Impact Maraicher BF
Impact Maraicher BF
Impact Maraicher BF
ABSTRACT
In Burkina Faso, market gardening practices involve the intensive use of mineral and organic fertilizers
and pesticides. This thesis focuses on the sustainability of market gardening production systems through a
characterization and typology of market gardening practices and their short and long-term impacts on soils
in Burkina Faso. To this end, a survey was carried out among 300 producers in 10 market gardening areas
in BoboDioulasso. The physical, chemical and biological properties of 69 soil samples from the Kuinima site
were then analyzed. Currently, no farmer is engaged exclusively in organic or agro-ecological production.
Four types of farms have been defined on the basis of their size and practices. These farms have common
assets such as the widespread practice of crop rotation and associations and organic fertilization, but
also specific challenges to be met in terms of the use of pesticides and rational fertilization. Analysis and
fractionation of soil organic carbon (SOC) revealed an asymptotic increase in total carbon content from
9 g C kg-1 for uncultivated control plots to 28 g C kg-1 after 60 years of production. On the other hand,
the carbon content of the < 20 µm fraction has increased linearly over time. There is a strong contribution
of micro-aggregates to the physical stabilization of SOC, favored by short-range-order (SRO) iron and
aluminum oxides and/or metal-humus complexes. In addition, the analysis of various biological indicators
revealed an improvement in the biological properties of the soil as a function of the number of years of
cultivation,...
Ouedraogo, Rayangnéwendé Adèle. Impact des pratiques de gestion de la fertilité sur la qualité des sols sous
cultures maraîchères à Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). Prom. : Bielders, Charles ; Kambiré, Fabèkourè
Cédric http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/223427
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Décembre 2019
ii
En Hommage à mon défunt père K. Fidèle Ouédraogo
iii
iv
Remerciements
Selon un adage Burkinabè, « une seule main ne ramasse pas la farine ». Cela
pour dire que ce travail n’aurait jamais pu aboutir sans le précieux concours
et le soutien de plusieurs personnes morales et physiques, à qui je voudrais
traduire en ces lignes toute ma gratitude.
v
encouragements. Son implication personnelle a permis la réalisation des
travaux sur le terrain et au laboratoire. J’ai bénéficié de ses critiques et son
apport à ce travail a été très utile. Je voudrais lui traduire toute ma
reconnaissance et mes remerciements.
A ma défunte co-promotrice Dr. Kadydia SANON, qui était très
impliquée dans le déroulement de cette thèse et était déterminée à
m’accompagner jusqu’au bout. Je retiens d’elle une femme humble, aimable
et battante. Je voudrais, avec cette thèse que nous avons initiée ensemble, lui
dire merci et lui rendre hommage.
Au Pr. Roger NEBIER, Délégué général du CNRST et coordonnateur
Sud du Projet PARADE, qui a mis à ma disposition les moyens nécessaires
pour la réalisation des activités et a toujours veillé au bon déroulement de cette
thèse. Je le remercie très sincèrement.
Au Pr. Bas van WESEMAEL et au Dr. Caroline CHARTIN, qui m’ont
accueillie dans leur laboratoire pour le fractionnement et l’analyse du carbone.
Ils ont veillé à la qualité scientifique de cette étude à travers leurs orientations
et critiques. Merci pour leur soutien inestimable.
Au Dr. Laurent COURNAC, qui a accepté de m’accueillir dans son
laboratoire à Dakar pour qu’ensemble, nous puissions explorer le volet sur
l’activité biologique des sols maraîchers. Il a mis à ma disposition le plateau
technique du LMI-IESOL pour mes travaux. Il a également suivi ce travail
avec beaucoup d’attention, à travers ses critiques et orientations. Je lui dis un
très grand merci ainsi qu’à toute l’équipe du LMI-IESOL.
Au Pr. Irénée SOMDA, en plus d’être celui qui a initié mes premiers
pas à la recherche durant mon ingéniorat, m’a accueillie dans son laboratoire
pour mes expérimentations. Il a contribué, à travers ses orientations, au bon
déroulement de ces activités, tout en mettant à ma disposition les moyens
matériels. Qu’il soit assuré de ma gratitude.
Au Pr. Marnik VANCLOOSTER, pour avoir accepté de présider le
jury et pour son accompagnement. Aux Pr. Bruno DELVAUX, Pierre
BERTIN et Bernard TYCHON pour l’intérêt porté à mon travail et pour leurs
suggestions très précieuses. Je vous adresse à tous mes sincères
remerciements.
vi
Au Dr. Madeleine KONKOBO qui n’a cessé de me soutenir par ses
conseils et encouragements tout au long de ce travail et aux Dr. Hadou HARO
et Dr. Schemaeza BONZI pour leurs critiques et orientations. Je vous remercie
du fond du cœur.
Aux techniciens, Idrissa SAVADOGO (IRSAT) ; Sié Amoro
OUATTARA et Mamourou OUATTARA (INERA) ; Sébastien FRANÇOIS,
Marco BRAVIN et Anne ISERENTANT (UCLouvain) ; Moustapha SANE,
Mahécor DIOUF, Lamine DIENG, et Amadou DIOP (LMI-IESOL) pour
l’appui technique considérable. Je vous remercie du fond du cœur.
Mes remerciements vont également :
- au personnel administratif de l’UCL, en particulier Mme Carine DE
MEYER, Mme Danisa ZAPPARATA, Mme Gabriella BIDEGAIN et Mme
Myriam CHEVIGNE pour tous les services rendus et pour leur sympathie ;
- aux chercheurs du GERU, et plus particulièrement Pr. Sébastien
LAMBOT, Pr. Mathieu JAVAUX , Aimé Heri KAZI, Jean-Baptiste GOT,
Raed FEHRI, Pierre SOSNOWSKI, Mokrane KADIR, Issoufou
OUEDRAOGO, Yacouba OUEDRAOGO, Axelle KOCH, Pierre
TOVIHOUDJI, Damien DELFORGE, Victorine DJAGO, et Kaijun WU pour
toutes ces années passées ensemble dans la convivialité et le soutien mutuel ;
- aux braves producteurs de la province du Houet et aux guides pour
leur accueil, leur disponibilité, leur convivialité et pour la qualité des
informations qu’ils m’ont fournies ;
- à mes supérieurs hiérarchiques, Dr. Ignaces MEDAH, Mme
Christine KERE, Mr Moussa WEREME, Dr. Emmanuel NANEMA, Dr.
Hagrétou SAWADOGO et à l’ensemble de mes collègues, au personnel
administratif de l’IRSAT et du CNRST pour leur soutien permanent et leurs
conseils ;
- à mes Camarades et amis doctorants Félix et Oumarou pour le
parcours que nous avons fait ensemble dans la convivialité et à tous les
masterants et stagiaires du projet PARADE pour leur appui ;
- aux Drs. Jeremy ROUAMBA, et Boalidio TANKOANO, Mme
Hélène MILLOGO, Mr. Drissa CISSE, et Mr. Jean Claude MAKI MATESO
pour leur appui dans les aspects de cartographie ;
vii
- à mes amis Marie-France OUEDRAOGO, Arahama TRAORE,
mariettou SISSAO, Assiata TIENDREBEOGO, Léa ILBOUDO, Sabine
DOAMBA, Fatimata SABA, Justine DEMBELE, Yvette SONDO, Mariam
DIAKITE, Romaine KONSEIGA, Jeurôme YAMEOGO ; Abel BULGO,
Yves OUEDRAOGO, Hermane MALGOUBRI, Lambert ZONGO, Adama
OUATTARA, Parfait TAPSOBA, Korotimi KONE, Mathilde TRAORE et
tous mes amis doctorants de LMI-IESOL (Dakar) en particulier Rokaya,
Rachelle, Binta, Hermione, Espoir, Gildas et Paul pour leur amitié, leur
soutien et encouragement et pour tous les services rendus ;
-à mon cousin Abbé Innocent OUEDRAOGO pour son soutien et à
tous les étudiants Burkinabè à Louvain-la-Neuve pour la fraternité et la
convivialité.
-à Oriane ROSSI, au couple RAES (Bernard et Marie- Agnès) et à
Mme Odette SNOY pour leur amitié, leur soutien et pour tout leur service qui
ont rendu mon séjour agréable en Belgique.
-à mes chers et tendres parents, Feu papa Fidèle, et maman
Scholastique. Ils ont su m’apprendre, avec beaucoup d’amour et d’affection,
les valeurs essentielles. Ils me couvrent toujours de leurs prières et
bénédictions. Ils ont toujours su me donner la force d’avancer à travers leurs
conseils et encouragements. A toi Maman, merci d’avoir veillé sur mon bébé
durant mes longs moments d’absence. A toi papa, qui rêvait de voir ce moment
mais qui malheureusement m’a quittée une année avant, je viens te rendre
hommage avec cette thèse. Merci pour ton intercession et ta protection.
-à tous mes oncles et tantes, en particulier tontons Denis et Joachim,
tantes Suzane, Laurentine, Christiane, Marguerite et Martine et à la famille
BAGBILA (Alexandre et Anne) pour leur amour et leur soutien permanent
depuis mon enfance.
-à mes jeunes frères et sœurs Mauricia, Victor et Pélagie et ma cousine
Nadège, pour leur soutien permanent, leur encouragement et pour avoir été
toujours à mes côtés. Que ce travail leur serve de référence
-à mes beaux-parents papa K. Vincent de Paul et maman Colette
OUEDRAOGO pour leur amour, leur compréhension, leurs encouragements
et leurs bénédictions qui m’ont donné la force d’aller jusqu’au bout. Je
viii
remercie également tous mes beaux-frères et toutes mes belles sœurs pour leur
grande assistance.
-à Bibata GUERE qui m’a apportée un appui inestimable pour la garde
de mon bébé et l’affection qu’elle lui a portée, pendant mes activités de terrain.
-à mon très cher époux Florent OUEDRAOGO, qui a toujours su me
donner les forces nécessaires à travers sa grande attention, son esprit critique,
ses paroles réconfortantes, son soutien permanent et sa patience. Avec notre
très chère et courageuse fille Urielle, vous avez consentit beaucoup de
sacrifices durant mes longues périodes d’absence. J’en suis profondément
touchée.
-à toutes les nombreuses personnes qui m’ont soutenue et que je n’ai
pas pu citer, qu’ils trouvent ici le témoignage de ma profonde gratitude.
Pour terminer, je voudrais dire ceci : « La vache ne finira jamais de remercier
la prairie, car demain, elle aura encore besoin de son fourrage ».
ix
x
Résumé
Au Burkina Faso, la culture maraîchère implique une utilisation intensive de
fertilisants minéraux et organiques et de pesticides chimiques, et ce dans une
logique de maximiser les rendements. Cette thèse s’intéresse à la durabilité
des systèmes de production maraîchers à partir d’une enquête auprès de 300
producteurs dans 10 sites maraîchers à Bobo-Dioulasso. L’étude d’impact à
court et à long terme de ces pratiques sur les sols a ensuite été focalisée sur le
site de Kuinima à travers une analyse des propriétés physiques, chimiques et
biologiques de 69 échantillons de sols issus de parcelles différenciées par leur
durée de mise en culture. Aucun agriculteur ne pratique actuellement une
production exclusivement biologique ou agro-écologique. Quatre types
d’exploitations ont été définis sur base de leur superficie et de leurs pratiques.
Ces exploitations présentent des atouts en commun comme la pratique
généralisée de la rotation, de l’association des cultures et de la fertilisation
organique, mais aussi des défis spécifiques à relever en termes d’usage des
pesticides de synthèse et de fertilisation raisonnée. L’analyse et le
fractionnement du carbone organique du sol (COS) a révélé une augmentation
asymptotique de la teneur en carbone totale, de 9 g C kg-1 pour les parcelles
témoins non cultivées à 28 g C kg-1 après 60 années de production. Par contre,
la teneur en carbone de la fraction stable < 20 µm a augmenté linéairement au
fil du temps. On note une forte contribution des micro-agrégats à la
stabilisation physique du COS, favorisée par les oxydes de fer et d'aluminium
amorphes et/ou les complexes métal-humus. Par ailleurs, l’analyse de
différents indicateurs biologiques a révélé une amélioration des propriétés
biologiques du sol en fonction de la durée d’exploitation, favorisé par la teneur
en carbone labile du sol. Enfin, on note une amélioration de la qualité générale
du sol en fonction de la durée d’exploitation, qui est la plus marquée dans la
composante chimique, puis biologique et enfin, physique. Cette amélioration
de la qualité du sol semble en grande partie attribuable à l’augmentation de la
teneur en carbone du sol consécutif aux apports conséquents d’amendements
organiques. Malgré cette tendance positive, des efforts devront être faits pour
un usage plus raisonné des intrants.
xi
Abstract
In Burkina Faso, market gardening practices involve the intensive use of
mineral and organic fertilizers and pesticides. This thesis focuses on the
sustainability of market gardening production systems through a
characterization and typology of market gardening practices and their short
and long-term impacts on soils in Burkina Faso. To this end, a survey was
carried out among 300 producers in 10 market gardening areas in Bobo-
Dioulasso. The physical, chemical and biological properties of 69 soil samples
from the Kuinima site were then analyzed.
Currently, no farmer is engaged exclusively in organic or agro-ecological
production. Four types of farms have been defined on the basis of their size
and practices. These farms have common assets such as the widespread
practice of crop rotation and associations and organic fertilization, but also
specific challenges to be met in terms of the use of pesticides and rational
fertilization.
Analysis and fractionation of soil organic carbon (SOC) revealed an
asymptotic increase in total carbon content from 9 g C kg-1 for uncultivated
control plots to 28 g C kg-1 after 60 years of production. On the other hand,
the carbon content of the < 20 µm fraction has increased linearly over time.
There is a strong contribution of micro-aggregates to the physical stabilization
of SOC, favored by short-range-order (SRO) iron and aluminum oxides and/or
metal-humus complexes. In addition, the analysis of various biological
indicators revealed an improvement in the biological properties of the soil as
a function of the number of years of cultivation, favored by the labile carbon
content of the soil. Finally, there has been an improvement in soil quality as a
function of the duration of exploitation, which is most pronounced in the
chemical, then biological and finally physical component of soil quality. This
improvement in soil quality appears to be largely due to the increase in soil
carbon content as a result of large inputs of organic amendments. Despite this
positive trend, efforts will have to be made to make a more rational use of
inputs.
xii
Table des matières
Remerciements……………………………………………………………..v
Résumé……………………………………………………………………..xi
Abstract……………………………………………………………………xii
Table des matières……………………………………………………….xiii
Liste des figures………………………………………………………….xvii
Liste des tableaux………………………………………………………...xxi
Liste des annexes………………………………………………………..xxiii
Sigles et abréviations…………………………………………………….xxv
Chapitre 1…………………………………………………………………...1
Introduction………………………………………………………………...1
1.1 Contexte et justification ........................................................................ 1
1.1.1 Importance socio-économique du maraîchage ............................... 1
1.1.2 Pratiques phytosanitaires et risques liés ......................................... 2
1.1.3 Pratiques de fertilisation et leur effet sur l’environnement ............ 3
1.1.4 Besoin de caractériser les pratiques ............................................... 4
1.1.5 Impact des pratiques sur le sol ....................................................... 6
1.2 Hypothèses et objectifs ......................................................................... 8
1.2.1 Hypothèses de recherche................................................................ 8
1.2.2 Objectifs ......................................................................................... 9
1.3 Aperçu de la thèse ............................................................................... 10
Chapitre 2………………………………………………………………….13
Matériels et méthodes……………………………………………………..13
2.1 Zone d’étude ....................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Situation géographique et généralités .......................................... 13
2.1.2 Contexte climatique ..................................................................... 14
2.1.3 Hydrographie ............................................................................... 16
2.1.4 Les sols ........................................................................................ 17
2.2 Mode d’échantillonnage ..................................................................... 19
2.2.1 Sélection des champs et échantillonnage des sols ....................... 19
Chapitre 3 :…………………………………………………………….......23
xiii
Caractériser la diversité des exploitations maraîchères de la région de
Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) pour faciliter leur transition agro-
écologique………………………………………………………………….23
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 23
3.2 Matériels et méthodes ......................................................................... 25
3.3 Résultats .............................................................................................. 27
3.3.1 Caractéristiques sociodémographiques des maraîchers ............... 27
3.3.2 Pratiques culturales ...................................................................... 27
3.3.3 Perception des producteurs de l’impact de leurs pratiques .......... 35
3.3.4 Typologie des producteurs en fonction des pratiques .................. 36
3.4 Discussion ........................................................................................... 39
3.5 Conclusions......................................................................................... 43
Chapitre 4………………………………………………………………….45
Short and long-term impact of urban gardening on soil organic carbon
fractions in Burkina Faso…………………………………………………45
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 45
4.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 48
4.2.1 Study area .................................................................................... 48
4.2.2 Fields selection and soil sampling ............................................... 48
4.2.3 Soil analysis ................................................................................. 48
4.2.4 Data analysis ................................................................................ 50
4.3 Results................................................................................................. 51
4.3.1 General characteristics of soil and organic amendments ............. 51
4.3.2 Factor explaining the total organic carbon variability ................. 52
4.3.3 Effect of shaking and sonication on fractions mass proportion ... 56
4.3.4 Factors explaining the organic carbon fractions variability ......... 57
4.4 Discussion ........................................................................................... 64
4.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 70
Chapitre 5………………………………………………………………….73
High-input market gardening operations improve soil biological activity
in Bobo Dioulasso (Burkina Faso)………………………………………..73
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 73
5.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 75
xiv
5.2.1 Study area .................................................................................... 75
5.2.2 Field selection and sampling ........................................................ 76
5.2.3 Soil analysis ................................................................................. 76
5.2.4 Data analysis ................................................................................ 78
5.3 Results................................................................................................. 79
5.3.1 Soil biological activity indicators ................................................ 79
5.3.2 Relationship between biological indictors and other soil properties
.............................................................................................................. 83
5.3.3 Principal Component Analysis of all variables ............................ 89
5.4 Discussion ........................................................................................... 91
5.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 95
Chapitre 6……………………………………………………………….....97
Short- and long-term effect of market gardening on soil quality……....97
6.1 Introduction......................................................................................... 97
6.2 Materials and methods ........................................................................ 99
6.2.1 Study area and Sampling ............................................................. 99
6.2.2 Measurements on bulk soil samples .......................................... 100
6.2.3 Evaluation of soil quality index ................................................. 102
6.2.4 Statistical analysis ...................................................................... 104
6.3 Results............................................................................................... 104
6.3.1 Chemical, biological and physical characteristics of the soil .... 104
6.3.2 Selection of indicators................................................................ 107
6.3.3 Effect of cultivation on soil quality index .................................. 113
6.4 Discussion ......................................................................................... 117
6.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 123
Chapitre 7………………………………………………………………...125
Conclusions générales et perspectives…………………………………..125
7.1 Revue de la méthodologie................................................................. 125
7.2 Résumé des principaux résultats ....................................................... 126
7.3 Limites de l’étude ............................................................................. 128
7.4 Perspectives ...................................................................................... 128
7.4.1 Perspectives pour la recherche ................................................... 128
xv
7.4.2 Perspectives pour les acteurs du développement ....................... 129
Références bibliographiques…………………………………………….131
Annexes…………………………………………………………………...xvii
Publications et conférences………………………………………………xli
Biographie………………………………………………………………...xlv
xvi
Liste des figures
Figure 1.1. Cadre général de notre étude. Les cadres rectangulaires font
référence à des résultats, alors que les cadres ovales font référence à la
méthodologie. ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.1. Situation géographique de la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso .............. 14
Figure 2.2. Les 3 zones climatiques du Burkina Faso sur base de la
pluviométrie moyenne de 1971 à 2000 (Direction nationale de la
météorologie) (PANA, 2003). ...................................................................... 15
Figure 2.3. Diagramme ombro-thermique de Bobo-Dioulasso en 2018.
Source : climate-data.org. ............................................................................. 16
Figure 2.4. Principaux types de sol et cours d’eau dans la province du Houet
(Bobo-Dioulasso) .......................................................................................... 18
Figure 2.5. Localisation et durée de mise en culture des parcelles maraîchères
échantillonnées sur le site Kuinima à Bobo Dioulasso ................................. 20
Figure 2.6. Vue aérienne du site de Kuinima (haut) et agrandissement sur une
partie du site (bas) (source : Google Earth, 2018). Les ronds blancs indiquent
les parcelles qui étaient exploitées our la culture maraichère au moment des
prélèvements de sols. Les symboles roses indiquent la position des parcelles
témoins, non exploitées pour la culture maraîchère...................................... 21
Figure 3.1. Situation géographique des sites d’étude dans la province du Houet
...................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.2. Fréquence des cultures maraîchères (% des exploitations) en
fonction du type de périmètre maraîcher. Fruits : melon, fraises. Légumes
feuilles : feuilles de patate, épinard, niébé, oignon, menthe, oseille, amarante.
Racine/tubercule: pomme de terre, betterave, navet. .................................... 28
Figure 3.3. Exemples d’associations de cultures. (a) = choux-gombo-oseille ;
(b) = tomate-laitue ; (c) = poivron-laitue-aubergine ..................................... 30
Figure 3.4. Exemple d’enchainement des cultures sur une même parcelle au
cours d’une année de production. A= association culturale ; AR = association
culturale dû au chevauchement des cultures (culture en relais) .................... 31
Figure 3.5. Quantités annuelles moyennes (et écart-type) de N, P et K
apportées par ha de maraichage sous forme organique ou minérale (a) et
xvii
quantités de N apportées par ha et par cycle de quelques cultures (b) en milieu
urbain, semi-urbain et rural. .......................................................................... 32
Figure 3.6. Proportions de N (a, b, c), P (e, f, g) et K (h, i, j) totaux apportées
sous différentes formes en milieu urbain (a, e, h), semi-urbain (b, f, i) et rural
(c, g, j) de la province du Houet. .................................................................. 34
Figure 4.1. Relative variable importance of co-variates in total organic carbon
(Ctot) variance explanation by conditional inference tree model (Ctree). The
vertical dashed line indicates the mean relative variable importance. Feo + Alo
= sum of oxalate extractable contents of iron and aluminum; Alt.diff = altitude
difference with respect to the river; Clay + FS = clay and fine silt content
determined by textural analysis; Prod_per = production period; Qom = Mass
of organic amendment added during the previous year (dry matter). ........... 54
Figure 4.2. Relationship between total organic carbon content (Ctot) and the
oxalate-extractable iron and aluminum content (Feo + Alo).......................... 55
Figure 4.3. Evolution of the total organic carbon content (Ctot) in market
garden plots as a function of the number of years of cultivation .................. 56
Figure 4.4. Proportion of particles < 20 µm (individual particles and micro-
aggregates < 20 µm in size) as affected by the extraction method. N= 24 ... 57
Figure 4.5. Correlation between observed and predicted C content in the < 20
µm fraction after sonication. ......................................................................... 58
Figure 4.6. Relative variable importance of co-variates in variance explanation
of the C content in the > 20 µm fraction after shaking (a) and sonication (b)
and of the C content in the < 20 µm fraction after shaking (c) and sonication
(d) by means of conditional inference tree models (Ctree). The vertical dashed
lines indicates the mean relative variable importance. Alt.diff = altitude
difference with respect to the river; Clay + FS = clay and fine silt content
determined by textural analysis; Prod_per = production period; Qom = Mass
of organic amendment added during the previous year (dry matter). ........... 59
Figure 4.7. Evolution of total organic carbon content (Ctot) and the C content
in the < 20 µm fraction after shaking (C<20-sh) and sonication (C<20-so) in
market garden plots according to the number of years of cultivation. .......... 60
Figure 4.8. Relationship between the C content in the < 20 µm fraction
(C<20µm) (a) or the C content in the > 20 µm fraction (C>20µm) (b) after
xviii
shaking and sonication and the oxalate extractable iron and aluminum (Feo +
Alo) contents in market garden plots. ............................................................ 61
Figure 4.9. Evolution of the oxalate-extractable Feₒ + Alₒ content as a function
of the number of years of cultivation. ........................................................... 62
Figure 4.10. Relationship between the C content in the < 20 µm fraction
(C<20µm) after shaking or sonication and the clay and fine silt content
determined by textural analysis (Clay + FS)................................................. 63
Figure 5.1. Evolution of enzymatic activities as a function of the number of
years of cultivation: betaglucosidase (a), phosphatase (b), fluorescein di-
acetate (FDA) (c), urease (d), and geometric mean of enzyme activities (GME)
(e). ................................................................................................................. 80
Figure 5.2. Evolution of basal respiration (a), microbial biomass carbon
(MBC) (b), total organic carbon (c), and C/N ratio (d), as a function of the
number of years of cultivation ...................................................................... 81
Figure 5.3. Evolution of NH4+ (a), NO3- (b), total nitrogen (Ntot) (c), as a
function of the number of years of cultivation.............................................. 82
Figure 5.4. Evolution of geometric mean of enzyme activities (GME) (a) and
basal respiration (b) according to the C>20µm fraction. .............................. 85
Figure 5.5. Evolution of phosphatase activity (a), urease activity (b),
geometric mean of enzymes activities (c), and basal respiration (NO3-) (e)
according to the total nitrogen content.......................................................... 86
Figure 5.6. Evolution of enzymatic activity per unit of total organic carbon as
a function of the C<20µm / C>20µm ratio: betaglucosidase (a), phosphatase
(b), fluorescein di-acetate (FDA) (c), urease (d), and geometric mean of
enzyme activities (GME) (e)......................................................................... 87
Figure 5.7. Evolution of specific biological indicators per unit of total organic
carbon according to C<20µm / C>20µm: basal respiration (a), microbial
biomass carbon (b), NH4+ (c) and NO3-(d).................................................... 88
Figure 5.8. Projection of the variables on the first two axes of the principal
component analysis (PCA): soil characteristics and biological indicators (a),
soil characteristics and biological indicators per unit of microbial biomass (b).
