after those grades there is only Russian literature to read that describes Ket culture.^[10] There are no known monolingual speakers as of 2006.^[11] A children's book, A Bit Lost by Chris Haughton, was translated into the language in 2013.^[12] Alexander Kotusov was a Ket folk singer and poet who died in 2019.^[13][14]

Only three localities, Kellog, Surgutikha and Maduika, retain a native Ket-speaking population in the present day. Other villages such as Serkovo and Pakulikha were destroyed in the second half of the 20th century, dispersing the local Ket population to nearby towns.^[15]

Vowels

Consonants

Vajda analyses Ket as having only 12 consonant phonemes:

It is one of the few languages to lack both /p/ and /ɡ/,^[17] along with Arapaho, Goliath, Obokuitai, Palauan, and Efik, as well as classical Arabic and some modern Arabic dialects.

There is much allophony, and the phonetic inventory of consonants is essentially as below. This is the level of description reflected by the Ket alphabet.

Furthermore, all nasal consonants in Ket have voiceless allophones at the end of a monosyllabic word with a glottalized or descending tone (i.e. [m, n, ŋ] turn into [m̥, n̥, ŋ̥]), likewise, [ɮ] becomes [ɬ] in the same situation. Alveolars are often pronounced laminal and possibly palatalized, though not in the vicinity of a uvular consonant. /q/ is normally pronounced with affrication, as [𐞥χ].

Tone

Descriptions of Ket vary widely in the number of contrastive tones they report: as many as eight and as few as zero have been counted. Given this wide disagreement, whether or not Ket is a tonal language is debatable,^[18] although recent works by Ket specialists Edward Vajda and Stefan Georg defend the existence of tone.^[19]

In tonal descriptions, Ket does not employ a tone on every syllable but instead uses one tone per word. Following Vajda's description of Southern Ket, the five basic tones are as follows:^{[20][failed verification]}

The glottalized tone features pharyngeal or laryngeal constriction, or a full glottal stop that interrupts the vowel.

Georg's 2007 description of Ket tone is similar to the above, but reduces the basic number of tonemes to four, while moving the rising high-falling tone plus a variant to a class of tonemes only found in multisyllabic words. With some exceptions caused by certain prefixes or clitics, the domain of tones in a multisyllabic word is limited to the first two syllables.^[21]

Morphology

Nouns have nominative basic case (subjects and direct objects) and a system of secondary cases for spatial relations. The three noun classes are: masculine, feminine and inanimate.

Unlike neighbouring languages of Siberia, Ket makes use of verbal prefixes. Ket has two verbal declensions, one prefixed with d- and one with b-. The second-person singular prefixes on intransitive verbs are [ku-, ɡu-].

Ket makes significant use of incorporation. Incorporation is not limited to nouns, and can also include verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and bound morphemes found only in the role of incorporated elements. Incorporation also occurs as both a lexicalized process – the combination of verb and incorporate being treated as a distinct lexical element, with a meaning often based around the incorporated element – and a paradigmatic one, where the incorporation is performed spontaneously for particular semantic and pragmatic effect^[25] Forms of incorporation include:

• Nominal incorporation, most commonly used to describe the instrumental part of an action, but sometimes used to describe patients instead. Instrumental incorporation doesn't affect the transitivity of the verb (though there are examples where this form of incorporation is used to describe agentless changes of state), while patient incorporation can make a transitive verb intransitive. Patient incorporation is usually used for patients that are wholly effected by an action (such as being brought into existence by it); more generally affected patients are typically incorporated only when significantly defocused or backgrounded.^[26]
• Verbal incorporation, more specifically the incorporation of verbal infinitives (rather than roots) into the verb complex. This form of incorporation is used to signify aspect and form causatives. Incorporated infinitives may bring incorporated elements of their own into the verb as well.^[27]
• Adjectival incorporation, with an incorporated adjective describing the target or final state of an action.^[28]
• Adverbial incorporation, where a local adverb is used to describe the direction or path of a movement.^[29]

Loanwords

Ket has many loanwords from Russian, such as mora 'sea'; there are also loanwords from other languages such as Selkup, for example: the word qopta 'ox' comes from the Selkup word qobda. Ket also has some Mongolian words, such as saˀj 'tea' from Mongolian tsaj. There are also words from Evenki, for example: the word saˀl 'tobacco' is possibly borrowed from Evenki sâr 'tobacco'.^[30]

Examples of sentences

• bu du-taRɔt 'He lies/sleeps';
• ətn en dʌŋ-ɔtn 'We are walking already';
• bu ətn d-il'-daŋ-s' 'He attracted us'.