Epistolary novel by Tobias Smollett, his major work, written in 1770.
Humphry Clinker is written in the form of letters that view episodes from differiEpistolary novel by Tobias Smollett, his major work, written in 1770.
Humphry Clinker is written in the form of letters that view episodes from differing perspectives and tells of a journey that the cantankerous but essentially generous Matthew Bramble makes—accompanied by various family members and servants—from his estate in Wales to Bath, London, Scotland, and back home. On their journey they meet several eccentrics, including poverty-stricken young Humphry Clinker, who is naive and inclined to preach Methodism wherever he can gather a crowd. Bramble eventually recognizes Clinker as his natural son. As a picture of 18th-century British life, Humphry Clinker is particularly rewarding, for Smollett evokes the sights, sounds, and smells of the journey....more
A two-part dramatic work by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Part I was published in 1808 and Part II in 1832, after the author’s death. The supreme work oA two-part dramatic work by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Part I was published in 1808 and Part II in 1832, after the author’s death. The supreme work of Goethe’s later years, Faust is sometimes considered Germany’s greatest contribution to world literature.
Part I sets out the magician Faust’s despair, his pact with Mephistopheles, and his love for Gretchen. Part II covers Faust’s life at court, the wooing and winning of Helen of Troy, and his purification and salvation.
In earlier eras the play was often decried as formless because of its array of lyric, epic, dramatic, operatic, and balletic elements. It includes almost every known poetic metre, from doggerel through terza rima to six-foot trimetre (a line of verse consisting of three measures), and a number of styles ranging from Greek tragedy through medieval mystery, baroque allegory, Renaissance masque, and commedia dell’arte to something akin to the modern revue. To modern critics, however, this mixture of forms and styles suggested a deliberate attempt to create a vehicle of cultural comment rather than an inability to create a coherent form of his own, and the content with which Goethe invested his forms bears out the modern interpretation. He drew on an immense variety of cultural material—theological, mythological, philosophical, political, economic, scientific, aesthetic, musical, literary—for the more realistic Part I no less than for the more symbolic Part II....more
Marie de France's lais, told in octosyllables or eight-syllable verse, are notable for their celebration of love, individuality of character, and viviMarie de France's lais, told in octosyllables or eight-syllable verse, are notable for their celebration of love, individuality of character, and vividness of description, hallmarks of the emerging literature of the times.
Composed between 1160 and 1180, they lie at the confluence of the two great literary currents of the time. The lyrical poetry of troubadours and old Celtic tales unite in her to embody the sometimes unreasonable dreams of courtly utopia.
In a universe where the seduction of the adventure story never erases the lyrical accent. They tell stories of love and sometimes death, often wonderful. A werewolf, a white doe, a knight-bird, a hawk fairy: adventure always takes on the face of love and love is above all an initiation into life....more
The first English-language prose version of the Arthurian legend, completed by Sir Thomas Malory about 1470 and printed by William Caxton in 1485. TheThe first English-language prose version of the Arthurian legend, completed by Sir Thomas Malory about 1470 and printed by William Caxton in 1485. The only extant manuscript that predates Caxton’s edition is in the British Library, London. It retells the adventures of the knights of the Round Table in chronological sequence from the birth of Arthur. Based on French romances, Malory’s account differs from his models in its emphasis on the brotherhood of the knights rather than on courtly love, and on the conflicts of loyalty (brought about by the adultery of Lancelot and Guinevere) that finally destroy the fellowship....more
It is on the whole a restatement of the eclectic Neoplatonic cosmology. Three aspects may be usefully emphasized, because this book contributed in larIt is on the whole a restatement of the eclectic Neoplatonic cosmology. Three aspects may be usefully emphasized, because this book contributed in large measure to impressing them into the minds of philosophers and scientist, and of the world at large. (1)independently of any revelation, the mind can achieve certainty about the existence of God, his goodness, and his power of rulling over the universe. (2)The universe is ordered according to unbroken chains of causes and effects, where necessity, under supervision and determination by God, would be apparent to an all-knowing mind and where chance is nothing more than the coincidental intersection of distinct lines of causation. (3) The order of the universe includes a descent from the first cause to the lowest effects and a return from the lowest ends to the highest beginning. Boesthius’s insistence on the possiblity of combining freedom of the will with God’s eternally present knowledge of the order he willed engaged scholars in theological subtleties more than in a scientific approach to research or organization of knowledge....more
Alliterative poem presumed to have been written by William Langland. Three versions of Piers Plowman are extant: A, the poem’s short early form, datinAlliterative poem presumed to have been written by William Langland. Three versions of Piers Plowman are extant: A, the poem’s short early form, dating from the 1360s; B, a major revision and extension of A made in the late 1370s; and C, a less “literary” version of B dating from the 1380s and apparently intended to focus the work’s doctrinal issues. Some scholars think that version C may not be entirely attributable to Langland.