...................................................................................................................... 90
xix
Figure 6.1. Evolution of the soil chemical (a), biological (b) and physical (c)
quality indexes as a function of the number of years of cultivation. N = 69 for
(a) and (b); N = 18 for (c). .......................................................................... 114
Figure 6.2. Evolution of the global soil quality index (a) and mean soil quality
index (b) as a function of the number of years of cultivation. N = 18. ....... 115
xx
Liste des tableaux
Tableau 3.1. Fréquence des principaux types d’associations culturales en
milieux urbain, semi-urbain et rural.............................................................. 29
Tableau 3.2. Teneurs en éléments fertilisants (N, P, K) des différents types de
fumures organiques rencontrés dans les sites maraîchers de la province du
Houet (moyenne±eccart-type). ..................................................................... 33
Tableau 3.3. Proportion des producteurs percevant un impact négatif de leurs
pratiques maraîchères sur le sol, l’eau et les cultures ................................... 36
Tableau 3.4. Caractéristiques des différentes classes d’exploitations basées sur
la typologie des pratiques culturales. Norg/Ntot = rapport azote organique /
azote total; IFT = Indice de fréquence de traitements phytosanitaires. ........ 38
Tableau 4.1. Descriptive statistics of some soil parameters of the market
garden fields.................................................................................................. 51
Tableau 4.2. Correlation matrix between soil and site characteristics (N = 69).
Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05). Details
on the level of significance of the correlation are provided in Appendix C. 53
Tableau 5.1. Correlation matrix between biological activity and soil
characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p
< 0.05). Details on the level of significance of the correlation are provided in
Appendix D ................................................................................................... 84
Tableau 6.1. Selected chemical, biological and physical characteristics of the
market garden fields.................................................................................... 106
Tableau 6.2. Correlation matrix between soil characteristics. Pearson’s r
coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05). Details on the level
of significance of the correlation are provided in Appendix E. .................. 108
Tableau 6.3. Result of principal component analysis of soil chemical
indicators of the market garden fields, to define the soil chemical quality index
(SQIchem). ..................................................................................................... 109
Tableau 6.4. Result of principal component analysis of soil biological
indicators of the market garden fields, to define the soil biological quality
index (SQIbiol). ............................................................................................ 110
Tableau 6.5. Result of principal component analysis of soil physical indicators
of the market garden fields, to define the soil physical quality index (SQIphys).
.................................................................................................................... 111
xxi
Tableau 6.6. Result of principal component analysis of chemical, biological
and physical soil quality indicators of the market garden fields, to define the
global soil quality index (SQIglobal). ............................................................ 112
Tableau 6.7. Correlation matrix between soil chemical (SQIchem), biological
(SQIbiol) and physical (SQIphys) quality indexes of the market garden fields and
the number of years of cultivation years). Bold numbers are statistically
significant (P < 0.05). ................................................................................. 116
xxii
Liste des annexes
Annexe A : Fiche d’enquête pour la typologie des pratiques maraichères
.................................................................................................................. xviii
Annexe B : Liste des pesticides utilisés dans les exploitations maraîchères
..................................................................................................................xxxii
Annexe C: Correlation matrix between soil and site characteristics (N = 69).
Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05). Below
the diagonal, the level of statistical significance of the correlation is indicated
as follows: ns: non-significant, *: p < 0.05, ** : p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001.
................................................................................................................. xxxvi
Annexe D: Correlation matrix between biological activity and soil
characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p
< 0.05). Below the diagonal, the level of statistical significance of the
correlation is indicated as follows: ns: non-significant, *: p < 0.05, ** : p <
0.01, ***: p < 0.001. ...............................................................................xxxvii
Annexe E : Correlation matrix between soil characteristics. Pearson’s r
coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05). Below the diagonal,
the level of statistical significance of the correlation is indicated as follows:
ns: non-significant, *: p < 0.05, ** : p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001. ............. xxxviii
Annexe F : Evolution du rapport C<20 µm / C>20 µm en fonction du nombre
d’années d’exploitation ............................................................................ xxxix
xxiii
xxiv
Sigles et abréviations
xxv
MEF : Ministère de l’Economie et des Finances
Mg : Magnésium
N : Azote
N2O : Oxyde Nitreux
Na : Sodium
NH3 : Ammoniac
NH4+ : Ammonium
NH4OAc : Ammonium Acetate
NO3- : Nitrate
Ntot : Total Nitrogen
OMA : Organo-Mineral Associations
P : Phosphore
PANA : Programme d’Action National d’Adaptation à la variabilité
et aux changements climatiques.
PARADE : PARticipative Agroecological DEvelopment
PAWC : Plant Available Water Capacity
PC : Principal Components
PCA : Principal Component Analysis
pH : Potentiel Hydrogène
PIB : Produit Intérieur Brut
p-NPP : para-Nitro-Phényl Phosphate
POM : Particulate Organic Matter
QCO2 : Metabolic Quotient
Qmic : Microbial Quotient
RMSE : Root Mean Square Error
RPD : Ratio of Prediction to Deviation
RRMSE : Relative Root Mean Square Error
RUAF : Resource Centre on Urban Agriculture and Food Security
Si : Silicium
SOC : Soil Organic Carbon
SOM : Soil Organic Matter
SQI : Soil Quality Index
SRO : Short-Range-Order
TCD : Thermal Conductivity Detector
USDA : United States Department of Agriculture
xxvi
Chapitre 1
Introduction
1
création de nouvelles activités rémunératrices, l'acquisition de biens
d'équipements et manufacturés, la contribution à la sécurité alimentaire,
l’accès à la santé et à l'éducation (Bognini, 2006). Il contribue à plus de 3%
au PIB du pays (MAH, 2011).
Malgré les multiples avantages liés au maraîchage, ce secteur est miné par de
nombreuses contraintes d’ordre biotique et abiotique. Parmi les contraintes
biotiques, la pression parasitaire constitue la contrainte majeure, entrainant
ainsi une réduction des rendements pouvant atteindre 90% (Cariglia, 2007).
Cette pression parasitaire a entraîné une consommation croissante de
pesticides. Pourtant, au Burkina Faso, les pesticides sur les cultures
maraîchères ne sont pas appliqués selon les bonnes pratiques agronomiques.
En effet, nous assistons au non-respect de la dose et du délai d’attente avant
la récolte, du nombre de traitements recommandés et à l’utilisation de produits
non recommandés pour les cultures traitées (Toé, 2007 ; Lehmann et al.,
2017 ; Son et al., 2017). Par ailleurs, plus de 70 % des maraîchers n’observent
aucune mesure de protection adéquate pendant les traitements phytosanitaires,
et les contenants vides sont abandonnés sur les lieux de traitement par la
majorité des producteurs (Son et al., 2017).
L’usage actuel des pesticides chimiques au Burkina Faso est donc préoccupant
et pourrait engendrer des problèmes d’ordre sanitaires et environnementaux.
Plusieurs travaux ont mis en évidence la présence de résidus de pesticides dans
les légumes issus des sites maraîchers (Lehmann et al., 2017 ; Son et al., 2018)
pouvant être à l’origine d’un risque alimentaire aigu et chronique chez les
enfants et les adultes, respectivement (Lehmann et al., 2017 ; Toé, 2010 ;
Ahouangninou et al., 2011). Des exportations de produits maraîchers
2
provenant de systèmes de production intensifs ont même déjà été rejetées par
les marchés internationaux en raison des niveaux résiduels de pesticides
(Bempah et al., 2011). Par ailleurs, Lehmann et al. (2017) ont observé la
présence de résidus de pesticides utilisés en maraîchage dans des eaux de
surface et souterraines au Burkina Faso. Enfin, ces pesticides peuvent avoir
un impact négatif sur l’activité biologique des sols, compromettant ainsi leur
productivité. Naré et al. (2014) rapportent une baisse des activités
enzymatiques du sol liée à l’effet de certains types de pesticides couramment
utilisés en production maraîchère au Burkina Faso.
3
D’autres études se sont aussi axées sur les risques de pollution par les métaux
lourds. En effet, le recyclage des déchets solides urbains en agriculture est une
pratique très courante dans la plupart des villes africaines. Outre les effets
bénéfiques de ces déchets sur la fertilité des sols, ils peuvent conduire à une
pollution des sols et une contamination des cultures par des métaux lourds et
des pathogènes tels que les coliformes fécaux, les helminthes, Salmonella spp.
et Escherichia coli (Cissé et al., 2002 ; Amoah, 2006 ; Diogo et al., 2010), qui
à long terme pourrait affecter la santé des consommateurs. Ce type de
contamination peut aussi résulter de l’utilisation des eaux usées couramment
utilisées pour l’irrigation dans les périmètres maraîchers (Abdu et al., 2011).
4
Ces différentes actions ont été mises en œuvre dans le but d’une amélioration
de la productivité et de la qualité des cultures maraîchères (Traore et Toé,
2008). Cependant, on observe une faible application par les producteurs, sur
le moyen et le long terme, des pratiques diffusées par les projets de
développement, suscitant des questionnements sur les raisons de ce faible taux
d’adoption. Pour répondre à cette question, il convient d’actualiser la base de
connaissances sur les pratiques, de comprendre la logique qui guide le choix
des pratiques, et la perception des producteurs vis-à-vis de l’impact de ces
pratiques. Ainsi, cette étape constituerait un pas préliminaire à la description
et à l'analyse des exploitations maraichères, préalable indispensable à tout
programme de développement futur. Des études similaires ont été effectuées
dans plusieurs pays africains et ont montré une forte diversité de pratiques
maraichères. Les études de Kiba (2012) ont montré une large diversité de
pratiques de fertilisation entre sites et au sein des sites de production
maraîchère à Ouagadougou. Il affirme que la proximité aux sources de
fertilisants fait partie des principaux facteurs expliquant cette variabilité.
Les systèmes de culture mis en œuvre par les exploitants sont, et resteront,
d'une très grande diversité, en relation notamment avec les particularités
régionales, le grand nombre de cultures produites et leurs multiples
combinaisons (Landais et al., 2016). Cette hétérogénéité a souvent été
évoquée comme l’une des principales causes d’échec des opérations de
développement reposant sur des schémas standardisés (Perrot et Landais,
1993). La prise en compte de la diversité des exploitations agricoles est
incontournable pour la réussite des travaux de recherche et de développement
rural. Pour ce faire, la typologie est un outil permettant d’approcher la
diversité des exploitations agricoles.
5
au Burkina, il existe une diversité de conditions qui sont entre autres le milieu
dans lequel se trouve le producteur (urbain, semi-urbain, rural), l’accès à l’eau
et aux intrants, l’accès à la terre ou l’accès au marché, qui pourraient
influencer les pratiques (types de culture, types et modes de fertilisation, type
et mode de traitement phytosanitaire, etc). Ainsi, les actions de vulgarisation
visant une production maraichère plus écologique devraient être menées
différemment en tenant compte de cette diversité. Il est alors utile de regrouper
les exploitations maraichères selon une typologie des pratiques pour une
meilleure visualisation. Cela peut permettre de cibler des catégories de
producteurs et de mener avec eux des actions spécifiques ou de comprendre
d’éventuelles différences en termes d’impact environnemental.
6
de l’évolution du COS dans les systèmes de production maraîchère n’ont
jusque-là pas retenu l’attention des chercheurs. Ces facteurs peuvent être liés
aux quantités de fertilisants, à la gestion des parcelles, à la nature du sol et à
la durée d’exploitations. Une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique
temporelle du COS dans les sols maraîchers urbains et des facteurs qui
régissent son accumulation aiderait à caractériser l’impact environnemental
du maraîchage et à identifier des voies pour améliorer les pratiques.
7
s’avère pourtant, incontournable, pour assurer la durabilité des systèmes de
production maraîchère.
8
- La durée d’exploitation maraîchère a un impact sur l’activité biologique
du sol, et de manière plus générale, sur la qualité globale du sol (H3).
1.2.2 Objectifs
L’objectif global de cette étude est de contribuer à une plus grande durabilité
des systèmes de production maraîchers à travers une meilleure connaissance
des pratiques maraichères et de leur impact à court et à long termes sur le sol
au Burkina Faso.
Pour atteindre cet objectif, la démarche adoptée repose sur quatre objectifs
spécifiques liés aux hypothèses de recherches. Il s’agit de :
-Etudier l’effet de la durée d’exploitation sur la qualité globale des sols par la
prise en compte de ses propriétés physiques, chimiques et biologiques. En
effet la qualité du sol ne dépend pas uniquement de ses propriétés biologiques,
mais aussi de l’équilibre et des interactions entre ses composantes chimiques,
9
biologiques et physiques. Ainsi, un indice intégré de la qualité des sols basé
sur une combinaison de ces trois composantes donnera une meilleure
indication de l’évolution de la qualité des sols maraîchers après plusieurs
années de production intensive, permettant d’orienter les actions sur des
mesures appropriées de gestion pour garantir la durabilité des systèmes de
production.
10
de culture et des différentes caractéristiques du sol et du site sur les fractions
totales ainsi que labiles et stables du COS, dans le site maraîcher de Kuinima.
Ce chapitre permet de voir l’évolution du carbone total et de ses fractions
stables et labiles en fonction de la durée d’exploitation. Puis, à travers deux
méthodes de fractionnement, il met en évidence les principaux facteurs qui
influencent la teneur en carbone du sol. Le chapitre 5 traite de l'impact du
maraîchage sur l'évolution à court et moyen terme de la qualité biologique des
sols que sont les propriétés enzymatiques et biochimiques du sol. En plus, il
tente d’expliquer les facteurs du sol pouvant expliquer la variabilité entre les
exploitations. Enfin au chapitre 6, nous avons élaboré des indices d'évaluation
de la qualité des sols en intégrant ses propriétés physiques, chimiques et
biologiques. Puis nous avons quantifié l’évolution de ces indices de qualités
physiques, chimiques et biologiques et de l’indice global de qualité du sol en
fonction de la durée d’exploitation. Ces trois derniers chapitres de résultats
ont été rédigés en anglais en vue d’être soumis pour publication à des revues
internationales et ils ont donc été gardés comme tel dans la thèse. Nous avons
terminé le document par une conclusion générale (chapitre 7) qui consiste en
une synthèse des résultats ainsi que des perspectives pour des travaux de
recherche futurs.
11
Chap 3 : Caractérisation et
typologie des exploitations
maraîchères à Bobo- Enquêtes
Dioulasso
Enquêtes ;
prélèvements
et analyses de
sol
Chap. 4 Chap. 5
La qualité du
sol
Chap. 6
Figure 1.1. Cadre général de notre étude. Les cadres rectangulaires font
référence à des résultats, alors que les cadres ovales font référence à la
méthodologie.
12
Chapitre 2
Matériels et méthodes
13
Afrique
Sur le plan climatique, le Burkina Faso (superficie de 274 200 km²) est un
pays tropical sans accès à la mer, caractérisé par une saison sèche de novembre
à mai et une saison pluvieuse qui s’étale de mai à octobre (PANA, 2003). Il a
un climat à dominance sahélien avec une zone plus humide au Sud. Il est
subdivisé en trois principales zones climatiques en fonction de la pluviométrie
annuelle moyenne (Fig. 2.2) :
- La zone sahélienne : elle s’étend au Nord et reçoit les pluviométries les plus
basses du pays (300-600 mm/an). Les températures sont très élevées, surtout
au mois d’avril où elles avoisinent 45°C. La végétation est constituée
d'arbustes épineux : c’est la zone d'élevage par excellence.
- La zone soudano-sahélienne : elle est située au centre. Elle connaît une
pluviométrie moyenne comprise entre 600 et 900 mm/an.
- La zone soudanienne : localisée au sud du pays, elle est la plus arrosée avec
une pluviométrie comprise entre 900 et 1200 mm/an (PANA, 2003).
14
Au Burkina Faso, les saisons sont très contrastées et caractérisées par une
alternance de saisons sèches et humides. La saison humide a une durée
d'environ 5 mois (mai/juin à octobre) dans le Sud, et de 3 à 4 mois (juin à
septembre) dans le Nord. Le pays est marqué par des sécheresses récurrentes,
surtout depuis les années 1970. En période chaude, la température maximale
moyenne est de 37°C au sud et au centre et de 41°C au nord. Les minimas sont
respectivement de 24, 25 et 26°C pour le sud, le centre et le nord. En période
froide, les maximas sont respectivement, 34, 36, et 38°C et les minimas de 19,
17 et 14°C pour les mêmes zones (Sangaré, 2012).
15
Les précipitations annuelles varient entre 900 et 1200 mm et les températures
moyennes journalières sont comprises entre 25° C et 30°C (Fig. 2.3).
300 150
250 125
Pluviométrie (mm)
Temperature (°C)
200 100
150 75
100 50
50 25
0 0
2.1.3 Hydrographie
16
2.1.4 Les sols
Au Burkina Faso, les sols dominants sont les sols ferrugineux tropicaux et
ferralitiques. Essentiellement dérivé d’un matériau rocheux acide (grès,
granit) riche en oxydes et hydroxydes de fer et de manganèse, les sols sont
principalement acides et dominés par l’argile kaolinique. Ils sont caractérisés
par une faible teneur en matière organique (Sedogo, 1993) qui est en moyenne
de 0.6% dans la zone de Bobo-Dioulasso (Pallo et al., 2008). On observe
également une faible teneur en phosphore disponible (Lompo et al., 2009) et
une faible capacité d’échange cationique (FAO, 2006). Le pH des sols varie
en général entre 5 et 6,5.
Selon les travaux du BUNASOLS, la commune de Bobo-Dioulasso comprend
cinq unités pédologiques (Fig. 2.4), dominés par les sols à sesquioxydes de fer
et de manganèse. De manière spécifique, on distingue selon le système de
classification français (CPCS, 1967):
-les sols à sesquioxydes de fer et de manganèse. Au Burkina, c'est la sous-
classe des sols ferrugineux tropicaux qui est la plus répandue. Cette classe se
caractérise par une individualisation des sesquioxydes de fer et de manganèse
qui leur confère une teinte se situant dans les gammes 7,5 YR et 10 YR, une
structure massive des horizons A et B, une présence éventuelle d'horizon
induré en cuirasse ou carapace, une décomposition rapide de la matière
organique, une pauvreté en éléments minéraux.
-les sols fersialitiques, aussi appelés sols rouges, sont le résultat d'une
association forte et stable entre des colloïdes argileux et des oxydes de fer et
d’aluminium. Dans ces sols, le fer libre et les minéraux argileux sont fortement
liés et contribuent à la formation d'agrégats polyédriques à facettes brillantes,
anguleux et plus ou moins aplatis.
- les sols peu évolués : ils ont une épaisseur variable, et une texture sableuse,
à sablo-argileuse, une réserve en eau très faible et une fertilité chimique basse;
ce sont des sols inaptes à l’agriculture. Cette faible évolution du profil est due
soit à un impact peu prononcé du climat, soit à l'action de l'érosion. Ce sont
par conséquent des sols peu profonds (40 cm).
17
- les sols minéraux bruts : les sols minéraux bruts s'observent sur les cuirasses
ou les formations superficielles n'ayant pas encore subi ou ne pouvant pas
subir une évolution pédologique.
- les sols hydromorphes : ce sont des sols profonds (> 120 cm) dont l'évolution
est dominée par l'action de l'excès d'eau de manière permanente ou temporaire.
Ils sont de couleur brun grisâtre ou brun grisâtre clair avec des taches grises
et rouilles liées respectivement à la réduction et à l'oxydation du fer. La
structure est généralement polyédrique subangulaire à angulaire faiblement
développée. Cet état de la structure est un des corollaires de l'engorgement.
La texture est moyenne à fine, ce qui leur confère une bonne disponibilité en
eau.
Kuinima
Figure 2.4. Principaux types de sol et cours d’eau dans la province du Houet
(Bobo-Dioulasso)
18
2.2 Mode d’échantillonnage
Grâce à des entretiens avec les producteurs travaillant sur le site, 100 d'entre
eux ont accepté de participer à l'étude et ont permis que des prélèvements de
sol soient faits dans leurs champs. Pour chaque exploitation, les informations
suivantes ont été recueillies : la géolocalisation (latitude, longitude et altitude),
le nombre d'années d’exploitation maraîchère, la période de production
(saisonnière ou annuelle), le type et les doses d'application des amendements
organiques durant la dernière année de culture. Enfin, 69 champs ont été
19
sélectionnés pour couvrir une gamme de durées de culture de 0 à > 50 ans,
tout en assurant une large répartition sur l’ensemble du site (Fig. 2.5).
20
Parmi les parcelles échantillonnées, sept champs témoins qui n'avaient jamais
été utilisés pour la culture maraîchère ont été identifiés, bien que certains aient
été utilisés pour la culture pluviale annuelle. Ces champs témoins sont souvent
situés près du bord du site, ou juste à l'extérieur du site (Fig. 2.6).
Figure 2.6. Vue aérienne du site de Kuinima (haut) et agrandissement sur une
partie du site (bas) (source : Google Earth, 2018). Les ronds blancs indiquent
les parcelles qui étaient exploitées pour la culture maraichère au moment des
prélèvements de sols. Les symboles roses indiquent la position des parcelles
témoins, non exploitées pour la culture maraîchère.
21
Pour les champs cultivés depuis plus de 50 ans, nous avons donné
arbitrairement l'âge de 60 ans. Dans chaque champ, une zone homogène a été
ciblée pour les prélèvements de sol. Puis, cinq échantillons de sol ont été
prélevés sur une profondeur de 0-15 cm sur les deux diagonales de la zone
homogène. Ces cinq échantillons ont été mélangés pour former un échantillon
composite par champ. Les prélèvements ont été faits au moins deux semaines
après le dernier apport d'engrais ou d'amendements organiques.
L’échantillonnage décrit ci-dessus concerne les chapitres 4, 5 et 6.
22
Chapitre 3 :
3.1 Introduction
23
signification technique, se définit comme étant un mode de production ayant
pour ambition de promouvoir des pratiques qui permettent de rendre
l’agriculture plus durable (Stassart et al., 2012).
Dans ce travail, les sites maraichers dans et aux alentours de la ville de Bobo
Dioulasso au Burkina Faso sont utilisés comme cas d’étude en raison de la
diversité des milieux de production (urbain, semi-urbain, rural) induisant des
différences d’accès à l’eau et aux intrants mais aussi d’accès à la terre ou aux
marchés. Selon Gafsi et al. (2007), l’âge et le niveau d’instruction des
exploitants mais aussi le mode d’accès au foncier et aux ressources naturelles
sont autant de facteurs à l’origine de la diversité des exploitations agricoles.
Or, il est bien établi que la prise en compte de cette diversité est une condition
essentielle d’amélioration de l’efficacité des interventions des acteurs de
développement auprès des agriculteurs (Gafsi et al., 2007). Ainsi, afin de
mieux guider les maraîchers vers une transition agro-écologique, il paraît
nécessaire dans un premier temps de caractériser, en fonction du milieu de
production, les pratiques actuelles de production, de comprendre la logique
qui guide le choix de ces pratiques, d’analyser la perception qu’ont les
producteurs de l’impact de leurs pratiques et de déceler les freins à l’adoption
de pratiques plus écologiques.
24
3.2 Matériels et méthodes
Pour chacun des 10 sites, 30 producteurs ont été enquêtés. Les producteurs ont
été choisis selon un échantillonnage systématique de sorte à couvrir au mieux
25
les périmètres maraichers retenus. Pour cela, un quadrillage a été superposé
sur la carte de chaque périmètre. La taille des mailles a été choisie telle qu’il
y avait exactement 30 intersections au sein du périmètre.
La collecte des données a été faite lors d’une enquête par questionnaire portant
uniquement sur les activités maraîchères des 300 producteurs, d’observations
directes de leurs pratiques et de mesures des superficies maraichères au cours
de la dernière année de production. L’enquête (réalisée en 2016) a porté sur
une année complète de production et a concerné toutes les cultures
maraichères et les divers cycles de production (saison sèche ou contre saison,
saison des pluies). Le questionnaire était structuré en 3 parties: les
caractéristiques générales de l’exploitation, les pratiques culturales et la
perception qu’ont les producteurs de l’impact de leurs pratiques sur
l’environnement et la qualité des productions (annexe A).
Les doses d’intrants ont été estimées sur la base des quantités apportées et des
superficies mesurées pour chaque culture maraichère produite au cours de
l’année de référence. Pour les engrais composés, la formulation NPK 15-15-
15 la plus commune (fréquence = 64%) a été utilisée comme référence pour
les calculs. Pour la fumure organique, les teneurs en azote (N ; méthode de
Kjeldahl modifiée), phosphore (P ; spectrophotométrie après extraction à
l’acide ascorbique) et potassium (K ; photométrie à flamme après extraction à
l’acétate d’ammonium) ont été déterminées au laboratoire sol-eau-plante de
l’INERA (Institut National de l’Environnement et de la Recherche Agricole)
sur 5 à 10 échantillons composites par type de fumure prélevés auprès des
producteurs enquêtés. L’indicateur de fréquence de traitement phytosanitaire
(IFT) a été utilisé pour pondérer les apports des différents pesticides. Cet
indice correspond au nombre de doses de pesticides de référence utilisées par
hectare et par an et a été calculé selon la méthode de Son et al. (2018).
