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    Identity, Culture, And Politics In The Basque Diaspora
    Identity, Culture, And Politics In The Basque Diaspora
    Identity, Culture, And Politics In The Basque Diaspora
    Ebook504 pages6 hours

    Identity, Culture, And Politics In The Basque Diaspora

    By Gloria Pilar Totoricagüena

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    Gloria P. Totoricagüena presents a thorough comparative examination of the remarkable endurance of Basque identity and culture in six countries of the far-flung Basque diaspora. Using the results of interviews and extensive anonymous surveys with more than eight hundred informants in the diaspora, plus extensive research in archives and printed sources in all six of her study countries, Totoricagüena reveals for the first time the complex and interrelated universe of these dispersed Basques. She explores the elements of their migration patterns and the institutions that have encouraged identity maintenance, the impacts on established communities of each new wave of immigrants, and the nature of economic and political ties with the homeland.

    Totoricagüena offers a superb quantitative study of an aspect of Basque culture that has been largely ignored by scholars—the diaspora. In doing so, she enlarges the understanding of cultural identity in general—how it is defined and preserved, how it evolves over time, and how both the politics of distant places and the most intimate family habits can shape an individual’s sense of self. Identity, Culture, and Politics in the Basque Diaspora is a major contribution to the knowledge of Basques and their persistent political and cultural traditions.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherUniversity of Nevada Press
    Release dateMar 20, 2015
    ISBN9780874175752
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      Identity, Culture, And Politics In The Basque Diaspora - Gloria Pilar Totoricagüena

      The Basque Series

      Identity, Culture, and Politics in the Basque Diaspora

      GLORIA P. TOTORICAGÜENA

      University of Nevada Press

      Reno & Las Vegas

      The Basque Series

      Series Editor: William A. Douglass

      University of Nevada Press, Reno, Nevada 89557 USA

      Copyright © 2004 by the University of Nevada Press

      Unless otherwise noted, photographs by Gloria P. Totoricagüena

      All rights reserved

      Manufactured in the United States of America

      Library of Congress

      Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Totoricagüena, Gloria P. (Gloria Pilar), 1961–

      Identity, culture, and politics in the Basque diaspora / Gloria P. Totoricagüena.— 1st ed.

      p. cm. — (The Basque series)

      Includes bibliographical references and index.

      ISBN 0-87417-547-x (hardcover : alk. paper)

      ISBN-13: 978-0-87417-547-9

      1. Basques—Ethnic identity. 2. Basques—Foreign countries. 3. Nationalism—Spain—País Vasco. 4. País Vasco (Spain)—Politics and government—20th century. I. Title.

      II. Series.

      DP302.B55 T67 2004

      305.89'992—dc21               2003011147

      ISBN 978-0-87417-575-2 (ebook)

      We left the Basque Country for political reasons. One of our daughters is in prison as a convicted ETA sympathizer, and another daughter decided to stay in Donostia, so we go home often. Brussels is close, and it is easy to keep up with the events in Euskadi. We will go back someday after she is released. I will not live in a country where my daughter is in a cage.

      —Emigrant to Belgium

      I don’t ever remember a time when I didn’t know I was Basque. Although my parents didn’t speak to me in Basque, my mother spoke to her mother in Basque. My grandparents came to the U.S. from Ibarranguelua and wanted to forget the old country. They couldn’t. I was born in the U.S. and thought I could be like the Americans. I can’t.

      —Second-generation, born in the United States

      Well, you see, I was a sugarcane cutter. It is not a prestigious job like my grandfather had in Zornotza where he owned a sawmill. But times were hard in the Sixties, and I needed to find work. Because I took my wife from her family and our homeland, I have tried to recover that part of Euskal Herria by helping to organize the Basque club of Sydney. We imagine that we are still in Zornotza and recreate the fiestas every year. My son knows his history and I hope will teach it to his children.

      —Emigrant to Australia

      Fifth-generation Uruguayan! Can you imagine that I just visited my family’s farmhouse near Donibane Garazi for the first time? I wept. I wept for all that I have missed. For what my parents and grandparents never knew. All of my ancestors in Uruguay died without knowing, without feeling, without smelling, without completing. Can you imagine that I have just visited my family’s farmhouse?