The poem takes the form of a series of dream visions dealing with the social and spiritual predicament of late 14th-century England. In general, the language is simple and colloquial, but some of the imagery is powerful and direct. Realistic and allegorical elements are mingled in a phantasmagoric way, and both the poetic medium and the structure are frequently subverted by the writer’s spiritual and didactic impulses. His bitter attacks on political and ecclesiastical corruption (especially among the friars) quickly struck a chord with his contemporaries. In the 16th century Piers Plowman was issued as a printed book and was used for apologetic purposes by the early Protestants....more
Originally conceived as a parody of the chivalric romances that had long been in literary vogue, it describes realistically what befalls an aging knigOriginally conceived as a parody of the chivalric romances that had long been in literary vogue, it describes realistically what befalls an aging knight who, his head bemused by reading such romances, sets out on his old horse Rocinante, with his pragmatic squire, Sancho Panza, to seek adventure. Widely and immediately translated (first English translation 1612), the novel was a great and continuing success and is considered a prototype of the modern novel.
The work opens in a village of La Mancha, Spain, where a country gentleman’s infatuation with books of chivalry leads him to decide to become a knight-errant, and he assumes the name Don Quixote. He finds an antique suit of armour and attaches a visor made of pasteboard to an old helmet. He then declares that his old nag is the noble steed Rocinante. According to Don Quixote, a knight-errant also needs a lady to love, and he selects a peasant girl from a nearby town, christening her Dulcinea del Toboso. Thus accoutred, he heads out to perform deeds of heroism in her name. He arrives at an inn, which he believes is a castle, and insists that the innkeeper knight him. After being told that he must carry money and extra clothes, Don Quixote decides to go home. On his way, he picks a fight with a group of merchants, and they beat him. When he recovers, he persuades the peasant Sancho Panza to act as his squire with the promise that Sancho will one day get an island to rule.
Don Quixote and Sancho, mounted on a donkey, set out. In their first adventure, Don Quixote mistakes a field of windmills for giants and attempts to fight them but finally concludes that a magician must have turned the giants into windmills. He later attacks a group of monks, thinking that they have imprisoned a princess, and also does battle with a herd of sheep, among other adventures, almost all of which end with Don Quixote, Sancho, or both being beaten. Eventually, Don Quixote acquires a metal washbasin from a barber, which he believes is a helmet once worn by a famous knight, and he later frees a group of convicted criminals.
Don Quixote subsequently encounters Cardenio, who lives like a wild man in the woods because he believes that Luscinda, the woman he loves, betrayed him. Don Quixote decides to emulate him to prove his great love for Dulcinea, and he sends Sancho to deliver a letter to her. When Sancho stops at an inn, he finds two of Don Quixote’s old friends, a priest and a barber, looking for him. They decide that one of them should pose as a damsel in distress to try to lure Don Quixote home. En route, they come across a young woman, Dorotea, who was betrayed by Don Fernando, who married Luscinda. Dorotea agrees to pretend to be a princess whose kingdom has been seized by a giant, and Don Quixote is persuaded to help her. They stop at the inn, where Don Fernando and Luscinda soon arrive. Luscinda is reunited with Cardenio, and Don Fernando promises to marry Dorotea. Later, the priest and the barber put Don Quixote in a wooden cage and persuade him that he is under an enchantment that will take him to Dulcinea. Eventually, they return him home.
Part 2 begins a month after the end of part 1, but many of the characters have already read that book and so know about Don Quixote. He becomes convinced that Dulcinea is under an enchantment that has turned her into an ordinary peasant girl. Don Quixote and Sancho meet a duke and duchess who are prone to pranks. In one such ruse, they persuade the two men that Sancho must give himself 3,300 lashes to break the curse on Dulcinea. The duke later makes Sancho the governor of a town that he tells Sancho is the isle of Barataria. There Sancho is presented with various disputes, and he shows wisdom in his decisions. However, after a week in office and being subjected to other pranks, he decides to give up the governorship. In the meantime, the duke and duchess play other tricks on Don Quixote.
Eventually, Don Quixote and Sancho leave. After learning that a false sequel to the book about him says that he traveled to Zaragoza, Don Quixote decides to avoid that city and go instead to Barcelona. Following various adventures there, Don Quixote is challenged by the Knight of the White Moon (a student from La Mancha in disguise), and he is defeated. According to the terms of the battle, Don Quixote is required to return home.
