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위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전.
충수염
충수염의 단면.

정의

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충수염(Appendicitis)은 충수의 염증을 특징으로 하며, 대부분의 경우 염증이 생긴 충수를 제거해야 하는 응급질환이다(보통 개복술로 수술을 하든 복강경으로 수술을 하든 상관은 없다).

이 질환을 치료하지 않는 경우 사망율은 매우 높으며, 이것은 염증이 생긴 충수의 파열로 인해 복부 전체의 염증이 발생하고(복막염) 이 복막염으로 인해 쇼크상태에 이르기 때문이다.[1] 충수염은 레지날드 피츠(Reginald Fitz)가 1886년 급성과 만성 충수염에 대해 처음으로 기술하였으며, [2] 이후 세계적으로 가장 흔한 급성 복부통증의 원인으로 알려졌다. 일반적인 급성과 만성 충수염과는 다르게 급성이 아니면서 진단상 충수염으로 판단되는 종류를 "불평덩어리 충수염(Rumbling appendicitis)"라고 한다.[3]

경우에따라 "가성충수염"이라는 용어를 사용할때가 있는데, 이것은 충수염과 같은 증상을 보이는 상태를 말한다.[4] 이것은 예르시니아 엔테로콜리티카(Yersinia enterocolitica)에 의한 창자염과 연관이 있다.[5]


역학

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서구(Western countries)에서는 일생동안 8%에서 발생하며, 10대에서 30대 사이에 최고조로 발생한다. 급성 충수염은 가장 흔한 외과적 응급질환으로 조기에 외과적 처치를 하는 것이 결과를 향상시킨다. 충수염의 진단은 애매하며, 이 병의 가능성에대한 충분한 의심만이 충수염으로 인한 합병증을 예방할 수 있다.


발생학, 해부

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충수(막창자 꼬리라고도 부름), 회장, 상행결장은 모두 중간장관(Midgut)에서 기원한다. 이중 충수는 임신 8주차에 맹장(cecum)의 형성과 함께 나타나 점차 내측으로 회전하게 되며, 맹장이 고정되며 우하복부에 위치하게 된다.


증상과 징후

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소화기계에서 충수(Appendix)의 위치

급성 충수염의 증상은 충수염의 진행정도에 따라 달라지는 것이 특징이다. 보통 첫 증상은 상복부(배꼽위~ 명치 사이)의 무지근한 불편감으로 환자는 소화가 잘 되지 않는 듯한 느낌을 받는 것이 일반적이다. 이것은 충수를 지배하는 내장신경(Splanchnic nerve)이 염증때문에 자극받아 생기는 것이며, 자극의 강도에 따라 상복부의 가벼운 불편감에서 가벼운 구역, 구토의 증상을 호소하게 된다.


이후 염증이 진행하여 충수가 부어오르기 시작하면 환자가 호소하는 통증은 상복부에서 배꼽주위로 이동하게 된다. 이때의 통증은 무지근한 복통으로 주기적인 것(산통)이 특징이다. 이 시기까지는 진찰상 우하복부의 통증이 명확하지 않으나 경우에 따라 압통이나 반발통을 호소할 수도 있다. 충수염에 의한 통증은 증상이 계속 진행하면서 점점 우하복부에 국한된 통증으로 변하게 되는데, 이것은 염증이 생긴 충수가 복막을 자극하며 나타나는 것이다. 이때부터 좀 더 정확한 진단이 가능하며 의사의 촉진에 명확한 압통과 반발통을 호소하게 되며 우하복부에 국한된 강직역시 확인할 수 있다. 하지만 충수가 맹장(Cecum)의 후방에 위치하는 경우 증상이 명확하지 않을 수 있으며, 반대로 우측 옆구리의 통증이나 요통을 호소하는 경우도 있다. 경우에 따라 충수가 골반강내부에 위치하는 경우 위의 증상 대부분이 없을 수 있으며, 복부 팽만만 있을 수도 있다.

환자의 증상(우하복부의 통증)은 시간이 가면서 점점 심해지다가 충수가 파열되고나면 오히려 편해지는데, 이것은 충수가 부풀면서 생기는 내장신경의 자극이 감소해서 그런 것이지 임상적인 경과가 호전된 것은 아니다. 통상적으로 충수가 파열되고 수 시간이 지나면 복막염 소견이 나타난다.

원인

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On the basis of experimental evidence, acute appendicitis seems to be the end result of a primary obstruction of the appendix lumen (the inside space of a tubular structure).[6][7] Once this obstruction occurs, the appendix subsequently becomes filled with mucus and swells, increasing pressures within the lumen and the walls of the appendix, resulting in thrombosis and occlusion of the small vessels, and stasis of lymphatic flow. Rarely, spontaneous recovery can occur at this point. As the former progresses, the appendix becomes ischemic and then necrotic. As bacteria begin to leak out through the dying walls, pus forms within and around the appendix (suppuration). The end result of this cascade is appendiceal rupture (a 'burst appendix') causing peritonitis, which may lead to septicemia and eventually death.