      —Fifth-generation, born in Uruguay

      Contents

      List of Illustrations

      List of Maps, Tables, and Figures

      Acknowledgments

      Introduction

      Chapter One

      Ethnicity, Ethnic Identity Persistence, and Diaspora

      Chapter Two

      Basque Country History, the Development of Basque Nationalism, and Contemporary Homeland Identity

      Chapter Three

      The Formation of the Basque Diaspora

      Chapter Four

      Ethnonationalism and Political Attitudes in the Diaspora

      Chapter Five

      Basque Ethnicity Affirmation and Maintenance

      Chapter Six

      Basque Government–Diaspora Relations

      Chapter Seven

      Amaia: An Interconnected Disconnectedness

      Notes

      Glossary

      Sources

      Index

      Illustrations

      PHOTOGRAPHS

      Typical dress at the end of the 1800s in the Basque Country

      Unloading coal at the Sendeja Street dock, Bilbao, ca. 1893

      Dining hall for recent immigrants to Montevideo, Uruguay, ca. late 1800s

      Uruguayan Basques, ca. late 1800s

      The Totorica Sheep Company in Grandview, Idaho, 1935

      Basques in Ingham, North Queensland, Australia

      Argentine National Basque Week parade, Mar del Plata, 1986

      The Gure Txoko Basque Club members in Sydney, Australia, 1997

      Miren Garagarza Pérez and Jon Ander Bilbao, Melbourne, Australia, 1997

      Basque parent and child, Mar del Plata, 1986

      The second home of the Laurak Bat Basque society, Buenos Aires, Argentina

      The Laurak Bat Mixed Choir, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1915

      The Emakume Abertzale Batza and Basque Country delegation, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1939

      Oinkari Basque Dancers in Boise, Idaho, July 2001

      The Biotzetik Basque Choir, Boise, Idaho, 2000

      Txantxangorriak musical group of Boise, Idaho, 2001

      Nere Inda, Boise students, and visiting Basque Government officials, 2002

      Mus players at Euskal Etxea, Lima, Peru, 1996

      Basque-language classes in Montevideo, Uruguay, 1986

      Father Jean Pierre Cachenaut, 1985

      The Emakume Abertzale Batza of Rosario, Argentina, 1996

      Basque dancers, Rosario, Argentina, 1996

      Txistulariak from Argentina, 1996

      Basque Museum and Cultural Center gift shop, Boise, Idaho

      Pelotariak Julianón, Oriñuela, Moro, Bilbao, and Aguirrezabal, Sydney, Australia

      Basques from Sydney, Australia

      Delegates to the 1999 Second World Congress of Basque Collectivities

      Delegates to the 1999 Second World Congress of Basque Collectivities

      Basque youth in the Gaztemundu 2001 program

      Idaho Secretary of State Pete Cenarrusa in Boise, Idaho, and representatives of the city council of Gernika-Lumo, 2000

      The Gaztemundu 2000 participants from Lima, Peru, with Lehendakari Ibarretxe

      The delegation of the Basque Autonomous Community to the European Union, Brussels, Belgium, 1996