26
annuelle d’azote par ha, IFT, pourcentage d’azote organique dans les apports
d’azote totaux, nombre moyen d’épandages de pesticides par culture), le
milieu (urbain, semi-urbain ou rural), la source d’eau (puit/rivière) et le mode
d’irrigation (arrosoir/pompe) ont été ajoutés comme variables
supplémentaires. La pratique de l’association ou de la rotation culturale et
l’utilisation de pesticides biologiques, l’âge et le niveau d’instruction des
producteurs, ainsi que le mode de faire valoir des parcelles n’ont pas été
retenus dans la CAH car ils ne permettaient pas de les discriminer
suffisamment. Enfin, il a été demandé aux producteurs d’évaluer les impacts
de leurs pratiques de fertilisation et d’utilisation de pesticides sur le sol, l’eau
et les produits maraîchers et de proposer des alternatives techniques pour les
limiter.
3.3 Résultats
Selon les sites, 97 à 99% des maraîchers sont des hommes. Leur âge (médiane
= 40 ans) et expérience (médiane = 20 ans) ne diffèrent pas selon le type de
milieu. Près de 60% des producteurs n’ont aucun niveau d’instruction et
seulement 8 à 10% ont atteint le niveau secondaire. Les superficies exploitées
en cultures maraichères sur une année complète vont croissant du milieu
urbain (médiane = 1259 m²), au milieu semi-urbain (médiane = 2411 m²) et
rural (médiane = 4957 m²). En milieu urbain, semi-urbain et rural,
respectivement 20, 28 et 30% des producteurs ne sont pas propriétaires de leur
parcelle.
Les cultures dominantes quel que soit le type de milieu sont le chou (88%), la
tomate (61%), l’aubergine (51%), le poivron (42%), le haricot vert (38%) et
la laitue (31%). On observe cependant une plus grande diversité d’espèces
27
cultivées en milieu urbain (26) comparée à celles des milieux semi-urbain (16)
et rural (19) (Fig. 3.2). En moyenne, on recense 5 espèces différentes par
producteur.
120
100
Fréquence (%)
80
60
40
20
Dans les trois milieux, la rotation culturale est pratiquée par plus de 90% des
producteurs. Les rotations les plus fréquentes en milieu urbain sont laitue-
tomate (11%), laitue-chou (18%) et chou-tomate (11%). En milieu semi-
urbain : haricot vert-chou (23%), chou-aubergine (20%), laitue-chou (15%) et
chou-tomate (12%). En milieu rural : chou-tomate (23%), carotte-chou (14%)
et aubergine-chou (13%). Selon les producteurs, les rotations permettent de
viser les périodes de forte rentabilité (25%) tout en tenant compte des périodes
favorables à chaque espèce (55%). En général, les cultures à cycle court et
moins exigeantes en intrants (laitue, haricot vert, l’amaranthe, oseille)
viennent en tête de rotation (généralement en octobre) afin de générer
28
rapidement des revenus pour l’achat des semences des principales cultures
maraichères de vente (poivron, chou, tomate) qui coûtent aussi plus cher en
entretien du fait de la longueur de leur cycle et de leurs besoins en intrants
(insecticide, engrais).
L’association culturale est pratiquée par 90%, 72% et 75% des producteurs
urbains, semi-urbains et ruraux, respectivement. Les types d’association sont
très diversifiés et les plus courantes en milieu urbain sont : poivron-laitue
(43%), tomate-laitue (26%), laitue-autre légume feuille (25%) et chou-laitue
(16%). En milieu semi-urbain : chou-laitue (18%), tomate comprenant du
maïs à faible densité (12%) et tomate-laitue (10%). En milieu rural: tomate-
gombo (44%) ou chou-gombo (30%), tomate-légume feuille (30%) et tomate
comprenant du maïs à faible densité (19%) (Tableau 3.1 ; Fig. 3.3). La figure
3.4 illustre des exemples d’enchainement de cultures sur une parcelle au cours
d’une année de production.
29
(a)
(b)
(c)
30
Selon les producteurs, les associations culturales, en plus de diversifier la
production (43%), permettent des rentrées financières plus régulières grâce
aux récoltes étalées dans le temps, en particulier les légumes feuilles (92%).
Elles permettent aussi parfois de produire des légumes à des périodes moins
favorables d’un point de vue climatique mais très intéressantes en termes de
prix de vente. Par exemples, le poivron et la laitue se vendent bien en saison
chaude qui n’est cependant pas favorable à leur production. En les associant,
la laitue conserve l’humidité du sol en réduisant l’évaporation (bénéfique pour
le poivron) et en retour, le poivron crée de l’ombre pour la laitue, lui
permettant de résister à la forte chaleur.
Figure 3.4. Exemple d’enchainement des cultures sur une même parcelle au
cours d’une année de production. A= association culturale ; AR = association
culturale dû au chevauchement des cultures (culture en relais)
31
annuel de production représentent en moyenne 1385 kg ha-1 an-1 en milieu
urbain, contre 811 et 767 kg ha-1 an-1 en milieux semi-urbain et rural,
respectivement (Fig. 3.5a). Les cultures les plus fertilisées sont le chou, la
tomate, le poivron et le haricot vert avec en moyenne 391, 311, 515 et 267 kg
N ha-1 cycle-1, respectivement (Fig. 3.5b).
N_minéral
N_organique
P_minéral
(a)
P_organique
K_minéral
K_organique
Chou
Tomate (b)
Poivron
Haricot-vert
32
La majorité des producteurs utilisent les amendements organiques, cette
pratique étant plus présente en milieux urbain et semi-urbain (98%) qu’en
milieu rural (83%). Six types d’amendements ont été répertoriés (fumier de
bovins, porcins, volailles, ovins, déchets urbains et compost), et leur
importance relative varie selon les milieux. L’analyse de la teneur en éléments
fertilisants des différents types de fumure montre que les teneurs en azote (N)
varient de 0,41% à 1,75%, la teneur en phosphore (P) de 0,14% à 1,03% et la
teneur en potassium (K) de 0,51 à 1,13. Les déchets urbains présentent la plus
faible valeur fertilisante, suivi du compost (Tableau 3.2). On note une part
plus importante des fientes de volailles dans la fourniture de P en raison de sa
plus grande richesse en P (Tableau 3.2 ; Fig. 3.5).
Type de
n C(%) N (%) P(%) K(%) C/N
fumure
Fiente
7 28,83±4,15 1,75±0.27 1,03±0,26 1,13±0,19 16,47±1,32
volaille
Fumure
10 23,99±3,25 1,23±0,29 0,39±0,21 1,11±0,34 19,50±2,21
bovine
Fumure
7 22,37±5,29 1,48±0,4 0,55±0,19 0,71±0,14 15,50±3,01
porcine
Fumure
7 21,67±4,44 1,27±0,18 0,34±0,15 1,36±0,41 16,78±3,19
ovine
Compost 5 10,46±2,04 0,55±0,12 0,15±0,04 0,64±0,24 19,00±6,52
Déchets
9 9,20±1,71 0,41±0,08 0,14±0,01 0,51±0,02 21,33±3,59
urbains
33
représentent en moyenne 75%, 89% et 89% des apports totaux de N en milieux
urbain, semi-urbain et rural, respectivement ; 54%, 76% et 72% pour le P, et
53%, 78% et 74% pour le K (Fig. 3.6).
34
(flubendiamide 100g + spirotetramite75g/l ; 50%), Avaunt (indoxacarb 150
g/l ; 40%), Pacha (acetamipride 10 g/l + lambda-cyhalothrine 15 g/l ; 26%),
CAPT 96 (acetamipride + cyperméthrine ; 26%) et Bomec (abamectine18 g/l ;
24%) sont les plus utilisées (annexe 2). Les quantités de matières actives
apportées sont les plus élevées sur le poivron, le chou, la tomate et l’aubergine
soit parce qu’elles sont très attaquées (cas du choux) ou parce qu’elles
contribuent fortement au revenu des maraichers. Selon le milieu, 60 à 73%
des producteurs affirment faire le choix des doses selon leur expérience.
Rares sont les producteurs (1 à 2%) qui recourent aux pesticides biologiques
achetés en ville ou produits par eux-mêmes (par exemple, des extraits de
feuilles et graines de neem (Azadirachta indica)). Près de la moitié des
producteurs affirment ne pas avoir d’information sur ces types de pesticides
et ce malgré le nombre élevé de projets de développement proposant depuis
plus d’une décennie ce type d’intrants. En milieu semi-urbain, 42% des
producteurs pensent que les pesticides biologiques sont moins efficaces que
les pesticides chimiques contre 20% en milieu urbain et 27% en milieu rural.
Les autres évoquent la non disponibilité des produits (31, 6 et 17%
respectivement en milieu urbain, semi-urbain et rural).
35
urbain et rural affirment que les engrais ont un effet néfaste sur l’eau, qui selon
eux changent son goût.
Milieu
Semi-
Pratiques Urbain Rural Moyenne P-χ2
urbain
Fréquence (%)
Sol 26,1 33,3 54,3 33,3 0,002
Pesticide
Eau 31,6 60,5 83,3 49,8 0,0001
chimique
Cultures 19,1 27,3 41,5 24,9 0,01
Engrais Sol 56,8 78,3 81,4 67,5 0,0001
minéral Eau 17,1 44,1 56,2 30,3 0,0001
Cultures 14,5 19,5 30,0 18,3 0,08
Sol 4,1 7,1 9,1 5,2 0,5
Fumure organique Eau 0,0 27,6 20,0 7,3 0,0001
Cultures 3,3 3,6 4,5 3,5 0,95
36
organique dans l’azote total y est cependant la plus élevée. La quasi-totalité
des exploitations de cette classe se situe en milieu urbain (84%) avec pour
principal mode d’irrigation, l’arrosage manuel avec des arrosoirs (96%).
37
Tableau 3.4. Caractéristiques des différentes classes d’exploitations basées sur la typologie des pratiques culturales. Norg/Ntot =
rapport azote organique / azote total; IFT = Indice de fréquence de traitements phytosanitaires.
Source
Mode d'irrigation Milieu
d'irrigation
Gravi-
Nombre Nombre
Super Norg/ Manuel taire Semi-
Classe N total IFT traitements/ spécula Rivière Puit Urbain Rural
ficie Ntot (arrosoir) (moto- urbain
spéculation tions
pompe)
kg
m² - - - - Fréquence (%)
ha-1 an-1
Très intensive
811 1828 0,25 65 7 5 46 54 96 4 84 15 1
n=76
Intensive
1119 981 0,21 42 5 5 67 33 67 33 56 27 17
n=50
Moyennement intensive
2463 1036 0,19 26 5 5 78 22 43 57 20 28 52
n=47
Peu intensive
7829 671 0,12 23 9 5 70 30 10 90 25 18 57
n=127
38
3.4 Discussion
Caractéristiques générales
Les superficies cultivées annuellement en maraîchage par exploitation sont en
moyenne 3 fois plus faibles en milieu urbain qu’en milieu rural. En milieu
urbain, l’exiguïté des parcelles est due au morcellement de la propriété
transmise par héritage, à la recherche de terres par des personnes sans emploi
en ville pour se lancer dans le maraîchage afin de subvenir à leurs besoins,
mais surtout à la pression de l'urbanisation qui réduit inexorablement la
surface cultivable en ville. Cette limitation de l’espace cultivable entraine les
producteurs vers une stratégie d’intensification qui vise à produire beaucoup
sur de petites surfaces, en privilégiant des pratiques habituelles dans ce cas :
utilisation à fortes doses de fumures organiques et minérales et de pesticides,
associations culturales plus fréquentes. Cette intensification est facilitée en
milieu urbain par la proximité des commerçants d’intrants et des marchés, en
particulier pour écouler très rapidement les légumes feuilles caractéristiques
des associations de cultures. Par ailleurs Robineau (2018) a noté la présence
de nombreux éleveurs dans la ville de Bobo-Dioulasso qui maintiennent des
relations d’interdépendance avec les maraîchers urbains pour la fourniture de
fumier de bovins et de porcs. Aussi, les déchets urbains (ordures ménagères)
très partiellement collectées par la municipalité sont laissés au bord des rues
ou le long des ruisseaux et deviennent une ressource en fumure organique pour
les maraîchers urbains (Robineau et Dugue, 2018). La qualité de ces déchets
présente cependant un enjeu particulier en termes sanitaires du fait de la
présence possible d’éléments traces métalliques (zinc, cadmium ; Smith et al.,
2004), de germes pathogènes pour les humains et peut-être de résidus
d’antibiotiques. Des actions de promotion d’amendements organiques de
qualité, indemnes d’éléments nocifs, sont à encourager en milieu urbain. Pour
cela, il est nécessaire de réaliser en amont une étude de faisabilité afin
d’anticiper les éventuels obstacles tels que le coût de la collecte des matières
organiques premières et le tri sélectif des ordures ménagères, et la mise en
place de filières de production de compost à partir de déchets ménagers et
d’agro-industries.
39
Doses de fertilisants
La majorité des producteurs combinent fertilisation organique et minérale,
comme cela a été observé ailleurs (Ahouangninou, 2013 ; Abdulkadhir et al.,
2013). Cependant, les apports minéraux sont largement dominants, surtout
pour l’azote, même si aucune analyse n’a été faite pour vérifier la qualité de
ces engrais. Les apports d’azote varient de 125 à 654 kg N ha-1 par cycle de
production en fonction des cultures et de la zone (figure 3.3b). Pourtant, selon
d’Arondel et Traoré (1990), la dose nécessaire pour les légumes en zone
soudano-sahélienne varient selon les cultures de 70 à 140 kg N ha-1. Sangaré
(2012), après avoir noté des doses d’azote pouvant atteindre 800 kg N ha-1 par
cycle, a expliqué ces apports largement excédentaires par une méconnaissance
des maraichers de la valeur fertilisante des divers fertilisants et des besoins
des cultures. Cet excès d’apports d’azote est préjudiciable à la qualité des eaux
souterraines et des cours d’eau et pourrait entrainer des déséquilibres
alimentaires pour les consommateurs de légumes feuilles. Il serait donc
nécessaire d’élaborer une méthode d’apport raisonnée des fertilisants pour les
principales cultures maraîchères et rotations qui soit accessibles aux
maraichers généralement non alphabétisés. Pour cela il conviendrait de mieux
quantifier les besoins des cultures et rotations annuelles les plus courantes
ainsi que la valeur fertilisante des amendements afin de rationaliser les apports
(fractionnés, localisés), en priorité pour les exploitations de classes « très
intensive », « intensive » et « moyennement intensive ».
La part des engrais minéraux dans les apports totaux de nutriments (N, P, K)
est plus élevée en milieu rural malgré une plus grande sensibilité des
producteurs de ce milieu aux impacts négatifs de ce type d’engrais sur
l’environnement. Ceci pourrait s’expliquer d’abord par des contraintes de
disponibilités de la fumure organique pour le maraîchage. En milieu rural, il
est certes plus facile de faire de l’élevage qu’en ville mais il faut considérer
d’une part que les maraîchers ne possèdent pas tous des animaux d’élevage et
d’autre part qu’une culture alimentaire de base comme le maïs pluvial a très
souvent la priorité en termes d’utilisation de la fumure organique (Vall et al.,
2011). Par ailleurs, les exploitations rurales peuvent manquer de fumure
organique et de moyens pour la transporter ainsi que de main d’œuvre
nécessaire à son application au vu des plus grandes surfaces cultivées en
40
milieu rural (jusqu’à 0,78 ha pour la classe « peu intensive »).
Particulièrement pour les exploitations de classe « peu intensives », afin de
contribuer à améliorer la durabilité des systèmes maraichers, il conviendrait
de sensibiliser les maraichers à l’intérêt d’accroitre la part des amendements
organiques afin d’aboutir à une combinaison équilibrée entre fumures
organiques et minérales. Pour cela et quel que soit le milieu, il convient de
développer un élevage bien intégré aux systèmes maraichers et de promouvoir
le compostage des ordures ménagères et des résidus de cultures.
41
l’intervention de certains projets, le développement et la promotion de ces
biopesticides (par exemple à travers la mise en place de petites unités locales
de production d’extraits et d’huiles essentielles de plantes), et la lutte
biologique (utilisation de Trichoderma harzianum, par exemple, pour réduire
la pression fongique tellurique ; Dabire et al., 2016) seraient des actions
essentielles en vue de réduire l’usage des insecticides et fongicides chimiques.
Enfin, une sensibilisation des consommateurs pourrait inciter les autorités
publiques à faire appliquer les lois en vigueur règlementant l’usage des
pesticides et conduire les producteurs à modifier leurs pratiques, permettant à
ces derniers une meilleure valorisation économique de leurs produits
maraichers issus de systèmes de culture agro-écologiques.
En milieu rural, le fort taux d’utilisation d’herbicides totaux sur les parcelles
maraichères est surtout lié aux grandes superficies des parcelles et vise à
réduire la charge de travail liée au sarclage. Une mécanisation des opérations
de sarclage ainsi que la pratique de l’irrigation localisée comme le goutte à
goutte permettrait de réduire l’usage des herbicides dans les exploitations des
classes « moyennement intensive » et « peu intensive ».
Sur l’ensemble des sites, aucun producteur n’a mis en œuvre des pratiques
relevant exclusivement de l’agriculture biologique ou agro-écologique au sens
global du terme. La pratique des rotations et des associations de cultures
42
semble cependant bien ancrée chez une majorité de producteurs, formant ainsi
une base de travail positive pour faire évoluer le maraichage vers plus de
durabilité. Cependant, l’objectif premier de ces associations et rotations
n’étant pas de lutter contre les ravageurs, mais plutôt de pallier au manque de
terre et pour des raisons économiques, un meilleur encadrement des
producteurs pour une amélioration des associations et rotations avec l’usage
de plantes répulsives pourrait contribuer à une réduction des quantités de
pesticides utilisés.
3.5 Conclusions
43
44
Chapitre 4
4.1 Introduction
2
Adapted from Ouédraogo R., A., Chartin C., Kambiré F., Cédric., van Wesemael B.,
Delvaux B., Millogo H., Bielders C. L. Short and long-term impact of urban gardening
on soil organic carbon fractions in Lixisols (Burkina Faso). Submited to Géoderma.
45
Dugue, 2018; Ouédraogo et al., 2019). While carbon contents are often below
5 g C kg-1 in soils used for rainfed cultivation in Burkina Faso (Pallo et al.,
2008), Kiba et al. (2012) reported SOC contents ranging between 7 and 22 g
C kg-1 in market gardens in the capital Ouagadougou. However, the factors
that drive changes in SOC content in a market gardening context have so far
received little attention. Besides the type and rate of amendments used by
farmers, the accumulation of SOC may be related to the duration of cultivation
as well as various soil properties including clay and fine silt content, iron (Fe)
and aluminum (Al) oxide content and the level of micro-aggregation (Six et
al., 2002; Feng et al., 2013; Trigalet et al., 2016). A better understanding of
the temporal dynamics of SOC in urban garden soils and the factors that
govern SOC accumulation would help in characterizing the environmental
impact of urban gardening and in identifying pathways for improving
gardening practices.
Total SOC content is often used as an indicator of soil quality but it has several
limitations. Indeed, SOC content may be subject to rapid temporal fluctuations
that hinder a robust estimate of SOC turnover, particularly for the more stable
forms of SOC (Van Wesemael et al., 2019). It may also be insufficiently
sensitive to the effects of soil and crop management practices. For instance,
Trigalet et al. (2014) reported that crop residue additions increased the storage
of carbon in the stable C fraction, even though no change was detected in the
total SOC content. As a result, numerous studies have resorted to fractionation
methods in order to characterize more relevant SOC fractions depending on
the aim of the study (Zimmermann et al., 2007; Poeplau and Don, 2013;
Trigalet et al., 2016). One commonly used approach is to distinguish between
a labile fraction that is unprotected and consists of partially decomposed plant
residues, and a stable fraction following physical or biochemical stabilization
or chemical protection (Trigalet et al., 2017; van Wesemael et al., 2019).
The stable and labile SOC fractions do not have the same sensitivity to
changes in management or environmental conditions and do not contribute
equally to soil biological activity. The labile fraction is the main energy
resource for microflora (Feller et al., 1995). It is rather sensitive to soil
management and thus more variable over time. The stable carbon fraction
corresponds to SOC protected against microbial mineralization through its
46
close association with clay and fine silt particles (Baldock and Skjemstad,
2000; Six et al., 2002). It is therefore less sensitive to short-term management
impacts.
The purpose of this study was therefore to assess the combined effects of
cultivation duration, soil properties and site characteristics on total as well as
labile and stable SOC fractions in a market gardening site of Burkina Faso.
47
4.2 Materials and methods
The study was carried out at the 60-ha, Kuinima market gardening site (N
11°09’21.46’’; W 4°14’46.72’’) in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso (Fig. 2.5).
The Kuinima site was chosen because it is the largest market gardening site in
Bobo-Dioulasso and the oldest fields have been cultivated for more than 50
years. The dominant soils are Lixisols (Jones et al., 2015). The site is
described in detail in the section 2.2.
The soil samples were air-dried and sieved at 2 mm. Particle size distribution
(clay: < 2 µm; fine silt: 2 - 20 µm; coarse silt: 20 - 50 µm; fine sand: 50 µm -
0.2 mm; coarse sand: 0.2 – 2 mm) was determined by wet sieving (> 50 µm)
and sedimentation (< 50 µm) after destruction of organic matter at the
laboratory of the Centre provincial de l’agriculture et de la ruralité of the
Brabant Wallon (Belgium). The total carbon (Ctot) and nitrogen (N) contents
were determined using a Variomax Dry Combustion CN Analyzer (Elementar
Analysensystem GmbH, Germany). Oxalate-extractable Al and Fe (Feo + Alo)
contents were determined with a 0.2 M ammonium oxalate extraction solution
at pH 3 (solid to liquid ratio of 0.5 g: 50 ml, end-over-end shaking for 4 hours
in darkness; Blakemore et al., 1981). Concentrations of Alo and Feo were
measured by ICP (ICAP 6500, Thermo-Scientific).
48
Fractionation procedure
SOC was divided into two pools (C<20µm and C>20µm) based on a physical
fractionation scheme adapted from Trigalet et al. (2017) and van Wesemael et
al. (2019). One hundred ml of distilled water was added to 20 g of air-dried
fine earth and shaken horizontally for 20 min. at 250 rpm to disrupt macro-
aggregates. The resulting suspension was first passed through a 50-μm sieve
to remove aggregates, sand and coarse free particulate organic matter (POM)
in order to avoid clogging during subsequent sieving at 20 µm. The coarse
fraction (> 50 μm) was dried at 60°C, weighed and stored at room temperature.
The remaining suspension was subsequently passed through a 20-μm sieve.
The suspension containing particles < 20 μm was first centrifuged (3600 rpm
for 25 min) and the clear supernatant discarded. The < 20 μm and 20-50 μm
fractions were then dried at 60°C, weighed and stored at room temperature.
Organic carbon content was measured in the fraction < 20µm and reported in
g C kg-1 of bulk soil (referred as C<20µm) by considering the mass proportion
of the fraction within the bulk soil sample. Organic carbon content of the >
20µm fraction (C>20µm) was then determined as the difference between Ctot
and C<20µm (Hassink, 1997).
Henceforth, the subscripts ‘sh’ or ‘so’ complete the references C<20µm and
C>20µm in order to specify the fractionation method (by shaking or
sonication, respectively) used to obtain the considered fraction.
49
All analyses were carried out at the Soil science laboratory of the Earth and
life institute of the Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL).
A correlation matrix was computed using the Pearson correlation factor. The
matrix included all the organic carbon data (i.e., Ctot and associated
subfractions C<20µm and C>20µm) and selected soil and site characteristics.
The significance level was set at α = 0.05. Because the content in C<20µm
after sonication (i.e., C<20µm-so) was only determined experimentally for 24
out of 69 samples, a multiple linear regression was fitted (after testing for
normality and homo-sedasticity), using the 24 observed values in order to
estimate the C<20µm-so content on the basis of soil and site characteristics.
A backward stepwise procedure based on the Akaike's Information Criterion
(AIC; Akaike, 1974) was applied to determine the significant covariates to be
kept in the final model. R², root mean square error (RMSE) and ratio of
prediction to deviation (RPD) were computed to evaluate the predictive power
of the model. The fitted regression was then used to estimate the C<20µm-so
content of all 69 samples.
Linear and non-linear regression models were used to describe the evolution
of Ctot, C<20μm and C>20μm contents as a function of the duration of
cultivation. Since the purpose of these regressions was descriptive rather than
for inference, variable transformation was not performed even when
homosedasticity conditions were not met.
Conditional inference tree ensembles (CTree) were grown, each over 500 trees
(with mtry = 2 using cforest in party package in R), in order to assess the
contribution of various explanatory variables for explaining Ctot, C<20μm
and C>20μm contents. The significance level of all statistical tests was set at
α = 0.05. The performance of the CTree was estimated by computing the
RMSE and the explained variance as the coefficient of determination R² (R² =
1 – MSE/variance) on the predicted Out-Off-Bag dataset, i.e. the validation
dataset.
50
4.3 Results
The soil texture is sandy loam (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015) with 64 to
82% sand and 8 to 23% clay (Table 4.1). The total carbon content (Ctot)
ranges between 5.5 and 34.2 g C kg-1. The pH is slightly acidic to neutral. The
soils are non-saline and rich in oxalate-extractable Fe (average of 811 mg kg-
1
) and Al (average = 652 mg kg-1).
51
4.3.2 Factor explaining the total organic carbon variability
52
Tableau 4.2. Correlation matrix between soil and site characteristics (N = 69). Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically
significant (p < 0.05). Details on the level of significance of the correlation are provided in Appendix C.
