Ĝizia
Ĝizia, literumita ankaŭ Jizya aŭ jizyah (arabe جِزْيَة; [d͡ʒizjah]) estas por persono kaj por jaro imposto historie starigita en la formo de financa ŝarĝo sur permanentan ne-islamaj subjektoj ((dhimm)) de ŝtato regata pere de Islama juro.[1][2][3] Islamaj juristoj postulas, ke plenkreskaj, liberaj, sanaj viroj inter la "dhimma" komunumo pagu la ĝizia-n,[4] sed oni esceptigas virinojn, infanojn, maljunulojn, handikapulojn, malsanulojn, frenezulojn, monakojn, ermitojn, sklavojn,[5][6][7][8][9] kaj "musta'min" — eksterlandaj ne-islamanoj kiuj nur provizore loĝas en islamaj landoj.[5][10] Ankaŭ "dhimmi" kiu elektas aliĝi al militservo estis liberigitaj el tiu pago,[1][6][11][12] same kiel tiuj kiuj ne povas pagi.[6][13][14]
La Korano kaj la haditoj mencias "ĝizia" sen specifi sian proporcion aŭ kvanton.[15] Tamen, fakuloj amplekse interkonsentas, ke la fruaj islamaj regantoj adaptis la ekzistintajn sistemojn de impostoj, kiuj estis establitaj dum la regadoj de antaŭaj regantoj de la konkerataj taroj, kiel tiuj de la Bizanca kaj de la Sasanida imperioj.[10][16][17][18][19]
La apliko de la "ĝizia" variis en la daŭro de la Historio de Islamo. Kune kun la ĥaraĉo, termino kiu estis foje uzita interŝanĝe kun "ĝizia",[20][21][22] nome impostoj starigitaj al ne-islamaj subjektoj estis inter la ĉefaj rimedoj de la enspezoj kolektitaj de kelkaj islamaj entoj, kiel la Otomana Imperio kaj la Hindiaj Islamaj Sultanlandoj.[23] La proporcio de "ĝizia" estis kutime fiksita ĉiujara monkvanto dependanta el la financa kapablo de la paganto.[24] Fontoj komparantaj la impostoj starigitaj al islamanoj kaj la ĝizia diferencas pri la relativa ŝarĝo depende de la epoko, la loko, la specifaj impostoj konsiderataj, kaj aliaj faktoroj.[1][25][26]
Historie, la "ĝizia" estis komprenita en Islamo kiel pago pro la protektado havigita de la islama reganto al la ne-islamanoj, pro la liberigo el la militservo por ne-islamanoj, pro la permeso praktiki ne-islaman religion kun iom da komunuma aŭtonomeco en islama ŝtato, kaj kiel materia pruvo de la submetigo de ne-islamanoj al la islama ŝtato kaj al ties juro.[27][28] La "ĝizia" estis komprenita ankaŭ kiel ŝarĝo aŭ stato de humiligo de ne-islamanoj en islama ŝtato pro nekonverto al Islamo,[29][30] substanca enspezofonto por almenaŭ kelkaj epokoj kaj kelkaj lokoj (kiel la Omajada epoko), dum aliaj argumentas, ke se tio estus puno por alia religio de "dhimmi", monakoj kaj klerikoj ne estus estintaj nepagontaj.
La termino aperas en la Korano reference al imposto por la ahl al-kitab nome popoloj de libro, specife judoj kaj kristanoj. Sekvantoj de aliaj religioj kiel zoroastranoj kaj hinduistoj estis poste integritaj en la kategorio de dhimmi kaj oni postulis, ke ili pagu la "ĝizia". En la Hinda Subkontinento la praktiko estis nuligita en la 18-a jarcento. Ĝi preskaŭ malaperis dum la 20-a jarcento pro la malapero de islamaj ŝtatoj kaj disvastigo de la religia toleremo.[31] Tiu imposto ne plu estas metita fare de naciŝtatoj en la Islama mondo,[32][33] kvankam estas informoj de okazoj de organizoj kiel la Talibana Movado de Pakistano kaj la ISIS kiuj klopodis revivigi tiun praktikon.[31][34]
Referencoj
[redakti | redakti fonton]- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Abdel-Haleem, Muhammad. (2010) Understanding the Qur'ān: Themes and Style. I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd, p. [htt://archive.org/details/understandingqur00hale/e/n78 70], 79. ISBN 978-1845117894.
- ↑ Abou Al-Fadl 2002, p. 21. "When the Qur'an was revealed, it was common inside and outside of Arabia to levy poll taxes against alien groups. Building upon the historical practice, classical Muslim jurists argued that the poll tax is money collected by the Islamic polity from non-Muslims in return for the protection of the Muslim state. If the Muslim state was incapable of extending such protection to non-Muslims, it was not supposed to levy a poll tax."
- ↑ Jizyah Arkivigite je 2015-09-08 per la retarkivo Wayback Machine The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2010), Oxford University Press, Citaĵo: Jizyah: Compensation. Poll tax levied on non-Muslims as a form of tribute and in exchange for an exemption from military service, based on Quran 9:29.