Though there is widespread belief that acute appendicitis is caused by obstruction of the lumen followed by secondary bacterial invasion of the wall, critical examination of the available data reveals little evidence that luminal obstruction is the principal cause of the disease in clinical circumstances.[8] A recent theory of acute appendicitis being an allergic disease has been put forward by Aravindan based on the finding of a large number of eosinophils in the wall of the organ in this disease.[9] This fits well with the hygiene hypothesis proposed by Barker and colleagues.[10] Finding of evidence of eosinophil degranulation in acute appendicitis offers support for this theory.[11] Cases of acute eosinophilic appendicitis have been described which present like acute appendicitis, but are marked by a pure eosinophil infiltrate. This condition has been postulated to be a precursor of acute appendicitis.[12]

The causative agents include foreign bodies, trauma, intestinal worms, lymphadenitis, and, most commonly, calcified fecal deposits known as appendicoliths or fecaliths[13] The occurrence of obstructing fecaliths has attracted attention since their presence in patients with appendicitis is significantly higher in developed than in developing countries,[14] and an appendiceal fecalith is commonly associated with complicated appendicitis.[15] Also, fecal stasis and arrest may play a role, as demonstrated by a significantly lower number of bowel movements per week in patients with acute appendicitis compared with healthy controls.[16] The occurrence of a fecalith in the appendix was thought to be attributed to a right-sided fecal retention reservoir in the colon and a prolonged transit time, although a prolonged transittimee was not observed in subsequent studies.[17] From epidemiological data, it has been stated that diverticular disease and adenomatous polyps were unknown and colon cancer exceedingly rare in communities exempt from appendicitis.[18][19] Also, acute appendicitis has been shown to occur antecedent to cancer in the colon and rectum.[20] Several studies offer evidence that a low fiber intake is involved in the pathogenesis of appendicitis.[21][22][23] This is in accordance with the occurrence of a right-sided fecal reservoir and the fact that dietary fiber reduces transit time.[24]

Diagnosis

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Diagnosis is based on patient history (symptoms) and physical examination backed by an elevation of neutrophilic white blood cells. Histories fall into two categories, typical and atypical. Typical appendicitis usually includes abdominal pain beginning in the region of the umbilicus for several hours, associated with anorexia, nausea or vomiting. The pain then "settles" into the right lower quadrant (or the left lower quadrant in patients with situs inversus totalis), where tenderness develops. The combination of pain, anorexia, leukocytosis, and fever is classic. Atypical histories lack this typical progression and may include pain in the right lower quadrant as an initial symptom. Atypical histories often require imaging with ultrasound and/or CT scanning.[25]

Clinical

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Aure-Rozanova sign

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Increased pain on palpation with finger in right Petit triangle (can be a positive Shchetkin-Bloomberg's sign) - typical in retrocecal position of the appendix.[26]

Also referred as rebound tenderness. Deep palpation of the viscera over the suspected inflamed appendix followed by sudden release of the pressure causes the severe pain on the site indicating positive Blumberg's sign and peritonitis.[27]

Bartomier-Michelson's sign

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Increased pain on palpation at the right iliac region as patient lies on his/her left side compared to when patient was on supine position.

Dunphy's sign

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Increased pain in the right lower quadrant with coughing.[28]

Kocher's (Kosher's) sign

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From the history given, the appearance of pain in the epigastric region or around the stomach at the beginning of disease with a subsequent shift to the right iliac region.

Massouh sign

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 이 부분의 본문은 Massouh sign입니다.

This sign, developed in and popular in southwest England, describes a firm swish of the examiner’s index and middle finger across the patient’s abdomen from xiphoid sternum to first the left and then the right iliac fossa. A positive Massouh sign is a grimace of the patient upon a right sided (and not left) sweep, because initial stage appendicitis usually causes localised irritation of the well-innervated peritoneum.

Obturator sign

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 이 부분의 본문은 Obturator sign입니다.

If an inflamed appendix is in contact with the obturator internus, spasm of the muscle (called the obturator sign) can be demonstrated by flexing and internal rotation of the hip. This maneuver will cause pain in the hypogastrium.

Psoas sign

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 이 부분의 본문은 Psoas sign입니다.

Psoas sign or "Obraztsova's sign" is right lower-quadrant pain that is produced with either the passive extension of the patient's right hip (patient lying on left side, with knee in flexion) or by the patient's active flexion of the right hip while supine. The pain elicited is due to inflammation of the peritoneum overlying the iliopsoas muscles and inflammation of the psoas muscles themselves. Straightening out the leg causes pain because it stretches these muscles, while flexing the hip activates the iliopsoas and therefore also causes pain.