Year Clay+F C<20- C>20- C<20- C>20- (C<20-so)-
Unit Ctot C/N Feo+Alo pH Qom Alt.diff
s S sh sh so* so* (C<20-sh)*
Years years 1 0.24 0.69 0.63 0.64 0.9 0.55 0.81 0.63 0.61 0.17 0.04 -0.17
Clay+FS % 0.24 1 0.28 0.45 0.24 0.52 0.18 0.37 0.08 0.34 -0.1 -0.01 -0.01
Ctot gC kg-1 0.69 0.28 1 0.39 0.99 0.74 0.98 0.85 0.55 0.8 0.05 0.06 -0.16
C<20-sh gC kg-1 0.63 0.45 0.39 1 0.28 0.76 0.21 0.44 0.5 0.48 0.17 -0.18 -0.23
C>20-sh gC kg-1 0.64 0.24 0.99 0.28 1 0.66 0.99 0.81 0.51 0.77 0.03 0.09 -0.14
C<20-so g C kg-1 0.9 0.52 0.74 0.76 0.66 1 0.58 0.92 0.6 0.72 0.46 0.3 -0.14
C>20-so gC kg-1 0.55 0.18 0.98 0.21 0.99 0.58 1 0.76 0.48 0.75 0.02 0.08 -0.13
(C<20-so)-
g C kg-1 0.81 0.37 0.85 0.44 0.81 0.92 0.76 1 0.51 0.68 0.38 0.35 0.04
(C<20-sh)
C/N - 0.63 0.08 0.55 0.5 0.51 0.6 0.48 0.51 1 0.43 0.35 0.08 -0.09
-1
Feo+Alo mmol kg 0.61 0.34 0.8 0.48 0.77 0.72 0.75 0.68 0.43 1 0.03 -0.09 -0.11
pH - 0.17 -0.14 0.05 0.17 0.03 0.46 0.02 0.38 0.35 0.03 1 0.18 0.07
Qom kg DM ha-1 0.04 -0.01 0.06 -0.18 0.09 0.3 0.08 0.35 0.08 -0.09 0.18 1 0.03
Alt.diff m -0.17 -0.01 -0.16 -0.23 -0.14 -0.14 -0.13 0.04 -0.09 -0.11 0.07 0.03 1
Clay+FS = clay and fine silt content determined by textural analysis; Ctot = total organic carbon; C<20-sh and C>20-sh = C content in the <
20 µm and > 20 µm fraction obtained after shaking, respectively; C<20-so and C>20-so = C content in the < 20 µm and > 20 µm fraction, after
sonication, respectively ; Fe+Al = oxalate-extractable Fe and Al ; Qom = Mass of organic amendment added during the previous year (dry
matter); Alt.diff = altitude difference with respect to the river. * N=24
53
The CTree model explained 62% percent of the variance in Ctot (Fig. 4.1).
Feo+Alo is the factor that most influenced the variance of Ctot, followed by
the cultivation duration. Additional factors, including texture, only
contributed marginally to the conditional inference tree model.
54
The relationship between Feo+Alo and the total organic carbon (Ctot) was
confirmed as strictly linear (R² = 0.64; Fig. 4.2).
40
35 R² = 0.64
30
Ctot (g C kg¯¹)
25
20
15
10
5
y = 0.56x - 2.62
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Feₒ + Alₒ (mmol kg¯¹)
Figure 4.2. Relationship between total organic carbon content (Ctot) and the
oxalate-extractable iron and aluminum content (Feo + Alo).
55
40
35 R² = 0.55
30
Ctot (g C kg¯¹)
25
20
15
10
5 y = 24.16/(1+Exp(+0.55-0.12*x))
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
Figure 4.3. Evolution of the total organic carbon content (Ctot) in market
garden plots as a function of the number of years of cultivation
proportion
After shaking, the weight of the fraction < 20 µm represented between 3 and
10% (mean = 7%) of the bulk soil mass (Fig. 4.4). In comparison, the fraction
< 20 µm obtained by texture analysis, i.e. after destruction of soil organic
matter by hydrogen peroxide and chemical dispersion, ranged between 13 and
21% (mean = 18%) of the bulk soil mass. Hence, after fractionation by
shaking, a large proportion (61% on average) of the < 20 µm particle size class
did not pass through the 20 µm sieve, indicating that these particles were part
of shaking-resistant micro-aggregates > 20 µm in size. These micro-
aggregates may contain significant amounts of occluded carbon. After
sonication, the mass proportion of particles < 20 µm was about twice (mean =
15%) that obtained after shaking (Fig 4.4), which is close but still slightly less
than the percentage of clay and fine silt obtained through textural analysis.
56
Figure 4.4. Proportion of particles < 20 µm (individual particles and micro-
aggregates < 20 µm in size) as affected by the extraction method. N= 24
57
prediction performance of the model was excellent with an R² of 0.92, an
RMSE of 0.66 g kg-1 and an RPD of 3.5 (Fig 4.5). Using this model, the C<20-
so content was predicted for all 69 samples.
14
R² = 0.92
Predicted C< 20 µm (g C kg¯¹)
12 1:1
RMSE = 0.66 g kg¯¹
10 RPD = 3.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Observed C< 20 µm (g C kg¯¹)
Figure 4.5. Correlation between observed and predicted C content in the < 20
µm fraction after sonication.
Both after shaking and sonication, the C>20µm content was very strongly
correlated to Ctot (Table 4.2). Based on the outcome of the conditional
inference tree models, Feo+Alo content was the factor that influenced most the
C>20μm content after shaking and sonication, followed by the number of
years of cultivation (fig 4.6a, b). Regarding the C<20μm content, the number
of years of cultivation and the Feo+Alo content were both strongly explanatory,
with a significant additional contribution of the soils’ clay and fine silt content
(obtained by textural analysis; Fig. 4.6c, d).
58
Figure 4.6. Relative variable importance of co-variates in variance
explanation of the C content in the > 20 µm fraction after shaking (a) and
sonication (b) and of the C content in the < 20 µm fraction after shaking (c)
and sonication (d) by means of conditional inference tree models (Ctree). The
vertical dashed lines indicates the mean relative variable importance. Alt.diff
= altitude difference with respect to the river; Clay + FS = clay and fine silt
content determined by textural analysis; Prod_per = production period; Qom
= Mass of organic amendment added during the previous year (dry matter).
59
Because the C>20μm content is the difference between Ctot and C<20µm,
there was a tendency for C>20µm to first increase and then decrease with the
duration of cultivation. C>20-sh represented 85% on average of Ctot, with an
average of 16.1 g C kg-1, whereas C>20-so represented 69% on average of
Ctot, with an average of 13.0 g C kg-1.
40
35
Carbon content (g C kg¯¹)
30 R² = 0.55
25
20
15 R²= 0.83
10 y = 0.11x + 3.36
R² = 0.40
5
y = 0.03x + 2.04
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
Figure 4.7. Evolution of total organic carbon content (Ctot) and the C
content in the < 20 µm fraction after shaking (C<20-sh) and sonication
(C<20-so) in market garden plots according to the number of years of
cultivation.
60
There was a linear relationship between Feo+Alo and C<20µm after sonication
(R² = 0.56; Fig. 4.8a). This relationship is weak for C<20µm after shaking
(Fig 4.8a). A linear relationship between Feo+Alo and C>20µm is also
observed, whether extracted by shaking (R² = 0.59) or sonication (R² = 0.56)
(Fig 4.8b).
14
Shaking (a)
12 Sonication
C< 20 µm (g C kg¯¹)
10 R² = 0.56
y = 0.15x + 0.25
8
4 R² = 0.23
2
y = 0.04x + 1.23
0
35
y = 0.52x - 3.85 (b)
30
25
C> 20µm (g kg ¯¹)
20
15 R² = 0.59
10
R² = 0.56
5
y = 0.41x - 2.88
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Feₒ + Alₒ (mmol kg¯¹)
61
There is also an increase in the content of oxalate-extractable iron and
aluminum content with the number of years of cultivation (Fig 4.9).
70
60
Feₒ + Alₒ (mmol kg¯¹)
50
40
30 R² = 0,37
20
y = 0.37x + 29.66
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
62
Finally, a significant but weak positive correlation exists between C<20µm
and the soils’ clay and fine silt content (Table 4.2). This relationship is similar
after sonication (R² = 0.25) after shaking (R² = 0.20) (Fig 4.10). The
relationship between C>20µm and the soils’ clay and silt content was not
significant.
14
Shaking
12 y = 0.32x + 0.38
Sonication
C< 20 µm (g C kg¯¹)
10 R² = 0.25
8
6
4
2 R² = 0.20
y = 0.12x + 0.68
0
10 15 20 25 30
Clay + FS (%)
63
4.4 Discussion
In Kuinima's market garden, the majority of old fields are located near the
river, and the most recent fields are furthest away (Fig. 2.5). Millogo (2019)
showed that the site expanded over time, starting from the river where access
to water for irrigation was easiest. Consequently, a possible bias may have
been introduced because fields could not be randomly selected across the site,
i.e. recently cultivated fields cannot be found very close to the river and vice-
versa. However, the correlation between Ctot and duration of cultivation was
stronger than between Ctot and elevation above the river, which would support
the fact that the observed trend in Ctot content resulted from cultivation rather
than from a pre-existing spatial trend. The analysis by conditional inference
tree ensemble (Ctree) confirmed that the difference in altitude between fields
and river did not significantly explain Ctot content. Besides, there was no
indication of the existence of a textural gradient across the site, as indicated
for instance by the lack of correlation between clay and fine silt content
(textural analysis) and elevation above the river (Table 4.2). Finally, gardens
are small and often delimited by earthen bunds planted with Moringa oleifera
plants, thereby effectively preventing fine sediment transfer between fields by
overland flow.
Although the overall trend in Ctot appears positive, a large variability across
fields is observed (Fig. 4. 3). Part of this variability may stem from the
64
variability in initial SOC content, as observed for the control fields for which
Ctot varied from 5 to 15 g C kg-1. This large variability in Ctot in control fields
can be explained by the fact that some of these fields had been used during the
rainy season for annual cropping (e.g., maize) while others had not been
cultivated at all. Actually, control fields with the highest carbon contents were
those that had not been cultivated previously and were occupied by
herbaceous species and shrubs. Additional variability across fields may result
from other sources, including variations in oxalate-extractable Fe and Al
content (Feo+Alo) across the site, as highlighted by the Ctree model (Fig. 4.1),
but also differences in the type and application rates of organic amendments.
Indeed, farmers resort to a variety of amendments, from urban waste and
compost to various types of manure (cattle, sheep, pig, poultry), which vary
widely in terms of composition (mean carbon contents ranging from 9 to 29%,
mean N ranging from 0.41 to 1.75% and mean C/N ratio ranging from 15.5 to
21.3 depending on the type of manure). Survey results also indicated a wide
range of application rates during the year preceding soil sampling, from < 1 to
184 t DM ha-1 yr-1 depending on the farmer and type of amendment used. The
conditional inference tree model did not highlight the quantity of amendments
as a significant variable influencing Ctot variance, but this can be easily
understood since the reported quantities relate to the year that preceded the
sampling and may not be representative of the mean rates applied since the
onset of the gardening activities, especially for the older fields. Finally,
additional variability may have resulted from differences in total root biomass
that are left to decompose in the soil after harvest, since farmers grow a wide
variety of crops (Ouédraogo et al., 2019).
65
Role of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al components
Feo+Alo content was strongly related to Ctot. Feo+Alo encompasses two types
of soil constituents: short-range-order (SRO) Fe and Al oxides and (Fe, Al)-
humus complexes. (Fe, Al) oxides readily interact with 1:1 clay minerals due
to electrostatic forces through the positive and negative surface charges of (Fe,
Al) oxides and 1:1 clays, respectively (Schofield and Samson, 1954; Uehara
and Gillman, 1981). These interactions are even stronger with SRO oxides
(Pochet et al., 2007). Oxalate-extractable Fe and Al thus play a key role in the
soil micro-aggregation process (Chauvel et al., 1976). In addition, SRO Fe and
Al oxides have a greater affinity for organic matter than clay minerals. Indeed,
sorption of organic molecules on these oxides is a major mechanism by which
Fe and Al can stabilize SOC (Six et al., 2002; Wagai and Mayer, 2007;
Schneider et al., 2010; Eusterhues et al., 2014). SRO Fe and Al oxides may
therefore be more important as a storage factor for SOC than other mineral
components of the soil (Jones and Edwards, 1998; Kaiser and Zech, 1998;
Kaiser et al., 2002). More generally, the interactions between organic
compounds and nanoscale SRO consisting mainly of Al, Fe, Si polymers are
key drivers of carbon storage in soils (Basile-Doelsch et al., 2015). Apart from
SRO Fe and Al oxides, (Feo + Alo) also includes (Fe, Al)-humus complexes,
which consist of organo-mineral associations (OMA) that play a key role in
carbon storage (Deng and Dixon, 2002).
66
second step, organic acids dissolve nanoscale Fe and Al oxides, promote the
synthesis of OMA involving dissolved organic matter and SRO oxides such
as ferrihydrite (Van Ranst et al., 2019b), and eventually form complexes with
Al and Fe (Fritsch et al., 2011; Van Ranst et al., 2019b). This process is
promoted by the small particle size of (Fe, Al) oxides and by environmental
factors that enhance SOM accumulation (Van Ranst et al., 2019b). In our case
study, SOM accumulation is directly linked to the intensive and long supply
of organic residues in urban gardens.
In line with the above-mentioned studies, we propose that the repeated supply
of organic matter in the studied urban gardens has induced SOM
accumulation. This process led to the transformation of secondary oxides into
small-scale SRO (Fe, Al) oxides that acted as a source of Fe and Al to form
(Fe, Al)-humus complexes. In this line, we may explain SOM accumulation
through (i) the management practices, (ii) the formation of SRO (Fe, Al)
oxides and (Fe, Al)-humus complexes, which both strongly contribute to SOM
preservation.
67
Methodological considerations.
Compared to textural analysis, only 40% of the clay and fine silt particles were
recovered by shaking, indicating that micro-aggregates were still a significant
part of the fraction > 20 µm after shaking. This was confirmed by sonication,
which resulted in a doubling (82%) of the particles < 20 µm fraction (Fig. 4.4).
Compared to shaking, sonication caused an increase in the C<20µm content
from 6.9 to 14.0 g C kg-1 on average. This increase in C<20µm is much higher
than the 30% increase reported for temperate soils by van Wesemael et al.
(2019). Sonication therefore appears to be a necessity in these tropical soils.
It will avoid underestimating the amount of C contained in shaking-resistant
micro-aggregates > 20 µm in size. Even so, a small proportion (18% on
average) of clay and fine silt particles remained entrapped in aggregates > 20
µm that resisted sonication (Fig. 4.4).
68
aggregates < 20 µm in size. Nevertheless, given such a low rate of increase,
the opportunity for C storage in this fraction appears very limited.
Because of the linear increase in the C<20-so content and the asymptotic
increase in Ctot, the C>20µm-so fraction first increases with the duration of
cultivation, then decreases. The initial increase likely resulted from the fact
that the application rates of organic amendments initially exceeded the SOM
mineralization rate, leading to the accumulation of SOC mostly in the
C>20µm-so pool. However, it appears that some of this SOC was
progressively entrapped inside shaking-resistant micro-aggregates. When the
total Ctot accumulation rate becomes lower than the rate of increase of
C<20µm-so, i.e. when more C is transferred to the C<20µm-so pool than there
is C accumulation in the soil, the C>20µm-so begins to decrease.
69
change, especially since SOC storage has become a global priority to offset
the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration.
4.5 Conclusion
In our case study, the best predictors of SOC content are the duration of
cultivation and (Feo + Alo), i.e. the sum of oxalate-extractable (Fe, Al)
contents. These two parameters should be considered in SOC stabilization
estimation models with similar physicochemical properties. When
70
considering the fractionation of tropical soils, sonication should be considered
as simple agitation would result in an underestimation of the C<20µm
fraction, given the importance of the microaggregation on SOC stabilization
here.
Although carbon stocks were not quantified in the present study, the large
carbon storage in the C<20µm fraction may indicate a strong C sequestration
potential in the tropical soils that were investigated.
71
72
Chapitre 5
5.1 Introduction
Maintaining the soil’s quality is key to ensure sustainable crop production and
its many other contributions to ecosystem functioning (Bünemann et al.,
2018). Among the three components of soil quality, biological quality is of
particular importance given the ubiquity of processes mediated by soil
microorganisms and their influence on ecosystem stability and fertility (Smith
and Papendick, 1993). Indeed, microorganisms play a crucial role in
biogeochemical cycles and participate in the formation of soil structure (Harris
and Birch, 1989). Numerous studies show the decisive role of biological
activity for many soil functions such as carbon storage and climate change
mitigation, nutrient decomposition and cycling, or detoxification of toxic
substances (Brussaard et al., 1997; Doran et al., 2000).
With regard to the soil’s biological quality, various indicators have been
proposed to facilitate soil monitoring. Biological indicators range from
indicator organisms to biological processes (e.g., respiration) to specific
organic molecules (e.g., enzymes) whose monitoring allows early diagnosis
of changes in the environment (Haynes, 1999; Ramade, 2008). Microbial
biomass carbon (MBC) reflects the size of the microbial population and has
been used to assess the status of land degradation (Ross et al., 1982). It is
sensitive to crop and soil management practices such as the application of
organic manure and mineral fertilizers (Böhme et al., 2005), crop rotation
(Yusuf et al., 2009), tillage and fallowing (Wang et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2010).
Soil enzymatic activities are also regularly used as indicators of soil quality
(Bastida et al., 2008; Trasar-Cepeda et al., 2008) because they intervene in the
decomposition and synthesis of organic matter, nutrient cycling as well as
availability and biodegradation of toxic organic pollutants (Dick, 1997;
Nannipieri et al., 2002). They are well-suited for soil quality monitoring
73
because of their rapid response to changes in the soil environment and their
easy, quick and inexpensive quantification (Dick, 1997). Another frequently
used indicator is soil respiration, as it reflects the ability of the soil to support
soil life, including crops, soil fauna and microorganisms. It is a measure of the
level of microbial activity, in particular in response to changes in the content
and quality of soil organic matter (SOM) (USDA, 2009).
In developing countries, urban market gardening practices are often
characterized by intensive use of pesticides, organic amendments and
chemical fertilizers with the ultimate goal of maximizing production and
profitability with little regard to environmental side effects (Sangaré, 2012;
Abdulkadhir et al., 2013; Lehmann et al., 2017; Son et al., 2017; Lompo et al.,
2018; Ouédraogo et al., 2019). This has raised considerable concern among
researchers and development stakeholders about the impact of continuous and
intensive vegetable production on human health (Ahouangninou et al., 2011;
Bempah et al., 2011; Lehmann et al., 2017) but also on water resources (Sall
et Vanclooster, 2009; Abdu et al., 2011; Abdulkadhir et al., 2015; Lehmann
et al., 2017; Lompo et al., 2018), air quality (Predotova et al., 2010) and soil
resources (Kiba et al., 2012; Abdulkadhir et al., 2013). Several studies in sub-
Saharan Africa have documented the impacts of crop and soil management
practices on market garden soils, but such studies are generally restricted to
soil nutrient balances (Kiba et al., 2012; Abdulkadhir et al., 2013; Lompo et
al., 2018). One exception is the study by Naré et al. (2014) in Burkina Faso
who showed a decrease in soil enzymatic activities following the application
of three pesticides used in market gardening. However, until now, the short
and medium-term impact of market gardening practices on indicators of soil
biological activity remain very scarce.
Nevertheless, given that biological activity is highly sensitive to soil
management, one may expect that intensive market gardening practices will
impact soil biological activity. In addition to the negative effects that intensive
pesticide use could have on soil microorganisms (Bünemann et al., 2006; Naré
et al., 2014; Pose-Juan et al., 2017), other practices can also compromise soil
biological activity. Because farmers frequently rely on urban refuse as soil
amendment or use waster water for irrigation, soil contamination by heavy
metals has been documented in some cities (Adjia et al., 2008; Abdu et al.,
74
2011). Garcia et al. (2000) observed a decrease in microbial biomass and soil
enzyme activities related to heavy metals contained in composted urban solid
waste in Spain. Smejkalova et al. (2003) showed that a range of microbial
activity indicators are affected by soil heavy metal contamination such that
they could be used as sensitive indicators of soil pollution by heavy metals.
On the other hand, fertilizer application can increase soil biological activity
by increasing system productivity, crop residue return and organic matter
content (Böhme et al., 2005; Bünemann et al., 2006; Trasar-Cepeda et al.,
2008; Geisseler and Scow, 2014). Crop rotation and the addition of organic
amendments can also positively affect soil biological activity (Somenahally et
al., 2018). Organic amendments such as manure, compost, or urban refuse are
a direct source of carbon for soil organisms. By stimulating plant growth, such
amendments are also an indirect source of carbon through the recycling of
plant roots and crop residues (Bünemann et al., 2006). A study by Haynes et
al. (1999) in New Zealand on the effect of intensive vegetable production
revealed a decrease in soil organic matter over time that resulted in a
significant decrease in soil microbial activity. On the contrary, in a previous
study on a market gardening site in Burkina Faso, a significant increase in
labile SOC according to the number of years of cultivation was highlighted
(Ouédraogo et al., submitted).
Since potentially harmful practices coexist with practices that could have
positive effects on soil biological quality, their consequences on soil
biological activity should be verified. The objective of this research was
therefore to evaluate the impact of market gardening on the short (< 10 years)
and long-term (>10 years) evolution of the biological activity of the soil.
The study was carried out at the 60-ha Kuinima market gardening site. The
site is described in section 2.2.
75
5.2.2 Field selection and sampling
76
Enzyme activity
Enzymatic activities were measured by means of the colorimetric analysis of
the products released by the enzyme when the soil sample was incubated in a
suitable substrate under standard conditions. To determine the activity of
betaglucosidase, a para-Nitro-Phenyl ß-D-glucopyranoside substrate with an
incubation period of 2 h at 37°C was used according to the method described
by Hayano (1973). Urease activity was determined using 2 M urea as a
substrate under standard conditions (2 h at 37°C) (Makoi and Ndakidemi,
2008). Acid phosphatase activity was measured using p-nitrophenylphosphate
(PNP) 15 mM as substrate in a modified universal buffer (MUB) at pH 6.5,
incubated for 1 hour at 37°C (Tabatabai et al., 1969). The activity of
fluorescein di-acetate (FDA) was quantified with FDA substrate, incubated
for 1 hour at 30° C according to the method described by Adam and Duncan
(2001). The absorbance of the products was determined using a
spectrophotometer (Genesys 20). Enzyme activities were expressed in
micrograms of product per gram of dry soil per hour (i.e., absolute activity).
Specific enzymatic activities per unit of SOC or per unit of microbial biomass
were also calculated by dividing absolute enzymatic activity by SOC content
or by microbial biomass carbon, respectively.
For each field, the geometric mean of enzymatic activities (GME) was
calculated as follows (Paz-Ferreiro et al., 2012) (equation 5.1).
GME= (Beta-glucosidase * FDA * Phosphatase * Urease)1/4 (5.1)
Biochemical activities
Soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) was determined on dry soil samples by
the chloroform fumigation method followed by KCL extraction of the alpha
amino acids constituting the microbial biomass (Vance et al., 1987). The
determination of the amino N-alpha content of lysed and non-lysed samples
was performed by colorimetry of the amino Ninhydrin-alpha nitrogen
complex with a Technicon (Seal-Analytical) Auto-analyzer 3 QuAAtro AQ 2.
The amino N-alpha content of microbial biomass was obtained from the
difference between amino N- alpha content of fumigated and non-fumigated
samples. The microbial carbon content (expressed in µg g-1 of dry soil) was
obtained after multiplication by a coefficient of 21 (Schinner et al., 1995). The
77
microbial quotient (Qmic) was calculated by dividing the microbial carbon
content by the total organic carbon content (Ctot) (Rutgers et al., 2009).
The mineral NH4+ and NO3- (extracted by KCl) content was determined
simultaneously by continuous flow colorimetry on non-fumigated dry
samples. The determination of ammonium was based on the formation of a
complex colored by ammonium ion, sodium salicylate and chlorine in an
alkaline medium. The determination of nitrate was done by reducing nitrate to
nitrite by hydrazine sulfate in the presence of copper sulfate. The Nmin/Ntot
ratio was obtained by dividing the sum of NH4+ and NO3- content by the total
nitrogen content (Ntot).
Basal soil respiration (µg C-CO2 g-1h-1 soil) was determined using a gas
chromatograph (MTI 200) (micro-catharometer) equipped with a thermal
conductivity detector (TCD). Dry soil samples were re-wetted to 80% of the
water retention capacity, and then stored in tightly closed vials. The CO2
concentration was measured at the initial time and the vials were incubated in
the oven at 28°C (±0.5 C). Then CO2 measurements were taken every 24 hours
for 7 days from the initial time. The microbial quotient (Qmic) was calculated
by dividing MBC content by Ctot (Rutgers et al., 2009).
All analyses on soil biological activities were performed at the Laboratoire
mixte international intensification écologique des sols (LMI-IESOL) in Dakar
(Sénégal).
Linear regression analyses were done with Excel and R software. Since the
purpose of the regressions was descriptive rather than for inference, no
variable transformation was performed even when homosedasticity conditions
were not met. The cook’s distance criterion was used to detect outliers; outiers
were not included in the regression. A Pearson correlation matrix between
covariates and biological activities was calculated. The significance level for
all statistical tests was set at α = 0.05. A multivariate principal component
analysis was used to identify the variables that explain the different biological
activity indicators.
