Apuntes Ciencia de Materiales

TEMA 1.
No se permite la explotación económica ni la transformación de esta obra. Queda permitida la impresión en su totalidad.
INTRODUCCION A LA CIENCIA E INGENIERIA DE MATERIALES.
FAMILIAS DE MATERIALES.
-Metales y aleaciones Cubiertos-> resistentes, ligero, inoxidable.
-Ceramicas y vidrios. Lentes-> dureza y transparencia
-Polímeros. Plasticos (polímero + algo mas)
-Materiles compuestos
DE LA ESTRUCTURA DE LAS PROPIEDADES.

SELECCIÓN DE MATERIALES.
TENDECIAS EN EL USO DE MATERIALES.
Reservados todos los derechos.

MATERIALES DE INGENIERÍA
-Los materiales son las sustancias que componen cualquier cosa o producto.
-Las materias primarias son los materiales que se extraer de la Naturaleza, el origen todas las que si disponen para
aplicaciones en la humanidad.
-Las materias primas son las que se obtienen a partir de las materias primarias tras un proceso de ingeniería.
-La ingeniería de Materiales responde a las crecientes necesidades de todas las ingenierías.
-Los ingenieros de materiales investigan en: desarrollo de nuevos materiales o en modificar o mejorar las
propiedades de los ya existentes.
CIENCIA E INGENIERIA DE MATERIALES

CIENCIA DE MATERIAS: disciplina relacionada
con la investigación, que tiene como objeto el
conocimiento básico de la estructura interna,
propiedades y procesamiento de los
materiales.
INGENIERIA DE MATERIALES: disciplina de

ingeniería que trata del conocimiento de los
materiales a niveles fundamentales y aplicado,
con objeto de que puedan ser convertidos en
productos necesarios o deseados por una
sociedad tecnológica.
CIENCIA Y TECNOLOGÍA DE MATERIALES
TECNOLOGIA DE MATERIALES: diseño de microestructuras para mejorar las propiedades
CIENCIA DE MATERIALES : estudia la relación entre las microestructura y las

propiedades
TIPOS DE MATERIALES. FAMILIAS

MATERIALES METALICOS. ALEACIONES.
• Compuestos de sustancias inorgánicas, matales sin conformar óxidos ni sales metálicas.
• Enlace metálico con estructura cristalina
• Resistencia hasta media temperatura
• Buenos conductores del calor y la electricidad
• Tenaces y deformables
• Altas densidades
MATERIALES CERÁMICIOS. VIDRIOS

• Compuestos de sustancias inorgánicas fundamentalmente óxidos y sales metálicas excluyendo metales
puros.
• Enlace interatómico, estructura cristalina de los cerámicos
• Malos conductores del calor y electricidad

• Frágiles e indeformables
• Resistencia a altas temperaturas
• Densidades medias
MATERIALES POLIMETICOS
• Compuestos de sustancias orgánicas base al C;H;O y otros elementos no metálicos
• Enlace interatomico: covalente conformando largas cadenas lineales o redes
• Resistentes a bajas temperaturas
• Malos conductores del calor y la electricidad
• Frágiles unos, tenaces y plásticos otros
• Bajas densidades.
MATERIALES COMPUESTOS
• Son los materiales compuestos de dos o más materiales citados antes.
• Tenden a mejorar las propiedades débiles y potenciar las fuertes de los otros pero conservando la forma
inicial.
• El primero nombrado es la matriz y el segundo actúa de refuerzo
DE LA ESTRUCTURA A LAS PROPIEDADES.

ESTRUCTURAS CRISTALINAS
Se muestran los planos y direcciones de alta densidad atómica.
Existen 12 combinaciones plano/dirección de alta densidad para el aluminio y

solo para el magnesio.
DIFERENCIA DE COMPORTAMIENTO MECÁNICO: aluminio magnesio

Aluminio (relativamente dúctil) // Magnesio (relativamente fragil)
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SELECCIÓN DE MATERIALES.
Decisiones que deben adoptarse en el proceso de diseño en
Ingeniería y que determinan el éxito o fracaso final del diseño.
- Proceso de selección de una aleación metálica

especifica para una botella de gas comprimido.
- Recipiente a presión de aplicación aeroespacial.
Decisión que está dominada por la densidad (peso).
Materiales compuestos avanzados son preferibles a los metales.
TENDENCIAS EN EL USO MATERIALES.

-Materiales que pueden soportar más altas temperaturas: superaleaciones.
-Materiales que permitan conseguir más altas características resistentes combinando composiciones y procesos:
aceros microaleados.
-Materiales que pueden aligerar las estructuras especialmente las móviles, ferrocarril y automoción: base aluminio
y titanio.
-Procesos de compactación, PM, en caliente e isostático para permitir mayor control de la porosidad y de sus
características.
-Procesos de soldeo y adhesivos que permitan optimizar la continuidad entre las uniones de partes de las
estructuras.
-Meteriales poliméricos conformados por mexclas de polímeros, que cominan las mejores propiedades de ellos.
-Procesos de moldeo por inyección en materiales poliméricos que permiten mejorar características y costos.
-Moldeo por inyección de plovos metálicos que permiten conseguir formas más complejas.
-Materiales cerámicos que aumentan su tenacidad en la línea de las cerámicas denominadas avanzadas (tenaces)
-Procesos de aplicación de recubrimientos cerámicos sobre soporte metálico con objeto de ganar resistencia al
degaste.
-materiales compuestos de matriz polimérica con refuerzos de diversas composiciones que permiten mayor rigidez y
elevadas prestaciones en servicio.

&
TEMA 2. ESTRUCTURA DE LOS MATERIALES
ENLACES ATÓMICOS.
• Fuerzas atractivas y repulsivas entre átomos.
• Enlazados tienen menos energía que separados, son más estables. ↓ E RESTABLE
=
TIPOS DE ENLACES
Iónico
Primarios o fuertes covalentes
metalico
Secundarios o débiles
Equilibrio interatómico: Mínimo de energía potencial interatómica.

• FUERZAS DE ATRACCIÓN: electrostáticas (acción)
• FUERZAS DE REPULSIÓN: interacción de los
orbitales (reacción)
• Distancia de equilibrio Fa+Fr=0 ZERO FORCEIS
THE
ACTING TO REPECOR ATTRACT
ATONS OR IONS.
BINDING ENERGY
amount of energy required to A BE -
MECTING POINT
-
separate a particle from a system A BE

YOUNG'S MODOCUS(E)
-
of particles or to disperse all the

# COFFF(C) 4
-
BE *
particles of the system. THERMAL EXPANSION
ENLACE IÓNICO
• Se da entre elementos metálicos y no metálicos.
• Hay TRANSPARENCIA de electrones entre átomos -
> se forman iones -> se atraen mediante fuerzas de
Coulomb
• Ej. NaCl; Al2O3, MgO, CaO DIFFERENT
• Enlace no direccional ELECTRONEGATIVITY
• Disposición en sólidos iónicos: catión rodeado de
aniones
• Energía de enlace alta -> temperaturas de fusión altas CONDUCTIVITY:FOW
• Características generales: cerámicos, duros, frágiles, malos conductores ANY CHARGE
OF
· LOCALIZED ELECTRONS - NO CONDUCTIVITY
ENLACE COVALENTE
• Se da entre elementos no metálicos, con electronegatividad similar
• Se COMPARTEN electrones entre átomos -> moléculas
• Ej. H2O, metano (CH4), polietileno (CH2)n
• Enlace direccional
• Da lugar a gases, liquidos o solidos
• En sólidos
o Largas moléculas entrelazadas: polímeros
o Ordenamiento espacial de átomos enlazados en 3 dimensiones: diamantes, silicio, grafito
• Enlace covalente es común en elementos situados en el lado derecho de la tabla periodica
o Semiconductores de silicio y germanio, así como el carbono.
• El número de átomos que pueden formar enlace viene determinado por el número de electrones de
va.CENCIA
LOCALIZED(=)
-
·
e
ENLACE METÁLICO
•
Se da entre elementos metálicos
• Los átomos CEDEN los electrones de valencia que se
COMPARTEN entre todos los átomos del sólido SEA MODE (
-
- >Se forman cationes que componen una

ordenación espacial. Estos están rodeados de
una “nube” de electrones que los enlaza.
• Ej. cualquier metal o aleación metálica IRON
= NICREC
• Enlace no direccional MASNETIC
ICOB A27
• Da lugar a solidos
• Características generales: relativamente deformables, buenos conductores
-
ELECTRONS
DECOCALIZED

ENLACES SECUNDARIOS
• Son enlaces atómicos entre moléculas sin que exista transferencia o compartición de electrones
• Debido a dipolos eléctricos: zonas con carga ligera
• Relevantes a temperaturas bajas y en cadenas largas
• Tipos: Van der Waals, puentes de Hidrógeno, ovillamiento de moléculas
• Enlaces de van der Waals
• Los dipolos puedes darse entre moléculas especialmente con H , vibraciones atómicas o campos
eléctricos externos.
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENTS
ORDER CRUSTALLINE
4
-
DISORDER AMORPUOUS
MATERIALS
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ESTRUCTURA CRSITALIN. REDES CRISTALINAS
RED: los átomos ocupan los puntos de inteseccion de una
res en tres dimensiones
CELDA UNIDAD: disposición espacial mínima que define

AN
una estructura cristalina MINIMUM REPRESENTATION OF
ORDER / CRYSTALINE
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT STRUCTURE
La mayoría de las estructuras cristalinas son paralepipedos o prismas con tres conjuntos de caras paralelas
DIRECCIONES Y PLANOS CRISTALOGRÁFICOS.
• Las propiedades de algunos materiales y procesos varían según la dircccion en el cristal
• En algunos casos es necesario especificar ciertas direcciones y planos cristalográficos.
• Las direccnoes planos se describen utilizandos tres coordenadas (índices de Miller)
DETERMINAR UN VECTOR O UN PLANO

1. Hayamos el origen teniendo en cuenta los números negativos
2. Creamos las fracciones para que sea todo en una unidad
3. Dibujamos el vector

no atoms inside a unitall)
ESTRUCTURAS METÁLICAS (n =
SISTEMAS CUBICOS
-Basados en una celdilla unidad cúbica
• CÚBICA SIMPLE (SC)

o Un átomo en cada esquina
o Numero de coordinación: 6
B(
FC2
• CUBICA CENTRADA EN EL CUERPO (BCC)

o Un átomo en cada esquina y otro en el centro
o Número de coordinación: 8

• CUBICA CENTRADA EN LAS CARAS (FCC)
o Un átomos en cada esquina y en las caras
o Numero de coordinación: 12
-RE
*
,,,v,n
ESTRUCTURA HEXAGONAL (HCP)

Numero de átomos por celdilla: 6
Número de coordinación: 12 A
Organización: a-b-a a 2R.

=
B
A
16.8 0.7
1 +
2
=
4
+
6t0m0S
=
COMPARACIÓN ENTRE FCC Y HC

Ambas constituyen empaquetamiento máximos de planos compactos. La diferencia entre las dos estructuras
es la secuencia de apilamiento
AND FC-
UCD
1
CLOSEDfilsthe rounda
BCC-NOTCLOSED PACKED
CÁLCULO DE LA DENSIDAD
n = número de átomos asociados a cada celdilla unidad
A = peso atómico
Vc= volumen de la celdilla unidad
Na = número de Avogadro
DENSIDAD ATÓMICA LINEAL: fracción de línea de la dirección cristalográfica, ocupada por átomos; la línea ha
da pasar por el centro del átomo
DENSIDAD ATÓMICA PLANAR. Fracción de área del plano cristalográfico, ocupado por átomos; el plano ha de
pasar por el centro del átomo
POSICIONES INTERSTICIALES: huecos entre los átomos o iones de la estructura cristalina. El tamaño de los
huecos es mucho más pequeños que los átomos de la red cristalina.
ESTRUCTURA CERÁMICAS
ESTRUCTURAS CRISTALINAS BINARIAS

CLORURO DE CESIO (CsCl)
• Estructura más sencilla

• Compuestos con cationes voluminosos: hasta 8 aniones
en su entorno
• No es ningún cerámico importante
Nº coordinación = 8 Cociente entre radios = 0.939
CLORURO SÓDICO (NaCl)
Nº Coordinación = 6 Cociente entre radios = 0.564
SULFURO DE ZINC (Blenda, ZnS)
Nº coordinación = 4 Cociente entre radios = 0.402
DIAMANTE
• Enlaces covalnetes
• Duros
• Baja conductividad eléctrica
• Transparencia óptica
• Deposicion de capas delgadas de diamante
GRAFITO
• Forma alotrópica del carbono
• Estructura laminar
• Tipos de enlace
o Enlace covalente = átomos de las capas
o Enlaces secundarios = átomos entre capas
• Características lubricantes
PEROUSKITA (tipo ABX3)
Presenta pero par propiedades electromecánicas interesantes

ESTRUCTURAS DE SILICATOS
•
Unidades básicas: tetraedro de SiO4-4
• El enlace Si-O es covalente (punto de fusión 1710ºC)
• Las diferentes estructuras de silicatos difieren de la disposición de
los tetraedros
• Las estructuras base de la sílice está formada por un tetraedros con
aniones de oxígeno en los vértices y un átomos de silicio en el
centro
ESTRUCTURAS POLIMÉRICAS
CRISTALINIDAD EN POLÍMERO
Las cadenas poliméricas presentan un esqueleto con disposición en zig-zag De este modo, las cadenas
pueden rotar y curvarse en tres dimensiones dando lugar a una configuración en forma de ovillo.
Las propiedades mecánicas y térmicas deoenderan del peso molecular y de la forma de las cadenas
La distancia entre estremos es menor a la longitud total
&
Algunos polímeros presentan regiones de cadenas con una
cierta ordenación. Corresponden a zonas cristalines en
forma de laminas
POLIMORFISMO
Algunos materiales pueden presentar mas de una estructura cristalina

CMAP 1 – MATERIALS’ STRUCTURE
MATERIALS STRUCTURE: the arrangement of the atoms define the structure of a determined material.
Depending on the way they are ordered, the material will have a series of properties as for hardness,
elasticity, electric and thermal conductivity, etc. Materials sharing a common set of properties are
classified into common groups.
MATERIALS FAMILIES: Chemical composition is the main indicator studied to define the family to which a
determined material belongs. Materials belonging to a same family have similar properties, structure and
applications.
CHEMICAL BONDS: The chemical bond is the way atoms are held together. The valence electrons (those
located in the outermost energy level) are the ones involved in chemical bonding.
METALLIC BOND: metallic bonding is characterized by atoms nuclei located on defined positions for
allowing energy levels with valence electrons shared among all.
COVALENT BOND: this type of bond happens between a nonmetal and a nonmetal. Atoms with a similar
electronegativity value share electrons between them. Covalent bond is far more energetic than the ionic
bond.
IONIC BOND: this type of bonding occurs between a metal and a non-metal. It involves a transfer of an
electron, meaning that one atom gains an electron while the other atom loses an electron. Depending on
the space arrangement of atoms we obtain different ionic structures. Radius ratio: is the distance
obtained by "eliminating" the valence electrons and considering only the distance between the nucleus
and the rest of electron cloud.

METALS: they are a type of material extremely present in our daily lives and in the engineering world.
Metals easily get rid of their valence electrons, that is why the exchange of electrons between them is
produced without difficulty. They are excellent electric and thermic conductors and are usually ductile
and malleable.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.steelforge.com/literature/metal-tidbits/inconel/
POLYMERS: polymers are the result of the arrangement of a great number of molecules, known as
monomers. The atoms that integrate a polymers' molecules have very strong covalent bonds between
them, whereas the forces between molecules (intermolecular forces) are usually Van de Waals forces or
Hydrogen bonding forces.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.intechopen.com/books/nanocomposites-recent-evolutions
CERAMICS: ceramic materials have an ionic-covalent character. Ceramic material is obtained from metals
or non-metals that have undergone a thermic process. These materials are usually insulators and have a
high boiling point, but are really fragile.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.nasa.gov/missions/science/spinoff9_nextel_f.html
NUCLEI POSITIONS: refers to the disposition of the atoms.
RANDOM POSITION: atoms do not join forming an ordered structure, but instead they are disordered.
&
TEMA 3. IMPERFECIONES CRISTALINAS
SOLUCIÓN SÓLIDA. IMPERFECCIÓN QUIMICA
• La limitación de tema anterior es que son solo para estructuras cristalinas perfectas
• Los materiales sutilizados en ingeniería no son perfectos. Todos tiene algún defecto estructuran
Primera consideración: No puede obtenerse ningún material sin cierto grado de impurezas química.
En general, los materiales utilizados en ingeniería contienen en solución otros elementos, bien como
impurezas o como aleantes, formando soluciones sólidas
• SOLUCIÓN SÓLIDA: se forma cuando al adicionar átomos de soluto a un material disolvente, se da

una mezcla completa a nivel atómico y la estructura cristalina se mantiene (Corresponden a las
aleaciones de ingeniería)

o Solución sólida por sustitución
o Solución sólida intersticial
Los átomos de impurezas o soluto reemplazan a los átomos del disolvente
• Para que tenga lugar la solubilidad o miscibilidad total, en las soluciones solidas, los dos metales
deben ser bastantes similares, como establecen las Reglas de Hume-Rothery
o Factor de tamaño / estructura cristalina / valencia / electronegatividad
Si no se cumple esta Regla solamente es posible conseguir solubilidad parcial
DEFECTOS PUNTUALES
Las propiedades físicas de los metales dependen del grado de perfección alcanzado en la red cristalina
VACANTE: posición atómica desocupada en la red cristalina
INTERSTICIO: átomo situado en una posición intersticial no ocupada por un átomo de la estructura cristalina
regular
Se producen en procesos de solidificación a mayores temperaturas y vibraciones térmicas; en procesos de

deformación plástica y por bombardeo de partículas de alta energía.
VACANTE SCHOTTKY: En algunos procesos un átomo salta y se coloca sobre uno de sus vecinos, se origina
una vacante

VACANTE DE FRENKEL: un átomo del interior del cristal posee una energía alta y
puede abandonar su posición y recorre algunas distancias atómicas
DIFUSIÓN EN ESTADO SÓLIDO

• La difusión es un fenómeno de transporte por movimiento atómico a través de defectos (vacantes o
intersticios
• La velocidad de movimiento de los átomos es: GASES> LIQUIDOS> SOLIDOS
• La rapidez de movimiento en un sólido cristalino está influenciada por la energía vibracional
• La fracción de átomos que es capaz de difundir aumentar al elevarse la temperatura
PRIMERA LEY DE FICK (PROCESOS ESTACIONARIOS)

• La velocidad a la cual se difunden los átomos en un material se puede medir mediante el flujo
difusional
• El transporte de masa es directamente proporcional al gradiente de concentración

El coeficiente de difusión D es función de la temperatura según la ecuación de Arrhenius
SEGUNDA LEY DE FICK ( PROSECOS NO ESTACIONARIOS)

• Muchos de los procesos de difusión se producen en estado de estacionario ya que las condiciones
del entorno cambian
Uno de los procesos de difusión tiene lugar en el endurecimiento del acero
por gas carburante ( cementación )
• Antes de la difusión, todos los átomos de soluto están uniformemente distribuidos en el sólido a
concentración C0
• El valor de x en la superficie es cero y aumenta con la distancia dentro del solido
• El tiempo se toma igual a 0 en el instante inmediatamente antes de empezar la difusión, siendo c=c0

DEFECTOS LINEALES. DISLOCACIONES
• Los defectos linealeales están asociado principalmente con la deformación mecánica
• Los defectos lineales con conocidos como dislocaciones
DISLOCACIÓN DE BORDE
• La dislocación de borde se puede ilustrar como un semiplano extra

• El vector de Burgers seria el vector que se requiere para completar
un circuito realizado alrededor del defecto
• El vector de Burgers es perpendicular.

&
DISLOCACIÓN HELICOIDAL
• Apilamiento en espiral de planos cristalinos a lo largo de la línea de
dislocación
• El vector de Burgers es paralelo a la dislocación helicoidal
DISLOCACIÓN MIXTA
• Presenta características de la de borde y la helicoidal

• El vector de Burgers mantiene una orientación fija.
MECANISMOS DE DESPLAZAMIENTO
La deformación plástica es debida al movimiento de un gran número de dislocaciones

El esfuerzo real que se necesita para deformar plásticamente una muestra metálica es inferior al valor
teórico debido a la presencia de dislocaciones
Los sistemas de deslizamiento dependen de la estructura cristalina:
OBSERVACIONES DE LAS DISLOCACIONES

• Pueden observarse mediante micropía electrónico de transmisión (TEM)
• No se muestran como líneas rectas, tiene formas complejas
DESLIZAMIENTO DE LAS DISLOCACIONES

Se mueven por acción de la cizalladura aplicada a lo largo de un plano de desplazamiento. Menos en los
paralelos o perpendiculares a la tensión en todos hay deslizamiento
El deslizamiento comienza en el sistema más favorable y la tensión mínima necesaria ocurre con
Al deformar un monocristal más allá del LE se observan bandas de deslizamiento, compuestas por líneas de
deslizamiento:
El flujo plástico sucede en el interior de los monocristales y se crean escalones orientados a 45 º

DEFECTOS SUPERFICIALES
MACLAS
Aparecen unas líneas paralelas dentro de un grano, se observa muy fácilmente
Imagen especular de la estructura atómica respecto a un plano
Ocurre en ciertos sistemas cristalográficos, temperaturas bajas y altas velocidades

de aplicación de carga, donde el proceso de deslizamiento está restringido. El
maclado puede favorecer el deslizamiento
BORDES DE GRANO
Aparecen como placas delimitadas por líneas más oscuras, llamamos borde de
grano a esa línea oscura. Son cambios en la orientación cristalina.
La mayoría de los metales tienen estos defectos

El numero de tamaño de grano se determina según norma (ASTM) mediante una
microfotografía del metal a una ampliación de 100x
ANALISIS MICROESTRUCTURAL. TECNICAS MICROSCOPICAS

• Microscopio óptico (reflexión)
• Microscopio electrónico de barrido (SEM)
ETAPAS DE LA METALOGRAFÍA
1. Selección de la muestra
2. Preparación de las probetas
3. Observación de las probetas
4. Tratamiento de la información
MONOCISTALES O GRANOS
• Conjunto de zonas continuas de forma poligonal que cubre la totalidad de la superficie.