Rovsing's sign

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 이 부분의 본문은 Rovsing's sign입니다.

Continuous deep palpation starting from the left iliac fossa upwards (counterclockwise along the colon) may cause pain in the right iliac fossa, by pushing bowel contents towards the ileocaecal valve and thus increasing pressure around the appendix.[29]

Sitkovskiy (Rosenstein)'s sign

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Increased pain in the right iliac region as patient lies on his/her left side.

Blood and urine test

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Most people suspected of having appendicitis would be asked to do a blood test. Half of the time, the blood test is normal, so it is not that useful in diagnosing appendicitis.

Two forms of blood tests are commonly done: Full blood count (FBC), also known as complete blood count (CBC), is an inexpensive and commonly requested blood test. It involves measuring the blood for its richness in red blood cells, as well as the number of the various white blood cell constituents in it. The number of white cells in the blood is usually less than 10,000 cells per cubic millimeter. An abnormal rise in the number of white blood cells in the blood is a crude indicator of infection or inflammation going on in the body. Such a rise is not specific to appendicitis alone. If it is abnormally elevated, with a good history and examination findings pointing towards appendicitis, the likelihood of having the disease is higher. In pregnancy, elevation of white blood cells may be normal, without any infection present.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute-phase response protein produced by the liver in response to any infection or inflammatory process in the body. Again, like the FBC, it is not a specific test. It is another crude marker of infection or inflammation. Inflammation at ANY site can lead to a rise in CRP. A significant rise in CRP, with corresponding signs and symptoms of appendicitis, is a useful indicator in the diagnosis of appendicitis. If the CRP continues to be normal after 72 hours of the onset of pain, the appendicitis likely will resolve on its own without intervention. A worsening CRP with good history is a sure signal of impending perforation or rupture and abscess formation.

A urine test in appendicitis is usually normal. It may, however, show blood if the appendix is rubbing on the bladder, causing irritation. It is important to rule out an ectopic pregnancy in women of childbearing age.

Imaging

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Appendicitis in children is common enough to merit special attention. Because of the health risks of exposing children to radiation, many medical societies recommend that in confirming a diagnosis with children the ultrasound is a preferred first choice with x-rays being a legitimate follow-up when warranted.[30][31][32] CT scan is more accurate than ultrasound for the diagnosis of appendicitis in adults and adolescents. CT scan has a sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 95%. Ultrasonography had an overall sensitivity of 86%, a specificity of 81%.[33]

X–Ray

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In 10% of patients with appendicitis, plain abdominal X-ray may demonstrate hard formed feces in the lumen of the appendix (fecolith). It is agreed that the finding of Fecolith in the appendix on X-ray alone is a reason to operate to remove the appendix, because of the potential to cause worsening symptoms. In this respect, a plain abdominal X-ray may be useful in the diagnosis of appendicitis, though plain abdominal X- ray is no longer requested routinely in suspected cases of appendicitis. An abdominal X-ray may be done with a barium enema contrast to diagnose appendicitis. Barium enema is whitish fluid that is passed up into the rectum to act as a contrast. It will usually fill the whole of the large bowel. In normal appendix, the lumen will be present and the barium fills it up and is seen when the X-ray film is shot. In appendicitis, the lumen of the appendix will not be visible on the barium film.

Ultrasound

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Ultrasound image of an acute appendicitis

Ultrasonography and Doppler sonography provide useful means to detect appendicitis, especially in children, and shows free fluid collection in the right iliac fossa, along with a visible appendix without blood flow in color Doppler. In some cases (15% approximately), however, ultrasonography of the iliac fossa does not reveal any abnormalities despite the presence of appendicitis. This is especially true of early appendicitis before the appendix has become significantly distended and in adults where larger amounts of fat and bowel gas make actually seeing the appendix technically difficult. Despite these limitations, sonographic imaging in experienced hands can often distinguish between appendicitis and other diseases with very similar symptoms, such as inflammation of lymph nodes near the appendix or pain originating from other pelvic organs such as the ovaries or fallopian tubes.

Computed tomography

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A CT scan demonstrating acute appendicitis (note the appendix has a diameter of 17.1mm and there is surrounding fat stranding.)
A fecalith marked by the arrow which has resulted in acute appendicitis.