78
5.3 Results
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the soils were mostly sandy loam (IUSS
Working Group WRB, 2015) (Table 4.1). The total carbon content ranged
between 5.5 and 34.2 g C kg-1 with a C/N ratio ranging from 9.6 to 15.9. Soils
had a pH on average close to neutral and were non-saline. However, there are
a few farms with an acid pH.
The doses of organic amendments applied ranged from 0.87 to 184 t DM ha-1
year-1 with an average of 51 t DM ha-1 year-1. Farmers use very diverse types
of organic amendments, both within and between fields. These are mainly
municipal waste, cattle, sheep or pig manure, poultry excrement and compost.
Depending on the type, the average nutrient content varies from 9 to 29% for
carbon, from 0.41 to 1.75% for N and from 15.5 to 21.3 for the C/N ratio.
Enzymatic activity values of fields cultivated for more than 50 years increased
on average by 62% for betaglucosidase, 51% for phosphatase, 49% for FDA,
and 94% for urease compared to the control fields (Fig. 5.1a-d). All enzymatic
activities were significantly correlated, but the highest correlation was
observed between the FDA and betaglucosidase (r = 0.56). All four enzymatic
activities increased significantly and mostly linearly (p<0.05) with the number
of years of cultivation. However, 78 to 90% of the total variance could not be
explained by the duration of cultivation, reflecting high variability between
fields. This unexplained variance was reduced by the use of the geometric
mean of enzymatic activities, which shows a clearer increase over time (Fig.
5.1e).
79
70 300
250 900
(c) (d)
FDA (µg fluorescein g¯¹ soil h¯¹)
250
(e)
200
GME (µg g¯¹ h¯¹)
150
100
y = 0.99x + 112.67
50 R² = 0.27
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
80
Basal respiration increased significantly over time, from 0.59 on average for
control fields to 1.09 µg C-CO2 g-1 soil h-1 after 60 years of cultivation (Fig.
5.2a). The increase was largely linear, although the highest respiration rates
were observed after 20-30 years. Variability between plots not explained by
the duration of cultivation was again very high (R² = 0.13). Microbial biomass
content varied widely across plots, from 12 to 114 µg MBC g-1 soil, but with
no clear temporal trend (Fig. 5.2b).
As opposed to microbial biomass carbon, there was an asymptotic increase in
total organic carbon content over time (R² = 0.55), reaching 24 g C kg-1 after
about 30 years (Fig. 5.2c). The C/N ratio also increased over time, on average
from 11.7 for control fields to 14.0 after 60 years of cultivation (Fig. 5.2d).
The trend was linear with much lower variability than Ctot, MBC, basal
respiration or enzymatic activities.
2.5 120
(a) (b)
Basal respiration (µg C-CO₂ g¯¹
100
2.0
MBC (µg Cmic g¯¹ soil)
80
1.5
soil h¯¹)
60
1.0
40
0.5 y = 0.007x + 0.85 20
R² = 0.13
0.0 0
40 20
(c) (d)
35
30 15
Ctot (g C kg¯¹)
25
C/N
20 10
15
10 R² = 0.55 5 y = 0.05x + 11.53
5 y = 24.16/(1+Exp(+0.55-0.12*x)) R² = 0.39
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation Number of years of cultivation
81
NH4+ content ranged between 2 and 41.2 µg N-NH4+ g-1 whereas NO3- content
varied between 9.5 and 114.8 µg N-NO3- g-1 (Fig. 5.3a, b). NO3- was the
dominant form of N in all samples, representing between 50% and 98% of the
total mineral N. The duration of cultivation had no effect on the N-NH4+
content, whereas there was a tendency for N-NO3- to increase with time (p <
0.05). For both indicators, variability was again high. As for total C, there was
an asymptotic increase in total N content over time (R² = 0.47). Total N
content increased from 0.79 g N kg-1 on average on control fields to 1.88 g N
kg-1 after 60 years of cultivation (Fig. 5.3c). Depending on the plot, total
mineral N (NH4+ + NO3-) represented between 2% and 9% of the total N.
45 140
(a) (b)
40 120 y = 0.35x + 33.57
NO₃¯ (µg N-NO₃¯ g¯¹ soil)
NH₄ᶧ (µg N-NH₄ᶧ g¯¹ soil)
35
100
30
25 80
20 60
15
40
10
20
5 R² =0.08
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation Number of years of cultivation
3.0
(c)
2.5
2.0
Ntot (g N kg¯¹)
1.5
1.0
R² = 0.47
0.5
y= 1.69/(1+Exp(+0.24-0.17*x))
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
Figure 5.3. Evolution of NH4+ (a), NO3- (b), total nitrogen (Ntot) (c), as a
function of the number of years of cultivation
82
Finally, there were strong correlations between FDA and basal respiration (r
= 0.52), urease and basal respiration (r = 0.64) and between NO3- content and
basal respiration (r = 0.66) (Table 5.1). The correlation between
betaglucosidase or phosphatase and basal respiration, although not strong, was
statistically significant. There was no significant correlation between MBC
and basal respiration. MBC was generally weakly correlated to enzymatic
activities.
83
Tableau 5.1. Correlation matrix between biological activity and soil characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically
significant (p < 0.05). Details on the level of significance of the correlation are provided in Appendix D
Units Year Clay.FS Ctot C>20 C<20 C/N Ntot pH Bglu Phos FDA Urease GME Resp MBC Qmic NH4+ NO3- Nmin/Ntot
Year years 1 0.24 0.69 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.71 0.17 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.32 0.52 0.37 0.08 -0.53 -0.02 0.29 -0.19
Clay.FS % 0.24 1 0.28 0.24 0.45 0.08 0.31 -0.14 0.45 0.41 0.29 0.23 0.46 0.18 0.2 -0.15 0.09 0.32 0.11
Ctot g C kg-1 0.69 0.28 1 0.99 0.39 0.55 0.88 0.05 0.56 0.61 0.57 0.56 0.78 0.61 0.31 -0.58 0.09 0.49 -0.19
C>20 g C kg-1 0.64 0.24 0.99 1 0.28 0.51 0.96 0.03 0.55 0.65 0.49 0.58 0.77 0.66 0.28 -0.55 0.15 0.61 -0.12
-1
C<20 g C kg 0.63 0.45 0.39 0.28 1 0.5 0.21 0.17 0.48 0.23 0.35 0.04 0.39 0.11 0.1 -0.31 -0.23 0.09 -0.19
C/N - 0.63 0.08 0.55 0.51 0.5 1 0.36 0.35 0.46 0.14 0.23 0.1 0.32 0.18 0.21 -0.25 -0.26 0.17 -0.29
Ntot g C kg-1 0.71 0.31 0.88 0.96 0.21 0.36 1 -0.04 0.52 0.71 0.52 0.67 0.82 0.73 0.29 -0.54 0.25 0.69 -0.04
pH - 0.17 -0.14 0.05 0.03 0.17 0.35 -0.04 1 0.34 -0.32 0.12 -0.1 0.01 -0.11 0.13 -0.04 -0.45 -0.17 -0.37
Bglu µg g-1 h-1 0.47 0.45 0.56 0.55 0.48 0.46 0.52 0.34 1 0.47 0.56 0.33 0.77 0.33 0.3 -0.24 -0.3 0.24 -0.36
Phos µg g-1 h-1 0.41 0.41 0.61 0.65 0.23 0.14 0.71 -0.32 0.47 1 0.36 0.48 0.79 0.44 0.23 -0.34 0.27 0.44 -0.07
-1 -1
FDA µg g h 0.32 0.29 0.57 0.49 0.35 0.23 0.52 0.12 0.56 0.36 1 0.42 0.75 0.52 0.35 -0.23 -0.07 0.35 -0.15
Urease µg g-1 h-1 0.32 0.23 0.56 0.58 0.04 0.1 0.67 -0.14 0.33 0.48 0.42 1 0.74 0.64 0.23 -0.37 0.1 0.49 0.02
GME µg g-1 h-1 0.52 0.46 0.78 0.77 0.39 0.32 0.82 0.01 0.77 0.79 0.75 0.74 1 0.64 0.36 -0.42 0 0.51 -0.19
Resp µg g-1 h-1 0.37 0.18 0.61 0.66 0.11 0.18 0.73 -0.11 0.33 0.44 0.52 0.64 0.64 1 0.13 -0.44 0.15 0.66 0.12
MBC µg g-1 0.08 0.2 0.31 0.28 0.1 0.21 0.29 0.13 0.3 0.23 0.35 0.23 0.36 0.13 1 0.45 -0.13 -0.01 -0.36
Qmic Mg g-1 -0.53 -0.15 -0.58 -0.55 -0.31 -0.25 -0.54 -0.04 -0.24 -0.34 -0.23 -0.37 -0.42 -0.44 0.45 1 -0.21 -0.44 -0.15
NH4+ µg g -1
-0.02 0.09 0.09 0.15 -0.2 -0.26 0.25 -0.45 -0.3 0.27 -0.07 0.1 0 0.15 -0.13 -0.21 1 0.23 0.42
NO3- µg g-1 0.29 0.32 0.49 0.61 0.09 0.17 0.69 -0.17 0.24 0.44 0.35 0.49 0.51 0.66 -0.01 -0.44 0.23 1 0.57
Nmin/Ntot µg g-1 -0.19 0.11 -0.19 -0.12 -0.2 -0.29 -0.04 -0.37 -0.36 -0.07 -0.15 0.02 -0.19 0.12 -0.36 -0.15 0.42 0.57 1
Clay + FS = clay + fine silt; Ctot = total organic carbon; C<20 and C>20= C in the < 20 µm and > 20 µm fraction, respectively; Ntot = total nitrogen; Bglu =
betaglucosidase; GME = geometric mean of enzyme activities, Resp = basal respiration, Nmin/ Not = mineral and total nitrogen ratio; MBC = microbial biomass
carbon. Qmic = microbial quotient.
84
After carbon fractionation, it appears that the C>20µm fraction is correlated
with biological activity indicators to a similar extent as Ctot (Table 5.1), in
particular with the GME (Fig. 5.4a) and basal respiration (Fig. 5.4b). On the
contrary, correlations are always lower and often not significant with the
C<20µm fraction (Table 5.1).
250 2.5
200 2.0
GME (µg g¯¹ h¯¹)
150 1.5
100 1.0
Figure 5.4. Evolution of geometric mean of enzyme activities (GME) (a) and
basal respiration (b) according to the C>20µm fraction.
85
Phosphatase (µg p-NPP g¯¹ soil h¯¹) 300 900
(a) (b)
800
250 2.5
(c)
Basal respiration (µg C-CO₂ g¯¹ soil h¯¹) (d)
200 2.0
GME (µg g¯¹ soil h¯¹)
150 1.5
100 1.0
140
(e)
120
NO₃¯ (µg N-NO₃¯ g¯¹ soil)
80
60
40
20 R² = 0.48
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Ntot (g N kg¯¹)
86
Specific enzyme activities per unit carbon are positively correlated with the
C<20µm / C>20µm ratio and this correlation is strong especially with
betaglucosidase (r = 0.71) and the GME (r = 0.75) (Fig. 5.6).
5.0 25
(a) (b)
4.5
4.0 20
Phosphatase/Ctot
3.5
3.0 15
2.5
2.0 10
1.5
1.0 y = 4.64x + 1 5 y = 21x + 5.78
0.5 R² = 0.50 R² = 0.36
0.0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
C<20 µm/ C>20 µm C<20 µm/ C>20 µm
25 120
(c) (d)
(µg fluorescein g¯¹ SOC h¯¹)
100
20
(µg NH₄-N g¯¹ SOC h¯¹)
y = 38.13x + 17.24
80
Uréase/Ctot
FDA/Ctot
15
60
10
40
5 y = 18.14x + 4.68 20
R² = 0.38 R² = 0.14
0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
C<20 µm/ C>20 µm C<20 µm/ C>20 µm
20
18 (e)
16
14
(µg g¯¹ SOC h¯¹)
GME/Ctot
12
10
8
6
4 y = 16.85x + 4.42
2 R² = 0.57
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
C<20 µm/ C>20 µm
Figure 5.6. Evolution of enzymatic activity per unit of total organic carbon
as a function of the C<20µm / C>20µm ratio: betaglucosidase (a), phosphatase
(b), fluorescein di-acetate (FDA) (c), urease (d), and geometric mean of
enzyme activities (GME) (e).
87
Specific basal respiration and specific MBC per unit of carbon are also
significantly correlated with the C<20µm /C>20µm ratio (Fig. 5.7a b). There
is no correlation between nitrogen mineralization per unit of carbon and
C<20µm /C>20µm (Fig. 5.7c d).
0.14 12
(a) (b)
0.12 10
(µg C-CO₂ g¯¹ SOC h¯¹)
Basal repiration/Ctot
MBC/Ctot
0.08
6
0.06
4
0.04
y = 1.68x + 1.07 2 y = 7.91x + 1.19
0.02
R² = 0.15 R² = 0.32
0.00 0
2.5 10
(c)
9
2.0 8 (d)
(µg N-NO₃¯ g¯¹ SOC )
(µg N-NH₄ᶧ g¯¹ SOC )
7
NO₃¯/Ctot
NH₄ᶧ/Ctot
1.5 6
5
1.0 4
3
0.5 2
1
0.0 0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
C<20 µm/ C>20 µm C<20 µm/ C>20 µm
88
5.3.3 Principal Component Analysis of all variables
89
Variables (axes F1 et F2 : 58.03 %) (a)
1
Nmin/Ntot NH₄ᶧ
0.75
NO₃¯
0.5
Resp Urease
0.25
PhosNtot
F2 (16.30 %)
Clay+FS C>20
0 GME
FDA Ctot
-0.25
MBC Year
C<20 Bglu
-0.5
C/N
-0.75 pH
-1
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
F1 (41.73 %)
Ctot C>20
0.75 C/N
Years
C<20 Ntot
0.5
Clay+FS
NO3
pH
0.25
F2 (24.51 %)
0
Bglu/BM
-0.25 NH4 Phos/MBC
GME/MBC
Nmin/Ntot Resp/MBC
-0.5 FDA/MBC
Uréase/MBC
-0.75
-1
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
F1 (34.94 %)
Figure 5.8. Projection of the variables on the first two axes of the principal
component analysis (PCA): soil characteristics and biological indicators (a),
soil characteristics and biological indicators per unit of microbial biomass
(b).
90
5.4 Discussion
91
studies have reported deleterious effects of pesticide applications (Naré et al.,
2014). In the present case, the improvement in Ctot seems to drive the overall
improvement in soil biological activity. Further studies will be needed to
investigate the contribution of pesticide application to the overall changes in
soil biological quality.
Thus, much of the variability in enzymatic activity, basal respiration and NO3-
content is explained by Ctot, and more specifically by its labile fraction (Table
5.1; Fig. 5.4), confirming the results of Feller (1995), and van Wesemael et al.
(2019). Strong correlations are also observed between these biological
indicators and total nitrogen as previously reported by Frankenberger and
Dick (1983), Aon and Colaneri (2001), Liang et al. (2011). Raiesi (2012)
reported correlations between soil N content and the rate of microbial nitrogen
mineralization and immobilization. The close links between enzymatic
activity and organic carbon and nitrogen are not unexpected since both are the
main constituents of soil organic matter and therefore substrates for enzymatic
degradation (Aaon et al., 2001).
Although the main driver of change in biological activity appears to be the
large inputs in organic amendments and the resulting increase in SOC content,
mostly the C>20µm fraction, there remains a large unexplained variability
between fields. Besides differences in the recent application rates of organic
amendments, from <1 to 184 t DM ha-1, such differences could result from
differences in the type of amendments used. Indeed, producers apply
diversified types of organic matter (household waste, compost, cattle, sheep,
pig, poultry manure), whose composition varies considerably (average carbon
content ranging from 9 to 29%, average nitrogen content from 0.41 to 1.75%
and average C/N ratio from 15.5 to 21.33% depending on the type of manure)
(Ouédraogo et al., 2019). Thus, distinct organic amendments may stimulate
microbial biomass differently by increasing labile organic matter (Marriott et
al., 2006; Smukler et al., 2008; Kallenbach and Grandy, 2011) and/or total soil
carbon over periods ranging from several months to several decades (Kong et
al., 2005). In addition, enzyme activities may change depending on the
composition of the amendments and nutrient availability (Acosta-Martínez et
al., 2003; Sinsabaugh et al., 2008; Štursová and Baldrian, 2011). Finally,
differences in the decomposing root biomass in the soil after harvest may have
92
resulted in additional variability. Besides the differences in organic inputs,
other factors may also explain the variability across fields, for instance the
difference in crop choice (Bardgett et al., 1999; Berg and Smalla 2009), crop
associations and rotations (Yusuf et al., 2009), or the toxicity and application
rates of pesticides. Naré et al. (2014) found differences in FDA activity
between soils treated with endosulfan, deltamethrin and profenofos. His
results showed that deltamethrin had the lowest FDA activity in cultivated
soils. The effects of pesticides can also vary depending on the rate (Yao et al.,
2006), which varied from 9 to 151 PTFI ha-1 year-1.
There are positive correlations between basal respiration and enzyme
activities. However, the relationship shows a high variability, especially for
betaglucosidase, phosphatase and FDA, indicating that a large proportion of
these activities may not be associated with the active microbial population
(Frankenberg and Dick, 1983). Indeed, there are so-called extracellular or
abiotic enzymes that are often associated with dead cells and other non-living
fractions in the soil (Sinsabaugh, 1994). The low correlation between basal
respiration and microbial biomass (Table 5.1) leads us to postulate that basal
respiration is dictated more by the amount of substrate than by microbial
biomass. We also observe that microbial biomass is neither correlated with
enzymatic activities such as betaglucosidase, nor with carbon content, which
is the source of energy for most soil microorganisms (Feller, 1995; Badiane et
al., 2001). This could be explained by the fact that microbial biomass was
underestimated because it was measured on samples of dried and re-wetted
soil. This could be the reason for the low values observed for this indicator.
Similar results were observed by Badiane et al. (2001). The PCA (Figure 5.8b)
shows a strong correlation between standardized indicators with microbial
biomass and Nmin/Ntot ratio that is orthogonal to soil properties. This leads
us to confirm that microbial biomass tends to dictate microbial activity
towards mineralization. Marshner et al. (2011) showed a preferential use of
organic nitrogen by wheat rhizobacteria that transforms them into NH4+
available for plants. However, soil conditions favored a rapid conversion of
NH4+ to NO3- by nitrifying bacteria, which explains the predominance of NO3-
over NH4+ as observed in the present study.
93
In these market garden soils, one observes significant carbon sequestration, as
supported by the very high correlation between the C<20µm fraction and the
number of years of cultivation (Table 5.1). The strong correlation between
specific biological activities per unit of total carbon (especially
betaglucosidase) and the ratio C<20µm / C>20µm tends to indicate that
biological activity promotes carbon sequestration in the soil (Fig. 5.6; 5.7;
appendix F). Indeed, microorganisms break down organic matter into smaller
molecules, making them more reactive towards mineral surfaces and
facilitating their incorporation into aggregates (Lehmann and Kleber, 2015).
Also, Six et al. (2004) and Rillig and Mummey (2006) have shown that soil
fungi, particularly mycorrhizae, can strongly affect soil carbon sequestration,
and fungal biomass tends to increase when the soil C/N ratio increase
(Högberg et al., 2006). Our results indicate an increase in the C/N ratio as a
function of the number of years of cultivation (Fig. 5.2d). Microbial biomass
contributes to carbon sequestration by improving soil aggregation through
fungal hyphae and the production of polysaccharides (Grandy and Neff, 2008;
Plaza et al., 2013). According to analyses by Hayano and Tubaki (1985) and
Conn et al. (2000), fungi were the most important source of β-glucosidase in
soil. This may explain the strong correlation between betaglucosidase activity
and C<20µm fraction (Table 5.1; Fig. 5.8a), compared to other indicators.
Thus, the positive correlation between betaglucosidase, C/N ratio and
C<20µm fraction after the principal component analysis leads us to conclude
that large and regular inputs of organic matter to fields lead to an increase in
C/N that promotes an increase in fungal biomass that affects soil carbon
sequestration.
However, it can be observed that the organic amendments used by farmers
(composted urban waste or crop residues, various manures) have C/N ratios
between 15.5 and 21.3 (Ouédraogo et al., 2019). These values are optimal and
therefore could not explain the increase in the C/N ratio of the SOC. Rather,
the increase in the C/N ratio would be related to the fact that the intake doses
exceed the ability of microorganisms to convert organic amendments to SOC,
either because of insufficient nitrogen availability or because other limiting
factors affect biological activity. Although microbial biomass and, even more
so, basal respiration, increase with carbon content (Table 5.1), microbial
94
biomass per unit of COS tends to decrease with increasing carbon (and age),
suggesting a reduced ability of the microbial community to transform added
organic amendments.
This leads us to believe that current market gardening practices are positively
impacting soil biological activity of market garden soils. Nevertheless,
pesticide, fertilizer and organic inputs should still be provided in a reasoned
and balanced way, for greater efficiency, without forgetting the potential
negative effects that excessive inputs can have on the environment (Sall and
Vanclooster, 2009; Sangaré, 2012; Lompo et al., 2018).
5.5 Conclusion
95
96
Chapitre 6
6.1 Introduction
Over the past 50 years, about 2 billion of the 8.7 billion hectares of agricultural
land, permanent pasture, forests and woodlands have been degraded due to
inadequate soil management (Arshad and Martin, 2002). A major challenge
for the future is therefore to develop actions to reduce land degradation and
restore currently degraded land in order to maintain the ecosystem functions
of productivity, climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation and food
security (Muñoz-Rojas, 2018). To better target these actions and for early
detection of a decline in soil functioning, soil quality monitoring is essential
(Wienhold et al., 2004).
Soil quality has been defined as the “capacity of a specific kind of soil to
function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant
and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and
support human health and habitation” (Doran and Parkin, 1994; Karlen et al.,
1997; Karlen et al., 2003). Soil quality can therefore be viewed as an account
of the soil's ability to achieve its ecosystem and social services under changing
conditions (Tóth, et al., 2007). Although it is widely acknowledged that soil
quality assessment must encompass the biological, chemical and physical
properties of the soil, much current scientific knowledge of soils is based on
the analysis of individual soil components. The soil resource being a “dynamic
living system that emerges through a unique balance and interactions between
its biological, chemical and physical components” (Karlen et al., 1997), it
cannot be assessed properly on the basis of individual soil properties.
Integrated soil quality indices based on a combination of soil properties
provide a better indication of soil quality than individual properties (Masto et
al., 2007). These integrated quality indexes are of high relevance because, in
97
addition to helping farmers assess the economic potential of new options and
their impact on soil resources, they enable researchers and decision-makers to
evaluate policy decisions and measure progress towards sustainable soil
management (Granatstein and Bezdiceck, 1992). When soils are degraded to
the level where they can no longer perform their ecosystem functions,
restoration is slow, expensive and uncertain (Arshad and Martin, 2002).
Whereas most cereal and tuber production in sub-Saharan Africa is achieved
under low input, rainfed conditions, vegetable crop production is largely
achieved under high input, irrigated conditions, especially in urban centers
(Sangaré, 2012; Son et al., 2017; Lompo et al., 2018). This places high
demands on soil fertility maintenance and improvement (Ridder and Keulen,
1990). Yet the assessment of the productivity and sustainability of these
cropping systems has often been limited to measuring plant biomass and
yields and evaluating a limited number of soil properties. In particular, the
long-term effects of market gardening practices in sub-Saharan Africa on soil
resources have not been documented, even though these systems are a source
of major concern given their heavy reliance on pesticides and fertilizers as
well as frequent use of urban refuse and polluted irrigation water
(Ahouangninou et al., 2012; Kiba et al., 2012; Abdulkadhir et al., 2013; Son
et al., 2017). Hence, there is a need to carry out an assessment of the impact
of vegetable gardening practices on urban garden soil quality through the
integration of their physical, chemical and biological properties in order to
guide appropriate measures to guarantee the sustainability of these production
systems.
In developed countries, monitoring systems are increasingly being developed
to monitor the soil quality status of soils and the impact of soil conservation
efforts (Arrouays et al., 2002; Tóth et al., 2007; Griffiths et al., 2016). In recent
years, several studies have focused on the selection of appropriate soil quality
assessment criteria. According to Doran et al. (1996), soil quality should
ideally be assessed through the monitoring of indices of soil functioning, e.g.,
microbial activity, water and solute fluxes, soil carbon and nutrient turnover.
Whereas such indices best reflect the health of a soil, they are time-consuming
and require knowledge of reference values that are difficult to obtain because
they can vary according to geographical areas and objectives. Consequently,
98
simpler methods have been developed, for use in a more routine way. Since
many properties are interdependent and their responses to environmental
changes are sometimes difficult to interpret, Andrews et al. (2002a) proposed
a soil quality index (SQI) based on the combination of different soil properties
into an global index using a statistical approach. The establishment of their
SQI involves the selection of a minimum soil quality data set, normalization
of scores and calculation of a global index. This framework has been used
widely. For instance, Andrews et al. (2002a) assessed the effects of different
soil management practices on SQI. Bastida et al. (2006) proposed a soil
microbiological degradation index based on five indicators (dehydrogenase
activity, water-soluble carbohydrates, urease activity, water-soluble C and
respiration) in a semi-arid climate. Recently, Zhang et al. (2019) integrated
this approach into their assessment of the impact of vegetation restoration on
soil quality in a degraded landscape in China. However, there has been no
evaluation of soil quality by means of an integrated index in market gardening
production systems in sub-saharan Africa. In particular, no information is
available on the long-term effects of land use and land management on soil
quality and its different components. Given that the sustainable management
of the soil is more critical than ever in sub-Saharan Africa, the objective of
this research was therefore to develop an integrated soil quality assessment
index that could be used to monitor changes in soil quality as a result of
intensive urban market gardening in sub-Saharan Africa.