      MAPS

      2.1 The seven regions of the Basque Country and its political divisions

      6.1 Officially registered Basque centers around the world, 2003

      FIGURES

      6.1 Diaspora Policy Creation and Implementation

      6.2 Foreign-Policy Responsibilities of the Basque Autonomous Government

      TABLES

      4.1 Homeland Political Party Preference

      4.2 Preference for Basque Cultural Events over Political Events

      4.3 Host-Country Political Party Affiliation

      4.4 Participation in Host-Country Political Movements

      4.5 Most Desirable Future for the Seven Basque Provinces

      4.6 Political Violence Effectiveness for Achieving Autonomy

      4.7 Basque Ancestry Necessary for Basqueness

      4.8 Basque-Language Knowledge Necessary for Basqueness

      5.1 Language Knowledge, Usage, and Literacy by Host Country and By Age

      5.2 Favorable and Unfavorable Treatment Because of Basque Ethnicity

      6.1 Possible Voting Blocs for Advisory Council Assessor Representation

      6.2 Basque Autonomous Government Appropriations to Diaspora Communities

      6.3 Diaspora Voting in the 1990, 1994, 1998, and 2001 Parliamentary Elections

      Acknowledgments

      I gratefully acknowledge several scholars whose guidance helped me produce this publication. Professor Brendan O’Leary, the London School of Economics and Political Science, supervised this work in its original form as a PhD thesis. Professor Gregorio Monreal Zia, Universidad Pública de Navarra, fine-tuned the data regarding Basque Country history. José C. Moya, University of California–Los Angeles; Sebastian Balfour, London School of Economics; and Alfonso Pérez-Agote, University of the Basque Country, also added valuable improvements. The meticulous editing of Margaret Fisher Dalrymple, University of Nevada Press, facilitated my adjustments for the final publication and corrected and enhanced the entire composition. Many thanks also to Razmik Panossian, London School of Economics, and to mentor Professor Gregory A. Raymond, Boise State University, and his nearly twenty years of inspiration and faith in my academic abilities. Fellowships from the American Association of University Women, Euskal Fundazioa, Federación de Entidades Vasco Argentinas, Idaho Humanities Council, and Eusko Jaurlaritza contributed to the financial requirements of my international travel.

      Four years of research involving travel in eight countries provided numerous debts of gratitude to many new friends. Eskerrik asko bihotzetik to those Basques who opened their homes and personal lives to me for interviews that often asked them to revisit painful memories. Their courage to survive, accept, and supersede their circumstances exemplifies the meaning of endurance and spirit and is indeed humbling. Sincere appreciation goes to Felipe Muguerza and Miren Arozarena in Argentina for generously aiding the re-creation of my fieldwork after my luggage was stolen—including laptop computer, all backup disks, completed questionnaires, and taped interviews. It would have been easy to quit without their advocacy. To Gurutz Iguain, Carlota Oyarbide, Deli Ahuntchain, and Alberto Irigoyen for facilitating fieldwork, travel, and interviews; many Basque dinners; and an ever-open door in Uruguay—mila esker. Thanks to German Garbizu, Ion Guarotxena, Víctor Ortuzar, and Raúl Noblecilla in Peru, my stay in Lima was academically and personally rewarding. In Australia, Joe and Jenny Goicoechea, José and Dolores Mendiolea Larrazabal, Mary Bengoa Arrate, Nekane Kandino, Miren Garagarza, Carlos Orúe and Miren Sanz, and Mari Asun Salazar all demonstrated an unbelievable solidarity with my project—commandeering living rooms and marshaling interview schedules. In Belgium, Ibon Mendibelzua helped organize questionnaire and interview details, and Enrike Pagoaga offered his home, office, and kitchen table for endless conversations.

      My fieldwork in the United States really began more than twenty years ago when, as a teenage Basque dancer, our troupe traveled around the West meeting other Basques whom I found had the same double identity as I did. Two decades of Basque festivals, conferences, and serving as a representative to Basque organizations have kept my antennae tuned to definitions of Basqueness. Thank you to former North American Basque Organizations (NABO) presidents Bob Echeverria and Steve Mendive for document sharing and many good laughs about the stamina and iron will of Basque women. Thanks also to Iñaki Aguirre Arizmendi and Josu Legarreta, director of relations for Basque collectivities of the Basque Autonomous Government, for providing much data and time for several interviews.

      Earning the PhD and writing this book have required much dedication and sacrifice from my family and myself. We have endured my travels to London and throughout Argentina, Uruguay, Peru, Australia, Belgium, the Basque Country, and the West of the United States; stolen luggage and data; health traumas; and the trials of adolescence. During the path of this research there have been births and deaths and numerous spiritual renewals in my Totoricagüena Tribe of parents, Mari Carmen and Teodoro; and siblings, Dolores, Tony, Carmen, Rosa Mari, Ted, and Teresa; and their families (who for various reasons are also the authors of this work). We are reinforced by our common family values of unconditional love, respect, pride, loyalty, and responsibility to each other and to our joint futures. I dedicate this book to my parents, whose experiences from the bombing of Gernika and Franco dictatorship and lives as Basques in the United States planted the curiosity for this research, and my family and daughter Amaia Pilar, whose love, commitment, and patience enabled its realization.