Where it is readily available, CT scan has become frequently used, especially in adults whose diagnosis is not obvious on history and physical examination. Concerns about radiation, however, tend to limit use of CT in pregnant women and children. A properly performed CT scan with modern equipment has a detection rate (sensitivity) of over 95%, and a similar specificity. Signs of appendicitis on CT scan include lack of oral contrast (oral dye) in the appendix, direct visualization of appendiceal enlargement (greater than 6 mm in cross-sectional diameter), and appendiceal wall enhancement with IV contrast (IV dye). The inflammation caused by appendicitis in the surrounding peritoneal fat (so called "fat stranding") can also be observed on CT, providing a mechanism to detect early appendicitis and a clue that appendicitis may be present even when the appendix is not well seen. Thus, diagnosis of appendicitis by CT is made more difficult in very thin patients and in children, both of whom tend to lack significant fat within the abdomen. The utility of CT scanning is made clear, however, by the impact it has had on negative appendectomy rates. For example, use of CT for diagnosis of appendicitis in Boston, MA has decreased the chance of finding a normal appendix at surgery from 20% in the pre-CT era to only 3% according to data from the Massachusetts General Hospital.

Scoring systems

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Alvarado score

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Alvarado score
Migratory right iliac fossa pain 1 point
Anorexia 1 point
Nausea and vomiting 1 point
Right iliac fossa tenderness 2 points
Rebound tenderness 1 point
Fever 1 point
Leukocytosis 2 points
Shift to left (segmented neutrophils) 1 point
Total score 10 points

A number of clinical and laboratory-based scoring systems have been devised to assist diagnosis. The most widely used is Alvarado score. A score below 5 is strongly against a diagnosis of appendicitis,[34] while a score of 7 or more is strongly predictive of acute appendicitis. In patients with an equivocal score of 5 or 6, a CT scan is used to further reduce the rate of negative appendicectomy.

Tzanakis scoring

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Tzanakis scoring: Tzanakis and colleagues, in 2005 published a simplified system, now called the Tzanakis scoring system for appendicitis, to aid the diagnosis of appendicitis. It incorporates the presence of four variables made up of specific signs and symptoms (presence of right lower abdominal tenderness = 4 points and rebound tenderness = 3), laboratory findings (presence of white blood cells greater than 12,000 in the blood = 2), as well as ultrasound findings (presence of positive ultrasound scan findings of appendicitis = 6), to which scores are allocated, in the computing of a scoring to predict the presence of appendicitis.
The maximum score is a total score of 15; where a patient scores 8 or more points, there is greater than 96% chance that appendicitis exists.

Pathology

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Micrograph of appendicitis and periappendicitis. H&E stain.
Micrograph of appendicitis showing neutrophils in the muscularis propria. H&E stain.

The definitive diagnosis is based on pathology. The histologic findings of appendicits are neutrophils in the muscularis propria.

Periappendicits, inflammation of tissues around the appendix, is often found in conjunction with other abdominal pathology.[35]

Differential diagnosis

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In children: Gastroenteritis, mesenteric adenitis, Meckel's diverticulitis, intussusception, Henoch-Schönlein purpura, lobar pneumonia, urinary tract infection (abdominal pain in the absence of other symptoms can occur in children with UTI), new-onset Crohn's disease or ulcerative colitis, pancreatitis, and abdominal trauma from child abuse; distal intestinal obstruction syndrome in children with cystic fibrosis; typhlitis in children with leukemia;

In women: A pregnancy test is important in all women of child bearing age, as ectopic pregnancies and appendicitis present similar symptoms. Other causes menarche, dysmenorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, Mittelschmerz (the passing of an egg in the ovaries approximately two weeks before an expected menstruation cycle).

In men: testicular torsion;

In adults: new-onset Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, regional enteritis, renal colic, perforated peptic ulcer, pancreatitis, rectus sheath hematoma;

In elderly: diverticulitis, intestinal obstruction, colonic carcinoma, mesenteric ischemia, leaking aortic aneurysm.

Management

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Acute appendicitis is typically managed by surgery however in uncomplicated cases antibiotics are both effective and safe.[36] While antibiotics are effective for treating uncomplicated appendicitis 20% of people had a recurrence within a year and required eventual appendectomy.[36]

Pain

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Pain medications (such as morphine) do not appear to affect the accuracy of the clinical diagnosis of appendicitis and therefore should be given early in the persons care.[37] Historically there were concerns among some general surgeons that analgesics would affect the clinical exam in children and thus some recommended that they not be given until the surgeon in question was able to examine the person for themselves.[37]

Surgery

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 Appendectomy 문서를 참고하십시오.
Inflamed appendix removal by open surgery
Laparoscopic appendectomy.

The surgical procedure for the removal of the appendix is called an appendicectomy. Laparoscopic removal (via three small incisions with a camera to visualize the area of interest in the abdomen) seem to have some advantages over an open procedures especially in young females and the obese.[38]

Laparotomy

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Laparotomy is the traditional type of surgery used for treating appendicitis. This procedure consists in the removal of the infected appendix through a single larger incision in the lower right area of the abdomen.[39] The incision in a laparotomy is usually 2 to 3 인치 (51 to 76 mm) long. This type of surgery is used also for visualizing and examining structures inside the abdominal cavity and it is called exploratory laparotomy.