• Cada grano corresponde a una estructura cristalina de una sola orientación (monocristal)

FASES DE MORFOLOGÍA ESPECIAL:
Precipitados cristalinos intergranulares o Inter dendríticos
Precipitados inmersivos en un monocristal p estructura

cristalina, con formas caprichosa, arborescentes, precipitados
transcrita linos

https://youtu.be/n-HkS2mgjDo Enlace al video de la UPV explicando gran parte de este tema

TEMA 4. PROPIEDADES MECÁNICAS DE LOS
MATERIALES
CONCEPTOS DE ESFUERZOS Y DEFORMACIÓN
Si una carga es estática o bien cambia de gorma relativamente lenta con el tiempo y es aplicada
uniformemente sobre una sección o superficie de una pieza, se produce una deformación, que es función de
las propiedades mecánicas del material.
El comportamiento mecánico puede ser estimado mediante un simple ensayo tensión-deformación.
TIPOS DE ENSAYOS
• Tracción
• Compresión

• Cizalladura
• Torsión
• Flexión
ENSAYO DE TRACCIÓN
Es el más utilizado para medir propiedades mecánicas
Consiste en someter una muestra de material, de sección CONDICIONES

uniforme, con fora y dimensiones controladas, a una carga
Temperatura ambiente
uniaxial de tracción hasta la rotura.
Hasta la rotura
Permite cuantificar las propiedades mecánicas de un material
sometido a una fuerza elástica o aplicada gradualmente hasta Velocidad de deformación baja
su rotura.
MAQUINARIA
• Bastidor fijo y bastidor móvil con velocidad controlada

mediante accionamiento hidráulico o electromecánico
• Mordazas en cada bastidor para sujetar los extremos de la
probeta
• Incorporan una “célula de carga” que mide fuerzas y
controles de medida de desplazamiento
• Permite realizar ensayos de tracción, compresión y flexión
Para medidas precisas se requieren extensómetros
Probeta de ensayo normalizada: forma de hueso

DIAGRAMA TENSIÓN-DEFORMACIÓN
1. ZONA ELÁSTICA
• Rango de tensiones para el que se cumple una correlación entre la tensión y la deformación
unitaria
• La constante de proporcionalidad es el módulo de Young
• El material se comporta como un resorte, recupera su forma su se elimina la carga
PROPIEDADES.
• LÚMITE ELASTICO: valor máximo de tensión que soporta un material manteniendo su

comportamiento elástico
En casos en los que la transición esta muy definida y ocurre
de forma abrupta se toma como limite elástico el limite
inferior.
En la mayoría de materiales, la separación entre la zona
elástica y la plástica no está bien definida
Cuando no puede determinarse con precisión se define
como el punto de intersección de la curva con una paralela
al tramo lineal
• MODULO DE YOUNG: Relación entre la tensión aplicada y el alargamiento producido en la

zona de comportamiento elástico
2. ZONA PLÁSTICA
• No existe proporcionalidad entre tensión y alargamiento
• Los alargamientos ya son permanentes y no vuelven a su estado original si se elimina la
carga
PROPIEDADES
• RESISTENCIA A LA TRACCIÓN : tensión máxima que soporta un material

• ALARGAMIENTO A LA ROTURA: deformación relativa del material hasta la rotura
• ESTRICCIÓN: Medida de la reducción de sección del material

• AREA BAJO LA CURVA DE TRACCIÓN: ENERGIA ABSORVIDA DURANTE LE ENSAYO. Indicativo
de la tenacidad del material
RESILENCIA Y TENACIDAD
RESILIENCIA: capacidad de un material de absorber energía elástica
TENACIDAD: capacidad de un material de absorber energía hasta la
rotura
En condiciones estáticas, la tenacidad puede medirse por el área

encerrada por la curva
FRACTURAS “DUCTILES” Y “FRAGILES”

MORFOLOGÍA A SIMPLE VISTA:

a) Superficie de cono -> rotura dúctil. Rotura cerca del
centro y se extiende hacia el exterior dejando una
apariencia de cráteres. Cerca de la superficie el
estado de tensión cambia de tracción a cortadura
b) Aspecto típico de una fractura frágil por separación de planos cristalinos, sin
deformación plástica
¿SE DEBILITA EL MATERIAL DESPUES DE SUPERAR EL VALOR DE RESISTENCIA

MAXIMO?
• No, se emplea arbitrariamente el esfuerzo nominal (de ingeniería) en

lugar del esfuerzo real
• La sección transversal después de la tensión máxima cuando se
produce la estricción.
En el cálculo de la tensión real se tiene en cuenta la estricción que se
produce en el material en cada instante
OTRAS CONSIDERACIONES: DEFORMACIONES LATERALES
Coeficiente de Poisson: cociente entre las deformaciones laterales y axiales
Sirve para relacionar el módulo a cortadura y elástico
DEFORMACIÓN PLASTICA: MECANISMO.

En regiones plásticas al llegar al LE hay deformación plástica permanente debido a procesos de
deslizamiento de los planos cristalinos, bajo tensiones cortantes.

El deslizamiento requiere menores esfuerzos y se produce en planos densos y direcciones densas o
compactas. Al conjunto de plano + una dirección de deslizamiento lo llamamos sistema de deslizamiento.
• Los metales con red ccc (Al, Ni, Cu) son más fáciles de deformar y más dúctiles, porque poseen 12
sistemas de deslizamiento densos.
• Los metales de estructura hd (Mg, Zn) son en general frágiles, debido a que solo poseen 3 sistemas
de desplazamiento.
OTROS MODOS DE ENSAYO

COMPRESIÓN: Similar a tracción pero comprimiendo, formulas similares cambiando el sentido de la fuerza,
útil cunado en compresión es frágil
CIZALLADURA:

TORSIÓN: Movimiento de rotación del eje longitudinal
FLEXIÓN: Produce tensiones normales, positivas y negativas, a ambos

lados de la línea media. Se usa para la resistencia en cerámicas.
La rotura se produce en la superficie más externa de la muestra, que se

encuentra sometida a tensiones de tracción.
ENSAYO DE FLUENCIA
Materiales expuestos a temperaturas elevadas y tensiones
mecánicas estáticas. La deformación experimentada se llama
fluencia en calor: deformación permanente dependiente del
tiempo cuando un material esta sometido a una tensión
constante.
Fenómeno no deseado ya que limita la vida del material
El ensayo consiste en someter una probeta a una carga constante

mientras es mantenida a una temperatura constante, se mide la
deformación y se representa gráficamente en función del tiempo
ETAPAS
➢ FLUENCIA PRIMARIA O TRANSITORIA, velocidad de fluencia decreciente, el material esta
experimentado un aumento de su resistencia a la fluencia o endurecimiento por deformación
➢ FLUENCIA SECUNDARIA O ESTACIONARIA: etapa más larga con velocidad constante , es una línea
recta. Balance entre endurecimiento y el recocido contra acritud
➢ FLUENCIA TERCIARIA: aceleración de la velocidad de fluencia y rotura final debido a cambios
microestructurales, metalúrgicos, separación de bordes de grano, formación de fisuras.
Al aumentar la tensión o temperatura
• La deformación instantánea en el momento de aplicación de la carga aumenta

• La velocidad de fluencia estacionaria aumenta
• El tiempo de ruptura disminuye.
ENSAYO DE FATIGA
Fatiga es una forma de rotura que ocurre en estructuras sometidas a tensiones dinámicas y fluctuantes
• La fractura en fatiga puede ocurrir a un nivel de tensiones menor que la resistencia a tracción el el
límite elástico
• La fractura ocurre después de un largo periodo de tensiones o deformaciones cíclicas
• Rotura con aspecto frágil
• Proceso de iniciación y propagación de grieta.
TENSIÓN DE TIPO: Axial ( tensión- compresión) // Flexión // torsión
MODO DE TENSIÓN: Simétrico de carga invertida // carga repetida, asimentrico // tensiones al azar.
LIMITE DE FATIGA: tensión por debajo de la cual no

hay rotura.
RESISTENCIA A FATIGA : tensión que produce rotura

después de un nº de ciclos 10^7-10^8
VIDA A FATIGA: Nº de ciclos que produce rotura bajo

cierta tensión.

ENSAYO DE FATIGA: INICIO Y PROPAGACIÓN DE LA GRIETA
• La superficie de fractura se caracteriza por marcas de playa y estrías
• Tiene aspecto de crestas concéntricas desde el inicio
• Las marcas de playa se ven a simple vista
• Las estrías se ven con microscopio
• Las causas de rotura se pueden deducir al examinar la superficie
ENSAYO DE IMPACTO
Permite medir la tenacidad de un material en unas condiciones especificas que favorecen la rotura frágil.
Tenacidad de Charpy (Kcv)
DESCIRPCION DEL ENSAYO:
• Deformaciones a temperaturas bajas

• Velocidad de deformación elevada
• Estado traxial de tensiones
INFLUENCIA DE LA TEMPERATURA
TRANSICIÓN DUCTIL-FRAGIL
• Es importantísimo saber si existe y a qué temperatura.

• Es la dependencia de la energía de impacto con la
temperatura: menos energía al disminuir T
• Diferencia en la superficie fracturada
• Diferencia del ángulo final de la probeta
INFLUENCIA DE LA ESTRUCTURA CRISTALINA
Metal: CCC (FCC) dúctil con baja influencia temperatura
Metal HC frágil con baja influencia de la temperatura
Metal CC (BCC): transición dúctil-fragil marcada
CONDICIONES DE FRAGILIZACIÓN
• Alta velocidad de aplicación de cargas: mayor velocidad, menos resilencia

• Alto efecto entalla: En otras palabras, cuando el radio de entalla crece se produce igualmente un
aumento de la tenacidad aparente a fractura, que es aquella observada en condiciones entalladas.
• Bajas temperaturas: disminución de la tenacidad
ENSAYO DE DUREZA
VENTAJAS TIPOS
• Sencillos y baratos ➢Brinell
• No se fractura la muestra (ensayo no destructivo)
• Se pueden estimar otras propiedades ➢Vickers
LIMITACIONES ➢Knoop
• Inexactitud por espesor de material ➢Rockwell

• Poca superficie de medida
➢Shore
BRINELL
TEMA 5. DIAGRAMAS DE FASE. EVOLUCIÓN
DEL LA MICROESTRUCTURA DE EQUILIBRIO
DEFINICIÓN Y CONCEPTOS BASICOS
ALEACIÓN: material metálico que consta de dos o mas elementos, al menos uno metálico
SISTEMA: compuesto de una aleación
COMPONENTE: elementos químicos o compuestos de fusión, en función de los que se especifica la X del
sistema
FASE: Porción sistema homogénea con características

físicas y químicas uniformes, separadas de otras fases
por superficie de unión o limite de fase
• Porción homogénea
• Propiedades uniformes
• Las fases son identificables y separables
MICROCONSTITUYENTES: porción del sistema que aparenta ser física y químicamente distinta a las demás al
ser vista por microscopio. Unas o varias fases. Los diagramas de equilibrio no reflejan su existencia, si bien se
puede señalar su posición una vez conocida su existencia
¿QUE ME LLEVA A DEFINIRLO?
• A T elevada hay cambios en estructura cristalina

• Aleaciones y cerámicas complejas -> posibilidad de distintas estructuras critalinas mezclas
• Tenemos que conocer las fases presentes en el material
DIAGRAMAS DE EQUILIBRIO DE FASES
• Un sistema esta en equilibrio si su energía libre es mínima
• Equilibrio de fases hace referencia al equilibrio en un sistema de mas de una fase
• Las características dek sistema no cambian con el tiempo
• Si varia la temperatura, la presion, compusicion , la energi libre tambien cambiara
EQUILIBRIO: situacion de minima energia del sistema, no se produce evolución espontanea
• Equilibrio estable -> no varia al modificar un agente externo dentro de unos limites
• Equilibrio inestable -> varia con un agente externo
• Equilibrio metaestable -> no se trasforma completamente al hacer esa modificacion pero no vuelve
al equilibrio
REACCIONES Y TRANFORMACIONES: cambios de las fases presentes que se producen al varias condiciones
del sistema. Son la base de los tratamientos térmicos de los materiales

REGLA DE GIBBS: Regla de las Fases
Permite calcular el numero de fases que pueden coexistir en equilibrio en cualquier sistema y a la inversa
para un sistema dado de componentes y sistemas, permite determinar el numero de factores que se pueden
variar sin romper equilibrio sistema

LIMITE DE SOLUBILIDAD
• Soluto / dsolvente
• Limite de solubilidad. Concentración máxima de átomos de soluto que se disulven en el sisolvente a
una temperatura dada, cuando se excede hay cambio a otra SOLUCION SOLIDA compuesto

• Sistema agua-azúcar
Los sistemas parten del estado liquido para pasar al estado solido
romado por una o varias fses. La solubilidad puede ser nula, total o
parcial
ALEACIONES CON SOLUBILIDAD TOTAL EN ESTADO SOLIDO

Los diagramas de fases (binarios) son mapas de las fases en fases equilibrio asociadas a distintas
combinaciones de temperatura y composición.
Permiten establecer predicciones como consecuencia de los cambios en las variables de estado:
Temperatura y composición

Los dos componentes son completamente solubles entre si en estados solido y liquido
Presentan igual estructura cristalina y similar tamaño
INTERPRETACIÓN DE LOS DIAGRAMAS DE FASES

Se localiza en el diagram el punto definido por la temperatura y la
composición
FASES PRESENTES: Se identifican las fases presetes en este campo
COMPOSICIÓN DE LAS FASES : Zona monofásica: la composicon de fase

coincide con la composición total de la aleación
REGLA DE LA PALANCA: Permite clacular cuantitavamente las cantidades

relativas o porcentajes en peso de las fases presentes en las regiones
bifásicas
DESARROLLO DE LA MICROESTRUCTURA EN DIAGRMAS CON SOLUBILIDAD TOTAL

Dependiendo de la velocidad de enfriamiento existen dos tipos de solidificación:
Si la solidiificacion extremadamente -> diagrama fases
Si la velocidad de enfriamiento es mayor

SEGREGACION DENDRITICA
En las piezas coladas la velocidad de enfriamiento es demasiado alta para que tengan lugar los fenómenos
de la difusión
El efecto coring hace el grano mas rico en el núcleo del componente con mayor punto de fusión y en la
corteza del menos punto de fusión
En las estructuras segregadas, los bordes de grano pueden actuar como un plano de debilidad
PROBLEMA : solidificación fuera del equilibrio. Distribución no uniforme del aleante. Segregación dendrítica.
SOLUCIÓN: tratamiento térmico de homogeneización
ALEACIONES CON SOLUBILIDAD PARCIAL EN ESTADO SOLIDO

DIAGRAMA EUTÉCTICO
La mayoría de los componentes del sistema binario presentan solubilidad limitada en estado solido
Una alecion de composición eutetica presenta una reacción en la que una fase liquida (L) se transforma en dos
soluciones solidas,  y .
La morfología del sistema autetico solidificado suele ser de tipo laminar
Composisciones habituales en los procesos de conformado: debido a las bajas temperaturas de presión
DIAGRAMA EUTECTOIDE
Reacción que tiene lugar en algunas aleaciones donde una fase solida se tranforma en dos fases solidasD
EVOLUCIÓN DE LA MICROESTRUCTURA CON ENFIEAMIENTO LENTO Reservados todos los derechos.

ALEACIONES EUTECTICAS
HIPOEUTECTICA HIPERUTECTICA

ALEACIONES DE SOLUCIÓN SOLIDA
ALEACIONES QUE EXCEDEN AL LIMITE DE SOLUBILIDAD
EVOLUCIÓN DE LA MICROESTRUCTURA CON ENFRIAMIENTO LENTO
DIAGRAMAS DE EQUILIBRIO CON COMPUESTOS INTERMEDIOS

En algunos sistemas binarios pueden formarse fases intermedias constituidas por dos o más elementos con
composición , estructura cristalina y propiedades propias.
Los compuestos Inter metálicos estequiométricos presentan una composición fija.
DIAGRAMA FE-C

Ferrita +cementita
Transformación eutectoide
ALEACIÓN DE COMPOSICION EUTECTOIDE
Al enfriar la AUSTENITA y se transforma en PERLITA
ACEROS HIPOEUTECTOIDES
Cristales proeutectoide en una matriz de perlita
ACEROS HIPEREUTECTOIDES
Cristales Fe3c proeutectoide en una matriz de perlita

TEMA 6. ALEACIONES PARA INGENIERIA
AERONÁUTICA
MECANISMOS DE ENDURECIMIENTO DE METALES
Alta resistencia, tenacidad y ductilidad pero si se endurecen se sacrifica normalmente la
ductibilidad/plasticidad y tenacidad

MECANISMOS
Reducción del tamaño de grano
Las dislocaciones no avanzan en el borde de grano
Cuantos menor es el grano mas bordes de grano por tanto mayor es la resistencia mecánica
Endurecimiento por deformación plástica en frio

DEFORMACION ELÁSTICA: reversible
PLASTICA: permanente, al cesar el esfuerzo recupera la deformación
Elástica
1
Aplicado en metales y aleaciones que producen cambio de forma por la aplicación de un esfuerzo mecánico
exterior con el objetivo de que el material se deforme
¿Por qué se endurece por deformación plástica?
Se forman nuevas y numerosas dislocaciones que se acumulan en ciertas zonas por lo que se dificulta el
movimiento
Consecuencias
Cambios geometría pieza, microestructura y forma del grano
o Más dislocaciones
o Endurecimiento por deformación
o Modifica la conductividad y la resistencia a la corrosión
Tipos de procesos: Forja// Trefilado//Embuticion//laminación//extrusión//doblado//troquelado

• Movimiento de átomos
• Las dislocaciones favorecen este movimiento atómico
• Se crean más dislocaciones que forman nudos y se bloquean
• Este movimiento es más sencillo en los sistemas de deslizamiento
• Es más fácil en metales que en cerámicos
RECOCIDO CONTRA ACRITUD

• Permite recuperar las características del material
• Elimina tensiones internas
• Controla el tamaño de grano
Es un proceso inverso al endurecimiento plástico pero no modifica la geometría

ETAPAS
1. RECUPERACION
Reducción de energía interna y eliminación de tensiones// reducción número de dislocaciones//
Recuperación conductividad eléctrica y térmica
2. RECRISTALIZACIÓN
Formación de nuevos granos equiaxiales sin deformación// Restauración propiedades mecánicas:
menos resistencia y más ductilidad
La temperatura es a la cual tarda 1 hora.
Depende del tiempo, la temperatura, el porcentaje de trabajo en frio(Aumenta la velocidad,

disminuye la temperatura y tiene un valor mínimo) y pureza de la aleación ( mas aleación mas temperatura)
3. CRECIEMIENTO DE GRANO
Es exponencial con el tiempo y con la temperatura de recocido

ENDURECIMIENTO POR ALEACIÓN: SOLUCIÓN SOLIDA
Alear endurece ya que introducimos impurezas en la red cristalina que dificulta el movimiento de las
dislocaciones.
Cuanto mayor sea la diferencia de tamaño entre átomo mayor es la dureza
Incrementar el contenido de aleante endurece la aleación
EFECTOS DE LA ALEACIÓN EN SOLUCION SÓLIDA(estructuras de una sola fase)
• La resistencia del cu puro sube al añadir Ni

• La resistencia de Níquel puro sube al añadir Cu
• En este sistema Cu-Ni, las aleaciones de máxima resistencia 60Ni/40Cu se denomina “Monel”

ENDURECIMIENTO POR PRECIPITACION DE SEGUNDAS FASES
• En aleaciones dúctiles la precipitación de segundas fases “duras” bloquea las dislocaciones,
incrementando la resistencia a la deformación plástica. Las dislocaciones no pueden pasar a través
de la fase precipitada, y cuanto mayor sea la cantidad de fase precipitada y menor la distancia entre
precipitados, mayor es el efecto de endurecimiento.
• La precipitación de partículas dispersas de una segunda fase requiere de tratamientos térmicos
especiales de solubilidad + temple + precipitación. Es el caso de las superaleaciones de base níquel
usadas en turbinas de gas y aleaciones de Aluminio.
FUNDAMENTO.
• Endurecimiento de una matriz dúctil y tenaz, gracias a la resistencia al paso de dislocaciones que
provoca la presencia de pequeños y abundantes precipitados de una segunda fase.
• El mecanismo de endurecimiento por precipitación requiere aplicar un tratamiento térmico ya que
se requiere obtener precipitados de pequeños de pequeños tamaños
REQUISITOS.
• Los precipitados o fase dura deben ser solubles a alta temperatura e insolubles baja temperatura.
• La matriz debe ser dúctil y tenaz y el precipitado debe provocar un incremento notable de
propiedades.

ETAPAS
1. SOLUBILIDAD: Calentamiento de la solución sólida hasta una temperatura intermedia, dentro de la
región monofásica “alfa”, y mantenimiento durante un tiempo suficiente para disolver y
homogeneizar formando una solución sólida monofásica.
2. TEMPLE: enfriamiento rápido que permita retener la fase “alfa”a temperatura ambiente formando
una solubilidad sólida sobresaturada fuera de equilibrio.
La fase α se mantiene dúctil y blanda
3. TRATAMIENTO DE PRECIPITACION (ENVEJECIMIENTO): La solución solida sobresaturada se mantiene

a temperatura ambiente (ambiente) o es calentada a una temperatura intermedia (artificial)
Los precipitados de la segunda fase están formando por partículas finamente dispersas dentro de la
matriz. No tiene movilidad suficiente para segregarse en bordes de grano.

ALEACIONES EN BASE Fe.
MICROESTRUCTURA DE EQUILIBRIO EN ACEROS
FERRITA
• Fe alfa BCC
• No se puede disolver más de 0.02% a 720º
• Puede disolver en solución sólido elementos de aleación extra: Mn, Si
• Dureza 80 HV
AUSTENITA:
• Fe gamma FCC
• Estructura estable a alta temperatura
• Puede disolver hasta 2%C y otros elementos en solución.
PERLITA:
• Estructura de aceros eutectoides

• Laminas de cementita Fe3C en una matrix de ferrita alta
• Dureza 200-250 HV
ENDURECIMIETNO POR TRATAMIENTO TERMICO

Enfriamos el metal a una velocidad irreversible desde la observación termodinámica. En aleaciones capa as
de sufrir una transformación eutectoide.
5
Recocido completo (annealing): Para conseguir estructuras blandas de equilibrio, según el diagrama de
fases. A partir del estado auténtico, se enfría lentamente, normalmente en horno. Se obtiene estructuras de
ferrita-perlita, según el diagrama de fases, con grano grueso.

Normalizado (normalizing): tratamiento especifico que se aplica para controlar el tamaño de grano en
aceros de resistencia y especialmente, para lograr altos valores de tenacidad. Se austeniza a temperaturas
bajas, seguido de un enfriamiento al aire. Se obtienen estructuras de equilibrio, con grano fino y alta
tenacidad a baja temperatura.
Temple (quenching). Enfriamientos rápidos desde la temperatura de austenización. El temple pretende

obtener martensita
Revenido (tempering): Es el nombre especifico de un tratamiento de recocido a temperaturas de 150º-700º

aplicado específicamente a los materiales precisamente templados. Ambos tratamientos, temple y revenido
sueles aplicarse conjuntamente.
PROPIEDADES MECANICAS DE ACEROS

Las propiedades mecánicas de los aceros dependen del tipo de microestructura, y para un tipo de
microestructura, siempre crecen con el contenido en C
Las estructuras ferrita + perlita, obtenidas por enfriamiento lento.
Las estructuras “bainiticas o martensíticas” de muy altas propiedades mecánicas. Se obtienen con
enfriamientos rápidos, fuera de equilibrio.