      Introduction

      In November 1995, Vitoria-Gasteiz, the capital city of the Basque Autonomous Community in Spain, hosted the First World Congress of Basque Collectivities. The fourteen different countries sending delegates ranged from Canada, with a few thousand Basques and one formal organization, to Argentina, which boasted ninety separate Basque organizations and numerous smaller social clubs. Delegates had been elected or appointed by their organizations to travel to the Basque Country—Euskal Herria in the Basque language—to help the Basque Autonomous Government formulate policy regarding Basques in the diaspora.

      Curiously, these Basques had more in common than not. Comments from interviews regarding Basque identity maintenance revealed very similar responses whether from fourth-generation Uruguayans, fifth-generation Argentineans, first-generation Australians, or second-generation Belgians: We are Basques who live outside the homeland, but that does not make us any less Basque.

      Until this congress, these people had not met each other, nor had any of these organizations ever interacted institutionally, with the exception of Argentina with Uruguay. If generally accepted theories of acculturation and assimilation would be considered, these Basques should have all been very distinct from each other because of the influence of the host society to which their ancestors had emigrated. By the fifth generation, they should exhibit characteristics common to the new society. Why then was there so much homogeneity and consensus in their views toward ethnonationalism and ethnic identity maintenance when their host societies are so different from one another? This book aims to answer this puzzling question and to describe diaspora Basques individually and collectively with regard to their persistent connection to Basque ethnic identity and to their transnational diaspora linkages.

      The phenomenon of ethnic identity emerges where the fields of anthropology, sociology, political science, and psychology converge. The contemporary escalation of ethnonationalism and ethnicity as determining factors in political conflict demands urgent scrutiny, investigation, and analysis. The definition of ethnic identity, as I shall demonstrate, is not stagnant, and in the case of the Basques it is being constructed among this population as political, economic, technological, and human-geography factors take on new significance.

      And this identity construction prompts a number of questions: In what ways is the concept of ethnic identity transformed when the definition is created and established outside the homeland of the ethnic group? What effect does a host society have on an immigrant’s self-identification with his ancestors, with their myths and history of origin, with homeland events, and with the traditional culture? Since a formerly accepted definition of a Basque was a person born in the Basque Country, of Basque ancestry, who spoke the Basque language, can a person who has none of these attributes be, or become, Basque? Today, many of the hundreds of thousands of Basques who left the homeland for economic opportunities or for political exile and their descendants, who currently outnumber the population of the Basque Country itself, are answering yes.

      The diaspora represents the extraterritoriality of Basqueness. I will investigate what constitutes Basque identity in the diaspora if it is no longer defined and described by territory, language, or ancestry, as it was traditionally. For those living outside the homeland and in the diaspora, it is beneficial to modify the criteria for inclusion, since most of them have only one of three of these attributes, that of ancestry. The ancestry of many is also mixed, as they are fourth- and fifth-generation in their host countries and their ancestors have intermarried with other ethnic groups. My investigation was prompted by curiosity about why Basque identity persists for these people, and what it is about being Basque, and the characteristics and behaviors of Basque people, that allow this culture to endure and not only to maintain itself but recently to demonstrate an actual growth in interest about it—and how this interest is related to the process of globalization. I also search for evidence of instrumental reasons and benefits derived by creating and maintaining transnational links with the homeland and with other Basque-diaspora communities.

      These themes can be examined by comparing Basques of different generations in different host societies. How have the factors of generation and host country affected identity maintenance in each country? This study will examine self-identifying Basques who are, or previously have been, members of a Basque organization in their communities in Argentina, Uruguay, Peru, the United States, Australia, and Belgium. Each group has a different time period and circumstance for emigration out of Euskal Herria, with Peru and Argentina being the earliest and Belgium the most recent. Most emigrants left the homeland in search of economic opportunities and/or for political exile. Over the centuries, they departed from each of the seven provinces on both sides of the Spanish-French international border, speaking Spanish, French, and a variety of dialects of Basque. Regardless of their local diversity, they united in their new countries to form Basque institutions with similar goals of maintaining their traditions and ethnic identity, and of nurturing the music, dance, poetry, cuisine, history, sports, language, and religious practices of their ancestors’ homeland. These are not reproductions of homeland religious or cultural institutions or networks as seen in other diaspora communities, but immigrant-specific and, later, ethnicity-maintenance organizations.

