Agricultural Drawing and The Design of Farm Structures

UC-NRLF
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AGRICULTURAL DRAWING
AND THE DESIGN OF
FARM STRUCTURES
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McGraw-Hill BookCorttpairy^
ElGCtrical World Thetngineeiin^ and Mining Journal
EngkieGring Record Engineering Ngws

Railway Aê Gazette American Machinist
Signal EngiriGGr American Engineer

Electric liailway Journal Coal Age
Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering Power
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AND THE DESIGN OF
FARM STRUCTUEES
BY
THOMAS E. ^RENCH, M. E.
PBOFESSOR OP ENGINEERING DRAWING, THE OHIO STATE UNIVEBSITY
AUTHOR OF "engineering DRAWING," "ESSENTIALS OP LETTERING," ETC.
AND
FREDERICK W. IVES, B. S., M. E.

ASSISTANT PBOFESSOR OP AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING, THE OHIO
STATE UNIVERSITY
First Edition
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

239 WEST 39TH STREET, NEW YORK
6 BOUVERIE STREET, LONDON, E. C.
1915
F}
copykight, 1915, by the

McGkaw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
the; mafias: press york PA

PREFACE
As the title implies, this book
intended primarily for students in agriculture and agri-
is
cultural engineering. Engineering Drawing is a required subject in practically all college

agricultural courses. It is not given in these courses with the idea of making professional
draftsmen, butis regarded as an important subject for increasing the efficiency of the farm
owner or manager, by giving him what is in reality a new language in which to express and
record his ideas.
Aside from mechanics and builders, there is no class to whom the value of technical draw-
ing should appeal with as much force as to the progressive farmer. His literature is full of
illustrations and technical sketches, which to be read intelligently require a knowledge of
technical drawing. Government bulletins, State bulletins, agricultural periodicals and
books, even trade and machinery catalogues, cannot be fully understood without this knowl-
edge. In order to build properly, or to pass upon a set of plans, he should be able to read
architectural drawings. The man with the ability to draw "to scale" can plan his buildings,
"take off" his bill of materials, estimate the costs, and mentally see the finished structure
before it is built. He can make sketches of broken parts of machinery, or of special pieces
which he wishes to have made, he can- make a layout of his buildings or a plat of his farm.
In short, he has an asset of distinct advantage and value.
This book is a text book* rather than a "course in drawing." The principles and proc-
esses involved are described and illustrated, and a variety of problems of various kinds and
of progressive difficulty have been arranged, with outlines for a considerable number of
additional ones, not only giving suggestions to the farm owner, but also supplying class
material, which may thus be varied from year to year. Drawing courses vary in length,
and the instructor may make his choice from these numerous problems to cover the different
divisions of the subject matter included in the text.
These problems have been selected for their practical value, and all are dependable in
design. Many are from work designed and built by the authors.
The freehand method of introducing projection drawing has been used with marked
success in agricultural classes.
A number of formulas, tables, etc., have been grouped in one chapter, to give in con-
venient form information necessary in designing some structures; and other items of mis-
cellaneous information useful in drawing and designing have also been included. In the
last chapter is given a list of books and bulletins on allied subjects.
The assistance of Mr. C. L. Svensen and Mr. W. D. Turnbull is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors will be glad to cooperate with teachers using the book as a text book, and
to suggest or furnish supplementary problems.
*Some of the material in it has been condensed from the larger text book "A Manual of Engineer-
ing Drawing."
'
^
Columbus,
August 10, 1915.
T. E. F.
F. W. I.
330428
CONTENTS
Page
Preface v
CHAPTER I
Introductory 1
—
Importance of drawing Different kinds of drawing
— Pictorial drawings—Working drawings
— —
Topographical drawing Examples.
CHAPTER II
Theory and Technique 6

List of instruments —Principles of orthographic projection—Sketching —Draw-
and materials
ing with instruments—Alphabet of —Inking—
lines ^Lettering.
CHAPTER III
Working Drawings 26
Classes of working drawings —Sectional views—Turned sections—Auxiliary views—Use of
scale — Dimensioning, Rules for dimensioning — Title — of material — Checking — Conven-
Bill
tional symbols — Fastenings — Bolts and screws — Pipe — Developed surfaces — Method of
working—Sketching from the object — Problems.
CHAPTER IV
Farm Structures 47
Designing
— Symbols — Plans — Elevations —
Sections — —
Dimensions Wood construction —
Framing, the timber frame, the plank frame, joints and details of construction, roofs, fire stop-
— —
ping and rat proofing Concrete, composition, reinforcing, forms, a concrete water tank Brick,
kinds, symbols, bonds
— — — —
Stone Stucco Hollow tile Roofing materials, shingles, slate, tile,
— —
composition roofing, galvanized roofing Method of preparing plans The dairy barn, require-
—
ments, lighting, ventilation, space required, storage Complete plans and specifications of a
— — —
dairy barn, bill of material, estimate The horse barn The general purpose barn The swine
— — — — —
house Dipping vat The sheep barn The poultry house Implement sheds Corn cribs —
Granaries — Ice houses — Garages — Smoke houses —The dairy house —The —The manure
silo
pit
—The septic tank— Fences, paddocks, hurdles, pens and gates—The farm house and its
requirements— Plans of a farm house—Problems.
CHAPTER V
Maps and Topographical Drawing 90
—Plats —A farm survey—Farm
Instruments office map —Topographical drawing—Contours—
Quadrangle sheets—^Landscape maps — Profiles —Problems.
CHAPTER VI
Pictorial Drawing •
. . . 100
—
.
Uses Isometric drawing —Oblique drawing— Cabinet