ACEROS BAJOS EN CARBONO
• %C menor del 0.2

•

Casi todo el acero fabricado
• Solo endurece por acritud
• Ferrita y perlita
• Bandos y menos resistentes, dúctiles y tenaces. Son soldables
ACEROS MEDIOS EN CARBONO
• %C 0.25-0.6%
• Mas resistentes pero menos ductile y tenaces
• Tratables térmicamente.
• Ferrita y perlita
• Se les adiciona Cr, Ni y Mo (aceros aleados) para mejorar la dureza
ACEROS ALTOS EN CARBONO
• %C 0.6-1.4
• Mas reisstentes y menos dúctiles
• Resistentes al desgaste.
• Carburos muy duros y resistentes al desgaste
TIPOS IMPORTANTES DE ACEROS

ACEROS ESTRUCTURALES SOLDABES bajo contenido en C.
Laminados en caliente. Son los más utilizados
Aptos para soldadura con microestructura de equilibrio

ACEROS DE TEMPLE Y REVENIDO. Entre 0.3 y 0.6% Para elementos de
máquinas con alta resistencia fatiga y tenacidad. Con tratamiento
térmico: Ejes de turbinas//engranajes//trenes de aterrizaje
ACEROS INOXIDABLES. 10.5-12% Múltiples tipos.
FUNDICIONES
• Aleaciones ferras con un contenido en carbono superior a 2%, normalmente 3 – 4.5%
• Se funden y moldean con facilidad, son frágiles y la mejor técnica de conformado es el moldeo
• El cementita es un compuesto inestables y bajo ciertas circunstancias se disocia de acuerdo con la

reacción
• Contenido en silicio mayor al 1% y una velocidad de enfriamiento lenta durante la solidificación

favorecen esta reacción. Resultado una dependencia de la microestructura y propiedades mecánicas
de la composición y del tratamiento.
FUNDICIÓN GRIS.
2.5 – 4.0 %C y 1 – 3 %Si:
• Aparecen como escamas en el matriz de ferrita o perlita.

• Frágiles y poco resistentes a tracción, el grafito actúa como concentrador de tensiones.
• Excepcionales a compresión
• Amortiguan la energía vibracional, presenta alta resistencia al desgaste, prentan buena colabilidad y
son baratas
FUNDICIÓN DUCTIL O ESFEROIDAL
La presencia de Mg o Ce produce la formación de esferoides en lugar de láminas, originando propiedades

mecánicas diferentes, función de la microestructura perlita o ferrita, siendo más resistente y dúctil que la
gris, presentando la función dúctil propiedades mecánicas similares a las del acero.
FUNDICIÓN BLANCA
• Fundiciones bajo carbono. Si menos de 1% y con altas velocidades de enfriamiento, el C se mantiene

como cementita (Fe3C)

• Rotura de apariencia blanca
• Debido a la estructura de cementita obtenida esta función es extremadamente dura y muy frágil, no
es mecanibles: pieza final o se modifica la microestructura.
FUNDICION MALEABLE
• La fundición maleable: se obtiene por descomposición térmica de la fundición blanca

• La cementita se descompone: grafico en forma de racimos o rosetas, dependiendo de la velocidad
de enfriamiento
• Microestructura similar a la esferoidal, presentando alta resistencia y apreciable ductilidad o
maleabilidad.
ALEACIONES ALUMINIO
Se utilizan como materiales estructurales de ingeniería, como alternatica a los aceros, ya que tienen menor

densidad.
El aluminio puro presenta estructura CCC y es un material dúctil y de baja resistencia, pero las aleaciones
permiten alcanzar valores de Rm entre 200-600 MPa, similares a la de los aceros estructurales. El módulo de
elasticidad del aluminio es mas que bajo que los aceros, lo que obliga a incrementar el tamaño de las
secciones para lograr valores similares de rigidez. El aluminio pesa la mitad que el acero pero el coste es el
doble
Es ventajoso en aplicaciones donde prima la reducción de peso: llantas de rueda, motroes… Es apto para
usos criogénicos, pero no para altas temperaturas.
DESIGNACIÓN Y ENDURECIMIENTO DE ALEACIONES DE ALUMINIO DE FORJA.

Incrementan la resistencia a la deformación plástica y la dureza mediante dos mecanismos básicos, aparte
de los efectos generales de reducción del tamaño de grano y la acritud:
ENDURECIMIENTO POR SOLUCION SÓLIDA (se endurece además por acritud):
• Aleaciones Al-Mn (Serie 3XXX): Uso habitual en honeycombs

• Aleaciones Al-Si (serie 4XXX) Uso limitado para piezas coladas
• Aleaciones Al-Mg (serie 5XXX); Aleaciones soldables
ENDURECIMIENTO POR PRECIPITADOS DE SEGUNDA FASES, obtenidos mediante un tratamiento térmico

especifico: endurecimiento por precipitación o envejecimiento:
• Aleaciones Al-Cu (Serie 2XXX): Precipitados de fase θ CuAl2

• Aleaciones Al-Mg-Si (Serie 6XXX): Precipitados de la fase Mg2Si
• Aleaciones Al-Zn-Mg (Serie 7XXX): Precipitados de la fase MgZn2
• Otras aleaciones de uso limitado: Al-Li (Serie 8XXX): Precipitados de δ' (Al3Li)
9
SERIES NO TRATABLE TERMICAMENTE 3xxx y 5xxx
• No tratables térmicamente
• Buena resistencia
• Excelente maleabilidad y resistencia a la corrosión
• Ideales para realizar soldaduras y anodizado.
MAGNESIO
• El más ligero de los materiales estructurales.
• Densidad: 1.80 g/cm3
• Características generales:
o Muy mala resistencia a la corrosión.

o Buena resistencia mecánica
o Estructura HC: difícil y costosa de deformar plásticamente.
o Endurecimiento por acritud y tratamiento térmico
• Las aleaciones de Mg, se emplean en aplicaciones aeroespaciales, maquinaria de alta velocidad,
transporte y equipos de mantenimiento.
TITANIO
• Metal ligero y de elevada resistencia mecánica.
• Densidad: 4,5 g/cm3
• Modulo de elasticidad: 110 GPa
o Excelente resistencia a la corrosión
o Mejor resistencia/peso
o Obtención difícil -> muy caro
Se usa en procesamiento de productos químicos y componentes marinos. Vital en la industria aeroespacial,

componentes de células y motores a reacción. Las aleaciones de ti se consideran biocompatibles: no son
rechazadas por el cuerpo humano.
COBRE
• Primero de los metales conocidos y utilizados.
• Densidad 8.96 g/cm3
o Buena resistencia a la corrosión
o Elevada conductividad eléctrica y calorífica
o Endurecimiento por acritud o aleación
o No endurecimiento por tratamiento térmico
10

ZINC
• Metal de bajo punto de fusión y bajas características mecánicas
• Densidad 7.13g/cm3
o Baja resistencia a la corrosión, pero sirve para proteger otros metales como el Fe de los
aceros
o Aleaciones para forja y colada
o Fácil de colar
o Barato
ALEACIONES Ni-Co
• Metales componentes fundamentales de las llamadas superaleaciones.
• Densidad: 8.9 g/cm3
o Excelente resistencia a la corrosión
o Resistencia a la oxidación
o Resistencia a la fluencia (Deformación que se produce en un periodo cuando un material
está sometido a un esfuerzo constante y a temperatura constante)
o Muy caras.
11

TEMA 7. PROPIEDADES TERMICAS DE LOS
MATERIALES
CAPACIDAD CALORÍFICA Y CALOR ESPECÍFICO
CAPACIDAD CALORIFICA (Cp): Capacidad térmica molar como la energía necesaria para hacer variar a 1K la
temperatura de un mol de material
CALOR ESPECIFICO (Ce): Energía necesaria para hacer variar en 1K la temperatura de un gramo de material.

• Mecanismos de absorción de energía
o Vibraciones atómicas
o Electrones libres
o Spin electrónico
• Cp prácticamente constate por encima de 200K
• Los valores de Cp y Ce son característicos de la composición del material
• No se ven afectados por cambios de tamaño de grano o deformación plástica
DILATACIÓN TERMICA
• Los materiales solidos se expanden al calentarse y se contraen al enfriarse.
Alfa se define como coeficiente de expansión térmica lineal o coeficiente de dilatación.
• Permite determinar los cambios dimensionales que sufre el material como consecuencia de un
cambio en su temperatura
Polímeros > Metales > Cerámicos
FORMA DE LA CURVA DE ENERGÍA DE ENLACE

• Solido con enlace fuerte. Curva más simétrica
o Alta temperatura de fusión
o Alto modulo Elástico
o Bajo coeficiente de dilatación
• Solido con Enlace débil. Curva menos simétrica
o Baja temperatura de fusión
o Bajo módulo elastico
o Alto coeficiente de dilatacion
LOS VALORES DE A EN RANGOS AMPLIOS DE TEMPERATURA
• Características de dilatación dependen de la orientación cristalina
• Algunos materiales con cambios de fase en estado sólido.
• Los valores de a varían con la temperatura
• Nuevos materiales: control de fase, control dimensional.
EFECTOS MECANICOS DE LA DILATACIÓN TERMICA
• Caso simple de deformaciones lineales en la dirección de mayor longitud de una barra.
• Como consecuencia de un cambio ΔT en la temperatura del material, se producirña una deformación
unitaria y cuyo valor será:

• Si hay restricciones laterales:
• El signo negativo indica que el sentido de las tensiones es el contrario al incremento de temperatura
• Si se restringe la dilatación o contracción se generan tensiones con valor directamente proporcional
al coeficiente de dilatación alfa, al módulo de elasticidad E y al cambio de temperatura.
CONDUCTIVIDAD TERMICA
La conductividad térmica, k, es la propiedad de los materiales que determina la velocidad a la que el calor se
transmite en el material sólido por conducción.
Muy importante en las aplicaciones que involucren la transferencia de claro
Transferencia de calor
Conducción estacionaria a lo largo de una plancha plana
La transferencia de calor viene definida por la ley de Fourier
MECANISMOS DE CONDUCTIVIDAD TERMICA
• Metales: Los electrones son los portadores de energía térmica.

• Metales: La conductividad térmica y eléctrica están relacionadas.
• En cerámicas y polímeros los electrones no son libres por lo que la conductividad es casi nula.
• La conductividad térmica se debe principalmente a vibraciones de la red o estructura cristalina
o Los materiales con estructuras compactas y mayor módulo de elasticidad presentan mayores
conductividades, material con mayor ‘k’ es el diamante, cuya k es cinco veces mayor que el
cobre.
o Los sólidos cristalinos presentan mayor conductividad que si son amorfos.
o Los líquidos presentan menor conductividad que los sólidos y los gases menos conductividad
que los líquidos.
MATERIALES AISLANTES
• Los materiales aislantes deben ser porosos

• La presencia de porosidad reduce notablemente la densidad del material sólido y por lo tanto su
conductividad térmica
• La conductividad del gas, que ocupa la mayor parte del volumen, es notablemente inferior a la de los
solidos
DISTRIBUCION DE COMPONENETE DE PROTECCION TERMICA
Superficies de aislamiento reutilizables de alta/baja temperatura:
• Losetas blancas (LRSI) poseen una mayor reflectividad térmica. Estas superficies apuntan al sol por
ello su superficie es adecuada para minimizar el porcentaje de la potencia solar que es absorbida.
• Losetas negras (HRSI) son optimizadas para maximizar su emisión térmica: pierden calor más rápido
que las blancas. Esta característica es la adecuada durante el reingreso.

• RCC Mat Compuestos C-C
CHOQUE TÉRMICO
• ROTURA: tensiones generadas si se impide la expansión o contracción térmica uniforme, o cuando
hay cambios bruscos de temperatura que producen gradientes térmicos que originan tensiones
• Choque térmico debido al hecho de impedir la libre dilatación térmica del material
• Proceso equivalente en el que se permite dilatar libremente
• A continuación vuelve a la dimensión inicial por aplicación de tensión de compresión mecánica
• índice de resistencia al choque térmico (mayor resistencia cuanto mayor sea):
• Choque térmico: fenómeno que aparece como combinación de:

o Restricciones a la dilatación o contracción
o Gradiente de temperatura en el material
o En casos específicos cambios bruscos de fase
o Baja ductilidad en el material
• Las roturas por choque térmico son características de materiales frágiles sometidos a fuertes
gradientes de temperatura (vidrios y cerámicos refractarias). En estos materiales, la resistencia al
choque térmico es un parámetro fundamental de diseño.
TEMA 8: MATERIALES POLIMÉRICOS
MOLECULAS POLIMERICAS: MACROMOLECULAS
POLIMERO: Conjunto de moléculas formado por la repetición indefinida de grupos funcionales sencillos que
se componen básicamente de c, H, O y N
POLI = mucho; mero = parte
PESO MOLECULAR
RESULTADO DE LA POLIMERIZACIÓN
Las cadenas poliméricas no son todas iguales: tienen distinta longitud

Las cadenas poliméricas son muy largas: macromoléculas
Peso molecular medio numérico
Peso Molecular medio másico:
GRADO DE POLIMERIZACIÓN
GRADO POLIMERIZACIÓN: n
Número medio de unidades monoméricas repetidas en la cadena
Parámetro importante en polímeros porque determina sus propiedades
A mas grado de polimerización mas peso molecular

ESTRUCTURA MOLECULAR: Conformación.
Las moléculas poliméricas no son rectas, debido a la configuración tetraédrica de los 4 enlaces de carbono
Además, el enlace simple puede rotar 360, dando lugar a la formación de cadenas en ovillo
CLASIFICACIÓN.
BASADA EN LA LOCALIZACION DE ENLACES PRIMARIOS Y SECUNDARIOS.
POLIMERO LINEAL: cadena sencilla con pocas ramificaciones
POLIMERO RAMIFICADO: cadena principal simple con muchas ramificaciones
POLIMERO ENTRECRUZADO: cadenas unidas con enlaces covalente en algunos

puntos
POLIMERO RETICULADOS: red tridimensional de grupos enlazados por enlace

covalente.
BASADA EN LA PRESENCIA Y DISPOSICION DE DISTINTOS GRUPOS FUNCIONALES

CRISTALINIDAD Y AMORFICIDAD
Los polímeros pueden presentar un ordenamiento regular formado por estructuras regulares : cristales,
denominados esferulitas.
El grado de ordenamiento, la movilidad de las cadenas establece el comportamiento del polímero como:
amorfo o semicristiano.
ESTRUCTURA MOLECULAR: CONFORMACIÓN.
CRISTALINIDAD:
• Ligero aumento de densidad: mejor ordenación mas mana en menos volumen

• Perdida de transparencia: los cristales producen reflexiones en múltiples direcciones(color
blanquecino)
• Mayor resistencia a disolventes: los disolventes atacan mejor a las estructuras compactas
• Temperatura de fusión definida: reblandecimiento progresivo en amorfos.
• Mejores propiedades mecánicas tras estiramiento: alineamiento de las cadenas.
FACRORES INFLUYENTES DE LA CRISTALINIDAD
• Simetría de la cadena. Los grupos laterales voluminosos dificultan la ordenación.

• Intensidad de los enlaces secundarios: regularmente distanciados favorecen la cristalinidad.
• Flexibilidad de la cadena principal. Menos flexibilidad mayor tendencia a la cristalinidad
• Velocidad de enfriamiento: más velocidad menos cristalinidad.
CLASIFICACIÓN: FAMILIAS
Los polímeros se pueden clasificar en tres grandes, en función del tipo y cantidad de enlaces entre cadenas.

TERMOPLÁSTICOS: largas moléculas lineales o ramificadas unidas por enlaces secundarios. Como propiedad
fundamental funden al calentarse
ELASTÓMEROS: cadenas con pocos puntos de entrecruzamiento. Tiene gran elasticidad
TERMOESTABLES: elevado grado de reticulación, gran número de enlaces primarios entre cadenas
COMPORTAMIENTO MECÁNICO.
Las propiedades mecánicas se determinan de manera similar a los metales.
Ensayos: velocidad aplicación carga normalizada
MECANISMOS BÁSICOS DE DEFORMACIÓN.
INFLUENCIA DEL GRADO DE CRISTALINIDAD
A medida que aumenta el grado de cristalinidad, aumenta el modulo elástico, la tensión máxima y la densida

DEFORMACIÓN EN POLÍMEROS SEMICRISTALINOS
DEFORMACIÓN EN ELASTÓMEROS
TERMOPLASTICO: para elevadas deformaciones, se producen deformaciones plásticas apreciables por
deslizamiento relativo de cadenas (plasticidad)
ELASTÓMERO: para elevadas deformaciones, las cadenas se estiran, pero los enlaces entrecruzados hacen
volver a las cadenas a su forma original (elasticidad)
INFLUENCIA DE LA TEMPERATURA.
A medida que aumenta la
temperatura, la resistencia de los
polímeros disminuye mientras que el
alargamiento aumenta.
La influencia de la temperatura es
mayor para termoplásticos amorfos, y
menor para termoestables.
Además el comportamiento de los termoplásticos se ve afectado por la temperatura de transición vitrea y de

fusión en la relación con la temperatura de aplicación de las cargas.
TEMA 9. Materiales compuestos.
INTRODUCCIÓN
Un material compuesto tiene dos o más materiales con distinta composición, insolubles de manera que se
obtiene una combinación de propiedades que no poseen los materiales de partida
Lo podemos encontrar en la naturaleza (madera: lignina + fibras de celulosa)
Definimos un material compuesto como un material multifase obtenido artificialmente, existiendo fases
químicamente diferentes, donde actúa de matriz y otra de refuerzo.
OBJETICO DE FABRICAR MATERIALES COMPUESTOS

• Optimización de ciertas propiedades
o Rigidez
o Disminución de peso
o Resistencia mecánica
o Resistencia corrosión
o Resistencia a altas temperaturas
o Dureza
CLASIFICACIÓN
• Según la matriz
o Metálica
o Cerámica
o Polimérica
VENTAJAS
• Soportan elevadas tensiones
• Bajo peso
• Resistencia a la corrosión y degradación
• Flexibilidad de diseño
• Posibilidad de orientar las fibras
• Durabilidad
• Propiedades únicas y excepcionales
APLICACIONES/ CONSUMO
• Actualmente se desarrollan nuevos materiales para satisfacer ciertos requisitos
o Estructural
o Funcional
• Mayores aplicaciones
o Sector aeronáutico comercial y militar ( 65%)
o Construcción (40% Refuerzo)
o Deportivo, alta competición
Las fibras pueden formar cordones, a su vez se pueden tejer
FIBRA DE VIDRIO
• La fibra de vidrio se encuentra embebida en una matriz de polímero
o La mas utilizada es la E, ya que es fácil de fabricar, barata, fácil de incorporar a la matriz por
varias tecnologías, buen refuerzo mecánico, buena resistencia química
o Elevada resistencia especifica a la tracción
o Buena estabilidad mecánico en el rango térmico -30º - 200º
o Matrices: principalmente poliéster
o Aplicaciones : Carrocerías de automóviles y barcos, tuberías etc
• Limitaciones
o No muy rígido
o Tª de servicio < 200º
o Necesita un tratamiento para la buena unión matriz / fibra
• VENTAJAS
o Características isotrópicas
o Buena relación prestaciones/precio
o Disponible en todas las formas
o Buena adhesión a resinas

o Resistencia buena a elevadas temperaturas
o Dilatación térmica muy baja
o Conductividad térmica relativamente baja
o Buenas propiedades dieléctricos
o Buena resistencia a la humedad y corrosión
o Incombustibilidad al ser material mineral
• INCONVENIENTES
o Prestaciones mecánicas especificas medias
o Dura y abrasiva
FIBRA DE CARBONO
• Inprescindibles para piezas con rigidez
• Las mas importantes tecnológicamente
• Presentan elevada resistencia
• Baja densidad
• Elevadas propiedades especificas
• Fase matriz más común: polímeros ( resisnas termoestables)
• Se fabrica a partir de:
o PAN : poliacrilonitrilo, mediante prolisis se eliminan los átomos de nitrógeno e hidrogeno. El
contenido en carbono oscila entre 92% y 100%
o Brea de petróleo o de hulla: Mas ventajosa porque es mas barate
• Grafito: estructura reticular única: Entre los enlaces moleculares cuya posición en el carbono fibrado
disminuye su resistencia.
• FABRICACION
TIPOS
• FIBRAS DE BAJO MODULO: FC de estructura isótropa, bajo modulo de resistencia a la tensión Se
venden como fibras cortas
• FIBRAS DE MODULO INTERMEDIO: Modulo de tensión superopr a 300 GPa y relaciones de
resistencia a la tracción / modulo del orden de 0.01
• FIBRAS DE ALTO MODULO-TIPO 1 (HM) mas rigidez pero resistencia relativamente baja. Modulo
de elasticidad superior a 300 GPa, pero con una relación resistencia Tracción/modulo menor de
1%
• FIBRAS DE ALTO MODULO – TIPO 2: máxima resistencia
• FIBRAS DE ILTRA ALTO MODULO (UHM) modulo de elasticidad superior a 500 GPa
• FIBRAS DE ALTA RESISTENCIA (HT) valores de resistencia superiores 3GPa y con relaciones
resistencia/modulo de 0.015/20
• VENTAJAS

o Excelentes propiedades mecánicas: alta resistencia a rotura a tracion o compresión
junto a una buena rigidez
o No presentan plasticidad
o Resistencia a temperatura
o Resistencia a fatiga
o Resistencia química
o Dilatación térmica nula
o Buena conductividad térmica y eléctrica
o Buena maquinabilidada
o Baja densidad 1.8 g / cm^3
o Excelente resistencia humedad
• INCOMVENIENTES
o Precio elevado
o Precauciones en el procesado, al ser quebracizas
o Baja reisstenia a la abrasión baja
o Mala resistencia química con metales, Con oxigeno a partir de 400º
FIBRA DE ARAMIDA
• Naturales poliméricas
• Según el procedimiento de fabricación, se distinguen dos tipos de fibras de aramida
o Bajo modulo ( E= 70 GPa)
o Fibras de alto modulo (E= 140 GPa)
o Densidad 1.5 g/cc, Resistencia 3 GPa
• 4 Principales fibras aramidas comercializadas
o Kevlar RI, Cordaje de refuerzo de neumáticos
o Kevlar 29, vestidos, paracaídas, cuerdas y cables
o Kevlar 49, Materiales compuestos de altas prestaciones
o Nomex. Ropa ignifuga
• Interesante por su alta tenacidad y modulo elástico
• Características singulares: Buena resistencia al impacto, Alta capacidad de absorción de energía
que la hacen interante para blidajes
FABRICACIÓN
• Fibras de origen orgánico y sintético

• Constituida por grupos amida (CONH) y anillos aromáticos del tipo politereftalato de
polifenilendiamida, que confiere a la fibra una elevada estabilidad térmica
• La fibra se obtiene partiendo de una solución de amida aromatica en un disolvente ( acido sulfurico)
hilandola y estirándola
• Las cadenas moleculares se orientan en la dirección de la fibra y constituyen estructuras cristalinas a
las que debe la fibra sus buenas características mecánicas
COMPARATICA DE FIBRAS
• FIBRA DE CARBONO
o Ventajas: alto modulo especifico, resistencia eleva a alatas temperaturas y ambientes
corrosicos
o Desventajas: precio
o Matrices : Epoxi.
o Aplicaciones aeronáuticas (20 /30 % más ligero)

• ARAMIDA:
o Ventajas: mejor combinación
o Matrices: Epoxi
o Aplicaciones en aeronáutica, barcos y equipos deportivos.
ESTRUCTURALES
Estructuras laminares
Estructuras Sandwich
Laminas externas resistentes
Núcleo ligero
LAMINADOS: Cuando un material compuesto va a estar sometido, en
servicio, a altos esfuerzos multidireccionales, normalmente se utilizan
varias capas donde las fibras están alineadas en diferentes direcciones.
Aumentar así la resistencia
PANELES SANDWICH

Las caras resisten la mayor parte de las
cargas en el plano y cualquier esfuerzo de
flexión transversal
• El núcleo resiste la deformación
perpendicular al plano de la cara, separa
las caras y soporta los esfuerzos de
cizalladura
• Aplicado en techos, suelos y paredes
• NUCLEO: Baja rigidez, densidad y resistencia. polímeros espumados, cauchos, madera de baja
densidad, estructura en panal, similar al de las caras
• LAMINAS EXTERNAS: Alta rigidez. Aleaciones de Al, Acero, Ti o plásticos reforzados con fibras.
PREFOMAS ( cercana a la forma final de la pieza)

Son sistemas de refuerzo tridimensional diseñados para eliminar problemas de
delaminación ( frente a los laminados: se incorporan fibras en la dirección del
espesor). Se consigue mayor resistencia a impacto y fatiga.
PREDICCION DEL COMPORTAMIENTO MECANICO

INFLUENCIA DE LA ORIENTACION Y CONCENTRACION DE LAS FIBRAS
Cuanto mas uniforme sea la distribución mejores las porpiedades
Los compuestos con fibras alineadas son anisotrópicos. La máxima resistencia que consigue a lo largo de la
dirección de la alineación (eficiencia=1)
En la dirección tranversal, el reforzameitno mediante fibras pracamente no existe: la rotura suele ocurrir a
esfuerzos de tracción relativamente bajos ( eficiencia =0)
Los esfuerzos aplicados en otras direcciones encuentran resistencias comprendidas entre ambos extremos.