During a traditional appendectomy procedure, the patient is placed under general anesthesia to keep the muscles completely relaxed and to keep the patient unconscious. The incision is two to three inches (76 mm) long and it is made in the right lower abdomen, several inches above the hip bone.[40] Once the incision opens the abdomen cavity and the appendix is identified, the surgeon removes the infected tissue and cuts the appendix from the surrounding tissue. After the surgeon inspects carefully and closely the infected area and there are no signs that surrounding tissues are damaged or infected, he will start closing the incision. This means sewing the muscles and using surgical staples or stitches to close the skin up. In order to prevent infections the incision is covered with a sterile bandage.

The entire procedure does not last longer than an hour if complications do not occur.

Laparoscopic surgery

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The newer method to treat appendicitis is the laparoscopic surgery. This surgical procedure consists of making three to four incisions in the abdomen, each 0.25 to 0.5 인치 (6.4 to 12.7 mm) long. This type of appendectomy is made by inserting a special surgical tool called laparoscope into one of the incisions. The laparoscope is connected to a monitor outside the patient's body and it is designed to help the surgeon to inspect the infected area in the abdomen. The other two incisions are made for the specific removal of the appendix by using surgical instruments. Laparoscopic surgery also requires general anesthesia and it can last up to two hours. The latest methods are NOTES appendectomy pioneered in Coimbatore, India where there is no incision on the external skin[41] and SILS (Single incision laparoscopic Surgery) where a single 2.5 cm incision is made to perform the surgery. This finding was very significant to the appendicitis patients and now thousands of people every year survive.

Pre surgery

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The treatment begins by keeping the patient away from eating or drinking in preparation for surgery. An intravenous drip is used to hydrate the patient. Antibiotics given intravenously such as cefuroxime and metronidazole may be administered early to help kill bacteria and thus reduce the spread of infection in the abdomen and postoperative complications in the abdomen or wound. Equivocal cases may become more difficult to assess with antibiotic treatment and benefit from serial examinations. If the stomach is empty (no food in the past six hours) general anaesthesia is usually used. Otherwise, spinal anaesthesia may be used.

Once the decision to perform an appendectomy has been made, the preparation procedure takes approximately one to two hours. Meanwhile, the surgeon will explain the surgery procedure and will present the risks that must be considered when performing an appendectomy. With all surgeries there are certain risks that must be evaluated before performing the procedures. However, the risks are different depending on the state of the appendix. If the appendix has not ruptured, the complication rate is only about 3% but if the appendix has ruptured, the complication rate rises to almost 59%.[42] The most usual complications that can occur are pneumonia, hernia of the incision, thrombophlebitis, bleeding or adhesions. Recent evidence indicates that a delay in obtaining surgery after admission results in no measurable difference in patient outcomes.[43]

The surgeon will also explain how long the recovery process should take. Abdomen hair is usually removed in order to avoid complications that may appear regarding the incision. In most of the cases patients experience nausea or vomiting which requires specific medication before surgery. Antibiotics along with pain medication may also be administrated prior to appendectomies.

After surgery

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The stitches the day after having the appendix removed by laparoscopic surgery

Hospital lengths of stay typically range from a few hours to a few days, but can be a few weeks if complications occur. The recovery process may vary depending on the severity of the condition, if the appendix had ruptured or not before surgery. Appendix surgery recovery is generally a lot faster if the appendix did not rupture.[44] It is important that patients respect their doctor's advice and limit their physical activity so the tissues can heal faster. Recovery after an appendectomy may not require diet changes or a lifestyle change.

After surgery occurs, the patient will be transferred to an postanesthesia care unit so his or her vital signs can be closely monitored to detect anesthesia- and/or surgery-related complications. Pain medication may also be administered if necessary. After patients are completely awake, they are moved into a hospital room to recover. Most individuals will be offered clear liquids the day after the surgery, then progress to a regular diet when the intestines start to function properly. Patients are recommended to sit up on the edge of the bed and walk short distances for several times a day. Moving is mandatory and pain medication may be given if necessary. Full recovery from appendectomies takes about four to six weeks, but can be prolonged to up to eight weeks if the appendix had ruptured.

Prognosis

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Most appendicitis patients recover easily with surgical treatment, but complications can occur if treatment is delayed or if peritonitis occurs. Recovery time depends on age, condition, complications, and other circumstances, including the amount of alcohol consumption, but usually is between 10 and 28 days. For young children (around 10 years old), the recovery takes three weeks.