      Rationale for This Study

      Past research on Basques in the diaspora has focused on institutions and descriptions of communal structures and their activities (Cava Mesa 1996; Escobedo Mansilla et al. 1996); on histories of immigrants and their participation in the development of local economies (Pérez-Agote et al. 1997; Galíndez 1984; Douglass and Bilbao 1975), on the Basque government-in-exile during the dictatorship of General Francisco Franco and on subsequent political exiles (Amezaga Clark 1991; San Sebastián 1991; Anasagasti 1988; Beltza 1977); and on biographies of Basque personalities who climbed the economic and social ladders in their respective countries of settlement (Azcona Pastor 1992; Pildain 1984; Decroos 1983). This is the first published study of contemporary Basque diaspora identity and Basque ethnonationalism in the diaspora, and the first comparison of Basque diaspora communities and their structure, goals, activities, programs for culture maintenance, and future plans. There is a vacuum in studies of Basque diaspora communities and their relations with homeland institutions, both public and private. There are no publications regarding the current Basque government’s attempts to create business and political ties in the host societies using the prestige and status of the immigrant Basque organizations to open these designated doors. There are no works describing or analyzing the effects of globalization on Basque ethnic identity outside the homeland.

      This work, then, is original in its contributions to ethnic studies and is the first comparison of Basque communities in the diaspora. Benefiting from historical analysis of Basques in the Americas from the fifteenth to mid-twentieth centuries (Douglass and Bilbao 1975; Azcona Pastor 1992; Bilbao Azkarreta 1992; Alvarez Gila 1996; Pérez-Agote et al. 1997) and their tendencies to group together and form associations, this project builds on those foundations and extends into contemporary research in anthropology, nationalism, and ethnicity and diaspora studies. Although there are academic theses and some published materials dealing with the history of Basque emigration to Argentina, Uruguay, Peru, and the United States that are extremely beneficial, there are only a few descriptive studies of Basques in Australia (Douglass 1996; Orúe 1996), and nothing for Belgium, except for an excellent study of war evacuees and orphans cared for there during and after the Spanish Civil War (Legarreta 1984). I have created my primary-source information from additional research and interviews in both countries.

      The fields of immigration research, ethnic identity persistence, and diaspora-homeland relations are underdeveloped yet emerging academic topics. There is ample description referring to certain groups in certain countries—for example, the Jewish, Greek, and Armenian diasporas, the Irish in the United States, Greeks in Australia, and Italians in Argentina—but theories of explaining and testing the salience of ethnicity outside the homeland are lacking. This book examines the fundamental concepts and theories concerning personal and social identity for immigrants and creates a map of possible directions for understanding and explaining diasporas and the transnational ethnic identity persistence of Basques in their various host societies.

      In the following chapters, I shall investigate several anomalies and factors regarding ethnic identity maintenance in the Basque diaspora. Is it possible that despite geographic and generational differences, the core elements of Basque ethnic identity in these six countries are defined in a constant manner? Do the differences between the host countries and the differences between recent and older immigrants impact the outcomes? Are there similarities in the patterns of development of Basque ethnic institutions, although they are located in various host countries and the generations creating the institutions reflect different eras of immigration?

      Do these self-defining Basque populations actually constitute a diaspora? I shall show that Basque collectivities in these six countries tend to describe themselves in diasporic terms and fit the diaspora categorization of political scientists and sociologists, and that population specifically defined by Robin Cohen:

      (1) dispersal from an original homeland, often traumatically; (2) alternatively, the expansion from a homeland in search of work, in pursuit of trade or to further colonial ambitions; (3) a collective memory and myth about the homeland; (4) an idealization of the supposed ancestral homeland; (5) a return movement; (6) a strong ethnic group consciousness sustained over a long time; (7) a troubled relationship with host societies; (8) a sense of solidarity with co-ethnic members in other countries; and (9) the possibility of a distinctive creative, enriching life in tolerant host countries (Cohen, Global Diasporas, 180).

      These overseas Basques imagine themselves as connected to the homeland and to each other. I suggest that chain migration and constant interaction with the homeland through transnational ties have strengthened this consciousness in diaspora Basque centers.