NANOTUBOS, NANOFILAMENTOS DE C, CNTs
NANOTUBO DE PARED SIMPLE:

• Swcnt
• Pared de una sola capa atómica diámetro de 1-5 nm
• Excelentes propiedades físicas y eléctricas
NANOTUBO DE PARED MULTIPLE:
• MWCNT
• Diámetro exterior 1.5 – 15 nm
• Diámetro exterior 2.5 – 30 nm
• Múltiples capas
• Mas fáciles de fabricar
TEMA 10. CORROSIÓN.
INTRODUCCIÓN
• La corrosión e integridad física de un solido son alterados en un entorno corrosivo
• Si hay corrosión química, el material es disuleto por un liquido corrosivo
• Cuando hay corrosión electroquímica, se eliminan átomos metálicos en un material solido, como
resultado de un circuito eléctrico
• A altas temperaturas, los materiales pueden reaccionar con el entorno gaseoso y degradarse por
formación de óxidos, corrosión seca
• En metales el proceso de deterioro se llama oxidación y corrosión. En cerámicos las condiciones para
el deterioro deben ser extremas y lo llamaremos corrosión. Los polímeros en perdida de
propiedades decimos degradación.

CORROSIÓN SECA
Resulta de la combinación de los átomos metálicos con una sustancia agresiva
Ej: Herrumbre-óxido, oxidación por oxígeno como causa // Sulfuro de hierro, oxidación por azufre como
causa
• La corrosión seca conduce a que el metal, con el tiempo, pase de tener un estado libre (puro) a tener
un estado combinado con otros elementos (óxidos, carbonatos…)
• En este caso, los productos de la reacción quedan adheridos a la superficie del metal.
• En algunos casos, se forman películas protectoras que los aíslan del agente corrosivo.
• El caso más corriente es el ataque por oxígeno. En este caso, sobre el metal se forma una capa de
oxido que, a veces se autoprotege
• El proceso de oxidación se acelera con la temperatura.
• En los procesos de oxidación, los metales pasan de su estado elemental a formar iones positivos
(cationes) por perdida de electrones.
CORROSIÓN HUMEDA: CORROSION ELECTROQUIMICA

• Es la forma más común de ataque de los metales
• Los atomos de metal pierden electrones y se convierten en iones, cationes.
• El metal se va consumiendo, y se genera un subproducto.
• La corrosión electroquímica ocurre con mayor frecuencia en el medio acuoso, donde hay presentes
iones, electrolitos.
• En este proceso se genera un circuito eléctrico, celda electroquímica.
COMPONENTES DE UNA CELDA ELECTROQUIMICA

ANODO: material que se oxida, cede electrones al circuito, se corroe.
CATODO: recibe los electrones del circuito, se reduce. Se genera un subproducto.
CONTACTO ELECTRICO: El ánodo y cátodo han de estar conectados eléctricamente para permitir el flujo de
los electrones del ánodo al cátodo y que la reacción continúe.
ELECTROLITO: disuelto en el medio. Debe estar en contacto con ánodo y cátodo. Medio por el que los iones
metálicos pasar del ánodo al cátodo.

REACCIÓN ANODICA
El metal sufre la oxidación. Sus iones positivos, cationes, pasan a la disolución. Se corroe.
1. En el cátodo, produce la reducción de lo que haya, lo mas común es H+ del agua :
Reacción total: el ánodo de Zn se disuelve gradualmente y se generan burbuja de hidrogeno en el cátodo
2. Pero si en la disolución hay cationes de otros compuestos (Cu2+) son estos lo que se reducirán,
recubrimiento el cátodo. Esto sirve para proteger los cátodos, niquelado, galvanizo, chapado en oro.
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POTENCIAL DE ELECTRODO EN CELDAS ELECTROQUIMICAS
• En el electrodepósito, se requiere un voltaje para que la corriente fluya
por la celda. En corrosión, cuando el material se coloca en una solución,
se genera un potencial.
• Potencial de electrodo, está relacionado con la tendencia del material a
ceder sus electrones. Para medirlo, es necesario establecer un potencial
se referencia.
VELOCIDAD DE CORROSION O ELECTRODEPOSIÓN.
• La cantidad de metal uniformemente corroído de un ánodo electrodepositado sobre un cátodo, en
una disolución acuosa durante un periodo de tiempo, se puede determinar usando la ecuación de
Faraday, que establece.

• Frecuentemente la corriente se expresa en función de la densidad de corriente:
CORROSION HUMEDA: CORROSION ELECTROQUIMICA.

• La tendencia a la corrosión de un metal mostrada por la serie electroquímica puede alterarse por
causa de no cumplirse las condiciones que se impusieron para su definición.
o Los electrones empreados
o Naturaleza diferenciada de electrolito.
o Temperatura constante en el electrolito.
o Oxigenación constante en el electrolito.
• Se define la seríe galvánica, en la cuales las aleaciones se ordenan de acuerdo con las tendencias
anódicas o catódicas en un entono particular: agua del mar, agua dulce, ambiente industrial…
TIPOS DE CORROSIÓN.
• Los tipos de corrosión se pueden clasificar por la apariencia del metal corroído.
o Por deterioro uniforme o general
o Por esfuerzo
o Galvánica o entro dos metales
o Erosiva
o Por picadura
o Por grieta
CORROSIÓN DE DETERIORO UNIFORME O GENERALIZADA.
Reacción química que actúa sobre tola la superficie expuesta a la corrosión. Sobre una base cuantitativa, el
deterioro uniforme representa la mayor destrucción de los metales especialmente de los aceros. Es
relativamente fácil su control mediante:
• Coberturas protectoras.
• Inhibidores
• Protección catódica.
CORROSIÓN GALVANICA
Debe tenerse cuidado al unir metales distintos porque la diferencia en sus potenciales electroquímicos
puede conducir a su corrosión
El acero galvanizado, que es acero recubierto de cinc, el cinc se sacrifica para proteger el acero. Por separado

se corroen a la vez pero juntos el cinc se corroe en el ánodo de la pila galvánica y de esa marera protege al
acero
CORROSIÓN POR PICADORA

Ataque corrosivo localizado que produce pequeños agujeros en un metal. Este tipo de corrosión es muy
destructivo para las estructuras de ingeniería si provoca perforación del metal. Difícil de detectar debido a
que los agujeros pueden ser tapados por los productos de la corrosión.
La picadura puede requerir meses o años para perforar una sección metálica. La picadura requiere un
periodo de iniciación, pero una vez comenzada, los agujeros crecen a gran velocidad. La mayoría de estas se
desarrollan y crecen en la dirección de la gravedad y sobre las superficies más bajas de los equipos de
ingeniería.
CORROSIÓN POR GRIETAS

La corrosión por grietas esta localizada en hendidura y bajo superficies protegidas
Presente bajo juntas, remaches, pernos, tonillos, válvulas y asientos…
Se produce en muchos sistemas de aleaciones como el acero inoxidable y aleaciones de titanio, aluminio y
cobre
Para que ocurra este tipo de corrosión, la grieta ha de ser lo suficientemente ancha para que permita que se
introduzca liquido, pero a la vez lo bastante estrecha para mantener estancado el líquido.
CORROSIÓN SELECTIVA
La disolución selectiva es la eliminación preferencial de un elemento de una aleación solida por procesos
corrosivos . El ejemplo más común de este tipo de corrosión es la descincificado que tiene lugar en los
latones, eliminación selectiva del cinc. Procesos similares acurren en otras aleaciones
CORROSION INTERGRANULAR
Precipitación del carburo de cromo en la frontera de grano de un acero inoxidable
CONTROL DE LA CORROSION
• Eliminar alguno de los componentes de la pila de corrosión:
o Electrolito: aumenta resistividad
o Eliminar la existencia de zonas anódicas y catódicas: diseño adecuado, protección catódica
o Evitar el contacto con el electrolito: recubrimiento orgánico o inorgánicos
• Reducir velocidad de corrosión usando aleaciones adecuadas, protección anódica por pasivación.
Control de la polarización mediante inhibidores
• Protección mediante recubrimientos
DISEÑO. SELECCIÓN DE METALES Y ALEACIONES
• Criterios de diseño: evitar todo tipo de heterogeneidades que puedas dar lugar a pilas
• Ausencia de resquicios o zonas donde pueda acumularse electrolito
• Lograr distribución de temperaturas y concentraciones uniformes
PROTECCIÓN CATÓDICA
Circuito de protección catódica
CMAP 2 – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
MATERIALS TESTING: it is the name given to the set of tests carried out in order to check the mechanical
and chemical properties of a specific material and obtain useful quantitative information from it. This
information will allow us to know if that material is suitable for performing a certain task or being part of
a structure.
DUCTILITY: it is defined as the ability of a material to undergo permanent deformation through elongation
(reduction in cross-sectional area) before breakage.
RESILIENCE: it is the ability of a material for accumulating plastic deformation without breaking. Resilience
can be understood as the toughness of a material. It is the maximum energy that we obain from plastic
deformation.
TENACITY: it is the capacity of a material for absorbing elastic energy before reaching its break point.
Together with resilience, tenacity defines the resistance of a material.
HARDNESS: it can be defined as the resistance that a material offers to be scratched or penetrated by a
different material.
BENDING: bending defines the behavior of a structural element subjected to an external load, which
applied perpendicularly to the longitudinal axis of the element.
WHAT IS TENSILE TESTING?:

- It is one of the most common and important tests in materials characterization.
- Tensile tests determine how strong a material is and how much it can elongate
- It consists of the application at room temperature of a tensile (pulling) continuous force to a
standardised sample of the material we want to study. In such a way, we can get to know the sample’s
response to stress and how much it can be stretched before it breaks.
- Since it is required to break the material in order to successfully perform the process, tensile tests are
known as “destructive tests”.
STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: it represents strain in the x-axis, and stress in the y-axis. It allows us to understand
graphically the behaviour and transformation of the material we want to study under the action of stress.

TRUE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE: although we usually represent a stress - strain curve which reaches a
maximum in the plastic deformation zone and then starts to decrease, the real curve is slightly different
from this common representation.
Since the stress is defined as the applied force divided by the area of the section of the studied sample
(σ=F/A), it is easy to deduce that, after some time being stretched, the sample's section will have been
considerably reduced, so σ will be increased.
As a consequence, even if we do not apply a greater force, since the section becomes smaller with time,
the stress value will continue to increase until the sample fractures.
ELASTIC ZONE:
- The stress-strain relationship is linear (proportional), and Hooke’s law is satisfied: σ=E. ε, where: σ is the
stress, E is the Young’s modulus and ε is the strain. The slope of the elastic zone’s graph will be given by
E = σ/ ε
- The most characteristic feature of this part is that, if the test stops at any moment within the elastic
zone, the sample will recover its initial length. This means that deformations on the sample are not
permanent in the elastic zone
- This zone ends when the yield stress (YS) is reached (limit between elastic and plastic behaviour for any
material). Over this value there is permanent plastic deformation
- The area enclosed by the elastic zone of the curve indicates the resilience of the material tested
UNIFORM PLASTIC DEFORMATION ZONE:

- Now the stress-strain relationship is not proportional
- In this zone, a relatively small continuous stress leads to quite large deformations. This zone ends at the
ultimate strength point (σm) , which can be obtained by dividing the maximum applied stress by the
sample’s initial section. The ultimate strength point is the maximum of the stress - strain curve
- The area enclosed in the plastic deformation zone indicates de tenacity of the material tested
NECKING ZONE: in this phase, the deformation accentuates in a determined part of the sample, stress
decreases and the sample ends up breaking in that part
STRESS AND STRAIN:

- Stress (σ): it is the force applied per unit of surface. It is obtained by dividing the load applied by the
cross sectional surface of the studied object: σ=F/A. It is usually measured in Nm^(-2) or Pa.
- Strain (ε): it is the extension or deformation of the object per unit length. When a force is applied evenly
on an area or surface of a body, the body is deformed by a measurable strain. This strain is a function
of the mechanical properties of the material.
ε = ΔL/L0 .Unlike stress, strain is dimensionless
WHAT IS CREEP TESTING?: to determine creep properties, creep tests are carried out. In these tests, a
material is subjected to prolonged constant tension or compression loading, and the material's
deformation is recorded at specific time intervals and overall data is plotted on a elongation vs time
diagram. It is important to maintain a constant temperature until fracture.
WHAT IS CREEP?: creep is known as the the amount of deformation that a material experiences over time

at constant temperature while undergoing a continuous, constant tensile or compressive load
PRIMARY ZONE OF THE STRESS-ELONGATION CURVE: the creep rate begins by rising quickly and then
slows down and decreases. Unlike in the tensile curve, the deformation in this initial part of the curve
doesn’t have an elastic character
SECONDARY ZONE OF THE STRESS-ELONGATION CURVE: it is the most important period to study. In this
case, there is a linear relation between deformation, time and their logarithms. The load is maintained
for constant deformation
TERTIARY ZONE OF THE STRESS-ELONGATION CURVE: it is the last stage of the test., characterised by high
stresses. In this case, the creep rate is much steeper than in the secondary stage, and this often leads to
the sample reaching its breaking point. Tertiary creep occurs when there is an effective reduction in cross-
sectional area of the sample studied
WHAT IS FATIGUE TESTING?: fatigue testing gives us the resistance behaviour of materials when working
under the time dependent loading used.
WHAT IS FATIGUE: fatigue is the situation experienced by structures or objects subjected to cyclic loads
which have an intensity value far below the breaking point of the material. It is the most common source
behind failures of mechanical structures.
Every material has a fatigue limit. When this limit is exceeded, the material fractures.
WHOLER CURVES:
- Work load for a given piece under typical loading schemes:
tensile, flat bending, rotation bending, torsion
- The elastic domain is sensitive to fatigue loading, and service cracks appear even under loading
conditions well below the yield stress
- As a rule, all materials show fatigue cracks when the number of cycles is suficiently high
- Exceptionally some materials show infinite life for conveniently low loading conditions called fatigue
limit
CHARPY PENDULUM: the tenacity and resilience of a material can be tested by means of the Charpy
pendulum. The resilience can be calculated dividing the energy consumed by the sample of the material

when it breaks, by the section of the sample. A higher speed of the pendulum will lead to a greater energy
transmitted to the sample, and therefore, to a lowest resilience (the sample will break up more easily).
WHAT IS FRACTURE TESTING?:
- Fracture tests measure a material’s ability to resist the growth or propagation of a pre-existing flaw. This
flaw or defect may be in the form of a crack, void, or any other inconsistency in the sample of the
material studied.
- The load makes the crack length grow, at first in a stable process, and then unstable or sudden, and the
crack moves at the speed of sound fracturing
- Stress concentration at the crack tip is a function of stress and the crack length
- Fracture testing is similar to tensile testing with a different sample and measured variables
- The stress concentration is measured through a factor for stress intensity, or fracture tenacity
- Under critical conditions, crack growth becomes unstable.
WHAT IS FRACTURE?: fracture is defined as the separation of a solid into two or more parts under
application of load or stress
WHAT IS HARDNESS TESTING?: there are two main types of hardness tests:
- Those which measure resistance to scratch
- Those which measure resistance to penetration
WHAT IS HARDNESS?: hardness can be defined as the resistance that a material offers to be scratched or
penetrated by a different material
RESISTANCE TO SCRATCHING TEST: one of the tests to measure a material's resistance to be scratched
consists on the application of the Mohs Scale, and other example could be the Martens Test.
BRINELL TEST: this test consists of measuring the hardness of a material by applying the load of a spherical
penetrator of tempered steel, which has a diameter of between 1 and 10 mm. The load of the sphere is
applied during approximately 15 seconds.
The value of the hardness will be given by the division of the force applied by the surface left by the steel
sphere in the material's surface: HB = F/S
VICKERS TEST: the procedure of this test is analogous to that of the Brinell Test, but in this case, the
penetrator is not a sphere, but instead it is an element with a pyramidal shape (pyramid with squared
base). The hardness is also measured by dividing the force applied to the penetrator by the surface of the
footprint left by the penetrator on the surface of the studied material: HV = F/S
The Vickers Test offers some advantages over the Brinnell Test:
* It can be applied in curved surfaces

* The test can be carried out in veery hard materials
ROCKWELL TEST: the Rockwell Test is the most common hardness test, since it can be carried out quicky
and it originates very small tracks on the surface of the tested material.
Unlike in the Brinell and Vickers tests, the Rockwell test does not involve measuring the surface of the
track left by the penetrator, but instead, to measure the depth of the track.
It is always necessary to carry out a preload in ordeer to break the irregularities found in the surface of
the sample tested. This preload often has a value of around 10 kp.
After this preload, a stronger load is applied (often between 90 - 140 kp).
The penetrator then measures the difference between the depth generated by the penetrator in the
strongest load and the preload: d = h2-h1
Taking into account that e = d/0.002, then we can obtain the value of the hardness: HR = 100 - e
CMAP 3 – THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS: the thermal properties of a material are the set of characteristics
of that material that depend on temperature or heat. The knowledge of these properties is very useful
and important in engineering processes, since it allows us to predict how a material will behave under
determined conditions and to choose the most appropriate material to perform a certain task.
Moreover, by studying these properties we can also get to know how much thermal energy a body is able
to store.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN MICROSTRUCTURE: every material is composed by atoms that can be

arranged in several different ways. When atoms get together and form an organised structure, they form
a vast number of crystals that arrange in phases. The set of these phases is what we call the
“microstructure” of a material, and the variations in temperature that the material may suffer lead to
changes in its microstructure.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE: a strict concept of temperature is given to us by kinetic-molecular theory and
statistical mechanics: temperature measures the kinetic energy, or the variation of the internal energy
with respect to the entropy at constant volume.
When a body receives heat, its temperature increases (and therefore, its internal energy also reaches
higher values), and the body is able to transmit part of this heat to its surroundings. Increases in
temperature also lead to an increase in the mobility of the atoms of the material. This means that atoms
need "more space" to move, and this provokes an increase in the body's volume.
NUCLEI (CRYSTAL): heat capacity and thermal expansion can be explained by atomic vibration, which is a
phenomenon that occurs when the temperature of a material increases and the concentration of mass
in the nucleus of the atoms grows.
ELECTRONS: phenomena like thermal conductivity can be explained by the transmission of temperature
from atom to atom of the material studied. In these cases, the kinetic energy of the conducting (or “free”)
electrons can provide substantially more efficient conduction of heat than atomic vibrations (this is what
happens in metallic materials).

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: It is another property of materials, which indicates how easy it is for a material
to transfer heat by conductivity. In other words, it refers to the capability of a material to allow the
transfer of kinetic energy from its molecules to other adjacent substances. The value of thermal
conductivity is given by k.
A related magnitude is heat transfer (Q), which depends on the thermal gradient (k) and the thickness of
the studied material (x):
Q = (k * dT) / dx
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY AND TEMPERATURE: generally, the higher the temperature, the higher is the
mobility of electrons, and therefore thermal conductivity increases.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY: thermal and electrical

conductivities are directly related. They both have to do with the electron movement in a material, and
with the influence this has in the vibration of atoms. For each temperature, there is a linear relation
between thermal and electrical conductivity.
MECHANISMS FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: mechanisms for studying the thermal conductivity of a
material are the vibration of atoms, the existence of free electrons and the effect of impurities and crystal
defects. In this case, the most important mechanism is the one determined by porosity and free electrons.
For instance, metals are great thermal conductors because of the electron cloud existing on the metal
bond. The movement of electrons in the electron cloud influences the vibration of atoms all through the
material, and that is how we can explain heat transfer in metallic materials.
WHEN DOES THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY REACH HIGHER VALUES?:
- Materials with compact structures and higher Young’s modulus show better thermal conductivity.
- Crystalline materials offer better thermal conductivity than amorphous ones.
- Thermal conductivity in non-metallic materials is explained through atoms vibration.
- Conductivity increases when the Young modulus (E) increases
- The higher the density of the material, the higher its thermal conductivity.
- Increases in temperature also lead to higher conductivity values.
- Grain boundaries in the structure of a material make it more difficult for electrons to move fluently, so
conductivity is affected (conductivity decreases). Therefore, greater grain sizes in the structure of a
material lead to greater conductivity.
CONDUCTIVITY IN DIFFERENT KINDS OF MATERIALS:
- In metals, electrons are responsible for thermal conductivity. Their fast movement induces vibrations
all through the structure of the metal, favouring conductivity.