The description of the study area and sampling method was done in section
2.2 and it sub-section. Disturbed soil samples were taken from the 0-15 cm
topsoil layer for soil chemical and biological analyses. For the analysis of
physical properties (retention curve, hydraulic conductivity, bulk density),
four undisturbed soil samples and one disturbed composite sample were
collected from a depth of 5-10 cm with Kopecki rings (100 cm3) at random
99
points in each field. These soil samples were taken in the fields at least two
weeks after the last cropping operation.
The other chemical analyses were carried out by the BUNASOLS (Bureau
national des sols, Burkina Faso) laboratory.
The available soil P was measured by the Bray1 method (Bray & Kurtz, 1945).
The exchangeable cations Na, K, Ca and K were extracted using an excess
solution of 1 M NH4OAc (ammonium acetate). The concentrations of
exchangeable sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium were determined
by flame photometry (Na and K) and atomic absorption spectrophotometry
(Ca and Mg). The cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined after
saturating the exchange complex with ammonium (ammonium acetate
solution at pH7) and then measuring the concentration of NH4+ after
displacement by KCl. The electrical conductivity was measured
simultaneously with the pH, using a conductivity meter. More details can be
found in Okalebo et al. (2002). Biological indicators were determined as
described previously in Chapter 5. The metabolic quotient (QCO2) was
calculated as the ratio between basal respiration and microbial biomass
carbon. It was expressed in µg C-CO2 released per µg microbial biomass C
(Paz-Ferreiro et al., 2012).
Bulk density was calculated by dividing the dry solid mass (after drying at
105°C, 48 h) by the volume of the Kopecki ring (100 cm3). The retention curve
was determined in the laboratory using sand-kaolin box (low absolute matric
heads h) and pressure plate apparatus (high absolute matric heads) on
100
undisturbed (│h│ < 5 m) and disturbed (10 m < │h│ < 150 m) samples. For
each level of matric head, the total mass of the sample was weighted after
equilibrium was reached. For undisturbed samples, the volumetric water
content of the samples was calculated using equation 6.1 for each level.
𝑉𝑤 (𝑀𝑡−𝑀𝑠)
𝜃= 𝑉𝑡
= 𝑉𝑡.𝜌𝑤
(6.1)
𝜌𝑏
𝜖 =1− (6.2)
𝜌𝑠
With ε (m3/m3), the porosity; ρb, the bulk density (kg/m3); ρs, particle density
(kg/m3).
The particle density was estimated as a function of clay and SOM content
using the regression proposed by Schjønning et al. (2017).
Plant available water capacity was estimated by subtracting the volumetric
water content at the permanent wilting point (pF = 4.2) from the volumetric
water content at h = -100 cm, taken as field capacity. Saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ks) was determined in the laboratory on 100 cm³ undisturbed
soil samples (Kopeckis) using a constant head permeameter and Darcy's
(Darcy, 1856) equation (equation 6.3).
𝑉𝐿
𝐾𝑠 = (6.3)
𝑡𝑆𝐻
With Ks, the hydraulic conductivity at saturation (m/s); V, the volume of water
(m³) passing through the sample over a given time interval t (s); L, the height
101
of a kopecki (m); S, the sample cross section (m2); H, the hydraulic head
difference across the sample (m).
All soil physical analyses were conducted at the Soil physics lab of the Institut
de recherche en sciences appliquées et technologies (IRSAT).
The soil quality index (SQI) described by Andrews et al. (2002a) was used in
the present study. To calculate the SQI, three main steps were followed
(Andrews et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2019; Brejda et al., 2000): (i) selection of
a minimum data set (MDS) of indicators that represent soil functioning to
reduce data redundancy (Doran and Parkin, 1994), (ii) transformation of MDS
indicators into scores and (iii) integrating indicator scores into a comparative
SQI. For the selection of the MDS, standardized principal component analysis
(PCA) and Pearson correlation analyses were performed (Doran and Parkin,
1994). Only principal components (PCs) whose eigenvalues were ≥1 and
explaining at least 5% of the total variance were considered (Andrews et al.,
2002a; 2003). Within each PC, only factors with absolute load values within
10% of the highest factor load were selected as key indicators (Andrews et al.,
2002a). If more than one indicator was retained in a PC using this procedure,
Pearson's correlation analysis was used to check for strong correlations
between indicators (Bastida et al., 2006). In case of strong correlations
between the indicators (correlation coefficient r ≥ 0.6), only the highest
weighted indicator was used in the PC (Andrews et al., 2002a; 2003). After
determining the MDS indicators, a non-linear scoring function was used to
transform the soil indicators into scores ranging from 0 to 1. For this purpose,
the sigmoidal function (equation 6.4) has been widely used (Andrews et al.,
2002a; Sharma et al., 2005; Bastida et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2019).
𝑎
𝑆= 𝑥 𝑏
(6.4)
(1+( ) )
𝑥0
Where S is the soil indicator score, a is the maximum value reached by the
function (a = 1), x is the indicator value, x0 is the average value of each soil
indicator. The use of the average value is important because it centers the
102
curve on a normalized value of 0.5. b is the value of the slope of the equation.
For lack of site-specific values, slope values (b) of -2.5 and 2.5 were used for
a "more is better" (for most variables) or "less is better"(electrical
conductivity; C/N ratio; BD) curve, respectively (Sharma et al., 2005; Bastida
et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2019). The choice of an upper or lower asymptote
was determined on the basis of the literature quantifying the relationships
between the indicator and soil function.
Finally, with the indicator score and weighing values, the SQI (equation 6.5)
was calculated as follows (Andrews et al., 2002a; Masto et al., 2008; Zhang
et al., 2019):
SQI= ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑆𝑖 ∗ 𝑊𝑖 (6.5)
where Si is the indicator score calculated by equation 4, and n is the number
of indicators selected in the MDS. Wi is the weighting value of the selected
soil indicators, which was determined as follows.
For each PC, a weighting factor was calculated as the ratio between the percent
variance explained by the PC and the total variance explained by all PCs with
eigen values ≥1 (Andrews et al., 2002). If only one variable is retained for a
given PC, then the weight of the variable equals the weight of the PC. If more
than one variable is retained for a given PC, then the weight of each variable
is the weight of the PC divided by the number of variables, i.e., variables
within a PC are equally weighted. The latter differs from previous studies in
so far that each retained variable was given the weight of its PC, which implied
that the sum of weights could be > 1. In the present case, the sum of weighting
factors = 1. In case multiple variables were retained within a given PC,
adjusting the weight of each variable by the strength of its correlation with the
PC was considered but not implemented because, by virtue of the variable
selection criteria, the correlations between the variables and the PC are
necessarily similar (deviation of less than 10%). In addition, previous studies
also used fixed weights for all variables retained in a given PC.
Using the method described above, we used two approaches: A first approach
consists in performing separate PCAs on chemical, biological and physical
properties, then calculating an average of the chemical, biological and
103
physical indices. The second approach consists in calculating the global index,
by doing PCA on all the indicators.
6.3 Results
Kuinima's soil is mostly sandy (75% sand on average). The total carbon
content was high on average (about 2%), but varied widely from low (0.5%)
to very high contents (3.4%) (Table 6.1). The same trend applies to nitrogen.
CEC varied between 3.4 and 17.6 cmol+ kg-1 and the sum of the exchangeable
bases ranged between 2.4 and 17.1 cmol+ kg-1. The available phosphorus also
varied widely, from a minimum of 21.3 to a maximum of 169.3 mg kg-1. The
pH values were on average close to neutral (mean = 6.6), but in a few fields
soils were acidic (pH = 5). We did not observe any salinity problem on the
site.
Enzyme activities varied widely across fields with minimum values between
11 and 175 µg g-1 h-1 and maximum values between 66.45 and 830 µg g-1 h-1,
depending on the enzyme (Table 6.1). The resulting geometric mean
enzymatic activity (GME) ranged between 65 and 212 µg g-1 h-1, with an
average of 137 µg g-1 h-1.
Respiratory activities ranged from 0.39 to 2 µg C-CO2 g-1 h-1 whereas MBC
ranged from 12 to 114 µg g-1 (Table 6.1). An average metabolic quotient
(QCO2) of 0.03 µg C-CO2 g-1MBC h-1 was observed, with 0.005 and 0.08 µg g-
104
1
h-1 as minimum and maximum values, respectively. The microbial quotient
(Qmic) ranged from 0.6 to 9.9 µg g-1, with a mean of 2.9 mg g-1.
The NH4+ content was low (mean = 6.27 µg g-1) compared to NO3- (mean =
41.84 µg g-1; Table 6.1). The ratio on mineral N over total N varied from 16
to 85, while the C/N ratio ranged from 10 to 16.
Bulk density varied between 1.05 and 1.34 g cm-3 while plant available water
capacity ranged between 14 and 26%. There was a high macroporosity, which
ranged between 22 and 37%. The saturated hydraulic conductivity was on
average 1.5 E-5 m s-1 (Table 6.1).
105
Tableau 6.1. Selected chemical, biological and physical characteristics of the
market garden fields
Characteris
Variables Units Min Max Median Mean St.Dev. N
tics
-1
Ctot g kg 5.50 34.68 19.45 18.70 7.10 69
Ntot g kg-1 0.56 2.55 1.44 1.46 0.50 69
pH - 5.0 7.6 6.6 6.6 0.58 69
Chemical SBE cmol kg-1 2.39 17.10 6.78 6.75 2.61 69
CEC cmol kg-1 3.4 17.6 10.5 10.5 3.5 69
P Bray mg kg-1 21.3 169.3 53.3 62.3 31.37 69
E.C µS cm-1 17.40 255.00 95.00 100.84 43.56 69
Betaglucosidas
µg g-1 h-1 11.0 66.5 33.1 34.3 11.03 69
e
-1 -1
Phosphatase µg g h 57.0 280.0 179.0 177.9 57.8 69
FDA µg g-1 h-1 50.9 217.9 142.0 142.3 36.54 69
Uréase µg g-1 h-1 175.0 830.1 445.5 436.2 145.8 69
GME µg g-1 h-1 64.6 212.4 139.6 137.3 33.1 69
Resp µg g-1 h-1 0.39 1.98 1.00 0.99 0.31 69
MBC µg g-1 12.00 114.00 43.00 47.97 19.95 69
Biological
µg C-
QCO2 CO2 µg-1 0.005 0.08 0.02 0.03 0.02 69
MBC h-1
NH4+ µg g-1 2.00 41.20 2.80 6.27 7.02 69
NO3- µg g-1 9.50 114.80 39.20 41.84 21.37 69
Nmin/Ntot % 1.55 8.53 3.06 3.02 1.20 69
C/N - 9.55 15.94 12.66 12.78 1.7 69
Qmic mg g-1 0.59 9.90 2.74 2.91 1.64 69
Clay % 8 23 11 12 3.1 69
Silt % 8 16 12 13 1.8 69
Sand % 64 82 76 75 3.6 69
Physical BD g cm-3 1.05 1.34 1.13 1.16 0.08 18
PAWC % 14 26 21 0.21 0.03 18
Macpo % 22 37 29 29 0.04 18
KS m s-1 2.4 E-6 4.3 E-5 1.2 E-5 1.5 E-5 1.1 E-5 18
Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum; St.Dev. = Standard deviation; N = number of observations; Ctot = Total organic
carbon ; N tot = Total nitrogen ; SBE = Sum of the exchangeable bases; CEC = Cation exchange capacity; Ptot = total
phosphorus ; FDA = fluorescein-di-acétate ; GME = Geometric mean of enzyme activities; Resp = basal respiration; MBC
= Microbial biomass carbon; QCO2= respiratory quotient ; Nmin/Ntot = mineral nitrogen/ total nitrogen ; Qmic = microbial
quotient ; BD = Bulk density; PAWC = Plant available water capacity; Macpo = macroporosity; Ks= Saturated hydraulic
conductivity.
106
6.3.2 Selection of indicators
Regarding the soil chemical indicators, the first four PCs having eigenvalues
≥1 or explaining at least 5% of the total variance were selected. Together,
these four axes explained 95% of the total variance (Table 6.3). The indicators
with high loading are CEC, Ntot and Ctot in the first PC (PC-1) but only CEC
was retained given the strong correlations between these three indicators
(Table 6.2). In PC-2, PC-3 and PC-4, pH, Pbray and electrical conductivity
were selected, respectively, because of their high loadings (Table 6.2). Thus,
using the weight of each PC, the calculation of the chemical SQI was
performed as described in equation (6.6) (Table 6.3).
107
Tableau 6.2. Correlation matrix between soil characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Details on the level of significance of the correlation are provided in Appendix E.
Year P Urea NH4 Nmin/ PAW Macp
Clay Silt Sand Ctot Ntot pH SBE CEC E.C Bglu Phos FDA Resp QCO2 + NO3- MBC C/N Qmic GME BD Ks
s Bray se Ntot C o
Clay 1 0.03 -0.86 0.10 0.12 0.13 -0.20 -0.02 0.15 0.12 0.26 0.28 0.27 0.13 0.11 -0.07 -0.14 0.10 0.21 0.17 0.14 -0.06 -0.03 0.26 0.14 0.19 -0.11 -0.05
Silt 0.03 1 -0.53 0.25 0.45 0.42 0.03 0.40 0.50 0.13 0.26 0.51 0.38 0.46 0.34 0.20 -0.05 -0.10 0.29 -0.12 0.20 0.26 -0.20 0.55 -0.09 0.62 -0.20 0.00
Sand -0.86 -0.53 1 -0.21 -0.33 -0.32 0.16 -0.19 -0.38 -0.16 -0.35 -0.49 -0.42 -0.34 -0.27 -0.04 0.14 -0.04 -0.33 -0.08 -0.22 -0.08 0.13 -0.50 -0.07 -0.26 0.20 0.04
Years 0.10 0.25 -0.21 1 0.69 0.71 0.17 0.62 0.77 0.19 0.28 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.17 -0.02 0.29 -0.19 0.08 0.63 -0.53 0.52 -0.22 0.19 -0.05 0.11
Ctot 0.12 0.45 -0.33 0.69 1 0.88 0.05 0.68 0.89 0.27 0.55 0.56 0.61 0.57 0.56 0.61 0.09 0.09 0.49 -0.19 0.31 0.55 -0.58 0.78 -0.22 0.22 -0.06 0.03
Ntot 0.13 0.42 -0.32 0.71 0.88 1 -0.04 0.69 0.81 0.29 0.72 0.52 0.72 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.17 0.25 0.69 -0.04 0.29 0.36 -0.54 0.76 -0.18 0.17 -0.05 0.00
pH -0.20 0.03 0.16 0.17 0.05 -0.04 1 0.49 0.12 -0.11 -0.16 0.34 -0.32 0.11 -0.11 -0.04 -0.03 -0.44 -0.17 -0.37 0.13 0.35 -0.04 -0.04 0.09 0.13 -0.17 0.02
SBE -0.02 0.40 -0.19 0.62 0.68 0.69 0.49 1 0.80 0.18 0.44 0.60 0.28 0.50 0.39 0.47 0.17 -0.13 0.40 -0.23 0.18 0.66 -0.50 0.55 -0.10 0.21 -0.12 0.00
CEC 0.15 0.50 -0.38 0.77 0.89 0.81 0.12 0.80 1 0.38 0.51 0.67 0.55 0.55 0.49 0.56 0.13 -0.05 0.50 -0.20 0.20 0.71 -0.59 0.70 -0.19 0.24 -0.09 0.03
P Bray 0.12 0.13 -0.16 0.19 0.27 0.29 -0.11 0.18 0.38 1 0.17 0.21 0.31 0.12 0.14 0.41 0.16 -0.01 0.16 -0.11 -0.03 0.18 -0.28 0.25 -0.17 -0.01 0.13 0.22
E.C 0.26 0.26 -0.35 0.28 0.55 0.72 -0.16 0.44 0.51 0.17 1 0.27 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.46 0.13 0.31 0.82 0.39 0.12 0.12 -0.40 0.42 0.03 0.27 -0.23 -0.04
Bglu 0.28 0.51 -0.49 0.47 0.56 0.52 0.34 0.60 0.67 0.21 0.27 1 0.47 0.58 0.35 0.34 -0.05 -0.30 0.24 -0.36 0.30 0.48 -0.24 0.74 -0.09 0.24 -0.15 -0.03
Phos 0.27 0.38 -0.42 0.41 0.61 0.72 -0.32 0.28 0.55 0.31 0.39 0.47 1 0.38 0.49 0.46 0.04 0.27 0.44 -0.07 0.23 0.21 -0.34 0.75 -0.13 -0.06 0.10 -0.03
FDA 0.13 0.46 -0.34 0.32 0.57 0.56 0.11 0.50 0.55 0.12 0.40 0.58 0.38 1 0.43 0.47 0.00 -0.06 0.40 -0.13 0.36 0.30 -0.22 0.74 0.17 0.26 -0.31 -0.18
Urease 0.11 0.34 -0.27 0.32 0.56 0.67 -0.11 0.39 0.49 0.14 0.41 0.35 0.49 0.43 1 0.59 0.18 0.10 0.47 0.03 0.24 0.04 -0.40 0.76 -0.05 0.09 -0.04 -0.01
Resp -0.07 0.20 -0.04 0.37 0.61 0.70 -0.04 0.47 0.56 0.41 0.46 0.34 0.46 0.47 0.59 1 0.41 0.15 0.47 -0.02 0.15 0.30 -0.44 0.59 -0.26 0.17 -0.02 0.22
QCO2 -0.14 -0.05 0.14 0.17 0.09 0.17 -0.03 0.17 0.13 0.16 0.13 -0.05 0.04 0.00 0.18 0.41 1 0.23 0.32 0.35 -0.69 0.06 -0.62 0.06 -0.10 0.06 0.04 0.19
+
NH4 0.10 -0.10 -0.04 -0.02 0.09 0.25 -0.44 -0.13 -0.05 -0.01 0.31 -0.30 0.27 -0.06 0.10 0.15 0.23 1 0.23 0.41 -0.13 -0.25 -0.21 0.00 -0.13 -0.05 0.12 0.09
NO3- 0.21 0.29 -0.33 0.29 0.49 0.69 -0.17 0.40 0.50 0.16 0.82 0.24 0.44 0.40 0.47 0.47 0.32 0.23 1 0.57 -0.01 0.13 -0.44 0.45 -0.01 0.26 -0.19 0.01
Nmin/Nt
0.17 -0.12 -0.08 -0.19 -0.19 -0.04 -0.37 -0.23 -0.20 -0.11 0.39 -0.36 -0.07 -0.13 0.03 -0.02 0.35 0.41 0.57 1 -0.36 -0.33 -0.15 -0.21 0.09 0.08 -0.08 0.02
ot
MBC 0.14 0.20 -0.22 0.08 0.31 0.29 0.13 0.18 0.20 -0.03 0.12 0.30 0.23 0.36 0.24 0.15 -0.69 -0.13 -0.01 -0.36 1 0.15 0.45 0.35 -0.05 0.02 -0.03 -0.09
C/N -0.06 0.26 -0.08 0.63 0.55 0.36 0.32 0.66 0.71 0.18 0.12 0.46 0.21 0.30 0.04 0.30 0.06 -0.25 0.13 -0.33 0.15 1 -0.40 0.31 -0.25 0.12 0.02 0.13
Qmic -0.03 -0.20 0.13 -0.53 -0.58 -0.54 -0.04 -0.50 -0.59 -0.28 -0.40 -0.24 -0.34 -0.22 -0.40 -0.44 -0.62 -0.21 -0.44 -0.15 0.45 -0.40 1 -0.38 0.04 -0.09 0.01 -0.06
GME 0.26 0.55 -0.50 0.52 0.78 0.76 -0.04 0.55 0.70 0.25 0.42 0.74 0.75 0.74 0.76 0.59 0.06 0.00 0.45 -0.21 0.35 0.31 -0.38 1 -0.02 0.16 -0.12 -0.07
BD 0.14 -0.09 -0.07 -0.22 -0.22 -0.18 0.09 -0.10 -0.19 -0.17 0.03 -0.09 -0.13 0.17 -0.05 -0.26 -0.10 -0.13 -0.01 0.09 -0.05 -0.25 0.04 -0.02 1 0.12 -0.60 -0.49
PAWC 0.19 0.62 -0.26 0.19 0.22 0.17 0.13 0.21 0.24 -0.01 0.27 0.24 -0.06 0.26 0.09 0.17 0.06 -0.05 0.26 0.08 0.02 0.12 -0.09 0.16 0.12 1 -0.83 0.15
Macpo -0.11 -0.20 0.20 -0.05 -0.06 -0.05 -0.17 -0.12 -0.09 0.13 -0.23 -0.15 0.10 -0.31 -0.04 -0.02 0.04 0.12 -0.19 -0.08 -0.03 0.02 0.01 -0.12 -0.60 -0.83 1 0.19
Ks -0.05 0.00 0.04 0.11 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.22 -0.04 -0.03 -0.03 -0.18 -0.01 0.22 0.19 0.09 0.01 0.02 -0.09 0.13 -0.06 -0.07 -0.49 0.15 0.19 1
E.C. = electrical conductivity; Variables are defined in Table 6.1
108
Tableau 6.3. Result of principal component analysis of soil chemical
indicators of the market garden fields, to define the soil chemical quality index
(SQIchem).
The first three PCs with eigenvalues ≥1 explain 70% of the variance of the
soil biological indicators (Table 6.4). The geometric mean of enzymatic
activities (GME) was used in PC-1. In PC-2, the soil metabolic quotient
(QCO2), Nmin/Ntot and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) are highly weighted,
but MBC was not retained because it is highly correlated to QCO2 (Table 6.2).
The C/N ratio was retained for PC-3. The resulting calculation of the
biological SQI is given by equation (6.7) (Table 6.4).
109
Tableau 6.4. Result of principal component analysis of soil biological
indicators of the market garden fields, to define the soil biological quality
index (SQIbiol).
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶
𝑆𝑄𝐼𝑏𝑖𝑜𝑙 = 0.51 ∗ 𝐺𝑀𝐸 + 0.16 ∗ 𝑄𝐶𝑂2 + 0.16 ∗ + 0.17 ∗ 𝑁 (6.7)
𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡
Principal component PC-1 PC-2 PC-3
Eigenvalues 4.64 2.88 1.59
Variance (%) 35.66 22.13 12.24
Cumulative (%) 35.66 57.79 70.02
Weghting factor 0.51 0.32 0.17
Betaglucosidase 0.703 -0.415 0.246
Phosphatase 0.739 -0.014 -0.236
FDA 0.733 -0.239 -0.070
Urease 0.754 0.083 -0.255
Resp 0.755 0.174 0.020
QCO2 0.241 0.777 0.405
NH4 0.075 0.549 -0.481
NO3 0.625 0.448 -0.270
Nmin/Ntot -0.076 0.745 -0.390
MBC 0.256 -0.745 -0.470
C/N 0.447 -0.240 0.604
Qmic -0.568 -0.546 -0.435
GME 0.933 -0.193 -0.095
Bold factors are considered highly weighted; Underlined and bold factors are retained
in the minimum data set (MDS). PC-1, PC-2, PC-3 indicate first, second and third
principal component, respectively. Variables are defined in Table 6.1.
For the soil physical indicators, the first 3 PCs all had eigenvalues ≥1 (Table
6.5). Together, they explain 82% of the variability. The plant available water
capacity (PAWC) indicator was retained in the first PC. The silt content has
high factor loading for PC-1, but was not retained because of its strong
correlation with PAWC. Bulk density (BD) and clay content (Clay) were
retained in PC-2 and PC-3, respectively. The resulting calculation of the
physical SQI is given by equation (6.8) (Table 6.5).
110
Tableau 6.5. Result of principal component analysis of soil physical
indicators of the market garden fields, to define the soil physical quality index
(SQIphys).
111
Tableau 6.6. Result of principal component analysis of chemical, biological
and physical soil quality indicators of the market garden fields, to define the
global soil quality index (SQIglobal).