      I shall argue that a resurgence in Basque ethnic identity salience is related to globalization but is not a partner in a causal relationship or a defensive reaction to it. The tools of global communications are being embraced and utilized by the homeland and by the diaspora to educate and to intercommunicate. Although global technology networks are perceived as positive media for creating interest in and for the maintenance and enhancement of Basque diaspora ethnic identity, do they merely fortify and simplify transnationalism, an already existing phenomenon in these communities? Does gender affect Basque ethnic identity maintenance or the definition of Basqueness itself? Is there any difference in how males and females perceive and understand the act of immigration and the process of acculturation? I shall demonstrate the respondents? statistical similarities and differences from anonymous questionnaire data, and the variances from in-depth personal interviews.

      Homeland definitions of nationalism and Basqueness have in recent years progressed to a more civic and inclusive nationalism, while diaspora definitions lag behind, tending to follow the traditional late-nineteenth-century conservatism of the father of Basque nationalism, Sabino Arana y Goiri, whose definitions were linked to exclusive race, language, and religion. I propose that as communications and transnational links are intensified and accelerated with the process of globalization, diaspora definitions of Basqueness will more closely mirror those in the Basque Country for Basques who participate in their ethnic institutions.

      Organization of This Work

      In order to fortify an understanding of the phenomena in this investigation, I shall review several of the well-known interpretations of ethnicity and ethnic identity maintenance and persistence, as well as some theories of the nature of diasporas. Unlike many other group memberships, ethnicity is oriented toward the past and the history and origin of the family, group, and nation. Ethnic identity and diasporic imagination combine the past with one’s present and future selves.

      To understand the Basque collective past, real and imagined, I summarize Basque history as written by Basques and non-Basques, and the importance of the old foral laws and the concept of collective nobility that are elements of homeland and diaspora identity. I shall trace Basque nationalist rhetoric from the 1700s to Sabino Arana y Goiri’s pronouncements of the late 1800s and early 1900s, continuing through the establishment of the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) and the Euskadi eta Askatasuna (ETA—Basque Homeland and Liberty) organization, to contemporary homeland and diaspora definitions and attitudes toward Basque nationalism. The Basques’ own perceptions of their history are essential to understanding their myth of a collective past and diaspora consciousness.

      I discuss the formation of Basque communities abroad by focusing on four stages: Basques as an element in the Spanish colonization of Latin America; the impact of the Carlist Wars and primogeniture inheritance systems; the Spanish Civil War and exiles from the Franco dictatorship; and the current temporary migration of young educated professionals.

      Basque immigrants’ political attitudes toward homeland politics are demonstrated in several tables. I include the results of interviews and questionnaire responses revealing attitudes toward separatism and independence movements; homeland and host-country political partisanship; the immigrants’ political mobilization as communities; and the exclusivity and, more recently, inclusivity of their definitions of Basque identity. Survey results will demonstrate the degree to which these Basque diaspora communities are politically or culturally defined, and whether or not there are differences based on variables of generation, geography, or gender.

      I also analyze the maintenance of Basque cultural traditions in these communities, Basque language preservation, the effects of globalization and the Internet in downloading identity, ties to Euskal Herria, and institutional connections between Basques through their ethnic Basque centers. I also delve into the idea of a Basque sisterhood and search for gender similarities in migration experiences. The daily ethnic socialization process and aspects of mundane and banal Basque ethnonationalism are explored when I examine home decoration and personal adornment used by Basques in these six countries.

      This work ends with an interpretation of the development of homeland-diaspora personal and institutional networks, explaining the Law of Relations with the Basque Collectivities in the Exterior and its fundamental importance to future relations between and among the Basques worldwide. Spanish constitutional and Basque statutory law and policy-making for the diaspora are detailed with regard to congresses of Basque diaspora collectivities, Basque government grant subsidies, diaspora rights and benefits including voting, and the extension of Basque media to diaspora communities.

      Concluding observations compare my analysis of the Basque diaspora to that of other diasporas and present my suggestions for future research in transnational identity, diaspora communities, and the relationships both have with the process and effects of globalization.