The real possibility of life-threatening peritonitis is the reason why acute appendicitis warrants speedy evaluation and treatment. The patient may have to undergo a medical evacuation. Appendectomies have occasionally been performed in emergency conditions (i.e., outside of a proper hospital), when a timely medical evaluation was impossible.

Typical acute appendicitis responds quickly to appendectomy and occasionally will resolve spontaneously. If appendicitis resolves spontaneously, it remains controversial whether an elective interval appendectomy should be performed to prevent a recurrent episode of appendicitis. Atypical appendicitis (associated with suppurative appendicitis) is more difficult to diagnose and is more apt to be complicated even when operated early. In either condition, prompt diagnosis and appendectomy yield the best results with full recovery in two to four weeks usually. Mortality and severe complications are unusual but do occur, especially if peritonitis persists and is untreated. Another entity known as appendicular lump is talked about quite often. It happens when appendix is not removed early during infection and omentum and intestine get adherent to it forming a palpable lump. During this period, operation is risky unless there is pus formation evident by fever and toxicity or by USG. Medical management treats the condition.

An unusual complication of an appendectomy is "stump appendicitis": inflammation occurs in the remnant appendiceal stump left after a prior incomplete appendectomy.[45]

Epidemiology

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Disability-adjusted life year for appendicitis per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[46]
  no data
  less than 2.5
  2.5-5
  5-7.5
  7.5-10
  10-12.5
  12.5-15
  15-17.5
  17.5-20
  20-22.5
  22.5-25
  25-27.5
  more than 27.5

Appendicitis is most common between the ages of 5 and 40;[47] the median age is 28. It tends to affect males, those in lower income groups, and, for unknown reasons, people living in rural areas.[48]

In the United States, there were nearly 293,000 hospitalizations involving appendicitis in 2010.[49] Appendicitis is one of the most frequent diagnoses for emergency department visits resulting in hospitalization among children aged 5-17 years in the United States.[50]

Globally, as of 2010, it resulted in about 35,000 deaths.[51]

Society and Culture

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Cost

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While appendectomy is a standard surgical procedure, its cost has been found to vary considerably, particularly in the United States. A 2012 study from the University of California, San Francisco published in the Archives of Internal Medicine analyzed 2009 data from nearly 20,000 adult patients treated for appendicitis in California hospitals. Researchers examined “only uncomplicated episodes of acute appendicitis” that involved “visits for patients 18 to 59 years old with hospitalization that lasted fewer than four days with routine discharges to home.” The lowest charge for removal of an appendix was $1,529 and the highest $182,955, almost 120 times greater. The median charge was $33,611.[52][53]

Another study found that the average cost for an appendicitis stay in the United States in 2010 was $7,800. Severity of the appendicitis increased the cost: for stays where the patient had a perforated (ruptured) appendix, the average cost was $12,800.[54]

Length of Stay

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Length of hospital stays for appendicitis varies on the severity of the condition. A study from the United States found that in 2010, the average appendicitis hospital stay was 1.8 days. For stays where the patient's appendix had ruptured, the average length of stay was 5.2 days.[55]