- ↑ M. Zawati, Hilmi. (2002) Is Jihād a Just War?: War, Peace, and Human Rights Under Islamic and Public International Law (Studies in religion & society). Edwin Mellen Press, p. [htt://archive.org/details/isjihadjustwar00zawa/e/63 63–4]. ISBN 978-0773473041.
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Wael, B. Hallaq. (2009) Sharī'a: Theory, Practice and Transformations. Cambridge University Press, p. 332–3. ISBN 978-0-521-86147-2.
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Ellethy 2014, p. 181. "[...] the insignificant amount of this yearly tax, the fact that it was progressive, that elders, poor people, handicapped, women, children, monks and hermits were exempted, leave no doubt about exploitation or persecution of those who did not accept Islam. Comparing its amount to the obligatory zaka which an ex-dhimmi should give to the Muslim state in case he converts to Islam dismisses the claim that its aim was forced conversions to Islam."
- ↑ (2003) “Islamic Law, Practice, and Legal Doctrine: Exempting the Poor from the Jizya under the Ayyubids (1171-1250)”, Islamic Law and Society 10 (3), p. 348–375. doi:10.1163/156851903770227584.
- ↑ Rispler-Chaim, Vardit. (2007) Disability in Islamic law. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. ISBN 978-1402050527.
- ↑ Majid Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam, pp. 192-3.
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 (2013) The Princeton encyclopedia of Islamic political thought. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691134840.
- ↑ Mapel, D.R. kaj Nardin, T., eld. (1999), International Society: Diverse Ethical Perspectives, p. 231. Princeton University Press. (ISBN 9780691049724). Citaĵo: "Jizya was levied upon dhimmis in compensation for their exemption from military service in the Muslim forces. If dhimmis joined Muslims in their mutual defense against an outside aggressor, the jizya was not levied."
- ↑ Shah 2008, pp. 19–20.
- ↑ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013, pp. 240–1.
- ↑ Abdel-Haleem 2012, pp. 75–6, 77.
- ↑ Sabet, Amr (2006), The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 24:4, Oxford; pp. 99–100.
- ↑ Bravmann 2009, pp. 199–201, 204–5, 207–12.
- ↑ Mohammad, Gharipour. (2014) Sacred Precincts: The Religious Architecture of Non-Muslim Communities Across the Islamic World. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004280229.
- ↑ Shah 2008, p. 20. "Jizia was not a specific Islamic invention but was the norm of the time. "Several of the early caliphs made peace treaties with the Byzantine Empire some of which even required them to pay tribute [Jizia] to the Byzantines" (Streusand, 1997)."
- ↑ Walker Arnold, Thomas. (1913) Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd. (online)
- ↑ Morony, Michael. (2005) Iraq after the Muslim conquest. NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, p. 109, 99–134. ISBN 978-1-59333-315-7.
- ↑ Levy, Reuben. (2002) The social structure of Islam. London New York: Routledge, p. 310–1. ISBN 978-0-415-20910-6.
- ↑ Satish Chandra (1969), Jizyah and the State in India during the 17th Century, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 322–40, Citaĵo="Although kharaj and jizyah were sometimes treated as synonyms, a number of fourteenth century theological tracts treat them as separate"
- ↑ Peri, Oded. (1990) “The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem”, Ottoman Palestine, 1800-1914 : Studies in economic and social history. Leiden: E.J. Brill, p. 287. ISBN 978-90-04-07785-0.
- ↑ Abu Khalil, Shawkiy. (2006) al-Islām fī Qafaṣ al-ʾIttihām (arabe). Dār al-Fikr. ISBN 978-1575470047. Citaĵo: و يعين مقدار الجزية إعتبارا لحالتهم الإقتصادية، فيؤخد من الموسرين أكثر و من الوسط أقل منه و من الفقراء شيء قليل جدا. و على الدين لا معاش لهم أو هم عالة على غيرهم يعفون من أداء الجزية. Traduko: "La kvanto de ĝizia estas determinata konsiderante ties ekonomian statuson, kaj tiel oni prenas plie el la prospera, malpli el la meza [klaso], kaj tre malgranda kvanto el la malriĉulo (fuqaraʾ). Tiuj kiuj ne havas vivrimedon aŭ dependas el la subteno fare de aliuloj estas liberigitaj el la pago de la ĝizia." (online)
- ↑ Ghazi, Kalin & Kamali 2013, pp. 82–3.