      Choosing the Right Words

      In the complex reality of the Basque Country, there are Spanish names for Basque places and Basque names for Spanish places, to say nothing of the North, which is bestowed with the equivalent puzzle in French. How one determines the correct name for an appropriate place depends much on one’s own identity and political opinions. In an attempt to demonstrate neutrality, I shall when possible utilize English terminology and language. Where there is no separate English-language term, I shall utilize the standardized Batua Basque language and the official toponyms decreed by the Resolution of 17 December 2001, which lists the official place names and spellings selected by the municipal councils themselves (Boletín Oficial del País Vasco, No. 1, 2 January 2002, with the latest update from 30 September 2002). The legislative branches of Bizkaia (1986) and Gipuzkoa (1990) voted to use the Basque orthography as the official form in their provinces, and Álava voted to use Álava as the official spelling of the province for materials published in Spanish and Araba for materials published in Basque. I therefore use Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa when referring to these areas. For this work, I utilize the current geopolitical boundaries as stipulated in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, the Statutes of Autonomy of Euskadi of 1979, and the Statutes of Autonomy of Navarre of 1979, and by the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. Pyrénées-Atlantiques encompasses the Basque provinces of Lapurdi (Labourd), Behe Nafarroa (Basse Navarre), and Zuberoa (Soule). Euskadi is the political name for the politically and economically autonomous region of Spain that includes the provinces of Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa; and Nafarroa is the separate autonomous province of Navarre. The glossary provides the Spanish or French equivalent for the names of Basque towns.

      In the traditional Basque language, there are various spellings and entire words that differ depending on regional variations. I shall apply the standardized Basque language, known as Batua (one or united), which is the official version of the Basque Autonomous Government, the Basque public media, and the Basque Language Academy. Especially important are uses of Basque Country and Euskal Herria, by which I mean all seven provinces described above; Euskadi, which denotes only the three provinces of Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa; and Nafarroa, which includes only the lands in today’s Spain that made up the historical Kingdom of Navarre and today is ruled by its own Statutes of Autonomy.

      Chapter One

      Ethnicity, Ethnic Identity Persistence, and Diaspora

      What exactly is meant by ethnic identity, and what is ethnicity? Is it the language one speaks and the civic territory in which one lives? In the case of the Basques, ancestry plays a crucial role in this determination. My research asked self-defining Basques these very questions: What does it take to be a Basque? Who is considered a Basque and who is not? What characteristics must one have to be a Basque, regardless of where one lives?

      Prospecting in the literature of anthropology, psychology, sociology, and social-psychology reveals a rich body of theories, approaches, and arguments concerning personal and social identity creation and maintenance. Fredrik Barth’s writings are especially helpful commencing points when specifically attempting to understand and explain ethnic identity. Using Naroll’s 1964 anthropological definition, Barth designates an ethnic group as a population that:

      1. Is largely biologically self-perpetuating;

      2. Shares fundamental cultural values, realized in overt cultural unity in cultural forms;

      3. Makes up a field of communication and interaction;

      4. Has a membership that identifies itself, and is identified by others, as constituting a category distinguishable from other categories of the same order. (Barth 1969, 10)

      Barth’s arguments assert that clear boundaries persist and are maintained despite changing participation and membership in the groups; important social relations are maintained across boundaries; cultural differences can persist despite interethnic contact and interdependence; and ethnic groups are categories of ascription and identification by the persons themselves (Barth 1969). This describes the particular Basque populations that I sampled in each host country.

      Theories of Ethnic Identity and Ethnicity

      PRIMORDIALISM

      The natural, affective attachments of identity are called primordialism, a concept first introduced by Shils (1957; quoted in Scott 1990) when examining the effect of primordial qualities on social interaction. According to Shils, race and ethnicity are seen as primary sources of loyalty and the essence of the manner in which people group themselves. The primordial perspective focuses attention on the great emotional strength of ethnic bonds because primordial givens are not seen to change. Subsequently, da Silva (1975) argues that the continued vitality of Basque nationalism is a result of this emotional power of the Basques’ group identity. Primordialists generally argue that ethnic identity is a function of strong emotional ties based upon common descent and the distinctive past of a group.