- In ceramics and polymers, electrons cannot move as in the case of metals, so the only possibility to
achieve conductivity is the vibration of an atom affecting other atoms. This is why conductivity in these
materials is nearly null un-less they reach very high temperatures.
- Non-metals thermal conductivity can be calculated with:
k = Cp (d · E )1/2 d
Where: E is Young’s modulus, d density, Cp specific heat, d average freepath on thermal vibration.
Average vibration thermal path “d” increases with temperature, justifying the increase on thermal
conductivity with temperature.
ISOLATING MATERIALS: isolating materials are often those materials which have an absence of a dense
structure, for instance, due to porosity. Porosity decreases notably the material’s density and therefore
its thermal conductivity. The reason is that pores dampen atom vibration.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: the following webpage talks about a material (more especifically, a
polymer) called expanded polystyrene (also known as EPS), which represents a very relevant example
of thermally insulating materials. EPS is widely used in construction applications, both for its insulating
and technical properties. It is used for the insulation of walls, roofs and floors in buildings, moreover
its low weight, formability and rigidity make it a very used material.
https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-engineering/heat-transfer/heat-losses/insulation-
materials/expanded-polystyrene-eps/
THERMAL EXPANSION: thermal expansion is defined by the coefficient of thermal expansion (α), which
results from dividing the variation in length of the studied piece or structure by the original length
multiplied by the variation in temperature:
α = ∆L / L0 * ∆T
being α measured in mm/mm ºC
The final length will be given by:

Lf = L0 ( 1 + α*∆T)
When the temperature of a solid body rises, the kinetic energy of the molecules that compose it increases.
This means that the body’s particles need more space to move, leading to an increase in volume. If the
opposite case occurs, and the temperature of the solid decreases, then the volume of the body will also

decrease.
THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENT: if we relate the thermal expansion coefficient of different materials
with the corresponding bonding distance of their atoms, we can conclude that the smaller the bonding
distance, the stronger the bonds are, and therefore, the smaller the thermal expansion coefficient. This
occurs because increases in temperature lead to atomic vibration, which provokes a variation in the
equilibrium distance for each bond. If the bonds are strong (they will be stronger if the interatomic
distance is small), then it will be more difficult for the material to expand; if the bonds are weaker, the
material will expand easily with increases in temperature.
The materials that present stronger bonds are ceramic ones, followed by metals and polymers. This is
why polymers expand and deform quite easily when temperatures rise.
The expansion coefficient follows a quite linear increase when temperatures rise up. The expansion
coefficient also depends greatly on crystal orientation: if there is a dense set of atoms arranged in a
specific direction, the expansion of the material in that direction will occur much quickly and easily.
BONDING ENERGY AND EXPANSION COEFFICIENT: the stronger the bonding energy of a material, the
stronger will be the atomic bonding. Therefore, the vibration of atoms when the material gains
temperature will be weaker, and the thermal expansion coefficient will have a small value. It would be
necessary to reach very high temperatures to melt these materials, that is the reason why their melting
points are so high. For this reason, the minimum expansion coefficients correspond to ceramic materials.
MECHANICAL EFFECTS OF THERMAL EXPANSION: as a consequence, to an increase in temperature (∆T),

the material will change its length according to:
ɛ = ∆L/L = α*∆T
When there are lateral constraints:
σ = - ɛ*E = - α *ɛ*∆T
(The negative sign indicates stress response opposite to ∆T)
When the free movement of the bar is restricted, stresses proportional to length variation α, and Young’s
modulus E appear and are proportional to ∆T.
HEAT CAPACITY: heat capacity (Cp) is defined as the energy required to increase in one unit of
temperature the temperature of one mole of material. Heat capacity is an indicator of how easily a body
can experience temperature variations under the effect of heat energy.
Both heat capacity and specific heat indicate a material’s ability to absorb heat from its surroundings.
EVOLUTION OF HEAT CAPACITY WHEN TEMPERATURE INCREASES: if we study the graph relating
temperature and heat capacity, we can observe that, when a material is in its solid phase, at temperatures
well below the thermal threshold for changes in properties, heat capacity increases rapidly. This increase
is maintained till a point where, even though temperature continues to increase, heat capacity increases
at a much slower rate, approximating a limit that is not surpassed.
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS: heat capacity and specific heat capacity are slightly different magnitudes.
Nevertheless, they share some common characteristics:
- They are both linked to material composition, that is to say, to the connection between atoms, and

therefore, to the microstructure.
- However, they are not affected by smaller changes in atomic distance, as plastic deformation, grain
size or crystal defects.
- The relation of both is the quotient related to the molecular mass (Pmole):
Ce = Cp / Pmol
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY: it is defined as the energy required to increase 1 K the temperature of 1 gram
of material. It has the same physical meaning as heat capacity. The specific heat of a material depends on
its microstructure: the looser the internal structure of a material is, the looser is the connection between
atoms, and therefore, the higher is the amount of energy needed to produce a change in the temperature
of the material
DIRECT EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE: whenever a body receives heat, it increases its temperature, transmits
this heat to its surroundings and expands as a consequence of atomic vibration.
These 3 phenomena are linked to the following materials properties:
– Thermal conductivity
– Heat capacity or Specific heat capacity
– Thermal expansion coefficient
INDIRECT EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE: in engineering and construction processes, when designing a piece
or structure, it is always extremely important to take into consideration the influence that temperature
will have over them, not only in directly but also in an indirect way.
HEAT TRANSFER: it is clearly seen that temperature, even though is something “external” to a material,
affects all its properties. The mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties which are characteristic of a
determined material depend greatly on temperature and the transfer of heat, since these properties are
affected by the variations in the material’s microstructure, which changes with temperature.
THERMAL SHOCK: when a material is constrained on its sides (its possible expansion due to an increase
in temperature is “blocked”, maybe because it occupies a fixed position between more elements) or it is
compressed, it cannot change their length, so its stress increases.
When this happens very suddenly, fracture takes place, and the material breaks.
A material’s ductility will determine its plastic behaviour and its fragility. When materials are more fragile,
smaller thermal shocks can lead to the breakage of the material.
FRACTURE: it occurs when uniform thermal expansion is constrained, or through sudden local thermal
shocks inducing high stress. This is typical of the structures that compose buildings
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This link explains how a bridge collapsed in Minneapolis (USA) as a consequence
of fracture:
https://placesjournal.org/article/fracture-critical/?cn-reloaded=1
GLASS CERAMICS: It is a family of materials which integrates two phases within the same structure. The

glass is the matrix (90% glass phase) and in between there are crystalline phases, so there are no pores.
The size of these crystalline phases is reduced when there is an increase in temperature, and at the same
time, this compression of the crystalline phase is compensated by an expansion of the glass phase. This
means that, when temperature increases, there is a nearly null increment in the length of the glass
ceramics (low thermal expansion), and therefore they are not affected by thermal shock. These materials
are geometrically stable and offer a high resistance to impact.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: this webpage explains more about glass ceramics:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17122916
CMAP 4 – PLASTICITY AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION
PLASTIC DEFORMATION: it is the deformation experienced by a material when the effort applied over it
by an external force is such that the materials not able to return to its original dimensions. Some materials
can undergo a first process of elastic deformation, in which deformations are not permanent, and the
material recovers its original shape after being applied the force. However, when the sample of the
material receives an external effort and is not able to recover its original dimensions, the atomic structure
of the material is altered, and then we say the material has undergone a plastic deformation. In other
words, plastic deformation is irreversible.
Plastic deformation is useful to obtain complex shapes from elemental sections.

Plastic flow originates inside monocrystals. It shows in deformation lines, oriented 45º to the mains stress.
The so-called slip systems are vital for plastic deformation in a material to occur; those crystalline systems
with a higher number of slipping systems have easier plastic deformation and are, therefore, more plastic.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: this article talks about an aluminium alloy widely used in the aerospace industry
due to its plastic and ductile behaviour.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326629968_Superplasticity_of_Aerospace_7075_Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu_Aluminium_Alloy_Obtained_by_Severe_Plastic_Deformation
CONSEQUENCES OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION AT LOW TEMPERATURES:
• Changes in the size and appearance of grains
• Hardening of grains
• Storage of deformation energy
• Change of the material’s properties
• Increase in dislocation density

ORIGIN OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION: depending on the stress exerted over the structural planes, we can
observe different effects on the material:
a) If there is a shear stress (which is defined as the external force acting on an object or surface
parallel to the slope or plane in which it lies), the consequence is the slipping of planes.
b) If the stress is axial, it will result in the fracture of the material.
TWINNING: the phenomenon of twinning occurs when all the atoms of a portion of crystal move the same
distance. When this happens, atoms of each slip plane move a different distance. This causes half of the
crystal to act a “twinned portion”, becoming a mirror image of another half. Deformation by twinning is
a process that takes place in less than microseconds, and favours slipping.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This post briefly explains how shock-waves are applied to tantalum, which is a
transition metal with many applications, in order to generate a deformation by twinning and eventually
harden of the element:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1359645496001450
DISLOCATIONS: a dislocation is considered to be a crystallographic defect within a crystal structure. It can

be defined as the collection of ordered vacuums within the monocrystal structure of a material, which
cover a space that should be occupied by an atom. The concept of crystalline structure explains many of
the properties of a material. But not every material has a perfect crystalline structure, and the way atoms
are actually arranged usually differs from the ideal order it is expected to have according to its crystalline
structure.
BURGER’S VECTOR: it is the vector that represents the length and direction of reticular distortion caused
by the presence of a line defect.
It is represented as b.
INTRERACTION BETWEEN DISLOCATIONS: there are two possible scenarios:

a) 2 edge dislocations with the same sign and located on the same slip plane: in this situation, both
dislocations will repel from each other.
b) 2 edge dislocations with opposite sign and located on the same slip plane: in this case, both
dislocations attract each other, but end up cancelling each other, that is to say, they annul their
effect.
EDGE DEFECTS: it is a type of dislocation in which opposing shear forces are applied perpendicularly to
the dislocation edge. Edge dislocation occurs when either there is a missing row of atoms or an extra one.
Therefore, the adjacent planes of atoms are not straight, but instead they are distorted. When we apply
stress on a crystal having this defect, the dislocation area moves parallel to the direction of stress.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This webpage explains in a brief way how a model has been presented for

simulating the dynamic behaviour of edge dislocations in metals at the atomic level:
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0965-0393/11/4/302
HELIX DEFECTS: it is a type of dislocation that happens when the planes of atoms trace a helical path
around the dislocation line. In these cases, the movement of different dislocation planes is perpendicular
to the direction of the applied stress.
If the direction of the path is clockwise, it is called right-hand helix dislocation; if the direction is
anticlockwise, it is known as left-hand helix dislocation.
MIXED DEFECTS: it is the most common type of dislocation, since most dislocations present both edge
and helix characteristics.
MOTION IS SLIP SYSTEMS: slip systems can be defined as the set of dense planes with an associated
direction for which dislocations can take place in a material. The application of shear stresses along the
length of an object causes crystal lattices to glide along each other, forming slip systems. Slip systems are
vital for deformation in a material to occur; those crystalline systems with a higher number of slipping
systems have easier plastic deformation and are, therefore, more plastic.
Calculating the shear stress along a slip system we can know when they happen. This is always the weakest
point for deformation.
SCHMID’S LAW: Schmid's law describes the slip plane and the slip direction of a stressed material.
Schmid's Law states that the critically resolved shear stress (τ) is equal to the stress applied to the material
(σ) multiplied by the cosine of the angle with the vector normal to the glide plane (b) and the cosine of
the angle with the glide direction (a):
τ = σ cos(a) cos(b)
SLIP DIRECTIONS: a slip system has various slip directions. The direction by which the shear stress on the
glide plane exceeds a critical magnitude is thought to be the slip direction of that plane.
Slip direction is the direction in the slip plane that corresponds to one of the shortest lattice translation
vectors.
SLIP PLANE: they are the planes with the highest density of atoms. The direction that slip planes present
correspond to the smallest lattice translation vectors in the system. There are three main types of slip

systems:
• Body-centered cubic (BCC) slip
• Face-centered cubic (FCC) slip
• Hexagonal close packed (HCP) slip
MOTION DUE TO SHEAR STRESSES: shear can be defined as the external force acting on an object or
surface parallel to the slope or plane in which it lies. Taking this into account, if there is a shear stress
exerted over a structural plane, then the slipping of planes will occur.
EFFECTS OF DISLOCATIONS: dislocations provoke several changes in the internal structure of a material.
For instance, when a dislocation takes place and there is a missing atom in a position that should be
occupied, the position and mobility of the atoms surrounding that void is also altered. The effect of a
dislocation can also influence the external appearance of the material, leading to permanent plastic
deformations. Deformations involve a flow of energy, in which a small percentage is “kept” by the
deformation associated with the dislocation, and the rest is dissipated as heat.
RELATIONSHIP WITH PLASTIC DEFORMATION: dislocations and plastic deformation are two related
phenomena. The coordinated movement of atoms of the monocrystal (this means, the effect of a series
of dislocations forming a kind of “dislocation plane”) breaks the bonds between different rows of the
metallic structure and remakes them, leading to the material’s plastic deformation.
STRAIN HARDENING (DEFORMATION HARDENING): deformation hardening occurs when dislocations

begin aligning and moving towards the grain borders of a crystalline structure, ending up blocking each
other. The higher the number of dislocations, the higher is their movement and blocking between them.
Therefore, when there is an increase in plastic deformation, the number of dislocations coming together
at grain borders is high, and high values for hardening are achieved.
REDUCTION OF GRAIN SIZE: when there is a high density of dislocations, the smaller the grain size, the
more hardened the crystalline system is. Dislocations move until they find a grain border where they can
be anchored, and their movement is stopped. If the grain size was big (for instance, in a monocrystal), the
movement of the dislocation would go from one part of the monocrystal to the other with a small amount
of energy and shear stress; in this case, a small hardening would take place. However, if there are multiple
small – sized grains, the movement of the dislocation would be easily blocked by the grain border.
Therefore, the movement on the plastic deformation on the dislocation is small, since further dislocations
are “blocked”; in this case, the system will be harder.
HALL-PETCH RELATION: the Hall-Petch relation provides a quantitative description of the increase in the
yield stress applied a polycrystalline material as its grain size decreases. Hall–Petch strengthening is
limited by the size of dislocations.
This relationship is based on dislocation mechanisms of plastic deformation, and it is not only applied to
polycristalline materials but also to laminated ones.
The relation is the following:
ay = a0 + ky * d^(-1/2)
Where:
ay = elastic limit
d = average grain size
a0 and ky = material constants

SOLID SOLUTION: by substituting the atoms of a crystal structure by other atoms with a bigger size, the
bonding energy between atoms increases. As a consequence, when dislocations occur in structures where
bigger atoms have been introduced, they find harder and more energetic bonds, so they need more
energy (more shear) for their movement. Therefore, we can conclude that adding bigger atoms to a
crystal structure and obtaining and alloy of the original material with another material will harden the
structure.
SUBSTITUTIONAL SOLUTIONS: this type of hardening can be achieved by substituting one type of atom in
the crystalline structure of a material by another type of atom.
Since both types of atoms have different sizes, they interrupt the regularity of the crystal lattice.
Dislocations cannot easily move around this interruption. Therefore, it will take a much higher stress level
or temperature to enable the dislocation to move again. In order for this operation to take place, a set of
conditions (known as Hume-Rothery laws) must be fulfilled.
HUME-ROTHERY LAWS:
• The difference between the radius of both types of atoms must be smaller than 15%
• Both metals must have the same type of crystalline structure
• Both metals must have a similar value for electronegativity
• Both metals must have the same valence
INTERSTITIAL SOLUTIONS: it is another way of strengthening the atomic bonds. This process consists on
introducing atoms in the different gaps present between the atoms that compose a crystalline structure.
The atoms that are introduced have a much smaller size in comparison to the ones present in the
structure, as in the case of a Fe-C solution, where small C atoms are located on the interstices left on the
Fe network.
Whenever a dislocation meets a zone where interstitial atoms are present, it will not be able to move any
further, meaning that the alloy is hardened by applying this method.
THERMAL TREATMENT: whenever we want to recover a material’s original plasticity, we need to eliminate
the dislocations present in its internal structure and allow the atoms to restructure.
In order to achieve this, the cold work annealing is carried out. This is a thermal process, opposite to cold
work hardening, that leads to:
a) A recovery of the material’s plasticity
b) A lessen of internal stresses
c) The control of grain size
d) Wider deformation stages
GRAIN SIZE CONTROL // MECHANICAL PROPERTIES CONTROL: cycles with plastic deformation and
annealing, followed by recrystallization and grain growth, can be repeated a number of times (or only
once).
- Finer grain sizes are obtained with maximum cold work followed by recrystallization, without

grain growth.
- Big grain sizes are obtained after minimal cold work cycles followed by recrystallization and a long
grain growth stage at high temperatures.
RECOVERY STAGE: only the internal dislocations are cancelled during this process, so there is no evidence
of change in the material’s shape, which is preserved. Internal stresses are eliminated, and the texture of
the material, as well as its mechanical properties, are not altered.
RECRYSTALLIZATION STAGE: in the second phase, since the dislocations close to grain borders have
disappeared and they have been reordered into higher grains, new crystal structures begin to organise
and reconnect. The initial texture is lost, and the material is softened, increasing also the material’s
plasticity.
At a certain point, new equiaxial grains start to appear, with a more rounded shape. At first, grain size is
small, but with the increase in temperature, small grains are absorbed by bigger ones, leading to the last
stage of the process.
RECRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE: it is the temperature needed for achieving recrystallization in one

hour.
INFLUENCE OF THE INITIAL GRAIN SIZE: it is a very relevant parameter, since it influences directly the
resulting grain size.
The higher the original grain size is, the smaller is the tendency for moving and recrystallizing again.
RECRYSTALLIZATION STAGES: the process of recrystallization comprises three main stages:
1. Seeds nucleation
2. Seed growth
3. Final growth
FACTORS THAT AFFECT RECRYSTALLIZATION:

- The time needed
- The temperature of the process
- Purity of the alloy
- Percentage of cold work: there is a minimum value, under which crystallization does not occur

GRAIN GROWTH STAGE: in this final phase of the softening, a perfectly stable and non-stressed structure
is obtained. Small, rounded grains start to associate and form bigger grains, which grow exponentially
with time and annealing temperature. In this phase, the material reaches its degree of higher plasticity.
Time and grain growth can be related by the following expression:
d - d0 = Kt
Where:
d = Final average grain size (diameter)
d0 = Initial grain (diameter) size, for t = 0
K = constant independent with time
CMAP 5 – PHASE DIAGRAMS

EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS: materials, in their solid state, can be formed composed of several
phases. Knowing the type and combination of these phases is important, since they define many of
the properties of any crystalline material. This is why it is necessary to establish a graphical and
theoretical tool, known as equilibrium phase diagram, that allows us to describe the phases that are
present in a material. These diagrams are important because under variations in temperature,
pressure or concentration, the crystalline structure of materials suffers changes that must be studied.
They allow us to know, for all mixtures, under any temperature or pressure, the phases that are
present in the material.
Normal phase diagrams represent the corresponding phase (or phases) present in a material according
to the values of temperature, pressure and composition under which it is studied; however, solid
transformations in metals are independent from pressure.
From a phase diagram, we can get information related to:
- The different phases present at different temperatures and compositions.
- The relative quantities of the present phases.
- The solubility of an element in another one.
- The temperature at which an alloy starts to solidify, as well as the range of temperatures in
which solidification takes place.

- The temperature at which the different phases melt.
PHASE: it can be defined as the homogeneous microstructural portion of a system where a uniform
set of physical and chemical properties are shared. Alloys can have different phases in it.
The composition and crystalline structure of a phase is altered with variations in temperature, leading
to the nucleation and growth of a new phase. A phase has a defined crystalline system with a possibly
changing composition over time and temperature. The chemical constituents of a phase are the
present chemical species.
- Two phases are separated from each other by means of a surface or phase limit.
- Phases can be chemical elements, solid solutions or compounds
- Phases can be examined and studied by optical or scanning microscopes
- They are named with Greek letters (α, β, γ…)
MICROCONSTITUENT: a microconstituent is an element of a material’s microstructure that has a

distinctive and recognizable structure. This is due to the different physical and chemical properties
that a microconstituent has in relation to the system where it is found. Phase diagrams themselves do
not show their existence. Phases themselves are microconstituents. They can be formed just from
one phase or from different phases.

Steel, for example, has three main microconstituents: ferrite (white grains), cementite and perlite
(perlite, composed of grey grains, has a band structure that alternates ferrite and cementite phases).
The eutectic structure is also a microconstituent. Even though it is a mixture of two phases, it has a
lamellar structure with a determined ratio of both phases.
COMPONENT: a component is each one of the elements forming a system. For instance, in the Fe-Ni
system, iron and nickel would be the components; whereas the composition of an allow of that system
would be the amount of iron and nickel that it contains.

COMPONENT: equilibrium in a system is reached when the system is in a state of minimum energy,
with no spontaneous evolution taking part in it.
We can distinguish different types of equilibrium:
- Stable equilibrium: it occurs when the system remains stable under small changes in
temperature.
- Unstable equilibrium: it is reached at a given pressure and temperature; it occurs when an

external element makes the system evolve and develop into a different system.
- Metastable equilibrium: in this case, the system does not undergo a complete
transformation; rapid temperature changes lead to non-stable structures that cannot move
due to the difficulty of moving elements within the solid states.
EQUILIBRIUM: equilibrium in a system is reached when the system is in a state of minimum energy,
with no spontaneous evolution taking part in it.
We can distinguish different types of equilibrium:
- Stable equilibrium: it occurs when the system remains stable under small changes in
temperature.
- Unstable equilibrium: it is reached at a given pressure and temperature; it occurs when an

external element makes the system evolve and develop into a different system.
- Metastable equilibrium: in this case, the system does not undergo a complete
transformation; rapid temperature changes lead to non-stable structures that cannot move
due to the difficulty of moving elements within the solid states.
REACTIONS/TRANSFORMATIONS: they take place when there are changes in the phases of a material
(a variation in the percentage of each phase), as a consequence of a change in the conditions of the
system. These reactions are the basis for thermal treatments.
MICROSTRUCTURE: every material is composed by atoms that can be arranged in several different
ways. When atoms get together and form an organised structure, they form a vast number of crystals
that arrange in phases. The set of these phases is what we call the “microstructure” of a material, and
the variations in temperature that the material may suffer lead to changes in its microstructure.
We can find different types of microstructures:
- One phase microstructure: in this kind of phases, we find a high number of grains, all of them
sharing a same homogeneous composition.
- Two phases microstructure: in these microstructures, the composition (and in some cases
the crystalline structure too) varies from one phase to the other one.
SYSTEM: System is the name given to the substance or group of substances where physical

and chemical transformations or processes take place.
ALLOY: it is a homogeneous combination of two or more chemical elements (where at least one of
them is a metal) in order to form another element with different mechanical properties (for instance,
greater strength, resistant to corrosion…). The objective of alloying is to improve the properties of the
original elements, obtaining materials with a greater strength, a higher resistance to corrosion, more
ductility, higher conductivity…These properties will depend on the nature of the mixed elements and
their proportion.
Some of the metals that form alloys are lead, iron, aluminium, tin, copper and zinc. Alloys are very
present in our daily lives; materials like steel, brass or elements are common alloys.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://copperalliance.org.uk/about-copper/copper-alloys/brasses/
EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS DETERMINATION:
- Theoretically: for the relevant studied interval, temperature is calculated for the equilibrium free
Gibbs energy (G). For each component of the phase (or group of phases), the minimum free Gibbs
energy must be obtained.
- Experimentally: by using a material’s cooling curve, knowing the changes in length or dilatometry
of the studied sample or carrying out its microstructural study through X-ray diffraction, we can
identify the components in the solid state, the phase changes and all the data needed in order to
create a phase diagram.
BINARY SYSTEMS (PARTIAL SOLUBILITY ALLOYS): phase diagrams for partial solubility alloys provide the
following information under equilibrium:
• Present phases
• Composition for each phase
• Fraction or percentage for each phase
CHARACERISTIC LINES:
1) Liquidus line: it is the boundary between the liquid and the solid phase
2) Solidus line: it is the frontier between the complete solid phase, and a phase of both solid and liquid
character (α + L, or β + L)
3) Solvus line: it indicates the temperatures for which a solid solution (α) of A and B stops being soluble
in order to transform into two solid solutions (α) + (β)
4) Eutectic and eutectoid transformation lines: these are horizontal lines (isotherms), that represent
the region where eutectic and eutectoid transformations take place, respectively.