𝑁𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑄𝐼𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 = 0.40 ∗ 𝐶𝐸𝐶 + 0.09 ∗ 𝐹𝐷𝐴 + 0.09 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑐𝑝𝑜 + 0.15 ∗ 𝑁𝑡𝑜𝑡
+
0.07 ∗ 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑠𝑒 + 0.07 ∗ 𝑁𝐻4+ + 0.03 ∗ 𝑝𝐻 + 0.03 ∗ 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑐 + 0.03 ∗
𝐾𝑠 + 0.025 ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 0.025 ∗ 𝑃𝐴𝑊𝐶 (6.9)
Principal component PC-1 PC-2 PC-3 PC-4 PC-5 PC-6
Eigenvalues 8.74 4.10 3.24 3.07 1.74 1.09
Variance (%) 33.60 15.76 12.45 11.82 6.71 4.21
Cumulative (%) 33.60 49.36 61.81 73.64 80.34 84.56
Weighting factor 0.40 0.19 0.15 0.14 0.08 0.05
Clay 0.106 -0.347 0.410 0.220 -0.356 0.450
Silt 0.822 -0.121 -0.137 -0.271 -0.159 0.078
Ctot 0.880 0.162 -0.237 0.014 -0.225 0.173
Ntot 0.900 -0.071 -0.066 0.304 0.113 -0.031
pH -0.189 -0.316 -0.355 -0.554 0.492 -0.024
SBE 0.824 -0.135 -0.215 -0.278 0.258 -0.046
CEC 0.924 0.124 0.005 -0.134 -0.158 0.062
P bray 0.267 0.629 0.330 -0.300 0.077 -0.217
Electrical conductivity 0.710 -0.397 0.344 0.148 0.297 -0.213
Betaglucosidase 0.714 -0.104 -0.295 -0.386 -0.045 -0.136
Phosphatase 0.543 0.214 -0.153 0.620 -0.279 0.018
FDA 0.434 -0.724 -0.115 -0.157 0.002 -0.139
Urease 0.657 -0.169 0.049 0.450 -0.043 -0.118
GME 0.824 -0.228 -0.152 0.163 -0.209 -0.166
Resp 0.761 0.297 -0.037 -0.050 0.412 -0.064
QCO2 0.338 0.498 0.604 -0.354 -0.015 -0.136
NH4+ 0.152 0.218 0.152 0.687 0.323 0.356
-
NO3 0.735 -0.263 0.477 0.206 0.184 -0.100
Nmin/Ntot 0.253 -0.225 0.867 0.238 0.164 -0.018
MBC 0.227 -0.261 -0.747 0.384 0.152 0.184
C/N 0.463 0.513 -0.387 -0.325 -0.261 0.177
Qmic -0.427 -0.380 -0.385 0.366 0.499 -0.032
BD -0.351 -0.726 0.233 -0.122 -0.264 -0.128
PAWC 0.554 -0.409 0.092 -0.522 0.118 0.430
Macpo 0.096 0.745 -0.319 0.396 0.034 -0.316
Ks 0.102 0.598 0.230 -0.167 0.463 0.387
Bold factors are considered highly weighted; underlined and bold factors are retained
in the minimum data set (MDS). PC-1, PC-2, PC-3, PC-4, PC-5 and PC-6 indicate
first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth principal component, respectively.
Variables are defined in Table 6.1.
112
Both approaches resulted in the selection of 11 indicators for the MDS, out of
26 in total. Both methods had five variables in common: CEC and pH as part
of the chemical MDS, Nmin/Ntot as part of the biological MDS, and PAWC
and clay content as part of the physical MDS. Both approaches differed
substantially in terms of indicator selection for chemical, physical and
especially biological quality. Indeed, in addition to the 5 common indicators,
P Bray, electrical conductivity, GME, metabolic quotient (QCO2), C/N and
bulk density were selected for the averaging method, while the FDA,
phosphatase, NH4+, microbial quotient (Qmic), macroporosity and hydraulic
conductivity were selected for the global approach.
113
1 1
0.9 (a)
0.9 (b)
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 y = 0.0054x + 0.35 0.2 y = 0.0029x + 0.41
0.1 R² = 0.54 0.1 R² = 0.34
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of year of cultivation Number of years of cultivation
1
0.9 (c)
Soil physical quality index
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
y = 0.0019x + 0.46
0.2 R² = 0.48
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
Figure 6.1. Evolution of the soil chemical (a), biological (b) and physical (c)
quality indexes as a function of the number of years of cultivation. N = 69 for
(a) and (b); N = 18 for (c).
Both the global soil quality index and the mean soil quality index improved
significantly with the number of years of cultivation, displaying a linear trend
(Fig. 6.2a). However, the mean SQI appeared slightly more sensitive (greater
slope; Fig. 6.2b), the duration of cultivation explaining a larger proportion of
total variance (R² = 0.59 for mean SQI vs. R² = 0.47 for global SQI). Levels
of variability relative to the mean trend were similar for the two SQI’s, with
RMSE = 0.06 in both cases.
114
1
(a)
0.9
Global Soil quality index
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
y = 0.0033x + 0.40
0.2 R² = 0.47
0.1
0
1
(b)
0.9
Mean Soil quality index
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2 y = 0.0037x + 0.38
0.1 R² = 0.59
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of years of cultivation
Figure 6.2. Evolution of the global soil quality index (a) and mean soil quality
index (b) as a function of the number of years of cultivation. N = 18.
The global and mean SQI are significantly correlated, although not very
strongly (r = 0.51; Table 6.7). Finally, SQIbiol is very strongly correlated to
SQIchem (r = 0.78) but much less to SQIphys (r = 0.48). The global SQI is most
115
correlated with SQIchem and least with SQIphys, whereas the mean SQI is
equally correlated to all three components.
116
6.4 Discussion
117
(Ouedraogo et al., 2019) and the high SOM content may largely explain the
high available P contents. In addition, regular additions of large quantities of
organic amendments and the increased soil pH may have limited P
immobilization by Fe and Al oxides, a frequent issue in strongly weathered
tropical soils (Rao et al., 1999; Liptzin and Silver, 2009).
Most biological indicators also improved as a function of the duration of
cultivation. It has been widely documented that additions of organic
amendments have a positive impact on various indicators of biological
activity, including respiration (Masto et al., 2006), microbial biomass (Masto
et al., 2006; Smukler et al., 2008; Kallenbach and Grandy, 2011) and
enzymatic activities (Acosta-Martínez et al., 2003; Li et al., 2015). This is
supported by the strong correlations between total C content and most
biological indicators (all enzymatic activities, respiration, and microbial
biomass) (Table 6.2). One notable exception to the overall positive trend is the
C/N ratio, which tends to increase with increasing duration of cultivation. The
organic amendments used by farmers (composted urban refuse or crop
residues, various types of manure) have C/N ratios comprised between 15.5
and 21.3 (Ouedraogo et al., 2019). These values are adequate for use as soil
amendments, and therefore do not explain the rise in C/N ratio of the SOC.
Possible reasons for the increase in C/N could be that the application rates
exceed the capacity of microorganisms to transform the organic amendments
into SOC, either because of insufficient N availability or because other
limiting factors affect biological activity. Although microbial biomass and,
even more so, microbial respiration, increase when total soil carbon content
increases (Table 6.2), microbial biomass per unit SOC tended to decrease with
increasing carbon (and age; not shown), which seems to indicate a reduced
ability of the microbial community to transform the added organic
amendments.
Finally, the high organic matter content also had a positive impact on the
physical properties of the soil, mostly by lowering soil bulk density and
improving PAWC (Table 6.2). Such positive effects of organic amendments
have been well documented in other contexts (Ridder and Keulen, 1990).
A few variables frequently reported in soil quality studies were not included
in the present study. These are most notably indicators of susceptibility to soil
118
erosion, e.g. aggregate stability, as well as indicators of contamination by
heavy metals (Bünemann et al., 2018). Structural stability of the soil was not
investigated given that there is very limited risk of erosion at the Kuinima site,
as soils have good permeability (Table 6.1), the topography is relatively flat
and the plots are small and bordered by earthen bunds planted with Moringa
oleifera. In addition, the soil is regularly tilled, which further favors rapid
infiltration.
Several studies have reported heavy metal contamination at urban vegetable
gardening sites in developing countries (Abdu et al., 2011; Kiba et al., 2012).
This contamination results from polluted urban refuse used as soil amendment
as well as sewage water from industrial sites used for irrigation. However,
Abdu et al. (2011) investigated a market gardening site in Bobo-Dioulasso and
found that heavy metal concentrations were below the safety threshold for
arable soils. Although the site investigated by Abdu et al. (2011) was different
from Kuinima, it was also an intensive vegetable production site within the
same city. There was no reason to believe that the type of urban refuse used
at Kuinima is different from the one used at the site investigated by Abdu et
al. (2011). In addition, farmers at Kuinima nowadays exclusively use well
water for irrigation, such that contamination through sewage can be excluded.
As pointed out by Arshad and Martin (2002), the selection of soil indicators
must be adapted to the local context and objectives. Given the knowledge
gained from the study of Abdu et al. (2011) and the high costs of analyses,
heavy metal concentrations were therefore not investigated. Cost is one of the
important factors that must be taken into account when assessing soil quality
(Bünemann et al., 2018).
119
nevertheless appears more efficient in terms of data requirement than the mean
SQI, which effectively uses 14 variables. Both approaches resulted in the
selection of chemical, biological and physical variables, even though no
constraints were implemented to ensure this in the case of the global approach.
Nevertheless, the two approaches differed in the selection of variables for
about half of the indicators, especially regarding the choice of biological
indicators.
Numerous previous studies showed that total organic carbon (Ctot) and total
nitrogen (Ntot) are good indicators of soil quality (Andrews and Carroll, 2001;
Karlen et al., 2009). In our study, total organic carbon (Ctot) and total nitrogen
(Ntot) were not retained. Indeed, in spite of being very highly weighted (Table
6.3), Ctot and Ntot were eliminated from the MDS. This is because Ctot is
very highly correlated with the CEC, for reasons discussed above, and Ntot,
being highly correlated to Ctot, is therefore also highly correlated to CEC.
This does not invalidate the results of previous studies, however, since Ctot is
strongly correlated to the mean (r = 0.75) and global SQIs (r = 0.82).
120
through improvements in soil structure, which may explain why the response
of SQIphys is lowest compared to SQIchem and SQIbiol.
Despite the fact that the global and mean SQI are based on different indicators
for more than half of their MDS, there is a great similarity between the
evolution of the global quality index and the average of the quality indices
(Fig. 6.2). This can be attributed to the strong interdependence between the
different indicators (Table 6.2), as was already mentioned by Karlen et al.
(1994) or Arshad and Martin (2002). Nevertheless, the correlation between
the mean and global SQI is not very strong (r = 0.51), which indicates that
they convey different information to some extent.
Besides the reduction in the number of variables needed for evaluating soil
quality, the use of an SQI allowed to reduce the variability in the data. For
many individual indicators, considerable unexplained variability between
plots remained after removal of the temporal trend (not shown; see chapter 4
and 5). This variability likely resulted from the great variety in crops and crop
management practices across farmers (Ouédraogo et al., 2019). Aggregating
the data at the level of the SQI allowed reducing the unexplained variability,
i.e., some of the variability appears to have been averaged out. This greater
robustness of the SQI compared to individual indicators would be an
additional advantage when using the SQI for comparing the impact of
different crop management strategies on soil quality, for instance.
Even though the global and mean SQI evolve similarly over time, it appears
that the use of the mean SQI may be preferable to the global SQI despite
requiring a slightly larger number of analyses. Indeed, by definition, the
former integrates explicitly the three components of soil quality. Even though
the global SQI also integrates variables from the three components of soil
quality, it appears that it is most strongly impacted by the chemical component
(Table 6.6). In addition, although the variability around the mean linear trend
is similar for both approaches, the linear increase in soil quality over time
explains a greater proportion of the total variance in the case of the mean SQI
than the global SQI, which could indicate greater robustness of the former
approach.
121
Evaluation methodology
The majority of the authors are unanimous regarding the main stages of soil
quality assessment: the selection of an MDS, normalization of scores, and
calculation of a global index (Andrews et al., 2002a; Bünemann et al., 2018).
The selection of MDS can be done either by expert judgment (Doran and
Parkin, 1994) or by statistical methods such as multivariate standardized
principal component (PCA) analyses (Andrews et al., 2002a). These two
methods were considered valid by Andrews et al. (2002b) for establishing a
soil quality index in vegetable production systems in the USA. Svoray et al.
(2012) used the expert judgment method and statistical method to study land
degradation due to soil loss and found that statistical models improved
prediction compared to expert judgment models. Also, Bünemann et al. (2018)
argued that the method based on expert judgement may lack methodological
transparency, which may compromise its application. Rinot et al. (2019) also
recommended the use of quantitative statistical models rather than expert-
based models. However, he added that despite the above limitations, expert
advice can be used to facilitate the selection of relevant attributes when
combined with simple methods (Rinot et al., 2019).
With regard to the standardization of scores, both linear or non-linear
functions have been used, but the functionality of many indicators seems to
be better represented by a non-linear than a linear function (Andrews et al.,
2002b). These authors argued that non-linear functions better represent the
attributes of the soil system and are therefore more appropriate as
normalization functions. This explained the choice of non-linear functions in
the present study. Thus, we used a sigmoidal function with a higher ("more is
better") or lower (“less is better”) asymptote depending on the variable. In the
case of soil pH, a bell-shaped function with an optimum between 6.3 to 7.2 is
most often used, as this corresponds to the optimal range for plant nutrient
availability (Truog, 1947). In the present study, since pH exceeded this
optimum range in only a few cases, the use of a "more is better" sigmoidal
function seemed sufficient.
Besides the choice of normalization function, additional hypotheses were
made regarding the centering of the sigmoidal function and its slope. The
hypotheses are consistent with previous studies (Sharma et al., 2005; Bastida
122
et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2019). However, the positioning and shape of the
sigmoidal function should ideally be based on reference values and local
knowledge. While this may be possible to some extent for soil chemical and
physical properties, insufficient knowledge is currently available regarding
biological activity indicators to define relevant response functions. An
additional difficulty would be that optimal indicator values may to some
extent be crop-dependent, yet a wide variety of crops are grown in urban
vegetable garden sites (Ouédraogo et al., 2019). In the future, greater effort
should thus be invested in establishing reference values and response
functions for evaluating soil quality for vegetable cropping systems in
weathered tropical soils.
6.5 Conclusion
A SQI was derived for urban market garden soils based on the standardized
PCA method using two different approaches. The first approach was based on
the calculation of a mean index based on the chemical, biological and physical
soil quality. The second approach was based on the estimation of a global soil
quality index. Irrespective of the approach used to calculate the SQI, and in
spite of the intensive use of pesticides and fertilizers, results indicate an
overall improvement in soil quality with the number of years of cultivation,
which was attributed to the large inputs of organic amendments in these
systems. The improvement appears more marked in the chemical, then
biological and finally physical components of soil quality.
Both approaches used for calculating the SQI lead to a similar reduction in the
number of variables needed to estimate the SQI. Nevertheless, the two
approaches differed for about half the indicators retained in the MDS. Despite
the great similarity between the two approaches to soil quality change, the use
of the mean of the quality index seems preferable because it is a more balanced
reflection of the three components of soil quality and explains a greater
proportion of the total variance. In order to improve the methodology, greater
efforts should be made to establish reference values and indicator response
functions to assess soil quality for vegetable growing systems in tropical soils.
123
124
Chapitre 7
125
sur le sol, l’eau et les cultures. Les quantités de pesticides ainsi que celles de
nutriments (N, P, K) apportées sous formes organiques ou minérales ont été
estimées. Enfin, une analyse multivariée a permis d’établir une typologie des
exploitations en fonction des pratiques culturales.
Suite à cette caractérisation, le site de Kuinima a été choisi pour l’étude de la
durée d’exploitation sur le sol. Ce choix tient au fait qu’il s’agit du plus grand
site maraîcher de Bobo-Dioulasso et où les champs les plus anciens sont
cultivés depuis plus de 50 ans avec une topographie relativement homogène.
Soixante-neuf champs ont été sélectionnés pour couvrir une gamme de durées
de culture (de 0 à > 50 ans). Des prélèvements de sol ont été faits dans chacun
des champs sur l’horizon 0-15 cm.
Sur chaque échantillon de sol, une analyse granulométrique et des analyses de
carbone total ont été effectuées, puis un fractionnement du carbone a été fait
par agitation et par sonification. En plus, les teneurs en oxyde de fer et
d’aluminium extrait à l’oxalate ont été mesurées. D’autre part, les mêmes
échantillons ont subi des analyses sur les propriétés biologiques (activités
enzymatiques et biochimique) et chimiques (azote total, phosphore
assimilable, pH, conductivité électrique, CEC, bases échangeables). Des
échantillons non perturbés ont été prélevés pour la détermination des
propriétés physiques (densité apparente ; courbe de rétention ; conductivité
hydraulique). Grâce à des tests statistiques, l’ensemble des indicateurs a été
utilisé pour la détermination d’un indice de qualité du sol.
126
résident dans le développement de méthodes efficaces de gestion intégrées des
ravageurs pour une réduction des doses de pesticide chimique et d’engrais,
surtout de l’azote. La sensibilisation aux impacts sanitaires et
environnementaux des pratiques culturales maraichères doit également être
renforcée, tout particulièrement en milieu urbain, auprès des producteurs mais
aussi auprès des consommateurs. Cela pourrait inciter les autorités à faire
appliquer les lois en vigueur règlementant l’usage des pesticides et conduire
les producteurs à modifier leurs pratiques, permettant à ces derniers une
meilleure valorisation économique de leurs produits maraichers issus de
systèmes de culture agro-écologiques.
127
note cependant une grande variabilité entre les exploitations, qui pourrait être
due à la grande diversité de pratiques culturales (chapitre 6).
Cependant, bien qu’elle ait des effets positifs sur la fertilité du sol, la fumure
organique doit être utilisée de façon raisonnée dans les exploitations
maraîchères. La même précaution doit être observée avec les engrais minéraux
et les pesticides pour plus d’efficience et afin d’atténuer les risques de
lixiviation d’éléments vers les nappes phréatiques et la production de gaz à
effet de serre.
Cette thèse, qui a permis de caractériser et de faire une typologie des pratiques
maraîchères, puis d’évaluer l’impact sur le sol des pratiques maraichères
intensives en fonction de la durée d’exploitation, présente quelques limites.
La première limite est liée aux enquêtes. En effet, les informations collectées
sur les pratiques culturales ne sont valables que pour l’année d’enquête, mais
ne disent rien sur les pratiques mises en œuvre depuis le début de la production
maraîchère. Cela n’a donc pas permis de faire le lien entre les pratiques
culturales et les propriétés du sol afin de mieux expliquer la variabilité qui
existe entre les exploitations. La deuxième limite tient du fait que l’étude n’a
pas pris en compte les teneurs en métaux lourds du sol dans l’évaluation des
indices de qualité du sol compte tenu du coût que cela engendrait. Enfin, la
troisième limite est liée à l’absence d’exploitations agro-écologiques sur le
site, qui aurait permis de faire une comparaison entre maraîchages agro-
écologique et intensif, pour ce qui est de leur impact sur les sols.
7.4 Perspectives
128
sur la qualité du sol. Cependant, certains points méritent d’être approfondis
par la suite. Tout d’abord, la poursuite de l’étude de la durée d’exploitation
sur les propriétés du sol, sur des sites agro-écologiques, permettrait de faire
une comparaison avec les pratiques agroécologiques, et conventionnelles.
L’étude devrait également prendre en compte d’autres dimensions
environnementales de la santé des sols (par exemple, la pollution des eaux
souterraines). En outre, des efforts devraient être faits pour établir des valeurs
de référence et des fonctions de réponse des indicateurs permettant d’évaluer
la qualité des sols pour les systèmes de culture maraichers dans les sols
tropicaux. Enfin, des études approfondies devraient être menées pour établir
les relations à court terme entre l’activité biologique et les pratiques culturales,
ce qui permettrait de mieux expliquer la variabilité qui existe entre les
exploitations.
129
130
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151
152
Annexes
xvii
Annexe A : Fiche d’enquête pour la typologie des pratiques
maraichères
Nom de
l’enquêteur………………………………Contact…………………………...
xviii
II.2 Superficie exploitée (m2)
………………………………………………………………………………
……………
II.3 Mode d’acquisition (plusieurs réponses possibles) 1=Héritage /___/,
2=Achat /___/, 3=Location /___/, 4=Prêt/cession temporaire /___/ ;
5=Propriété communautaire /___/ ; 6=Autres :………………
xix
III.4 Matériels ou infrastructures (plusieurs réponses possibles) : 1=
Motopompe /___/ ; 2= arrosoir/___/ ; 3= Bassin de stockage /___/ ; 4= Autres
/___________________________/.
III.5 Quelles sont les cultures que vous cultivez ou que vous avez cultivé
récemment ?.........................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
...........................
III.6 Y a-t-il des cultures ou variétés que vous ne pratiquez plus ? 1=Oui /___/ ;
2=Non/___/
III.6.1 Si oui,
lesquelles ?...........................................................................................................
.
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………..
III.6.2 Si oui, Pourquoi ?1=Difficile à écouler/___/ ; 2=Attaques
parasitaires/___/ ; 4=Cycle long/____/ ; 5=Baisse de la fertilité du sol/___/ ;
6=Réduction de la disponibilité en eau/___/ ; 7=
Autre/_____________________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.7 Y a-t-il des cultures ou variétés que vous avez récemment adoptées ?
1=Oui /___/ ; 2=Non/___/
III.7.1 Si oui,
lesquelles ?...........................................................................................................
...
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………..
III.7.2 Pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)?1= Facile à écouler ; 2= Cycle
court/___/ ; 3= Plus résistant aux attaques parasitaires/___/ ; 4= Meilleur
rendement/___/ ; 5= Moins exigent en pratiques d’entretien ; 7=
Autre/_________________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.8 Pratiquez-vous la rotation des cultures ? 1=oui /___/ 2=non /___/
III.8.1 Donnez les raisons pour lesquelles vous faites la rotation des
cultures (plusieurs réponses possibles)?
xx
1=lutter contre les ravageurs /___/ ; 2=diversifier la production /___/ ; 3=
Tenir compte des périodes de production de chaque spéculation/___/ ;
3=Autre /_________/
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
III.8.2 Si non,
pourquoi ?...........................................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
III.8.3 Quels sont les successions des cultures ?
Succession 1 :
………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
Justification…………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
Succession 2
………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
Justification…………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
Succession 3
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
Justification…………………………………………………………
………………………..........................................................................
..........................................
III.8.4 Quelles cultures ne doit-on pas mettre les unes à la suite des
autres (plusieurs réponses possibles)? 1= Cultures de même famille/___/ ;
2=Même espèce/___/ ; 3=Systèmes racinaires identiques/___/ ; 5=cultures à
cycle long /___/ ; Autre=
/_______________________________________________/…………………
……………….
xxi
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..
III.8.5 Donner des exemples de successions déconseillées
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
III.8.6 Pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)? 1=Attaque
parasitaires/___/ ; 2= Maladie /____/ ; 3=Compétition au niveau des systèmes
racinaires/___/ ; 4= Ne permet pas un gain rapide de revenu/___/ ; 5= Baisse
de rendement/___/ ; 6=
Autre/__________________________________________________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
………………………………………………………………………………
………………
III.9 Pratiquez-vous l’association des cultures ? 1=oui /___/ 2=non /___/
Si non, pourquoi ?
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………
III.9.1 Quelles sont les types d’associations (y compris avec arbres ou
arbustes)?
III.9.1.1 Type d’association 1 :
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..
III.9.1.2 Pourquoi pratiquez-vous ce type d’association (plusieurs réponses
possibles)
1= Lutte contre les ravageurs /___/ ; 2= Lutte contre les adventices
/___/ 3= Diversification de la production/___/ ; 4=Gain de temps/___/ ; 5=
gain rapide de revenus /___/ ; 6= Autres /_____________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.9.1.3 Type d’association 2 :
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...
III.9.1.4 Pourquoi pratiquez-vous ce type d’association (plusieurs réponses
possibles)?
xxii
1= Lutte contre les ravageurs /___/ ; 2= Lutte contre les adventices
/___/ 3= Diversification de la production/___/ ; 4=Gain de temps/___/ ; 5=
gain rapide de revenus /___/ ; 6= Autres /_____________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
xxiii
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.9.2 Quelles sont les types d’association que vous évitez (plusieurs réponses
possibles)? 1= Cultures de la même famille/___/ ; 2=Cultures ayant le même
système racinaire/___/ ; 3= cultures à cycles longs /____/ ; 4=
Autre/___________/.
III.9.3 Donner des exemples d’associations déconseillées
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
III.9.3 Pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)? 1=Compétition/___/ ; 2=
Les plantes se gênent/___/ ; 3=Ne permet pas un gain rapide de revenu/___/ ;
4=Autres/_____________________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.10.Quelles sont les cultures que vous produisez en saison hivernale sur
votre parcelle (plusieurs réponses possibles)?
1=Cultures maraichères /___/ ; 2= maïs/___/ ; 3=Riz/___/ ;
4=Autre/________/ ; 5= Jachère/___/.
III.11.Si culture annuelle, Pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)? 1=
Manque de temps pour le maraichage/___/ ; 2=profitez de l’arrière effet des
intrants/___/ ; 3=subvenir aux besoins de la famille/___/ ; 4=
Inondation/___/ ; 5=Autre/_________________/.
III.12 Intrants utilisés
III.12.1 Appliquez-vous la fumure organique ? 1= Oui/___/ ; 2= Non/___/
III.12.2 Si oui, Pourquoi appliquez-vous la fumure organique (plusieurs
réponses possibles)?
1= Meilleur fertilité du sol (complémentarité avec les engrais) /___/ ; 2=
Réduction des engrais /___/ ; 3= Plus accessible que les engrais /___/ ; 4=
Indispensable/___/ ; 5= Autres /_____________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
xxiv
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
Fumier bovin
Fumier ovin/caprin
Fientes volailles
Compost
Sous-produit
industriel
Autre…
Autre…
xxv
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
III.18.8 Quels sont les noms des engrais chimiques que vous utilisez ? 1=
NPK 14-23-14/____/ ; NPK 15-15-15/____/ ; Urée/___/ ;
Autres/________________/.
III.12.9 Quel sont les lieux d’approvisionnement (nom et adresses des
fournisseurs si possible) ?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
III.12.10 Combinez-vous la fumure organique et la fumure minérale ?1=
Oui/___/ ; 2= Non /___/
III.12.11 Si oui, Pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)?
1=Meilleur efficience/____/ ; 3=Réduction des coûts de production/____/ ;
4= Autre /_____________/.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
xxvi
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
xxvii
III.12.24 Quels sont les noms des pesticides chimiques que vous utilisez
(insecticides et herbicides) ?