      Greeley (1974), Isaacs (1975), and Connor (1978) broadly presume the importance of primordial loyalties and the human primal need to belong. The current tide of ethnonationalism sweeping the world demonstrates that an intuitive bond felt toward an informal and unstructured subdivision of mankind is far more profound and potent than are the ties that bind them to the formal legalistic state structure in which they find themselves (Connor 1978, 377). This could describe the loyalty of diaspora Basques to their Basque culture and identity over time and distance, even though they are a part of a formal legalistic state structure elsewhere.

      The application of Shils’s concept is expanded by Clifford Geertz (1973) beyond kinship to larger-scale groups based on territory, religion, language, and other customs. These attachments are the givens of the human condition, rooted in the nonrational foundations of the personality, and provide a basis for affinity with others from the same background. In a more controversial usage, Pierre van den Berghe (1981; 1996, 62) connects primordial ethnic feelings to sociobiology, which rests on genetic tendencies derived from the kinship process, and the practice of in-group amity and out-group enmity. The attachments forming the core of ethnicity are then biological and genetic in nature, making the argument that ethnicity is based upon descent. Paul Brass (Hutchinson and Smith, eds., 1994, 85) reduces primordialist assertions to the core features that ethnic groups are based on distinctive cultures, origin myths, or patterns of exchange with other groups, and persist through time.

      The primordial approach to Basque identity would refute the idea that identity is fluid, rational, or calculated. This approach seeks a psychological or biological explanation for the behavioral phenomenon of continued ethnic solidarity and ethnic identity persistence. It focuses on the important emotional strength of ethnic bonds that persist over time in radically different environments and adds a historical dimension by highlighting a group’s distinctive past. Research aimed at this area has shown that some ethnic attachments persist for hundreds of years and in certain cases override loyalties to other significant groups, such as religious affiliations or economic ties. Spicer (1971) observed that Basque ethnic populations have demonstrated a remarkable capacity to adapt to new environments, which has enabled them to maintain their traditional cultural systems. This could help us understand Basque identity persistence in the diaspora five and six generations after emigration.

      However, scholars have hastened to dismantle this hypothesis. Why, some ask, is it that some Basques in some communities have these primordial attachments and others do not? If they are natural, biological, and genetic, everyone should experience these feelings, should they not? Why have some Basques dropped their ethnic identity when emigrating and established themselves as Argentineans, or Belgians, or Australians? Why would many Basques in Euskal Herria identify themselves as Spanish or French and not Basque? Identities are subject to change; people change religious beliefs, learn new languages, leave their homelands and settle elsewhere. If ethnic identity is founded on beliefs and practices shared through time, what about new identities that are constructed or reconstructed, or have undergone transformations and adaptations? Primordial sentiments would be fixed and static, would they not? Perhaps it would be more beneficial and enlightening for us to examine ethnic identity in different situations.

      CIRCUMSTANTIALIST, MOBILIZATIONIST, AND INSTRUMENTALIST APPROACHES TO ETHNICITY

      In refining these ideas of choosing identities, some sociologists argue that ethnic identity is amenable to fluctuations (Matsuo 1922, 507) and that ethnicity involves a great deal of choice, as demonstrated in Waters’s research on European ethnics in the United States (M. Waters 1990). Scott argues that primordial sentiments have to be elicited by some experience, thus they are tied to circumstances (Scott 1990, as quoted in Eller and Coughlan 1993, 48). Circumstantialists suggest that ethnic identities have a social source and are not natural givens from birth.

      Lyman and Douglass (1973) argued originally that ethnic group boundaries are not only selected and permeable but that people use ethnicity differently in varying situations. The us and the them change according to circumstances, and different identities are called upon according to their appropriateness for each situation. What is appropriate may also be whatever is instrumental in achieving a goal or specific objective. In the early stages of Basque immigration to Argentina, Uruguay, and the United States, Basques were likely to help other Basques setting up bakeries, working in tanning operations, buying livestock and land, dairying, or in a few other pursuits, which meant that this ethnic group, like others, evolved with certain labor specialties. If members of an ethnic group tend to be relatively homogeneous with respect to occupation and residence when they settle in a new host society, they are affected in much the same way by government actions and policies. Ethnic groups are therefore likely to become interest groups, and this fact breathes new life into Old World social groups and identities (Glazer and Moynihan 1970, Olzak 1983). In societies lacking sharp class divisions, ethnicity may tend to be underscored for social-class positioning and then becomes the

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