5) Although they are not really “lines”, the vertical axes in a phase diagram are also useful, because if
a point is located on the axis, we can deduce that the composition of the material purely belongs to a
component (100% A, for instance).
EUTECTIC BINARY SYSTEMS: in binary eutectic phase diagrams, which represent the chemical
behaviour of two immiscible (or partially miscible) metals, three monophasic regions can be
distinguished: α, β and liquid. These phases are in equilibrium along a horizontal line known as eutectic
isotherm. Moreover, three two-phase regions are present (α + liquid, β + liquid, α + β).
In these diagrams, we can also observe the presence of an invariant point, known as the“eutectic
point”.
Whenever the composition reaches the eutectic reaction, two different phases are solidifying at the
same time, forming a zebra-like structure of adjacent laminar grains that can be seen through the
microscope.
EUTECTIC REACTION CONCEPT: It is the invariant reaction that takes place at a fixed temperature
depending on the eutectic system.
EUTECTIC POINT: it is the point where, for a determined temperature and composition, the eutectic
reaction takes place. The eutectic point can be defined as the invariant point of the diagram where
the minimum temperature at which a mixture of solids A and B can melt (with a determined

composition) is reached. It can be also defined as the maximum temperature at which the
crystallization of the solute and the solvent can take place.
COOLING CURVES: pure metals and invariant reactions show a horizontal stable line for solidification
in their cooling curves; whereas binary mixtures show a straight ine with a certain slope.
THE IRON – IRON CARBIDE (Fe – Fe3C) PHASE DIAGRAM: in their simplest form, steels are alloys of
Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C). The Fe-C phase diagram is a fairly complex diagram which describes the iron-
carbon system of alloys containing up to 6.67% of carbon, and discloses the phases compositions and
their transformations occurring with the alloys during their cooling or heating.
FERRITE (ALPHA IRON): it is composed by a solid solution of carbon in alpha iron, being the carbon
present in no more than 0.022 %. Therefore, it can be considered as a pure iron. Ferrite is the softer

and malleable component of steel; it is also the most stable form of iron at room temperature.
AUSTENITE (LAMBDA IRON): Austenite is coposed by a solid solution of carbon in lambda iron. It is
only stable at high temperatures, decomposing at lower temperatures, once a certain boundary is
surpassed, into ferrite and cementite. The proportion of carbon in austenite varies from 0 to 1.76 %.
Austenite is the densest component od steels.
DELTA – FERRITE: Delta ferrite is a solid solution in delta iron. Like alpha iron, delta ferrite contains just
a small percentage of carbon. Delta ferrite is one of the "secondary phases" that can appear in stainless
steel, becoming a problem for steel, since delta ferrite increases steel's fragility and makes it less
resistant to corrosion.
Ferrite is only stable at high T, above 1394 °C, and it melts at 1538 °C.
CARBON: Iron - carbon (Fe - C) alloys can be defined as the substances obtained by the fusion of iron,
carbon and other elements such as sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen and nitrogen.

INTERSTITIAL SOLID SOLUTION: this process consists on introducing atoms in the different gaps
present between the atoms that compose a crystalline structure. The atoms that are introduced have
a much smaller size in comparison to the ones present in the structure, as in the case of a Fe-C solution,
where small C atoms are located on the interstices left on the Fe network.
IRON: iron is a silver-white malleable, ductile, magnetic and heavy metallic element. It is the most
abundant element on Earth by mass, and is vital to the occurance of many biological processes.
CEMENTITE: Cementite is a chemical compound obtained in hypereutectoid transformtions in Fe-C

alloys. More specifically, it is an iron carbide (Fe3C) containing a 6.67% of carbon.
It is the hardest and most fragile type among the steel derivatives. It crystallizes in orthorrombic
structures.
METASTABILITY: metastability stands for being chemically unstable in the absence of certain
conditions that would induce stability, but not liable to spontaneous transformation.
GRAPHITE: graphite is a blackish soft allotropic form of carbon in hexagonal crystalline form. It
conducts electricity and is used, for instance, in lead pencils, electrolytic anodes, as a lubricant, as a
moderator in nuclear reactors...
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: Aerospace and graphite: https://www.semcocarbon.com/blog/aerospace-
and-graphite
GRAY IRON: this type of cast iron presents ferrite, cementite, perlite and graphite (with a laminar
structure) in its microstructure. Due to its favourable properties (easy to handle, high resistance and
dissipation of vibration) and its low cost, grey iron is the most used type of cast iron for engineering
processes.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/9/9/552/htm
DUCTILE/NODULAR IRON: ductile or nodular iron is a kind of cast iron in which carbon is found in the
form of spheroidal, after the addition of small amounts of magnesium to iron before the process of
casting. Its chemical composition is similar to that of grey iron. It is quite ductile and has good
mechanical properties.
WHITE IRON: in white iron, all of the carbon is found as Fe3C (cementite), which makes iron become
more fragile. It is called "white iron" because its surface adopts a white tone. Its microstructure
contains ferrite, cementite and perlite. When iron cast solidifies, another microconstituent, called
"ledeburite", appears. A high cooling speed and a small percentage od carbon lead to the formation
of white iron.
MALEABLE IRON: malleable iron is obtained from white iron, after carrying out a annealing that favours
the decomposition of cementite in irregular graphite nodules. The mechanical properties of this type
of iron vary depending on the thermal treatment employed.
CAST IRON: cast iron is a commercial alloy of iron contains a high amount of carbon (in relation to thee
rest of iron alloys), around 2 to 4 % carbon, together with varying amounts of silicon, manganese and
impurities such as sulfur and phosphorus.
Cast iron is made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace. The liquid iron is poured and hardened into
ingots, which are then remelted along with scrap and alloying elements in a furnace and recast into
molds for producing a variety of products.

Cast iron is hard, brittle, nonmalleable, and incapable of being hammer-welded, but it is more easily
fusible than steel.
HIPOEUTECTIC CAST TRON: hipoeutectic cast iron is obtained by the presence of carbon in a Fe - C
alloy at a percentage lower than 4.3%.
HIPEREUTECTIC CAST IRON: hipoeutectic cast iron is obtained by the presence of carbon in a Fe - C
alloy at a percentage comprised between 4.3 and 6.7 %.
STEELS: steel, alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2 percent (with a
higher carbon content, the material is defined as cast iron). Steel keeps the properties of pure iron,
but the addition of carbon and other elemets allows steel to have beetter mechanical properties,
especially a higher resistance. This is why steel is, by far, the most widely used material for building
the world’s infrastructure and industries.
Referred to as ferrite, iron in its bcc formation is also called alpha iron in the lower temperature range
and delta iron in the higher temperature zone. Between 912° and 1,394° C iron is in its fcc order, which
is called austenite or gamma iron.
HYPOEUTECTOID STEELS: hypoeutectoid steels are those that have a carbon percentage below the
eutectoid composition (0.77% of C).Hypoeutectoid alloys are formed by a mixture of ferrite and
perlite. These kind of alloys are obtained by the following processes:

1- The alloy is in liquid phase.
2- Once the temperature goes down below the liquidus line, austenite grains begin to form, still
with liquid.
3- When temperature reaches the solidus line, all the liquid phase is transformed into austenite.
4- Below the solidus line, only an austenite phase is present.
5- The alloy reaches the ferrite boundary; once this line is passed, two phases coexist: ferrite
and austenite.
6- When the eutectoid isotherm is reached, an alotropic change takes place in iron, and perlite
is formed.
HIPEREUTECTOID STEELS: hypereutectoid steels are those that present in their composition, according
to the Fe-C diagram, a percentage of carbon (C) comprised between 0.77% and 2%. Their main
component is cementite (Fe3C), which is a hard material difficult to handle.
Hypereutectoid steel is obtained by the following procedure:

1- The alloy is in liquid phase.
2- Once the temperature goes down below the liquidus line, austenite grains begin to form, still with
liquid.
3- When temperature reaches the solidus line, all the liquid phase is transformed into austenite.
4- Below the solidus line, only an austenite phase is present.
5- The alloy reaches the cementite boundary; once this line is passed, two phases coexist: cementite
and austenite.
6- When the eutectoid isotherm is reached, an allotropic change takes place in iron, and perlite is
formed.
PERITECTIC REACTION: a peritectic reaction is a reaction where a solid phase and liquid phase will
together form a second solid phase at a determined temperature and composition.
EUTECTOID REACTION: an eutectoid reaction is an isothermal three-phase reaction in which a solid

phase (generally, a solid solution), is converted into two or more solid phases, being the number of
solids formed the same as the number of components in the system.
The eutectoid reaction is similar to the eutectic reaction, but occurs from one solid phase to two new
solid phases.
The eutectoid structure in iron is known as pearlite.

PEARLITE: pearlite is one of the steel derivatives obtained in the hypoeutectic transformation on a Fe
- C alloy. Pearlite is not a phase, but it is formed by the eutectoid mixture of two phases (ferrite and
cementite), and contains a 0.8% of carbon. Pearlite is composed by a laminar structure alternating
ferrite and cementite; this is why pearlite's mechanical properties are intermediate between those of
ferrite and cementite.
PROPERTIES OF EQUILIBRIUM PHASE DIAGRAMS:
- Phase diagrams can be classified according to the number of components that make up the system.
In that way, we find binary diagrams (2 components), ternary (3 components), quaternary (4
components) …
- The vertical axis of a phase diagram makes reference to temperature, while the horizontal one makes
reference to weight or atomic composition.
- Limit solubility: when several components or materials are mixed, we can obtain solutions (which can
be solid or liquid). The solubility limit is an indicator that tells us the maximum possible concentration
of solute atoms that dissolve at a given temperature in the solvent in order to form a solid solution.

When this limit is exceeded, a new phase or system appears.
- Total solubility: it occurs when the solute is allowed in the solution at any concentration, that is to say,
there is no solubility limit.
- Partial solubility: it takes place when the concentration of solute in a solution is limited.
- Systems go from liquid to solid forming one or more phases. Solubility can be nil, total or partial.
- We can find three scenarios for solubility:
• Total solubility in liquid state and partial in solid state
• Total solubility in liquid state and total in solid state
• Total solubility in liquid state and insolubility in solid state
BINARY ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEMS (TOTAL SOLUBILITY ALLOYS): isomorphous systems are those where
the two components A and B present whole solubility both in their liquid and solid state.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR ISOMORPHIC ALLOYS: the mechanical properties of an alloy change,
since they depend on the composition of the alloy. The higher the percentage of a material, there will
be more stressed bonds for that material and therefore, the mechanical properties of the alloy will be
improved.
It is important to choose a combination of materials that allows the alloy to acquire the best
mechanical properties. Depending on the way the atoms of the materials involved in the process are

joined (by substitution or interstitially), the bonds between them will be more or less energetic, and
the alloy will present different properties.
Properties such as resistance and hardness increase with the addition of one component, and they
will vary with temperature changes.
SPEED EFECT ON THE MICROSTRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF ISOMORPHOUS ALLOYS (CORING

EFFECT): during solidification processes of alloys, temperature is not completely homogenous. This is
a consequence of the “Coring effect”. This effect takes place when an alloy is rapidly cooled down,
solidifying in non-equilibrium conditions. The high speed of cooling down prevents the alloy from
solidifying homogeneously, leading to the formation of dendrites (grains that grow longitudinally). The
material with the highest melting point will solidify first, and then the one with the lowest melting

point; therefore, different layers of different composition will make up the final product. Chemical
composition changes, and the last solid to solidify is poorer in the element with higher melting
temperature.
This effect can be harmful for the material, since problems of corrosion may take place.
In order to solve this, homogenization annealing can be carried out. During this process, the
temperature is risen again, providing the alloy a higher resistance to corrosion.
If we analyse this effect in a phase diagram, we will observe how the “real” cooling curve of the
solidification process does not follow the ideal path of the phase diagram.
PHASE DIAGRAMS FOR BINARY SYSTEMS: they provide the following information under equilibrium:
• Present phases
• Composition for each phase
• Fraction or percentage for each phase
GIBBS LAW: in the field of chemistry and thermodynamics, Gibbs’ rule of phases describes the
algebraic relationship between the number of degrees of freedom (L), the number of phases at
equilibrium (F) and the number of chemical components that make up the system (C).
This relationship allows the calculation of the number of phases that are simultaneously at equilibrium
for a system; or viceversa, the calculation of the number of free variables on a system without breaking
its equilibrium. This relationship is:
L=C–F+2
Water, for instance, can be found in a solid, liquid or gaseous state. This means that, at the triple point
of water (where the 3 states coexist), we can find 3 phases for just one component. Applying Gibb’s
rule, we obtain that the degrees of freedom (L) for water at its triple point is zero. This is telling us that
the triple point of water is a fixed point that occurs under a specific value of pressure and temperature.
If we chose a point where two phases coexist (liquid and solid, for example), then we would obtain 1
degree of freedom for water. This means that it would be possible to maintain the microstructure of
both phases while modifying just one variable (either pressure or temperature).
In the case of choosing a point belonging to only one phase (gaseous phase, for instance), then there
would be 2 degrees of freedom. It would be possible to vary temperature keeping pressure fixed or
vice versa; vary pressure keeping temperature fixed.
TYPES OF REACTION ACCORDING TO THE DEGREES OF FREEDOM: we can classify reactions into 3 types
according to the number of degrees of freedom:
- Bivariant reaction: there are 2 degrees of freedom
- Monovariant reaction: there is just 1 degree of freedom. Changing one variable necessarily
changes the other. For instance, for boiling water (liquid + vapour phases)

- Invariant reaction: the degree of freedom is 0. 3 phases react together. This triple point is
only present at a specific pair of temperature and pressure values.
Some of the main invariant reactions in binary systems are the eutectic, eutectoid, peritectic,
peritectoid and monotectic reactions. The eutectoid and peritectoid ones take place in solid state,
whereas for the other ones to happen, there must be a liquid phase in between.
COOLING CURVE FOR BINARY ISOMORPHOUS SYSTEMS:
1) Firstly, the alloy is cooled until reaching the liquidus line. Until this point, the alloy is in a compete
liquid phase.
2) Once the liquidus line is reached, the first grains of solid start to appear.
3) In the transition between the liquidus and the solidus line, more grains nucleate and grow in size.
4) The process ends when the temperature at the intersection of that composition with the solidus
line is reached. Once this line is reached, all the grains have been formed and positioned, and the alloy
is completely solid.
5) The alloy hardens more and more as temperature continues to decrease.
* Whenever we study a point located in a single phase region, then the composition of the phase is
equal to the composition of the alloy
PHASE QUANTITIES DETERMINATION (LEVER RULE):

- According to the number of phases present in the point of the diagram we choose, we have:
• Monophase area: there is one unique phase on the entire microstructure.
•Biphase area: in this case, the procedure we must follow is known as the lever law. Applying it
over the horizontal line limited by the equilibrium lines at the desired temperature, the
percentages for each phase can be calculated.
- Lever law: it is a method that allows us to know the percentage of composition of the phases present
in an allow at a determined concentration and temperature.
The procedure consists of, firstly, establishing a horizontal isotherm (passing through the studied
point C0) between two points (Ca and CL) limited by adjacent monophase compositions. Relative
quantities for each phase vary lineally along this horizontal line. Segment lengths are inversely
proportional to phase quantities.
SOLID STATE DIFFUSION: solid state diffusion is the mechanism by which atoms move in the solid state.

THERMALLY ACTIVATED PROCESSES: the reaction rate of these processes depend exponentially on
temperature. A generic formula (known as the Arrhenius equation) is applied for these processes. It
shows the effect of a change of temperature on the rate constant, and therefore on the rate of the
reaction.
Reaction rate = C*e^(-Q/RT)
Being:
C a constant; Q the activation energy; R the universal constant for gases; T the temperature.
Once the rate for a process is known for 2 temperatures, it can be calculated for any other T, as well
as the activation energy.
We can represent this reaction rate graphically, being -Q/R its slope.
Examples of these kind of processes are plastic forming (creep), alloying in metals and those processes
that produce changes is the electrical conductivity of semiconductors.
DIFFUSION: in solid materials, diffusion is a phenomenon that happens when the atoms or molecules
of a material suffer the vibration provoked by the thermal activation, in such a way that they begin
moving and jumping into the vacuums that are always available in the material’s structure.
In the case of mixing two gases, the atoms of both gases will distribute and dissolve in an homogeneous
way. Diffusion takes place much slowly in solids than in liquids or gases.

INTERSITIAL SOLUTION: this type of atomic diffusion takes place when atoms move from a position to
an interstitial vacuum without permanently displacing the rest of atoms of the crystalline structure
from their original position. For this to occur, the size of the atoms that change from one position to
another must be small compared to that of the “fixed” atoms. For instance, atoms of hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen or carbon are capable of carrying out interstitial diffusion.
VACANT DIFFUSION: whenever an atom jumps into a different position, its movement influences the
movement of other atoms.
When the temperature of the material rises up, more vacuum spaces appear and more thermal energy
is available, so diffusion speed increases.
STEADY STATE DIFFUSION: it takes place when the diffusion speed remains constant (J = constant).
The speed of diffusion measures the flow of atoms that cross a determined surface per unit of time.

DIFFUSION COEFFICIENT (D): it depends on temperature, according to an Arrhenius function:
D = D0 * e^(-Qd/RT)
Where:
D0 = Frecuency factor independent from temperature (m2/s)
Qd = Activation energy for difussion (J/mol)
R = Constant for perfect gases (8,314 J/molK)
T = Temperature(K)
It seems logic that D depends on temperature, since the higher the vibration of the atoms as a
consequence of an increase in temperature, the higher is the diffusion.
NON-STEADY STATE DIFFUSION: non-steady state diffusion: in engineering materials, the stationary
state (state in which the conditions of the material remain constant throughout time) does not usually
take place. Instead, in most of the cases, diffusion in a non-steady state occurs, meaning that the speed
of diffusion and the gradient of concentration of the diffused substance vary with time.
Mathematically is expressed following the 2nd Fick’s Law:
dCx/dt = (d/dx)*(D*(dCx/dx))
A possible solution to this complex equation, applied for a gas that diffuses in a solid material is:
(Cx-C0)/(Cs-C0) = 1 – ferr(x/2* Dt^(1/2))
Where:
✓ Cs is the superficial concentration of the gas that diffuses in the surface
✓ C0 is the initial concentration of the solid
✓ Cx is the concentration of the element at a x distance from the surface
✓ X is the distance from the surface
✓ D is the coefficient of diffusion
✓ t is the time

✓ ferr( ) is the Gaussian error function
CMAP 6 – AERONAUTICAL ALLOYS

IDEAL SITUATION FOR THE FORMATION OF ALLOYS: the ideal situation for the formation of alloys is only
reached with a perfectly slow cooling that allows the movement of atoms in the solid state. However,
in real industrial situations, this is not usually achieved.
DENDRITIC SEGREGATION (CORING EFFECT): during solidification processes of alloys, temperature is not
completely homogenous. This is a consequence of the “Coring effect”. This effect takes place when an
alloy is rapidly cooled down, solidifying in non-equilibrium conditions. The high speed of cooling down
prevents the alloy from solidifying homogeneously, leading to the formation of dendrites (grains that
grow longitudinally). The material with the highest melting point will solidify first, and then the one with
the lowest melting point; therefore, different layers of different composition will make up the final
product. Chemical composition changes, and the last solid to solidify is poorer in the element with
higher melting temperature.
This effect can be harmful for the material, since problems of corrosion may take place.
In order to solve this, homogenization annealing can be carried out. During this process, the
temperature is risen again, providing the alloy a higher resistance to corrosion.
If we analyse this effect in a phase diagram, we will observe how the “real” cooling curve of the

solidification process does not follow the ideal path of the phase diagram.
RINGING: the ringing effect is the easiest effect to detect. It is a change in colour, which varies from the
typical perfect composition of thee alloy to a variation reaching the matrix of the alloy. Ringing can be
found in alloys undergoing peritectic transformation on solidification.
INHIBITION: the inhibition of different microstructure segregation takes place when there is a change in
the solid system of the final crystalline structure within the solid state. Under a very sudden cooling, an
inhibition of that effect takes place. This inhibition is what we call the hyperquench effect (meaning very
rapid cooling).
For instance, in the case of Duraluminium (Al-Cu), when we undergo such a reaction, microsegregation
or the precipitation of phases that should occur never happens due to this hyperquench effect.
MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATION: this is a metastable situation that happens when there is a sudden
cooling, leading to a change of the crystalline system of the alloy. For instance, in the case of iron, we
have a change from a face-centered cubic (FCC, austenite) to body-centered cubic (BCC, ferrite).
If the temperatures at which these sudden change of the crystalline system takes place, atom will not
have the time needed for reorganising themselves, so they will not reach neither the original nor the
final situation, but an intermediate structure known as martensitic structure.
Fe-C DIAGRAM. STEELSS. THERMAL TREATMENT: a thermal treatment is a process through which a solid
material undergoes one or more heating and/or cooling sequences, in order to change one or more
properties, for obtaining a better application performance.
Analysing thermal tratment of steels, starting being above the austenization temperature, once the
microstructure is homogeneous, we begin cooling it. If this cooling is very fast, we might even not obtain
martensite, but a previous structure which is very mild and does not have adequate properties. In the
case of tempering at lower ranges, that’s with media that does not take the heat so quickly (for example
oil), we will undergo a critical change of structure that is studied on the x-curves for the steel.
STEELS: steel, alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content ranges up to 2 percent (with a higher
carbon content, the material is defined as cast iron). Steel keeps the properties of pure iron, but the
addition of carbon and other elemets allows steel to have beetter mechanical properties, especially a
higher resistance. This is why steel is, by far, the most widely used material for building the world’s
infrastructure and industries.
Referred to as ferrite, iron in its bcc formation is also called alpha iron in the lower temperature range
and delta iron in the higher temperature zone. Between 912° and 1,394° C iron is in its fcc order, which
is called austenite or gamma iron.

STAINLESS STEELS: a very interesting family of steels are stainless steels. These are stainless because
they don’t corrode, or in other words, because they corrode so fast that they produce a corrosion
protection layer that inhibits further corrosion.
An example is the case of chromium, which creates a very protective layer, and has additional effects
on the different metastable changes of the iron alloys. In this case with high chromium typically we
always have austenite at every range of temperature, in other words, the minimum from 11% chromium
give us these properties.
PERLITE: perlite is one of the steel derivatives obtained in the hypoeutectic transformation on a Fe - C
alloy. Pearlite is not a phase, but it is formed by the eutectoid mixure of two phases (ferrite and
cementite), and contains a 0.8% of carbon. Pearlite is composed by a laminar structure alternating
ferrite and cementite; this is why pearlite's mechanical properties are intermediate between those of
ferrite and cementite.
CEMENTITE: Cementite is a chemical compound obtained in hypereutectoid transformtions in Fe-C

alloys. More specifically, it is an iron carbide (Fe3C) containing a 6.67% of carbon.
It is the hardest and most fragile type among the steel derivatives. It crystallizes in orthorrombic
structures.
AUSTENITE: Austenite is composed by a solid solution of carbon in lambda iron. It is only stable at high
temperatures, decomposing at lower temperatures, once a certain boundary is surpassed, into ferrite
and cementite. The proportion of carbon in austenite varies from 0 to 1.76 %. Austenite is the densest
component of steels.
DELTA FERRITE: Delta ferrite is a solid solution in delta iron. Like alpha iron, delta ferrite contains just a
small percentage of carbon. Delta ferrite is one of the "secondary phases" that can appear in stainless
steel, becoming a problem for steel, since delta ferrite increases steel's fragility and makes it less
resistant to corrosion.
Ferrite is only stable at high T, above 1394 °C, and it melts at 1538 °C.
FERRITE: Ferrite, also known as alpha iron, is composed by a solid solution of carbon in alpha iron, being
the carbon present in no more than 0.022 %. Therefore, it can be considered as a pure iron. Ferrite is
the softer and malleable component of steel; it is also the most stable form of iron at room temperature.