Cervantes’s strikingly modern narrative gives voice to a dazzling assortment of characters with diverse beliefs and perspectives, and it exhibits nuanced irony, a humanistic outlook, and a pronounced comic edge. The popularity of the first volume led to the publication in 1614 of a spurious sequel by someone calling himself Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, a circumstance that Cervantes addressed in his own second volume....more
It tells the biblical story of the fall from grace of Adam and Eve (and, by extension, all humanity) in language that is a supreme achievement of rhytIt tells the biblical story of the fall from grace of Adam and Eve (and, by extension, all humanity) in language that is a supreme achievement of rhythm and sound. The 12-book structure, the technique of beginning in medias res (in the middle of the story), the invocation of the muse, and the use of the epic question are all classically inspired. The subject matter, however, is distinctly Christian.
The main characters in the poem are God, Lucifer (Satan), Adam, and Eve. Much has been written about Milton’s powerful and sympathetic characterization of Satan. The Romantic poets William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley saw Satan as the real hero of the poem and applauded his rebellion against the tyranny of Heaven....more
Apparently simple in structure, is epistolary insofar as it is a letter intended for "your mercy", a treatment that implies someone with a higher sociApparently simple in structure, is epistolary insofar as it is a letter intended for "your mercy", a treatment that implies someone with a higher social status, and is motivated by a fact of which he has heard, and whose personal version Lázaro, who is party involved in it, explain. Thus it appears to be a kind of confession and the character is a high ecclesiastical dignitary, perhaps the archbishop of Toledo, who would have heard the strange rumors that circulate about the sexual behavior of the archpriest of San Salvador.
The originality of the book, however, upsets any mold and creates a specific realistic literary subgenre, the picaresque novel, through the use of parody of idealizing Renaissance chivalric narratives.
A bitter criticism of social hypocrisy, it was included in the Index of Forbidden Books of the Inquisition. Its profound influence marked Spanish literature so much that it could be said that without it, Don Quixote de la Mancha could not have been written....more
Written by Marie-Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette, and published anonymously in 1678. Often called France’s first historical novel, the work influencWritten by Marie-Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette, and published anonymously in 1678. Often called France’s first historical novel, the work influenced the course of French fiction. It is set during the 16th-century reign of Henry II and is the story of a virtuous young wife, the title character, who suppresses her passion for a young nobleman. With this simple story told in dignified, unsentimental prose, La Fayette launched the novel of character; much more than a story of thwarted love, it is an intimate psychological portrait. Many 18th- and 19th-century writers used the novel as a model; in its depiction of the princess’s move from the sheltered world of her family to the world of intrigue and politics in the court, it is the prototype of the bildungsroman....more
Although there are no formal divisions between the twenty-six chapters that comprise The Prince, it is easy to see that Machiavelli's work has been arAlthough there are no formal divisions between the twenty-six chapters that comprise The Prince, it is easy to see that Machiavelli's work has been arranged in four distinct sections. The first eleven chapters discuss the various kinds of principalities that are possible, introducing readers to the strengths and weaknesses of each type.
The beginning of this section of the book starts with discussions of contemporary Italian politics, a subject that will be dropped by the end of this section. Machiavelli looks at examples from antiquity, which is meant to underscore the scholarly aspect of The Prince.
One of the central themes of the book is that a ruler should never leave anything to chance; rulers cannot rely on fate or on the support of others, for it will usually end up proving unreliable. Machiavelli then explores possible ways for a prince to come to power.
Machiavelli discusses ways for a political leader to organize his military—the most important function of a ruler. First, he examines the use of mercenary soldiers—men who are hired to fight, usually from a different country—and explores the problems with this method. For instance, he contends that history shows that mercenaries are motivated only by money; therefore, if there is a disruption in payment, the mercenaries will not fight. Also, soldiers from other countries might lack the nationalistic fervor to fight hard for a certain cause or ruler.
Moreover, he offers direct, specific advice for how political leaders should handle their armies. They should, for instance, always have an enemy. He recommends that steps be taken so that the soldiers do not get bored, for then they will get themselves into trouble.
Machiavelli proposes the idea that one who is a leader does not need to return loyalty with loyalty; the only thing the prince owes his subjects is military success.
If the rest of the book functions as a textbook, teaching old stories and traditional wisdom to young rulers who are curious about rulers from the past, this third section functions as a political tract, suggesting changes that need to come about if the prince is to rule effectively.
This final section has been viewed as a patriotic call to arms, as Machiavelli encourages the prince to take good care of Italy, act prudently, and leave nothing about his country or his subjects to chance.
As with the second section, the rhetoric rises throughout the course of these few chapters. The book ends as it began: examining contemporary Italy, leaving examples from history in the past....more
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