References

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  1. ↑ Hobler, K. (1998년 Spring월). “Acute and Suppurative Appendicitis: Disease Duration and its Implications for Quality Improvement”. 《Permanente Medical Journal》 2. 
  2. ↑ Fitz RH (1886). “Perforating inflammation of the vermiform appendix with special reference to its early diagnosis and treatment”. 《Am J Med Sci》 (92): 321–46. 
  3. ↑ “What is Rumbling Appendicitis?”. 6 june 2011에 확인함. 
  4. ↑ Cunha BA, Pherez FM, Durie N (2010년 7월). “Swine influenza (H1N1) and acute appendicitis”. 《Heart Lung》 39 (6): 544–6. doi:10.1016/j.hrtlng.2010.04.004. PMID 20633930. 
  5. ↑ Zheng H, Sun Y, Lin S, Mao Z, Jiang B (2008년 8월). “Yersinia enterocolitica infection in diarrheal patients”. 《Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis.》 27 (8): 741–52. doi:10.1007/s10096-008-0562-y. ISBN 0-9600805-6-2. PMID 18575909. 
  6. ↑ Wangensteen OH, Bowers WF (1937). “Significance of the obstructive factor in the genesis of acute appendicitis”. 《Arch Surg》 34 (3): 496–526. doi:10.1001/archsurg.1937.01190090121006. 
  7. ↑ Pieper R, Kager L, Tidefeldt U (1982). “Obstruction of appendix vermiformis causing acute appendicitis. On of the most common causes of this is an acute viral infection which causes lymphoid hyperplasia and therefore obstruction. An experimental study in the rabbit”. 《Acta Chir Scand》 148 (1): 63–72. PMID 7136413. 
  8. ↑ Carr, NJ (2000 Feb). “The pathology of acute appendicitis.”. 《Annals of Diagnostic Pathology》 4 (1): 46–58. PMID 10684382. 
  9. ↑ Aravindan, KP (1997 Oct). “Eosinophils in acute appendicitis: possible significance.”. 《Indian Journal of Pathology & Microbiology》 40 (4): 491–8. PMID 9444860. 
  10. ↑ Barker, DJ; Morris, J (1988 Apr 2). “Acute appendicitis, bathrooms, and diet in Britain and Ireland.”. 《British Medical Journal (Clinical Research ed.)》 296 (6627): 953–5. PMID 3129106. 
  11. ↑ Santosh, G; Aravindan, KP (2008 Apr-Jun). “Evidence for eosinophil degranulation in acute appendicitis.”. 《Indian Journal of Pathology & Microbiology》 51 (2): 172–4. PMID 18603674. 
  12. ↑ Aravindan, KP; Vijayaraghavan, Deepthy; Manipadam, MarieTherese (2010년 1월 1일). “Acute eosinophilic appendicitis and the significance of eosinophil - Edema lesion”. 《Indian Journal of Pathology and Microbiology》 53 (2): 258. doi:10.4103/0377-4929.64343. 
  13. ↑ Hollerman J.; 외. (1988). “Acute recurrent appendicitis with appendicolith”. 《Am J Emerg Med》 6 (6): 614–7. 
  14. ↑ Jones BA, Demetriades D, Segal I, Burkitt DP (1985). “The prevalence of appendiceal fecaliths in patients with and without appendicitis. A comparative study from Canada and South Africa”. 《Ann. Surg.》 202 (1): 80–2. doi:10.1097/00000658-198507000-00013. PMC 1250841. PMID 2990360. 
  15. ↑ Nitecki S, Karmeli R, Sarr MG (1990). “Appendiceal calculi and fecaliths as indications for appendectomy”. 《Surg Gynecol Obstet》 171 (3): 185–8. PMID 2385810. 
  16. ↑ Arnbjörnsson E (1985). “Acute appendicitis related to faecal stasis”. 《Ann Chir Gynaecol》 74 (2): 90–3. PMID 2992354. 
  17. ↑ Raahave D, Christensen E, Moeller H, Kirkeby LT, Loud FB, Knudsen LL (2007). “Origin of acute appendicitis: fecal retention in colonic reservoirs: a case control study”. 《Surg Infect (Larchmt)》 8 (1): 55–62. doi:10.1089/sur.2005.04250. PMID 17381397. 
  18. ↑ Burkitt DP (1971). “The aetiology of appendicitis”. 《Br J Surg》 58 (9): 695–9. doi:10.1002/bjs.1800580916. PMID 4937032. 
  19. ↑ Segal I, Walker AR (1982). “Diverticular disease in urban Africans in South Africa”. 《Digestion》 24 (1): 42–6. doi:10.1159/000198773. PMID 6813167. 
  20. ↑ Arnbjörnsson E (1982). “Acute appendicitis as a sign of a colorectal carcinoma”. 《J Surg Oncol》 20 (1): 17–20. doi:10.1002/jso.2930200105. PMID 7078180. 
  21. ↑ Burkitt DP, Walker AR, Painter NS (1972). “Effect of dietary fibre on stools and the transit-times, and its role in the causation of disease”. 《Lancet》 2 (7792): 1408–12. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(72)92974-1. PMID 4118696. 
  22. ↑ Adamis D, Roma-Giannikou E, Karamolegou K (2000). “Fiber intake and childhood appendicitis”. 《Int J Food Sci Nutr》 51 (3): 153–7. doi:10.1080/09637480050029647. PMID 10945110. 
  23. ↑ Hugh TB, Hugh TJ (2001). “Appendicectomy--becoming a rare event?”. 《Med. J. Aust.》 175 (1): 7–8. PMID 11476215. 
  24. ↑ Gear JS, Brodribb AJ, Ware A, Mann JI (1981). “Fibre and bowel transit times”. 《Br J Nutr》 45 (1): 77–82. doi:10.1079/BJN19810078. PMID 6258626. 