AERONUTICAL ALLOYS: The main alloys used for aeronautical applications are steels, because steels
have outstanding and well-known properties. The easiest ones to handle are carbon steels but there are
other ones.
In civil aviation, light alloys and composites are the main materials employed. The ones that are gaining
by far the most percentage of the plane’s structure are composites.
For instance, in a Boeing 787, 50% of the plane is made up of composites, 20% of aluminium, 15% of
titanium, 10% of steel and 5% of other materials.
Alloys are also used for turbines. These alloys must, above all, resist very high temperatures.
AERONAUTICAL ALLOYS IN ROCKETS: in these cases, the alloys and materials employed must be chosen
in order to reduce the aircraft’s payload as much as possible. (payload can be defined as the carrying
capacity of an aircraft, usually measured in terms of weight. Depending on the nature of the flight or
mission, the payload of a vehicle may include cargo, passengers, flight crew, munitions, scientific
instruments or experiments, or other equipment. Extra fuel, when optionally carried, is also considered
part of the payload.
LIGHT ALLOYS: light alloys are those alloys that present a much lower density that steels and other
materials, thus being widely employed in many engineering and industrial processes.
COPPER: Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable,
and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure
copper has a pinkish-orange color.
Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material, and as a constituent of
various metal alloys, such as sterling silver used in jewelry, cupronickel used to make marine hardware
and coins, and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This webpage talks about brass as an alloy of copper and zinc.
https://copperalliance.org.uk/about-copper/copper-alloys/brasses/
BERYLLIUM: Beryllium is the lightest member of the alkaline-earth metals of the periodic table. It is

widely used in metallurgy as a hardening agent and in many outer space and nuclear applications.
Beryllium is a steel-gray metal that is quite brittle at room temperature, and its chemical properties
somewhat resemble those of aluminium.
Beryllium is the only stable light metal with a relatively high melting point.
MAGNESIUM: Magnesium has one of the lowest densities, 2/3 of that of Aluminium. The problems it
presents is its very bad corrosion resistance and also it is flammable, whenever we put fire near to
magnesium it burns very easily, which is an additional danger especially for aeronautical applications.
Due to its very small density, when we protect the material against fire, we are very interested in using
it. All the other typical hardening by deformation or heat treatment, are possible.
The only problem being the price.
Something important is how to manufacture magnesium. We cannot manufacture it with oxygen in the
air because it might burn so we always use different types of casting without oxygen and also under
protected atmosphere.
TITANIUM: Titanium is a great material, with wonderful properties and high mechanical properties. The
only problema is its price. It has very good density. This price is due to the scarce distribution of
alluminium in the world gives us very problematic places to find it and also they’re very difficult to
transform due to the high melting temperature due to the above 1600º.
The application is much high-end due to the price where you can see the typical fighter Jets or
profesional sports applications or fancy architecture applications like the Guggenheim Museum in
Bilbao.
ALLOY 718: The known as alloy 718 is the most employed alloy for this purpose. Alloy 718 is a Nickel-
Chromium alloy,
It is very present in engineering processes thanks to its high resistance, especially to corrosion. It also
offers resistance to cracking.
Alloy 718 also offers good ductility from temperatures below zero till more than 750 º C.
It is also resistant to fatigue, this is why it is also employed for aquatic structures in the sea.
It is widely employed in the aerospace sector, for turbines, in the oil industry, valves…
SUPERALLOYS: basically, they are nickel, iron and cobalt. These form very resistant precipitates which
allow their use with good mechanical properties up to 1200 ºC. Depending on the amount of cobalt, the
temperature of worth goes up and nickel allows an easy manufacturability of the corresponding alloys.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This webpage talks about the presence of superalloys in the aerospace sector
and about the importance of the process of plating in these superalloys.
https://www.sharrettsplating.com/blog/plating-superalloys-aerospace-turbine-engines
ALUMINIUM: Aluminium alloys have very good properties, especially when they have the hardening
through age hardening and the only limitation is the low melting point 660 ºC. They have good activity
for mobility, corrosion resistance and reasonable properties when they are age hard. Aluminium's low
prices that can be seen today make it a very used material.

ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH NO ALLOYING ELEMENTS: They have at least 99.9% of purity.
Pure aluminum is relatively soft and not the strongest of metals.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH MANGANESE: the addition of manganese to aluminium increases strength
somewhat through solution strengthening and improves strain hardening while not appreciably
reducing ductility or corrosion resistance. These are moderate strength nonheat-treatable materials
that retain strength at elevated temperatures and are seldom used for major structural applications.
The most common applications for the 3xxx series alloys are cooking utensils, radiators, air conditioning
condensers, evaporators, heat exchangers and associated piping systems.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH SILICON: the addition of silicon to aluminium reduces melting temperature
and improves fluidity. Silicon alone in aluminium produces a nonheat-treatable alloy; however, in
combination with magnesium it produces a precipitation hardening heat-treatable alloy. Consequently,
there are both heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable alloys within the 4xxx series. Silicon additions to
aluminium are commonly used for the manufacturing of castings. The most common applications for
the 4xxx series alloys are filler wires for fusion welding and brazing of aluminium.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH COPPER: the aluminium-copper alloys typically contain between 2 to 10%
copper, with smaller additions of other elements. The copper provides substantial increases in strength
and facilitates precipitation hardening. The introduction of copper to aluminium can also reduce
ductility and corrosion resistance. The susceptibility to solidification cracking of aluminium-copper
alloys is increased; consequently, some of these alloys can be the most challenging aluminum alloys to
weld. These alloys include some of the highest strength heat treatable aluminum alloys. The most
common applications for the 2xxx series alloys are aerospace, military vehicles and rocket fins.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH MAGNESIUM: the addition of magnesium to aluminium increases strength
through solid solution strengthening and improves their strain hardening ability. These alloys are the
highest strength nonheat-treatable aluminium alloys and are, therefore, used extensively for structural
applications. The 5xxx series alloys are produced mainly as sheet and plate and only occasionally as
extrusions. The reason for this is that these alloys strain harden quickly and, are, therefore difficult and
expensive to extrude. Some common applications for the 5xxx series alloys are truck and train bodies,
buildings, armoured vehicles, ship and boat building, chemical tankers, pressure vessels and cryogenic
tanks.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH MAGNESIUM + SILICON: the addition of magnesium and silicon to
aluminium produces the compound magnesium-silicide (Mg2Si). The formation of this compound

provides the 6xxx series their heat-treatability. The 6xxx series alloys are easily and economically
extruded and for this reason are most often found in an extensive selection of extruded shapes. These
alloys form an important complementary system with the 5xxx series alloy. The 5xxx series alloy used
in the form of plate and the 6xxx are often joined to the plate in some extruded form. Some of the
common applications for the 6xxx series alloys are handrails, drive shafts, automotive frame sections,
bicycle frames, tubular lawn furniture, scaffolding, stiffeners and braces used on trucks, boats and many
other structural fabrications.
ALLOY OF ALUMINIUM WITH ZINC: the addition of zinc to aluminium (in conjunction with some other
elements, primarily magnesium and/or copper) produces heat-treatable aluminium alloys of the highest
strength. The zinc substantially increases strength and permits precipitation hardening. Some of these
alloys can be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking and for this reason are not usually fusion welded.
Other alloys within this series are often fusion welded with excellent results. Some of the common
applications of the 7xxx series alloys are aerospace, armoured vehicles, baseball bats and bicycle frames.
CORROSION RESISTANCE OF ALUMINIUM: Aluminum generates a protective thin oxide coating which
keeps the metal from making further contact with the environment.
In general, aluminum alloys are less corrosion-resistant than pure aluminum, except for marine
magnesium-aluminum alloys. Different types of surface treatment such as anodising, painting or
lacquering can further improve this property.
ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY OF ALUMINIUM: Aluminium is a good electricity conductor, in relation to its
weight is almost twice as good as conductor as copper. This has made aluminium the first choice for
major power transmission lines.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://sciencing.com/copper-vs-silver-wire-conductivity-5863373.html
STRENGTH AT LOW TEMPERATURES: in contrast to steel, which rapidly becomes brittle at low
temperatures, aluminum shows increased tensile strength as temperatures drop.
DUCTILITY: as aluminium is ductile and has a low melting point and density, it can be processed in several
ways in a molten condition. Its ductility allows aluminium products to be formed close to the end of the
product’s design.
PRECIPITATION HARDENING: precipitation hardening is a heat treatment process that allows the
hardening of a material due to the growth of precipitates that avoid dislocation motion.
Basically, this process involves heating a mixture of two or more components to a high temperature
(solution treatment), then cooling the mixture (hyperquenching), then heating it again to a medium
temperature, and finally cooling it again quickly to room temperature (aging). Since room temperature
is too cool for diffusion to occur rapidly, the precipitates will stop growing.
Aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium or stainless steels are some of the metals treated by
precipitation hardening.

A system can be hardened by precipitation when the phase diagram complies with, necessary but not
enough conditions:
• Maximum solubility of one component is big in the matrix.
• Solubility limit of the major component drops rapidly with temperature.
• Composition of the alloy is smaller than the maximum solubility
MICROSTRUCTURE PROPERTIES EVOLUTION: If we observe the effect of atoms when they are dispersed
or when they begin to aggregate, we can clearly see how they they have stressed the overall cell,
allowing maximum properties.
The size of the precipitates will condition the evolution of the properties of the material.
DENSITY OF ALUMINIUM: its density is 2.7 kg/m³. It is a very light metal, about a third of density of steel.
This cuts the costs of manufacturing with aluminum. Its use in aeroplanes reduces dead-weight and
energy consumption while increasing load capacity.
NON-MAGNETIC CHARACTER: aluminum is non-magnetic, making it useful for electrical shieldings as in

computer disks, dish antennas, busbars or magnet housings.
MELTING POINT OF ALUMINIUM: the melting point of aluminium is 660 ºC. It is an excellent heat
conductor. It is a superb heat sink for many applications that require heat to be drained away rapidly,
such as in computer motherboards and LED lights.
CRYSTAL SYSTEM: its crystal system is FCC (face centered cubic).

CMAP 7 – POLYMERS

POLYMERS: Polymers can be described as the set of macromolecules that result from the arrangement
of other kind of molecules called monomers. The formation of polymers happens as a consequence of
a reaction provoked by the monomers that integrate it; this reaction is known as polymerization.
Most polymers are organic, that is to say, they have a carbon base, and then other elements (such as
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur…) are added.
STRESS-STRAIN: The stress-behaviour of the different polymers is way beyond the range of metals. If we
compare a series of parameters common to polymers and metals, we can see how:
- As for the Young's modulus (E): metals have a much higher Young modulus in relation to polymers
(1:80). A higher Young’s modulus indicates the material is more rigid; therefore, from this
comparison, we can deduce the greater elastic character of polymers. Crystallinity leads to a
higher value of the Young’s modulus.
- As for the overall fracture resistance (σ): in this case, we obtain that metals are quite more
resistant to fracture than polymers (relation of 1:40).
- As for the rate of elongation, we can see that polymers are able of elongating at a higher rate than
metals (20:1), they have a higher elastic performance.

In the case of the tensile test, we see how elastomers, fragile polymers like thermoset polymers or
thermoplastic polymers, show different reactions with stress. As for elastomers, at normal room
temperature, they can undergo great elongations. And in the last case, in the thermosets, they are very
fragile, something very similar to ceramics although with a smaller fracture limit.
GLASSY POLYMERS: When the stress applied over a single-crystal fibre polymer is reduced and strain
increases, the polymer undergoes a plastic deformation, the covalent bonds stretch and a glassy
polymer originates
SEMI-CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS: Semicrystalline polymers are those containing a structure of both

crystalline and amorphous character. The different semicrystalline polymers react to stress in a way by
which the different crystallites move relative to one another. The chains which interconnect the
crystallites react similarly to what we find in the grain borders of metals. However, the chains in this
non-crystallite status have further mobility and plasticity and allow the movement of the crystallites and
their alignment.
ELASTOMERS: In the case of elastomers, it is the interconnecting bonds which are changing their
possible length which allows a free arrangement of the different chains. There is a reversible stretching
of covalent bonds.
TYPICAL ELASTOMERS: The best known families of elastomers are Butyl, Fluoroelastomer, Natural
rubber, Neoprene, Nitrile, Silicone and Styrene polymers. All the different services are related to how
they resist the different solvents. Whenever they have strong bonds and different branches, they are
more resistant to, for example, oil and its different derivatives, also to water and more aggressive
environments.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/elastomer-sealing-solutions-essential-
todays-critical-vickers
THERMOPLASTICS: There are different glass transition temperatures for the rearrangement of the
chains in thermoplastics. We pass from a glassy character (where temperature is below the glass
transition temperature (Tg)) to a more rubber-like structure (where temperature is slightly higher than
Tg), then to a viscous structure (where temperature is slightly lower than the melting temperature of
the polymer (Tm)) and finally, a liquid character is reached when the external temperature is so high
(higher than Tm ) that the interconnecting secondary bonds are broken.
It is important to remark that below the glass transition temperature (Tg), polymers can be considered
as resistant but fragile materials. Above Tg , the polymer starts to present a grater plasticity and
toughness.

The reaction with negative temperature or minus zero temperature in Celsius is always towards fragility
because the movement of the chains is much more limited not allowing the movement and the
rearrangement of the chains and so breaking under higher stress.
TYPICAL THERMOPLASTICS: Typical families of thermoplastics are polyamide, polymethyl methacrylate,

polypropylene, polystyrene, low density polythene and high density polythene.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: Thermoplastic composites for aerospace applications | Engineering360
(globalspec.com)
THERMOSETS: Thermosets do not react very much to stress, only depending on the reticulation. They
can move a little bit according to the partial movement which is allowed for the chains.
TYPICAL THERMOSETS: The best-known thermosets are epoxies, which are used practically for many
different uses due to their excellent properties. Then we have melamines which facilitate the creation
of laminates. We also find polyester resins.
Another family with a great range of application is the urea formaldelhyde, which has very good
electrical resistance, being hard and strong.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://www.norplex-micarta.com/aerospace-composites/
DEFORMATION MECHANISMS: The basic mechanisms for deformation are:
- Elastic stretching of the covalent bonds present in chains.
- Non-linear and/or plastic deformation: it happens as a consequence of the unwrapping of chains.
- Plastic deformation: relative glide of chains by breaking and remaking secondary bonds.
When a tensile stress is applied to a polymer, the different chains that compose its structure first try to
align themselves, and then necking appears due to the condensation of that polymer. Once this is
happening and affecting, it affects the overall length of the material in a much different way as crystals
in the case of metals, where the effect of necking is more localized.

POLYMER FRACTURE: failure in polymer components can occur at relatively low stress levels, far below
the tensile strength because of four major reasons: long term stress or creep rupture, cyclic stresses or
fatigue, the appearance of micro cavities and crack propagation.
In the case of cross-linked structures (elastomers and thermosets), covalent bonds break.
TIME FOR LOAD APPLICATION: The time that a determined polymer is going to stand a determined load
and temperature should always be taken into account. When we are applying loads at a high
temperature over long periods of time, a viscous flow is produced, leading to a stress relaxation of the
polymer. This relaxation allows the movement of the chains and consequently, a permanent elongation.
In each case a module can be set, as a function of time and temperaturethe time that a determined
polymer is going to stand a determined load and temperature should always be taken into account.
When we are applying loads at a high temperature over long periods of time, a viscous flow is produced,
leading to a stress relaxation of the polymer. This relaxation allows the movement of the chains and
consequently, a permanent elongation. In each case a module can be set, as a function of time and
temperature.
VISCOESLASTICITY: viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic
characteristics when undergoing deformation. Synthetic polymers, wood, and human tissue, as well as
metals at high temperature, display significant viscoelastic effects.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: Sorbothane as a viscoelastic material:
https://www.sorbothane.com/what-is-viscoelastic-material.aspx
CREEEP MODULUS: for a fixed load at a given temperature, the creep modulus quantifies the increase
in elongation.
RELAXATION MODULUS: For a fixed deformation at a given temperature, the relaxation modulus
quantifies the decrease in stress.
TEMPERATURE: As for the temperature influence, for thermosets, crystalline thermoplastics and
amorphous thermoplastics, increases in temperature lead to a higher free volume in the polymeric
structures and a weakening of intermolecular forces. Strain, however, increases at higher temperatures,
as well as elasticity. These effects are more accentuated in amorphous thermoplastics, whereas their
effect is lower in thermosets.
Therefore, increases in temperatures lead, on the one hand, to a decrease in the Young’s modulus (E)
and in resistance (R), and in the other hand, to an increase in ductility.
PLASTICS: Plastic is a material extremely present in our daily lives. Plastic is probably used in more
technologies and processes than any other type of material. It is composed of polymers, and contains
additives like fibers, fillers or pigments, ready for being industrially processed. The terms “plastic” and
“polymer” are often considered as synonyms.
They have an important role in engineering and in more in particular, in the aerospace industry, since

they are really lightweight materials and present very useful properties. Moreover, plastics are part of
aerogels and composites such as FRP, CM or MMC.
MACROMOLECULES: Macromolecules are compounds, usually organic ones (although they can also be
inorganic), with a high molecular mass. They play an imortant role in biological proceses and in the
chemical industry. Macromolecules are usually the result of the polymerization of smaller units called
monomers. The succession of macromolecules results in the formation of polymers.
SYNTHETIC MACROMOLECULES: They derive from small organic molecules. Nylon, polyethylene or
bakelite are examples of synthetic polymers. The advantage they present over natural polymers is that
they are cheaper and present, in general, better properties.
POLYMERIC STRUCTURE: The structure of all polymers regards the links created by carbon and other
elements. These are covalent bonds and they arrange themselves sparsely according to the structure of
sharing electrons, forming chains. These chains are linked between each other by Van der Waals forces,
hydrogen bridges or hydrophobic interactions. Polymers have high molecular masses.
NATURAL MACROMOLECULES: They are derived from plants and animals. Starch, cellulose, silk, cotton
or DNA are examples of natural polymers.
MONOMERS: A monomer can be defined as a molecule with a small molecular mass that links to other
monomers by means of chemical bonds (usually covalent bonds), leading to the formation of superior
units called macromolecules.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: https://socratic.org/questions/how-are-monosaccharides-related-to-
monomers-and-polymers
SYNTHESIS: Polymer synthesis, also known as polymerization, is the process by which monomers (small
molecules with low molecular weight) are covalently bonded to form a (usually long) polymer chain or
network.
POLYMERIC MOLECULES: The groups of polymers have the possibility of branching and reconnecting
according to the 3D geometry of the basic carbon chain. So the monomer breaks the original bonds
according to the different radicals and grows into an undetermined number of elements.
Polymeric molecules are not straight, due to the tetrahedral configuration of single C bonds. The reason
is that these single C bonds can rotate 360º and bend or coil in 3D, leading to folded chains or ball-like
structures. The molecular entanglements and random coils that originate will determine the elastic
character of the polymer, as well as the material’s properties (thermal, mechanical…).

CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION: Condensation Polymerization is a form of a step-growth
polymerization where smaller molecules or monomers react with each other to form larger structural
units. Monomers that are joined by condensation polymerization have two functional groups. When
they react they reconnect each other and create condensation, meaning they deliver a small byproduct,
usually a water molecule, and in some cases a methanol molecule.
ADDITION POLYMERIZATION: Addition polymerization is a polymerization method that consists of

several phases, in which different processes take place.
INTIATION PHASE: The first phase is known as initiation. In this phase, a substance known as initiator
(unstable molecule), breaks up into two reactive free radicals. Next, the free radical initiator attaches to
a monomer molecule, originating a new free radical, known as activated monomer.
GROWTH PHASE: Then there is a phase of propagation or growth. A newly formed activated monomer
attacks and attaches to the double bond of another monomer molecule. This addition occurs again and
again, forming chains containing thousands to millions carbon atoms. In all polymers we have a range
of possible length for the chains.
TERMINATION PHASE: The last phase is the termination phase, where the reaction stops. This can
happen in two ways: either by joining two growing chains, or by linking a chain with an initiator.
POLYMERIC STRUCTURE: The structure of all polymers regards the links created by carbon and other
elements. These are covalent bonds and they arrange themselves sparsely according to the structure of
sharing electrons, forming chains. These chains are linked between each other by Van der Waals forces,
hydrogen bridges or hydrophobic interactions. Polymers have high molecular masses.
POLYMERIC MOLECULES: The groups of polymers have the possibility of branching and reconnecting
according to the 3D geometry of the basic carbon chain. So the monomer breaks the original bonds
according to the different radicals and grows into an undetermined number of elements.
Polymeric molecules are not straight, due to the tetrahedral configuration of single C bonds. The reason
is that these single C bonds can rotate 360º and bend or coil in 3D, leading to folded chains or ball-like
structures. The molecular entanglements and random coils that originate will determine the elastic
character of the polymer, as well as the material’s properties (thermal, mechanical…).

HOMOPOLYMERS: If only one type of monomer is present in the structure, we have homopolymers.
There is only a repeating unit that repeats along the chain. An example is polyethilene.
POSITION OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS: The classification in this case depends on how the different
monomers are connected, on the position of functional groups.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS: There are some functional groups which take part in chemical reactions during
process of polymerization. The main ones are: alcohol, aldehydes, ketones, acids, ethers, esters, amides
and amines. All of them integrate different families of polymers and can be classified into different
groups.
COPOLYMERS: If there is more than one type of monomer present, then we are talking about a
copolymer.
RANDOM COPOLYMERS: If two different monomer types are combined with a random positioning,
without following a specific pattern, then we have random copolymers.
ALTERNATING COPOLYMERS: If two types of polymers alternate their presence in the chain, we get an
alternating copolymer.
GRAFTED COPOLYMERS: If smaller portions of a monomer are added or grafted to a main chain of
another monomer, then we have a grafted copolymer.
POSITION OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BONDS: The molecular structure of a polymer can vary
depending on the position of primary and secondary bonds. In that way, we have linear, branched,
crosslinked and reticulated polymers.
It is important to remark that these structures are not always present in a “pure” way, but intermediate

or branched connections between different structures are also possible.
LINEAR POSITION: The most typical structure is the linear polymer, consisting on a simple chain with
few branches.
BRANCHED POSITION: They present an overall main direction for growth, but with many different small
branches.
CROSS-LINKED POSITION: In this case, main polymer chains are interconnected to each other by means
of covalent bonds located in determined parts of the chain.
RETICULATED POSITION: A 3D mesh, completely connected at many levels by covalent bonds, is

established.
PROCESSING: For thermosets, crystalline thermoplastics and amorphous thermoplastics, increases in

temperature lead to a higher free volume in the polymeric structures and a weakening of intermolecular
forces.
Therefore, increases in temperatures lead, on the one hand, to a decrease in the Young’s modulus (E)
and in resistance (R), and in the other hand, to an increase in ductility.
THERMOPLASTICS: These polymers have long linear chains linked by secondary bonds. At room
temperature they can be deformed, and when they are heated, they melt and acquire an almost liquid
character, presenting the possibility of being moulded. Then, once they are shaped, they can be cooled
down again, recovering their solid character.
Thanks to their versatility and easiness of reuse, thermoplastics have become the most popular type of
polymers.
DEGREE OF CRYSTLLINITY: Another concept related to how the different chains intertwine is crystallinity.
We should understand crystallinity in polymers as a way of folding the chains over themselves and
establishing what we call crystallites. Obviously, they are not perfect crystals, but they are more
condensed states of the polymer where there is a more or less regular positioning of carbon chains and
the different branching elements.
The order (or disorder) of the macromolecules that form a polymer has to do with the possibility of
packing these chains, being largely determined by a series of variables that influence their geometry
(mainly length of the chain, easiness of rotation of the main bonds in the chain, the number of branches
and the intermolecular bonds between chains. Control over these variables, however, is difficult, since
amorphous fractions coexist with crystalline ordered ones.
Depending on the degree of crystallinity, we can find different types of polymers:
- Crystallinity ≥ 90 % : crystalline polymers
- Low % of crystallinity: amorphous polymers
- Intermediate solutions: semicrystalline polymers
Whenever cristallinity is achieved we can measure it with the thermogravimetric analysis of the thermo

analysis of the evolution with temperature and it gives us a peak when they are condensating, whenever
the different chains are formed in the crystals, they crystalize and we obtain finally a more condensed
polymer that gives us air resistance, more stability and all related properties to molecular weight.
FACTORS INFLLUENCING CRYSTALLINITY: There are some factors that influence the effects of
crystallinity:
- Symmetry of the chains: it is not always achieved, since voluminous groups make the organization
of the structure more difficult.
- Intensity of secondary bonds: the presence of strong secondary bonds favour crystallinity.
- Flexibility of the main chain: a reduced flexibility leads to an increase in the tendency to
crystallinity.
- Cooling rate: it influences the percentage of crystallinity (the higher the speed, the lower the
crystallinity).
SPHERULITES: The crystals formed usually have a spherical shape, this is why they are called
“spherulites”.
EFFECTS OF CRYSTALLINITY: Crystallinity is observed as:

- Slight increase in density: the density of the structure increases greatly with compactness, making
the same mass occupy less volume.
- Loss of transparency: produced as a consequence of the reflections produced by crystals in
multiple directions.
- Increased resistance to solvents: due to the fact that solvents attack a less compact structure.
- Defined melting temperature.
- Better mechanical properties after stretching, since it produces an alignment of the chains.
THERMOSETS: In the case of thermosets, the crosslinking of the different chains is reticulating the whole
solid, so once they solidify, they are set and can only be broken by burning the polymer. Their
crosslinking degree is much higher than in the case of elastomers. In contrast to thermoplastic polymers,
once hardened, thermosets cannot be melted for reshaping. They are, however, more rigid polymers
than thermoplastics.
ELASTOMERS: In the case of elastomers, the chains are interconnected with crosslinks, but not many,
not like in the reticulated case. This provides an important degree of elasticity, in other words, the ability
of the different chains to stretch and come back together. Thanks to this elasticity, elastomers can
extend from a 5 % to a 700 % of their original length, depending on the material. Unlike thermoplastics,
elastomers cannot be melted, since they pass to a gaseous state before this happens.