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
III.12.25 Qui sont vos fournisseurs ? (avec nom et adresse à l’appui si
possible)
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
III.12.26 Utilisez-vous des pesticides biologiques ? 1=oui/___/
2=Non/____/
III.12.27 Si oui, pourquoi (plusieurs réponses possibles)? 1= Moins nocif
/___/ ; 2= Plus accessible /___/ ; 3= Plus efficace ; 4= Autre /________/
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
xxviii
III.12.31 Tableau d’estimation des doses d’intrants (considérer une seule année. Commencer par noter les spéculations
produites sur la parcelle suivant l’ordre de rotation y compris les cultures annuelles, puis remplir le tableau de manière
horizontale, par spéculation,)
Dosage
Fréquence Pesticide
pest. en Fréque
Spécula Superficie Quantit et/ou stade Fumur Quantit chimique Quantit Pesticide Maladie/R
N Engrais poudre nce et
tions (m2) é (Kg) phenologiqu e org. é (Kg) (insect./ é (l) biologique avageurs
(g/l) ou nombre
e herbicides)
( g)
Code culture :1 = oignon bulbe ; 2= tomate ; 3= chou ; 4= salade ; 5=concombre ; 6=courgette ; 7= Aubergine locale ; 8= piment, 9=carotte ;
10= Aubergine noire ; 11=Gombo ; 12=Melon; 13= menthe, 14= courge, 15=Poivron 16=pastèque; 17=pomme de terre ; 18=haricots verts ;
19= légumes feuilles, 20=Autre :………………………………………………………
Code Type d’intrant : 1= urée, 2= NPK, 3=bouse de vache ; 4= déchets de porc ; 5= Déchets d’ovins et/ou de caprin, 6= fiente de volaille ;
7= compost ; 8=ordures ménagers ; 9= sous-produits industriels.
xxix
III.12.32 Comment choisissez-vous les doses à appliquer (plusieurs réponses
possibles) :
Pesticides:/____/ ; Engrais minéral:/____/ ; Fumier porcin : /____/ ; Fumier
bovin : /____/ ; Fumier ovin/caprin : /____/ ; Fumier volailles : /____/ ;
Compost : /____/ ; Sous-produit industriel : /____/ ; Autre :
……………………./____/ ; Autre :…………………………………/____/.
xxx
III.16 Selon vous, quel est l’impact de vos pratiques sur les paramètres suivants ?
Effet Sans Effet
Pratiques Paramètres Justifier Justifier Justifier Alternatives
néfaste effet bénéfique
Sol
Appl.
Eau
pesticide
Produits
Sol
Appl. engrais Eau
Produits
Sol
Appl. Fumier Eau
Produits
Sol
Appl.
Eau
compost
Produits
Sol
Déchet
Eau
ménagers
Produits
Sol
Eau de
Eau
puit/forage
Produits
Eau de Sol
rivière/ Eau
Marigot Produits
Code justification : 1=Pollue le sol, 2= pollue l’eau ; 3= contamine le produit ; 4= Augmente le rendement ; 5=Fertilise le sol ; 6= Autre (à préciser)
III.17 Etes-vous prêt à collaborer avec nous pour des activités de suivi de votre exploitation ?1=oui/____/ 2=Non/_____/
xxxi
Annexe B : Liste des pesticides utilisés dans les exploitations maraîchères
Fréquence (%)
Pesticides Substance active
Urbain Semi-urbain Rural Type Homologation CSP
Acétamipride (24 g/l) +
CAPT 96 17,8 16,7 43,7 Insecticide Culture maraîchère
Cyperméthrine (72 g/l)
Lambda lambda-cyhalothrine 25g.l 66,7 67,3 79,3 Insecticide Non homologué
Insecticide/A
Bomec 18 EC Abamectine18g/l 27,4 30 14 Culture maraîchère
caricide
Savahaller Methomil 250g /Kg 33,3 0 6,9 Insecticide Culture maraîchère
Acetamipride (8g/l)
Conquest 88 EC 10,3 16,7 23 Insecticide Cotonculture
+cyperméthrine (80 g/l)
Titan 25 EC Acetamipride (25 g/l) 9,6 1,3 1,2 Insecticide Cultures maraîchère
Flubendiamida 100g
Tihan 175 O-TEQ 21,1 63,3 62,1 Insecticide Cultures maraîchère
+Spirotetramite75g/l
xxxii
Fréquence (%)
Pesticides Substance active
Urbain Semi-urbain Rural Type Homologation CSP
Emacot 0 19 EC emamectine-benzoate 19g/l 6,2 0 5,7 Insecticide Cotonculture
Acetamipride 10g/l +
Pacha 25 EC 27,9 40 9,2 Insecticide Culture maraîchère
Lambda-cyhalothrine 15g/l
Coga 800WP Mancozeb 800g/kg 2 1,7 9,3 Fongicide Culture maraîchère
Caiman B19 emamectine-benzoate 19,2g/l 8,9 18,3 2,4 Insecticide Cotonculture
Decis 25 EC deltamethrine 25g/l 14,1 5 4,7 Insecticide Culture maraîchère
lambda-cyhalothrine (36g/l) +
Lambdacal 636 EC 1,4 5,1 3,5 Insecticide Cotonculture
Profenos (600g/l)
Cypercal 50 EC cypermetrine 50g/l 8,9 3,3 3,4 Insecticide Culture maraîchère
Insecticide/A
Acaris Abamectine18g/l 17,7 3,3 0 Culture maraîchère
caricide
Cypermetrine 144g/l
Attaquant 344 SE 1,4 3,3 0 Insecticide Cotonculture
Imidaclopride 200g/l
Jumper 75 WG chlorothalonil (750 g/kg) 1.4 3,3 1,2 Fongicide Culture maraîchère
imidaclopride (250 g/Kg) + Insecticide /
Montaz 45 WS 2,1 0 1.2 Sol
Thirame (200g/Kg) Fongicide
deltamethrine (24g/l)
Insecticide/
Pyrinex quick 424 EC +chlorpyriphos-éthyl (400 1,4 0 Cotonculture
acaricide
g/l)
xxxiii
Fréquence (%)
Pesticides Substance active
Urbain Semi-urbain Rural Type Homologation CSP
Clorpyrifos-éthyl ( 250 g/Kg) Insecticide/
Calthio C 50 WS 48 0 0 Cotonculture
+ Thirame (250 g/ Kg) Fongicide
Timaye Deltaméthrine 0,6 g/kg 1,4 0 0 Insecticide Mangue
Cypermethrine 72 g/l +
Emir fort 104 EC 2,1 0 1,1 Insecticide Cotonculture
acetamipride 32 g/l
Nomolt 150 SC Teflubenzuron 150 g/l 0 0 1,2 Insecticide Cotonculture
Bacillus thuringiensis
Batik WG 1.4 0 2,3 Insecticide Cultures maraîchère
32000microlitre/ micrograme
Abo-lambda lambda-cyhalothrine 25g.l 2.1 0 3,6 Insecticide Non homologués
Ortiva 250 SC Azoxystrobin 250 g/l 0 0 1,2 Fongicide Culture maraîchère
Kophos 500 EC Profenofos 500 g/l 0 0 1,1 Insecticide Cotonculture
Glyphader 360 SL glyphosate (360 g/ l) 3,4 11,9 16,1 Herbicide Cotonculture
Gramopat super Paraquat chloride 200 g/l 5,9 25,1 24,6 Herbicide Non homologué
Gramosol Paraquat chloride 200 g/l 0 11,7 5,8 Herbicide Non homologué
Galant super Haloxyfop-R-méthyl (104 g/l) 0 0 3,5 Herbicide Cotonculture
Maia super Nicosulfuron 60 g/l 0 0 1,2 Herbicide Cultures maraîchère
Malick 108 EC Haloxyfop-R-méthyl (108 g/l) 0 0 1,2 Herbicide Cotonculture
Ikokadigné Haloxyfop-R-méthyl (104 g/l) 9,5 15,3 22,4 Herbicide Cotonculture
Glycel 410 Glyphosate (410 g/kg) 0 18,6 1,2 Herbicide
xxxiv
Fréquence (%)
Pesticides Substance active
Urbain Semi-urbain Rural Type Homologation CSP
Roundup 360 K Glyphosate 360 g/ l 6,2 15,3 24,4 Herbicide Culture maraîchère
Diga falagan Glyphosate 360 g/ l 0 1,7 0 Herbicide Culture maraîchère
Pendistar Pendimethaline 400 g/l 0 1,7 1.2 Herbicide mais
Nicomais 40 EC Nicosulfuron 40 g/l 0 5,1 5,8 Herbicide mais
Kalach 360 SL Glyphosate 360 g/l 6,2 0 11,6 Herbicide Toutes cultures
Butaplus 50 EC Butachol 50% 0 1.7 1,2 Herbicide Non homologué
xxxv
Annexe C: Correlation matrix between soil and site characteristics (N = 69). Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically
significant (p < 0.05). Below the diagonal, the level of statistical significance of the correlation is indicated as follows: ns: non-
significant, *: p < 0.05, ** : p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001.
Year Clay+F C<20- C>20- C<20- C>20- (C<20-so)-
Unit Ctot C/N Feo+Alo pH Qom Alt.diff
s S sh sh so* so* (C<20-sh)*
Years years 1 0.24 0.69 0.63 0.64 0.9 0.55 0.81 0.63 0.61 0.17 0.04 -0.17
Clay+FS % ns 1 0.28 0.45 0.24 0.52 0.18 0.37 0.08 0.34 -0.1 -0.01 -0.01
Ctot gC kg-1 *** * 1 0.39 0.99 0.74 0.98 0.85 0.55 0.8 0.05 0.06 -0.16
C<20-sh gC kg-1 *** *** ** 1 0.28 0.76 0.21 0.44 0.5 0.48 0.17 -0.18 -0.23
C>20-sh gC kg-1 *** ns *** * 1 0.66 0.99 0.81 0.51 0.77 0.03 0.09 -0.14
C<20-so g C kg-1 *** * *** *** ** 1 0.58 0.92 0.6 0.72 0.46 0.3 -0.14
C>20-so gC kg-1 *** ns *** ns *** ** 1 0.76 0.48 0.75 0.02 0.08 -0.13
(C<20-so)-
g C kg-1 *** * *** * *** *** *** 1 0.51 0.68 0.38 0.35 0.04
(C<20-sh)
C/N - *** ns *** *** *** ** *** ** 1 0.43 0.35 0.08 -0.09
Feo+Alo mmol kg-1 *** ns *** *** *** *** *** ** ** 1 0.03 -0.09 -0.11
pH - ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ** ns 1 0.18 0.07
Qom kg DM ha-1 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 1 0.03
Alt.diff m ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns 1
Clay+FS = clay and fine silt content determined by textural analysis; Ctot = total organic carbon; C<20-sh and C>20-sh = C content in the < 20 µm and > 20 µm fraction obtained
after shaking, respectively; C<20-so and C>20-so = C content in the < 20 µm and > 20 µm fraction, after sonication, respectively ; Fe+Al = oxalate-extractable Fe and Al ; Qom
= Mass of organic amendment added during the previous year (dry matter); Alt.diff = altitude difference with respect to the river. * N=24
xxxvi
Annexe D: Correlation matrix between biological activity and soil characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically
significant (p < 0.05). Below the diagonal, the level of statistical significance of the correlation is indicated as follows: ns: non-
significant, *: p < 0.05, ** : p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001.
Units Year Clay.FS Ctot C>20 C<20 C/N Ntot pH Bglu Phos FDA Urease GME Resp MBC Qmic NH4+ NO3- Nmin/Ntot
Year years 1 0.24 0.69 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.71 0.17 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.32 0.52 0.37 0.08 -0.53 -0.02 0.29 -0.19
Clay.FS % * 1 0.28 0.24 0.45 0.08 0.31 -0.14 0.45 0.41 0.29 0.23 0.46 0.18 0.2 -0.15 0.09 0.32 0.11
Ctot g C kg-1 *** * 1 0.99 0.39 0.55 0.88 0.05 0.56 0.61 0.57 0.56 0.78 0.61 0.31 -0.58 0.09 0.49 -0.19
C>20 g C kg-1 *** ns *** 1 0.28 0.51 0.96 0.03 0.55 0.65 0.49 0.58 0.77 0.66 0.28 -0.55 0.15 0.61 -0.12
C<20 g C kg-1 *** *** *** * 1 0.5 0.21 0.17 0.48 0.23 0.35 0.04 0.39 0.11 0.1 -0.31 -0.23 0.09 -0.19
C/N - *** ns *** *** *** 1 0.36 0.35 0.46 0.14 0.23 0.1 0.32 0.18 0.21 -0.25 -0.26 0.17 -0.29
Ntot g C kg-1 *** * *** *** ns ** 1 -0.04 0.52 0.71 0.52 0.67 0.82 0.73 0.29 -0.54 0.25 0.69 -0.04
pH - ns ns ns ns ns ** ns 1 0.34 -0.32 0.12 -0.1 0.01 -0.11 0.13 -0.04 -0.45 -0.17 -0.37
Bglu µg g-1 h-1 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** ** 1 0.47 0.56 0.33 0.77 0.33 0.3 -0.24 -0.3 0.24 -0.36
Phos µg g-1 h-1 *** ** *** *** ns ns *** ** *** 1 0.36 0.48 0.79 0.44 0.23 -0.34 0.27 0.44 -0.07
FDA µg g-1 h-1 * * *** *** ns ns *** ns *** ** 1 0.42 0.75 0.52 0.35 -0.23 -0.07 0.35 -0.15
Urease µg g-1 h-1 * ns *** *** ns ns *** ns ** *** *** 1 0.74 0.64 0.23 -0.37 0.1 0.49 0.02
GME µg g-1 h-1 *** *** *** *** ** ** *** ns *** *** *** *** 1 0.64 0.36 -0.42 0 0.51 -0.19
Resp µg g-1 h-1 ** ns *** *** ns ns *** ns ** *** *** *** *** 1 0.13 -0.44 0.15 0.66 0.12
MBC µg g-1 ns ns * * ns ns * ns * * ** * ** ns 1 0.45 -0.13 -0.01 -0.36
Qmic Mg g-1 *** ns *** *** ** * *** ns ns ** ns ** *** *** *** 1 -0.21 -0.44 -0.15
NH4+ µg g-1 ns ns ns ns ns * ns *** * * ns ns ns ns ns ns 1 0.23 0.42
NO3- µg g-1 * ** *** *** ns ns *** ns ns *** ** *** *** *** ns *** ns 1 0.57
Nmin/Ntot µg g-1 ns ns ns ns ns * ns ** ** ns ns ns ns ns ** ns *** *** 1
Clay + FS = clay + fine silt; Ctot = total organic carbon; C<20 and C>20= C in the < 20 µm and > 20 µm fraction, respectively; Ntot = total nitrogen; Bglu = betaglucosidase; GME = geometric mean of
enzyme activities, Resp = basal respiration, Nmin/ Not = mineral and total nitrogen ratio; MBC = microbial biomass carbon. Qmic = microbial quotient.
xxxvii
Annexe E : Correlation matrix between soil characteristics. Pearson’s r coefficients in bold are statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Below the diagonal, the level of statistical significance of the correlation is indicated as follows: ns: non-significant, *: p < 0.05,
** : p < 0.01, ***: p < 0.001.
Year P Urea NH4 Nmin/ PAW Macp
Clay Silt Sand Ctot Ntot pH SBE CEC E.C Bglu Phos FDA Resp QCO2 + NO3- MBC C/N Qmic GME BD Ks
s Bray se Ntot C o
Clay 1 0.03 -0.86 0.10 0.12 0.13 -0.20 -0.02 0.15 0.12 0.26 0.28 0.27 0.13 0.11 -0.07 -0.14 0.10 0.21 0.17 0.14 -0.06 -0.03 0.26 0.14 0.19 -0.11 -0.05
Silt ns 1 -0.53 0.25 0.45 0.42 0.03 0.40 0.50 0.13 0.26 0.51 0.38 0.46 0.34 0.20 -0.05 -0.10 0.29 -0.12 0.20 0.26 -0.20 0.55 -0.09 0.62 -0.20 0.00
Sand *** *** 1 -0.21 -0.33 -0.32 0.16 -0.19 -0.38 -0.16 -0.35 -0.49 -0.42 -0.34 -0.27 -0.04 0.14 -0.04 -0.33 -0.08 -0.22 -0.08 0.13 -0.50 -0.07 -0.26 0.20 0.04
Years ns * ns 1 0.69 0.71 0.17 0.62 0.77 0.19 0.28 0.47 0.41 0.32 0.32 0.37 0.17 -0.02 0.29 -0.19 0.08 0.63 -0.53 0.52 -0.22 0.19 -0.05 0.11
Ctot ns *** ** *** 1 0.88 0.05 0.68 0.89 0.27 0.55 0.56 0.61 0.57 0.56 0.61 0.09 0.09 0.49 -0.19 0.31 0.55 -0.58 0.78 -0.22 0.22 -0.06 0.03
Ntot ns *** ** *** *** 1 -0.04 0.69 0.81 0.29 0.72 0.52 0.72 0.56 0.67 0.70 0.17 0.25 0.69 -0.04 0.29 0.36 -0.54 0.76 -0.18 0.17 -0.05 0.00
pH ns ns ns ns ns ns 1 0.49 0.12 -0.11 -0.16 0.34 -0.32 0.11 -0.11 -0.04 -0.03 -0.44 -0.17 -0.37 0.13 0.35 -0.04 -0.04 0.09 0.13 -0.17 0.02
SBE ns ** ns *** *** *** *** 1 0.80 0.18 0.44 0.60 0.28 0.50 0.39 0.47 0.17 -0.13 0.40 -0.23 0.18 0.66 -0.50 0.55 -0.10 0.21 -0.12 0.00
CEC ns *** ** *** *** *** ns *** 1 0.38 0.51 0.67 0.55 0.55 0.49 0.56 0.13 -0.05 0.50 -0.20 0.20 0.71 -0.59 0.70 -0.19 0.24 -0.09 0.03
P Bray ns ns ns ns * * ns ns ** 1 0.17 0.21 0.31 0.12 0.14 0.41 0.16 -0.01 0.16 -0.11 -0.03 0.18 -0.28 0.25 -0.17 -0.01 0.13 0.22
E.C * * ** * *** *** ns *** *** ns 1 0.27 0.39 0.40 0.41 0.46 0.13 0.31 0.82 0.39 0.12 0.12 -0.40 0.42 0.03 0.27 -0.23 -0.04
Bglu * *** *** *** *** *** ** *** *** ns * 1 0.47 0.58 0.35 0.34 -0.05 -0.30 0.24 -0.36 0.30 0.48 -0.24 0.74 -0.09 0.24 -0.15 -0.03
Phos * ** *** *** *** *** ** * *** * ** *** 1 0.38 0.49 0.46 0.04 0.27 0.44 -0.07 0.23 0.21 -0.34 0.75 -0.13 -0.06 0.10 -0.03
FDA ns *** ** ** *** *** ns *** *** ns ** *** ** 1 0.43 0.47 0.00 -0.06 0.40 -0.13 0.36 0.30 -0.22 0.74 0.17 0.26 -0.31 -0.18
Urease ns ** * ** *** *** ns ** *** ns *** ** *** *** 1 0.59 0.18 0.10 0.47 0.03 0.24 0.04 -0.40 0.76 -0.05 0.09 -0.04 -0.01
Resp ns ns ns *** *** *** ns *** *** *** *** ** *** *** *** 1 0.41 0.15 0.47 -0.02 0.15 0.30 -0.44 0.59 -0.26 0.17 -0.02 0.22
QCO2 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns *** 1 0.23 0.32 0.35 -0.69 0.06 -0.62 0.06 -0.10 0.06 0.04 0.19
NH4+ ns ns ns ns ns * *** ns ns ns * * * ns ns ns ns 1 0.23 0.41 -0.13 -0.25 -0.21 0.00 -0.13 -0.05 0.12 0.09
NO3- ns * ** * *** *** ns *** *** ns *** ns *** ** *** *** ** ns 1 0.57 -0.01 0.13 -0.44 0.45 -0.01 0.26 -0.19 0.01
Nmin/Nt
ns ns ns ns ns ns ** ns ns ns ** ** ns ns ns ns ** *** *** 1 -0.36 -0.33 -0.15 -0.21 0.09 0.08 -0.08 0.02
ot
MBC ns ns ns ns ** * ns ns ns ns ns * ns ** * ns *** ns ns ** 1 0.15 0.45 0.35 -0.05 0.02 -0.03 -0.09
C/N ns * ns *** *** ** ** *** *** ns ns *** ns * ns * ns * ns ** ns 1 -0.40 0.31 -0.25 0.12 0.02 0.13
Qmic ns ns ns *** *** *** ns *** *** * ** ns ** ns ** *** *** ns *** ns *** ** 1 -0.38 0.04 -0.09 0.01 -0.06
GME * *** *** *** *** *** ns *** *** * *** *** *** *** *** *** ns ns *** ns ** * ** 1 -0.02 0.16 -0.12 -0.07
BD ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns * ns ns ns ns ns * ns ns 1 0.12 -0.60 -0.49
PAWC ns *** * ns ns ns ns ns * ns * ns ns * ns ns ns ns * ns ns ns ns ns ns 1 -0.83 0.15
Macpo ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ** ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns *** *** 1 0.19
Ks ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns *** ns ns 1
E.C. = electrical conductivity; Variables are defined in Table 6.1
xxxviii
0.7
0.6
C<20 µm/C> 20 µm
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Number of year of cultivation
xxxix
xl
Publications et conférences
Bonzi S., Somda I., Paco S., Toudou A., Ouédraogo R.A., 2013. Effects of
temperature and pH on mycelium growth of Phoma sorghina (Sacc.) Boerema
Dorenbosch and Van Kesteren in vitro. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 16, 2054–205.
Ouédraogo R.A., Chartin C., Kambiré F.C., van Wesemael B., Delvaux B.,
Millogo H., Bielders C.L. Short and long-term impact of urban gardening on
soil organic carbon fractions in Lixisols (Burkina Faso). Submitted to
Geoderma.
Ouédraogo R.A., Kambiré F.C., Cournac L., Bielders C.L. Short- and long-
term effect of market gardening on soil quality indice. To be submitted to
Science of the total environment.
Ouédraogo R. A., Kambire F.C., Cournac L., Bielders CL. High-input market
gardening operations improve soil biological activities in Bobo Dioulasso
(Burkina Faso). To be submitted.
Ouédraogo R.A., Chartin C., Kambiré F.C., van Wesemael B., Millogo H.,
Bielders C.L. Effect of duration of market gardening operations on soil
organic carbon fractions. A case study in Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso).
EGU Ceneral Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria. 07 au 12 april 2019. In book
of abstracts.
xli
Ouédraogo R.A.; Kambiré F.C., Laurent C., Chartin C., Millogo H., Bielders
C.L. Effect of market gardening practices on soil biological activity in Bobo-
Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). 24th National Symposium for Applied Biological
Sciences, NSABS 2019. Ghent University, Belgium. February, 2019. In Book
of abstracts.
Ouédraogo R.A., Somda I., Haro H. Sanon S.B.K., Kambire F., Ouédraogo
A., Bonzi S., Bielders C.L. Evaluation de différentes formulations de
composts associés ou non au Trichoderma Harzianum et aux champignons
mycorhiziens arbusculaires sur le rendement de la tomate (Solanum
lycopersicum) et sur le sol en conditions semi-contrôlées. 23rd National
Symposium for Applied Biological Sciences. Université Libre de Belgique.
08 février 2018. Book of abstracts.
Pooda Lamine, Ouédraogo R. A., Koné M., Hien M., Ilboudo J-B. M.H.,
Kambire F.C., Bielders C.L. (2017). Risque de pollution environnementale
par les pesticides utilisés dans des exploitations maraîchères de Sakaby et de
Dogona à Bobo-Dioulasso. Congrès Scientifique International de la Société
de Pharmacologie et de Toxicologie du Burkina (SOPHATOX-B).
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Livre des résumés.
Communications Orales
Ouédraogo R.A., Chartin C., Kambiré F.C, van Wesemael B., Millogo H.,
Bielders C. L. Effet des pratiques maraîchères sur le carbone organique du
sol : cas de Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). Animation scientifique.
Laboratoire Mixte International Intensification Ecologique des sols cultivés
en Afrique de l’Ouest. Octobre 2018. Dakar, Sénégal. Communication orale.
xlii
Posters
Ouédraogo R.A., Chartin C., Kambiré F.C., van Wesemael B., Millogo H.,
Bielders C.L. Effect of duration of market gardening operations on soil
organic carbon fractions. A case study in Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso).
EGU Ceneral Assembly 2019, Vienna, Austria. 07 au 12 april 2019. Poster.
Ouédraogo R.A.; Kambiré F.C.; Cournac L.; Chartin C.; Millogo H.;
Bielders C.L. Effect of market gardening practices on soil biological activity
in Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). 24th National Symposium for Applied
Biological Sciences, NSABS 2019. Ghent University, Belgium. February,
2019. Poster.
Ouédraogo R. A., Somda I., Haro H., Sanon S.B.K., Kambire F.C.,
Ouédraogo A., Bonzi S., Bielders C.L. Evaluation de différentes formulations
de composts associés ou non au Trichoderma Harzianum et aux champignons
mycorhiziens arbusculaires sur le rendement de la tomate (Solanum
lycopersicum) et sur le sol en conditions semi-contrôlées. 23rd National
Symposium for Applied Biological Sciences. Université Libre de Belgique.
08 février 2018. Poster.
Mémoires
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xliv
Biographie
xlv