  25. ↑ Hobler, K. (1998년 Spring월). “Acute and Suppurative Appendicitis: Disease Duration and its Implications for Quality Improvement” (PDF). 《Permanente Medical Journal》 2 (2). 
  26. ↑ “Практические навыки по факультетской хирургии”. Max.1gb.ru. 2012년 7월 8일에 확인함. 
  27. ↑ "Blumberg's sign - Rebound Tenderness" | Offline Clinic
  28. ↑ Small V (2008) Surgical emergencies. In Dolan B and Holt L (eds) Accident and Emergency: Theory into Practice, 2nd edition. Elsevier.
  29. ↑ N. T. Rovsing, "Indirektes Hervorrufen des typischen Schmerzes an McBurney's Punkt. Ein Beitrag zur diagnostik der Appendicitis und Typhlitis". Zentralblatt für Chirurgie, Leipzig, 1907, 34: 1257-1259 틀:De icon
  30. ↑ American College of Radiology, “Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question” (PDF), 《Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation》 (American College of Radiology), 2012년 8월 17일에 확인함 
  31. ↑ 틀:Cite PMID
  32. ↑ 틀:Cite PMID
  33. ↑ Terasawa T, Blackmore CC, Bent S, Kohlwes RJ (2004). “Systematic review: computed tomography and ultrasonography to detect acute appendicitis in adults and adolescents”. 《Ann. Intern. Med.》 141 (7): 537–46. PMID 15466771. 
  34. ↑ “BestBets: The Alvarado Scoring System is an accurate diagnostic tool for appendicitis”. 
  35. ↑ Fink, AS.; Kosakowski, CA.; Hiatt, JR.; Cochran, AJ. (1990년 Jun월). “Periappendicitis is a significant clinical finding”. 《Am J Surg》 159 (6): 564–8. doi:10.1016/S0002-9610(06)80067-X. PMID 2349982. 
  36. ↑ 가 나 Varadhan, K. K.; Neal, K. R., Lobo, D. N. (2012년 4월 5일). “Safety and efficacy of antibiotics compared with appendicectomy for treatment of uncomplicated acute appendicitis: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials”. 《BMJ》 344 (apr05 1): e2156–e2156. doi:10.1136/bmj.e2156. 
  37. ↑ 가 나 Anderson, M; Collins, E (2008 Nov). “Analgesia for children with acute abdominal pain and diagnostic accuracy.”. 《Archives of disease in childhood》 93 (11): 995–7. PMID 18305071. 
  38. ↑ Sauerland, S; Jaschinski, T; Neugebauer, EA (2010 Oct 6). “Laparoscopic versus open surgery for suspected appendicitis.”. 《Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online)》 (10): CD001546. PMID 20927725. 
  39. ↑ Appendicitis procedures explained National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. Retrieved on 2010-02-01
  40. ↑ Laparotomy abdominal surgery About surgeries online portal. Retrieved on 2010-02-01
  41. ↑ 28
  42. ↑ Appendicitis surgery procedures Encyclopedia of surgery Portal. Retrieved on 2010-02-01
  43. ↑ “'Emergency' appendix surgery can wait: MDs”. 《CBC News》. 2010년 9월 21일. 
  44. ↑ Appendicitis surgery, removal and recovery Retrieved on 2010-02-01
  45. ↑ Liang MK, Lo HG, Marks JL (2006). “Stump appendicitis: a comprehensive review of literature”. 《The American surgeon》 72 (2): 162–6. PMID 16536249. 
  46. ↑ “WHO Disease and injury country estimates”. 《World Health Organization》. 2009. 11 November 2009에 보존된 문서. Nov. 11, 2009에 확인함. 
  47. ↑ Ellis, H (2012 Mar). “Acute appendicitis.”. 《British journal of hospital medicine (London, England : 2005)》 73 (3): C46–8. PMID 22411604.  |date=에 라인 피드 문자가 있음(위치 5) (도움말);
  48. ↑ Appendicitis epidemiological data VoxHealth medical information based on CDC medical records.　Retrieved on 12-24-2012.
  49. ↑ Barrett ML, Hines AL, Andrews RM. Trends in Rates of Perforated Appendix, 2001–2010. HCUP Statistical Brief #159. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. July 2013. [1]
  50. ↑ Wier LM, Hao Y, Owens P, Washington R. Overview of Children in the Emergency Department, 2010. HCUP Statistical Brief #157. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. May 2013. [2]
  51. ↑ Lozano, R (2012 Dec 15). “Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.”. 《Lancet》 380 (9859): 2095–128. PMID 23245604. 
  52. ↑ “Health Care as a 'Market Good'? Appendicitis as a Case Study”.  JournalistsResource.org, retrieved April 25, 2012
  53. ↑ Hsia, Renee Y.; Kothari, Abbas H.; Srebotnjak, Tanja; Maselli, Judy (2012). “Health Care as a 'Market Good'? Appendicitis as a Case Study”. 《Archives of Internal Medicine》.  [깨진 링크]
  54. ↑ Barrett ML, Hines AL, Andrews RM. Trends in Rates of Perforated Appendix, 2001–2010. HCUP Statistical Brief #159. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. July 2013. [3]
  55. ↑ Barrett ML, Hines AL, Andrews RM. Trends in Rates of Perforated Appendix, 2001–2010. HCUP Statistical Brief #159. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. July 2013. [4]
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