- ↑ Abu Zahra, Muhammad. Zahrat al-Tafāsīr (arabe). Kairo: Dār al-Fikr al-ʿArabī, p. 3277–8. Citaĵo: و ما يعطيه الذمي من المال يسمى جزية؛ [...] و لأنها جزاء لأن يدفع الإسلام عنهم، و يكفيهم مئونة القتال، و لأنها جزاء لما ينفق على فقراء أهل الذمة كما كان يفعل الإمام عمر، [...] و الإسلام قام بحق التساوي بين جميع من يكونون في طاعته، فإن الجزية التي تكون على الذمي تقابل ما يكون على المسلم من تكليفات مالية، فعليه زكاة المال، و عليه صدقات و نذور، و عليه كفارات، و غير ذلك، و لو أحصى كل ما يؤخد من المسلم لتبين أنه لا يقل عما يؤخد من جزية إن لم يزد. و إن الدولة كما ذكرنا تنفق على فقراء أهل الذمة، و لقد روى أن عمر - رضي الله تعالى عنه - وجد شيخا يهوديا يتكفف، فسأله: من أنت يا شيخ؟ قال رجل من أهل الذمة، فقال له: ما أنصفناك أكلنا شبيبتك و ضيعناك في شيخوختك، و أجرى عليه رزقا مستمرا من بيت المال، و قال لخادمه: ابحت عن هذا و ضربائه، و أَجْرِ عليهم رزقا من بيت المال. Traduko: "And the money that the dhimmī gives is called jizya: [...] and [it is so named] because it is in return for the protection that they are guaranteed by the Islamic [community], and instead of rendering military service, and since it is [also] in return for what is spent on the poor amongst the dhimmī community (ahl al-dhimma) as ʾImām ʿUmar used to do. [...] and Islam gave the right of equality between all of those who are under its rule, indeed, the jizya that is demanded from the dhimmī corresponds to the financial obligations that are compulsory on the Muslim, so he is obliged [to purify] his wealth [through] zakat, and he is required to pay sadaqat and nudhur, and he is duty-bound to give kaffarat, as well as other things. And if all that is taken from the Muslim was calculated, it would become clear that it isn't less than what is taken by way of jizya, if it isn't more. And as we have mentioned earlier, the state spends on the poor amongst the dhimmī community, and it is narrated that ʿUmar - May God Almighty be pleased with him - found an elderly Jew begging, so he asked him: 'Who are you, old man (shaykh)?' He said, 'I am a man from the dhimma community.' So ʿUmar said to him: 'We have not done justice to you in taking from you when you were young and forsaking you in your old age', so ʿUmar gave him a regular pension from the public treasury (Bayt al-Māl), and he then said to his servant: "Search for him and those like him, and give them out from the public treasury.""
- ↑ Walker Arnold, Thomas. (1913) Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith. Constable & Robinson Ltd, p. [htt://archive.org/details/eachingofislam00arno/e/60 60]–1. (online) Non-Muslims Paying Jizyah In a State of Humiliation de Bassam Zawadi https://www.call-to-monotheism.com/non_muslims_paying_jizyah_in_a_state_of_humiliation
- ↑ Esposito 1998, p. 34. "They replaced the conquered countries, indigenous rulers and armies, but preserved much of their government, bureaucracy, and culture. For many in the conquered territories, it was no more than an exchange of masters, one that brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare. Local communities were free to continue to follow their own way of life in internal, domestic affairs. In many ways, local populations found Muslim rule more flexible and tolerant than that of Byzantium and Persia. Religious communities were free to practice their faith to worship and be governed by their religious leaders and laws in such areas as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. In exchange, they were required to pay tribute, a poll tax (jizya) that entitled them to Muslim protection from outside aggression and exempted them from military service. Thus, they were called the "protected ones" (dhimmi). In effect, this often meant lower taxes, greater local autonomy, rule by fellow Semites with closer linguistic and cultural ties than the hellenized, Greco-Roman élites of Byzantium, and greater religious freedom for Jews and indigenous Christians."
- ↑ Ziauddin Ahmed (1975). “The concept of Jizya in early Islam”, Islamic Studies 14, p. 293–305. “Citaĵo: The tax of jizya is imposed on the non-Muslims subjects of a Muslim state. In view of the general body of the Fuquha, it is imposed upon the non-Muslims as a badge of humiliation for their unbelief, or by way of mercy for protection given to them by the Muslims. Some Fuqaha consider this tax as punishment for their unbelief, there being no economic motive behind its imposition, because their continued stay in a Muslim land is a crime, hence they have no escape from being humiliated.”.
- ↑ Bat Ye'or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam, trad. David Maisel, Paul Fenton, kaj David Littman (Rutherford: Farleigh Dickinson, 1985), 201-202: "Documents: 19. The Manner of Collecting the Jizya."
- ↑ 31,0 31,1 Matthew Long (jizya entry author). (2012) The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press, p. 283–4. ISBN 978-0691134840.
- ↑ Werner Ende. (2010) Islam in the World Today. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801445712.
- ↑ Abou El Fadl, Khaled. (2007) The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. HarperOne, p. 214. ISBN 978-0061189036.
- ↑ Coming home to Orakzai ABDUL SAMI PARACHA, Dawn.com (JAN 05, 2010). "In December 2008, Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan enforced a strict version of Islamic law in divergence of enviously guarded distinctive tribal culture in Orakzai Agency. Less than a month a later, a decree for jizya was imposed and had to be paid by all minorities if they want protection against local criminal gangs or that they had to convert to Islam."