AMORPHOUS: Thermosets are typically amorphous because the three dimensional network that is
formed by crosslinking inhibits the movement of polymer chains to pack or crystallize. The disordered
structure results in a non-uniform response to the application of heat. As a result, we observe a much
more gradual softening over a wider temperature range.
Amorphous thermoplastics do not feature a melting transition at all as they do not have any crystallinity.
CMAP 8 – COMPOSITE MATERIALS

COMPOSITE MATERIALS: composites are something that has always been with us through nature. By
definition, a composite is a material formed by two or more materials, with different shape and chemical
composition, and insoluble. The goal of using composites is to obtain a synergetic combination,
achieving a series of optimized properties which were not offered by the combined materials previously.
Typical examples of natural composites are wood, uniting lignine and cellulose fibers; and bones in the
human body, with collagen and hidroxi apacite.
STRUCTURE: In general we can define a composite or multiphase material that is obtained artificially by
chemical bonding, so there must be a connection between the different materials or phases.
MATRICES: One of the materials that make up a composite acts as a matrix, being the supporting
element. The matrix of a composite can be of different types depending on the material it is made of: if
it’s a metal, metal matrix, if it’s ceramic, ceramic matrix and if it is a polymer, polymeric matrix.

METAL MATRIX (MMC): An example of this kind of matrix could be an aluminium matrix, reinforced with
alumina.
CERAMIC MATRIX (CMC): An example of this matriz could be alumina (Al2O3) reinforced with silicium
carbide (SiC).
POLYMERIC MATRIX (PMC): This is the most common type of matrix among engineering processes and
applications. Composites incorporating this matrix are considerably more lightweight than composites
using ceramic ore metal matrices. The most representative examples of composites employing this
matrix are Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRP), Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) and
Aramid Fiber Reinforced Polymers (AFRP).
FIBER REINFORCEMENT: The second phase or material acts as a reinforcement of the composite.
PROPERTIES PRESENTED BY MATERIALS INTEGRATING COMPOSITES: the materials integrating a

composite incorporate properties synergetically. The objective of "joining" them is attained when the
composite they form offers better properties than the combined materials individually.
Composites help us to optimize different properties and also the performance of materials. Typical
examples are increased stiffness, low weight, mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, resistance to
stress, design felxibilty, durability…The final properties will depend on the original properties of the
phases, the proportion of the different components, their geometry and how the different phases are
interacting.
COMPOSITES IN AEROSPACE: The advantages that composites offer thanks to their properties are clear:
they can withstand much higher stress than individual materials, they show typically low weight and
other functional properties such as resistance to corrosion, design flexibility, durability and the ability
to be specific under certain direction.
All these benefits make composites a great option in terms of application in the aerospace sector and
many other engineering fields.
Airbus airplane A-350 is an example of how important composites are in this sector, since around 37%
of the plane is based on composites. Moreover, in many cases, the use of composites offers several
advantages such as increased capacity, less fuel consmption, fewer harmful emissions...

WHISKERS/STAPLE FIBER – BASED COMPOSITES: Whiskers are long and very thin fibres, totally
crystalline. They are usually several hundred nanometers long, but only 10 to 12 nanometers in
diameter. An example are cellulose fibers.
PARTICULATE – BASED COMPOSITES: Particulate fibers are kind of equiaxial particles, presenting
equitative dimensions in each of the axis x,y,z.
MONOFILAMENTS – BASED COMPOSITES: Monofilaments are kind of fibres, but with a greater
diameter.
PARTICLE REINFORCEMENT: The particles employed for this reinforcement are generally larga particles,
providing a consolidated dispersion.
FIBER REINFORCEMENT: Fiber reinforcement can be carried out in two ways:
- Continuous: with an alligned distribution of fibers
- Discontinuous: with a well-alligned or random distribution of fibers
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES: The structural composites are those mixing different fibers and directions
in order to obtain the basis for this sandwich structure, which usually incorporates a core of extruded
aluminium which is filled in with a polymer. The most relevant types of structural composites are
laminates and sandwich panels. In both of them, several homogeneous composite materials are
combined (layers of fiber and reinforcement material alternate). Also, the geometry of the layers takes
an important role in these materials.
LAMINATES: Laminates are composed by 2D fibers grouped in different layers. These fibers are oriented
in different directions in each layer. These kind of structural laminates are employed when the strength
of the material is required to be present in different directions. In that way, it will be possible to deal
with loads coming from different orientations. The strength of the material in a determined direction is
lower than it would be with the fibers oriented all in that same direction; however, the overall strength

is higher, since it ensures strength in every direction.
An example of application of laminates are skis, as well as many other sports equipment.
VOLUME FRACTION: The volume fraction of a laminate can be calculated by dividing the fibres volume
by the overall volume of the composite:
Vf = Fibers volume / Overall composite volume
SANDWICH PANELS: When we mix composites with different pre-shaped materials or preform, we can
obtain the so-called sandwich panels. In these panels, we can distinguish an inernal core, surrounded
by an adhesive and an external sheet. The presence of this core is what marks the difference between
sandwich panels and laminates. On the one hand, this low-density core is responsible for resisting
deformation perpendicular to the plane of the face and withstanding shear stresses. On the other hand,
external faces must withstand any transverse bending stress actng over them.
The main advantage of sandwich panesls is that they present a very low weight and show high bending
resistance. This is why they are used for external façades, ceilings, walls...
The core is usually made up of Foamed polymers, rubbers, low density wood, honeycomb...
The external sheets surrounding the core are generally Aluminium alloys, stell, titanium or fiber
reinforced plastics.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This is the webpage of a sandwich panel manufacturer from Turkey, which
explains the different application areas of this structural composite, as well as its composition and
advantages:
https://teknopanel.com/en-us/product-detail/sandwich-panels-about-sandwich-panels
CONTINUOUS PHASE: Typically, a composite is formed with a continuous phase, known as the matrix.
The purpose of this phase is to keep the dispersive phase in place, transfer stress to the it and protect
it from the environment. This is why this phase must present a ductile character. The continuous phase
also acts as a barrier to prevent crack propagation. The continuous phase surrounds the fiber
reinforcement of a composite (which can be made up of whiskers, particules, monofilaments...).
MATRIX: The matrix of a composite has a series of structural functions. It allows the fibers to be held
together, and protects them against compression, providing stability to the material. Whenever a load
is applied to the composite, it is transmitted to the fibres, distributing the load. The matrix also protects
against other external agents such as humidity, chemical attacks, etc. The matrix is the continuous
material constituent which encloses the composite and give it its bulk form. It may be a metal, a ceramic
or a polymer (among the polymer matrices, the polyester matrix is a very popular one, as well as the
epoxy resins, very employed in the aerospace industry).
DISPERSE PHASE: The matrix phase surrounds another phase which is discontinuous and referred to as
the dispersed phase. The purpose of the dispersed phase typically depends on which material type it is
composed of:

• Metal dispersive phases are typically used to increase yield strength, tensile strength, and/or
provide stability over the life of the product.
• Ceramic dispersive phases are typically employed to produce materials which are able to resist
fracture.
• Polymer dispersive phases are typically used to increase the modulus of elasticity, yield
strength, tensile strength, and/or provide stability over the life of the product.
The dispersed phase is sometimes called reinforcement if it is a phase added to increase strength.
Alternatively, it is known as a filler if it is added for other purposes (for example, to bulk up the matrix
at low cost without altering the properties of the composite). There may also be a phase to create a
bond between layers or phases, sometimes called the interface.
FIBERS: A fiber is, by definition, a natural or man-made substance that is significantly longer than it is
wide. Fibers are commonly used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering
materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight
polyethylene. Fibers are responsible for supporting and carryingthe load, this is why they need to
present good mechanical propereties. They are usualy stiff, strong and not too heavy.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural fibers.
However, for applications such as clothing, natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort, over
their synthetic counterparts.
HYBRID COMPOSITES: Hybrid composites are those composites which have a combination of two or
more reinforcement fibres. This combination makes it possible to obtain better yield strength, stiffness,
high strength to weight ratio and other mechanical properties.
The most common hybrid composites are carbon-aramid reinforced epoxy (which combines strength
and impact resistance) and glass-carbon reinforced epoxy (wich gives a strong material at a reasonable
price).
Hybrid composites are usually used when a combination of properties of different types of fibres wants
to be achieved, or when longitudinal as well as lateral mechanical performances are required.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: this webpage shows an article of 2012 that explains the development of a
nanocomposite that can be used as a filling for cavities in teeth and as an agent to kill remaining bacteria
in a tooth.
https://spectrum.ieee.org/nanoclast/semiconductors/nanotechnology/nanocomposite--fillings-kill-
bacteria-and-regenerate-the-tooth
LAMINATE REINFORCED COMPOSITES: One of the most common forms of composite materials is the
crossplied laminate, in which a sequence of unidirectionally reinforced “plies” of two or more different
materials are laid up one over the other. These plies are typically thin (usually around 0.2 mm) sheets
of collimated fibers impregnated with a thermosetting polymer matrix material, and they may have
different orientations.

When a composite material will be subjected to high stresses in different directions, several layers are
used aligning the fibers accordingly.
The layers are stacked and then bonded together, so that the orientation of the high resistance direction
varies in each of the layers
TEXTILES TECHNOLOGY: In this case, the first thing we should know about fibers is that they have to be
woven into a textile. There are many types of textiles. The most complex are the most resistant ones for
loads that can come from anywhere.
FIBER INCORPORATION: The fiber incorporation is met through different compounds, meaning the
textiles have to be put together and held by the polymer which is introduced. The alignment of the fiber
is important for the final application, since it will have to coincide exactly with how the composite is
used.
Compounds with aligned fibers are anisotropic. The maximum resistance is achieved along the direction
of alignment (meaning the efficiency is at its maximum value). In the transverse direction, however, the
reinforcement fibers are almost nonexistent. Therefore, rupture usually occurs at relatively low tensile
stress (since the efficiency is 0). Applied loads in other directions show resistance between both ends.
For example, if we do not have reinforcement in a perpendicular direction, there is no efficiency in that
direction. As a consequence, the applied loads will be clearly distributed among these ends of the
material.
PREFORMS: The typical way of introducing solid textiles is by means of preforms. Preforms can be
defined as 3D reinforcement systems designed to eliminate delamination problems. These problemes
tend to occur when a crack or fracture evolves in the interphase of the composite (which is the weakest
part of a laminate). The fibers are incorporated in the thickness direction, preventing these problems to
take place. In such a way, greater resistance to both impact and fatigue is achieved.
FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES: These kind of composites are very important because they offer a
wide range of useful mechanical properties, which vary depending on the type of fiber.
ARAMID (KEVLAR): Kevlar is a synthetic polyamide (meaning the material’s ring-like aromatic molecules
connect together to form long chains). Kevlar was one of the first high-strength synthetic fibres to gain
acceptance in the fiber-reinforced plastic industry, thanks the high resistance that its fibres offer and
the difficulty they offer to be fractured. Its synthesis is carried out by a solution of N-methyl-pyrrolidone
and calcium chloride, by means of a polymerization involving several steps. This reaction takes place at
low temperatures. Kevlar was discovered by the Polish-North American chemist Stephanie Kwolek, who
firstly synthesized this polyamide in 1965.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: Scrolling down from the middle of the webpage, an interesting explanation of

why Kevlar is so good as an antiballistic material is presented:
https://www.explainthatstuff.com/kevlar.html
USES OF KEVLAR: Kevlar is a material with many application in different fields:

- Protection and safety elements such as bulletproof vests, knifeproof body armors, the strings of
archery bows, Formula 1 helmets…
- As for their application in vehicles, they are used for the reinforcement in car tires, in car brakes, and
in car, boat, and even aircraft bodies.
- It is even used in buildings and structures, although not as the primary structural material, because of
its relatively low compressive strength.
MAIN PROPERTIES OF KEVLAR: Some of the main properties of composites-grade Kevlar are the
following:
- It is lightweight
- Has excellent specific tensile strength (over 8 times greater than that of steel wire)
- It is highly resistant to impact and abrasion
- Unlike most plastics it does not melt: it's reasonably good at withstanding temperatures, and
decomposes only at about 450°C
- Very low temperatures have no effect on Kevlar: “no embrittlement or degradation" takes place
down to −196°C (−320°F)
- Kevlar can resist attacks from many different chemicals, although long exposure to strong acids
or bases will degrade it over time
- It is not affected by moisture
ECONOMY OF KEVLAR: One of the drawbacks of Kevlar is costly to produce, involving a complex process
of spinning fibers and the use of sulfuric acid.
GLASS: The vast majority of all fibers used in the composites industry are glass fiber. Glass fibers are the
oldest and, by far, the most common reinforcement used in nonaerospace applications to replace
heavier metal parts.
Glass filaments are supplied in bundles known as strands, which are collections of continuous glass
filaments.
FIBERGLASS: Glass fibers are employed as a reinforcing material for many polymer products; to form a
very strong and relatively lightweight fibre-reinforced composite material called glass-reinforced plastic

(GRP), also popularly known as "fiberglass". This structural material product contains little or no air or
gas, it is denser. Fiberglass is perfect for every day projects and parts that are not expect to need the
added strength and durability of the higher priced fabrics.
ECONOMY OF GLASS FIBER: Glass fiber is considerably less expensive than carbon fiber. Glass fiber is
more cost effective. Moreover, since many manufacturers are often looking for a durable material with
some flexibility, there are more producers of glass fiber than carbon fiber, which is also a factor in the
current market.
MAIN PROPERTIES OF GLASS FIBER: Glass fiber, when compared to other fibers such as polymers and
carbon fibre, has very similar mechanical properties. Although not as strong or as rigid as carbon fiber,
it is significantly less brittle when used in composites. The main properties of glass fiber are the
following:
• High tensile strength: glass fiber offers a greater tensile strength than steel wire of the same
diameter; at a lower weight.
• High heat resistance: glass fabrics retain 50% of room temperature tensile strength at 700°F, 25%
at 900°F, a softening point of 1,555°F and a melting point of 2,075°F.
• Fire resistance: glass fibers' composition makes them a non-combustible product.
• Good thermal conductivity: glass fibers are great thermal insulators because of their high ratio of
surface area to weight.
• Good chemical resistance: glass fibers are highly resistant to the attack by most chemicals.
• Outstanding electrical properties: glass fibers have a high dielectric strength and low dielectric
constant.
• Durability: they are not prone to agents like sunlight, fungi or bacteria.
• Dielectric permeability: this property of fiberglass makes it suitable for electromagnetic windows
• Non-rotting: fiberglass does not rot and remains unaffected by the action of rodents and insects.
USES OF GLASS FIBER: Glass fiber composites are present in the automobile industry, also as an elemnt
of ships, in pipelines, buildings, etc.
NEW CARBON MATERIALS FOR COMPOSITES: Other possibilities for reinforcing a composite include all
the different families of fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes...as well as the new forms or shapes
where we are incorporating the fibers in a nano-scale. Thanks to these elements, we can achieve much
better properties for composites under extremely low weight. However, these kind of carbon-based
materials are difficult to manufacture, and their price is high.
CARBON FIBER: Carbon fiber is made of thin, strong crystalline filaments of carbon that is used to
strengthen material. Carbon fiber can be thinner than a strand of human hair and gets its strength when
twisted together like yarn. Then it can be woven together to form cloth and if needed to take a
permanent shape, carbon fiber can be laid over a mold and coated in resin or plastic.
➔ EXAMPLE OF APPLICATION: This webpage explains the crucial role that carbon fiber composites have in the
Formula 1 discipline, and why it is an element that provides both safety and comfort to the drivers:
www.3mb.asia/how-carbon-fiber-composites-play-a-significant-role-in-formula-one-racing/

ECONOMY OF CARBON FIBER: Long strands of carbon fibers are very difficult and expensive to
manufacture, while glass fiber processes much easier. This is why carbon fibers are more expensive. In
addition, the process of producing carbon fiber is much more intensive than in the case of glass fiber,
and the market reflects that cost.
MAIN PROPERTIES OF CARBON FIBER: Carbon fibers offer many interesting properties which make them
a very popular material in a wide range of applications. The most remarkable among these properties
are:
- Rigidity
- Resistance to corrosion
- Resistance to fatigue
- Good tensile strength, although brittle (more than glass fibers)
- Resistance to fire, since it is not flammable
- Low coefficient of thermal expansion
- Lightweight
USES OF CARBON FIBER: Carbon fiber is present in a wide range of applications in different sectors:
- The automobile industry: for bumpers, tyres, exhaust pipes, silencers…
- The aerospace industry: for some airplane components
- The nautical industry: for boats, yachts…
- Electronics and robotics
- Sports elements: bikes, helmets, tennis rackets…
- As music equipment: instruments, covers, accesories…
- Medicine: for prosthesis, chrutches…
INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH: Fiber length can be determined by knowing the fiber diameter (d), the
tensile strength of this fiber (σ) and the shear strength (T) of the matrix:
L = (σ*d)/T
SHORT FIBERS:
- They are often chosen for supporting multidirectional loads.

- Employed for high production speeds.
- They are manufactured with cheap manufacturing technology, when there is no other alternative

LONG FIBERS:
- They are employed if the effort to support is unidirectional.
- They are manufactured with higher quality manufacturing technologies and shorter productions than
in the case of short fibers.
- Anisotropic unidirectional or woven fibers are preselected
RANDOM DISCONTINUOUS FIBERS: They follow a particular rule of mixtures, similar to the case of
continuous fibers aligned.
A parameter K is established for these kind of fibers, and it is useful to determine their efficiency. This
parameter is normally between 0.1 and 0.6, depending on fiber volume fraction and the Ef/Em ratio.
CONTINUOUS AND ALIGNED FIBERS: Compounds with aligned fibers are anisotropic. The maximum
resistance is achieved along the direction of alignment (efficiency = 1).
In the transverse direction, the reinforcement fibers are almost nonexistent: rupture usually occurs at
relatively low tensile stress (efficiency = 0).
Applied loads in other directions show resistance between both ends.
RULE OF MIXTURES: The mechanical behaviour of the complex composite for design follows the rule of
mixtures, in other words, instead of establishing a model which explains the random application of these
fibers, we apply a statistical medium simply by calculating the different volumes of the elements, and
so assessing their properties. Obviously, this is only an approximation but is a good first analysis of the
final properties.
DISCONTINUOUS AND ALLIGNED FIBERS: They are widely used, although the reinforcement is lower
than with continuous fibers.

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TEMA 1.

-Ceramicas y vidrios. Lentes-> dureza y transparencia

-Polímeros. Plasticos (polímero + algo mas)

DE LA ESTRUCTURA DE LAS PROPIEDADES.

Reservados todos los derechos.

CIENCIA E INGENIERIA DE MATERIALES

INGENIERIA DE MATERIALES: disciplina de

CIENCIA DE MATERIALES : estudia la relación entre las microestructura y las

TIPOS DE MATERIALES. FAMILIAS

MATERIALES CERÁMICIOS. VIDRIOS

Reservados todos los derechos.

DE LA ESTRUCTURA A LAS PROPIEDADES.

Se muestran los planos y direcciones de alta densidad atómica.

Existen 12 combinaciones plano/dirección de alta densidad para el aluminio y

DIFERENCIA DE COMPORTAMIENTO MECÁNICO: aluminio magnesio

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- Proceso de selección de una aleación metálica

TENDENCIAS EN EL USO MATERIALES.

Reservados todos los derechos.

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TEMA 2. ESTRUCTURA DE LOS MATERIALES

Equilibrio interatómico: Mínimo de energía potencial interatómica.

Reservados todos los derechos.

separate a particle from a system A BE

of particles or to disperse all the

· LOCALIZED ELECTRONS - NO CONDUCTIVITY

- >Se forman cationes que componen una

Reservados todos los derechos.

CELDA UNIDAD: disposición espacial mínima que define

DETERMINAR UN VECTOR O UN PLANO

Reservados todos los derechos.

• CÚBICA SIMPLE (SC)

• CUBICA CENTRADA EN EL CUERPO (BCC)

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ESTRUCTURA HEXAGONAL (HCP)

Organización: a-b-a a 2R.

COMPARACIÓN ENTRE FCC Y HC

Reservados todos los derechos.

• Estructura más sencilla

Nº coordinación = 8 Cociente entre radios = 0.939

CLORURO SÓDICO (NaCl)

Nº Coordinación = 6 Cociente entre radios = 0.564

SULFURO DE ZINC (Blenda, ZnS)

Nº coordinación = 4 Cociente entre radios = 0.402

PEROUSKITA (tipo ABX3)

Presenta pero par propiedades electromecánicas interesantes

Reservados todos los derechos.

La distancia entre estremos es menor a la longitud total

Algunos polímeros presentan regiones de cadenas con una

Reservados todos los derechos.

Reservados todos los derechos.

NUCLEI POSITIONS: refers to the disposition of the atoms.

TEMA 3. IMPERFECIONES CRISTALINAS

• SOLUCIÓN SÓLIDA: se forma cuando al adicionar átomos de soluto a un material disolvente, se da

Reservados todos los derechos.

Los átomos de impurezas o soluto reemplazan a los átomos del disolvente

Si no se cumple esta Regla solamente es posible conseguir solubilidad parcial

VACANTE: posición atómica desocupada en la red cristalina

Se producen en procesos de solidificación a mayores temperaturas y vibraciones térmicas; en procesos de