— —
drawing Sketching Problems.
vii
viii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VII
Page
Construction Data 112
Stock and commercial lumber, mill work, sash, glass, sheet metal, wire, pipe, rope, drain
sizes,
tile, slate, metal roofing, ready roofing

— — —
Weight of roofing Weights of materials Space re-
— — —
quired for storage Space required for farm implements Ration for beef feeders Table for
— —
the selection of native woods Strength of timbers, tables Concrete, table of proportions
for different uses— Silos and silage, table — — —
Sunshine table Dairy score card Kitchen score
card—Estimating, cubic estimates, other approximate methods, detailed estimates, taking
off quantities, units of —Heating, lighting, ventilation and sewage
disposal
—Blue printingmeasurement,
—Problems. present prices
CHAPTER VIII
Selected Bibliography 122

—
Books on allied subjects Government bulletins —State Experiment Station and Agricultural
—
College bulletins Trade publications.
Index 125
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY
There are two general methods of describ- picture from his own imagination; and the
ing things, one by using words, spoken or stronger his visualizing power the fuller and
written, the other by drawing pictures. more interesting picture does he have. But
The first is ordinary language, the second probably no two persons reading the same
method is often called the universal graphical story ever see exactly the same picture. In
language. factsome very able people are almost lacking
< '<''
m/i*i'^^^
Fig. 1. —A pen-and-ink perspective drawing.

Some writers are so skillful in their use of in the power of mental imagery, and in
words, that when describing some scene or reading a story do not construct any imagi-
event their writing is called a word-picture, native picture at all.
and the interested reader feels in
imagination It would evidently be almost impossible to
that he can see it vividly before him.
all describe the appearance and construction of
But he has simply taken the author's sug- a proposed new machine or building so that
gestions and has filled in the details of the it could be built, by using words alone.
1
Fig. 2. —An isometric drawing.
FRAME —
BAZA
Fig. 3. —An isometric illustration.

INTRODUCTORY
Thus in technical description, where nothing able to think in space, and an increasing
can be to the imagination, the second
left power to represent and explain what he has
method, drawing, becomes by far the more in his mind.
important. The shape of even the simplest
Different Kinds of Drawing
object can be explained much more accu-
rately and quickly by a drawing than by There are several different kinds of draw-
verbal description.
ing used in technical work. They may be
But this descriptive drawing may not be divided broadly into pictorial drawings and
simply like an artist's picture, because the
working drawings.
artist's method of drawing is again only
suggestive, and while it shows what the Pictorial Drawings.
object looks like, it leaves much to be sup- Drawing an object as it actually appears
plied by the observer's imagination. Tech- to the eye is called perspective drawing.
nical drawing must describe accurately every This is used by architects in showing the
•Z No. 10 Wood Screws

Fig. 4. —A working drawing and a picture.
detail of the structure. (The ordinary con- appearance of a proposed building or group
tractor has no imagination that will supply of buildings. Artists and illustrators draw
something not shown on the drawings, within perspective directly from the object or
out being paid an "extra" for it!) landscape before them. The architect in
. Thus this method of describing objects by drawing a building not yet erected, assumes
lines becomes a real language, to be studied the observer to be standing at a certain
in the same way as any other language. Its point and works out the perspective from
thorough mastery is necessary for the pro- the plans by somewhat complicated methods,
fessional engineer and architect, but every- finishing it (or rendering as he calls it) in
one who has anything to do with building or water color, pen and ink or pencil. This
machinery should know the elementary drawing shows the building just as a photo-
principles of the subject, that is, should be graph or sketch taken from the same point
able to read and write in the language. would do; but as it cannot be measured, the
It is not a complicated nor mysterious drawing is of no value to build from. Per-
subject, but is very simple in its principles, spective drawing is, moreover, too involved
and the ability to learn it does not depend and difiicult to be of general use. Fig. 1
upon any natural talent. As one studies it appearance of a perspective
illustrates the
he feels a growing consciousness of being drawing rendered in pen and ink.
N.4°-0 £. 2149.18
Fig. 5. —A topographical drawing.

INTRODUCTORY
A simpler way of making pictorial draw- which are explained in the next chapter.
ings suitable for some purposes is by iso- This is the basis of all industrial drawing,
metric or oblique drawing. These systems mechanical and architectural, and may be
are very useful in showing details of con- called the grammar of this graphical language.
struction, and are also used very commonly Architectural drawings are working draw-
for illustrations in bulletins and books. ings, as they are used to build from. The
They are not difficult to make, and the architect makes perspective drawings, pre-
method is fully explained in Chapter VI. viously referred to, principally to show his
Fig. 2 is a typical isometric illustration from clients, who are unable to read the working
a Government bulletin, and Fig. 3 a more drawings, what the building is going to look
complicated example as used in an imple- like. Fig. 4 illustrates a pictorial drawing
ment catalogue, and which shows the con- and a working drawing of a simple object.
struction more clearly than any other kind
of drawing would do. Topographic Drawing.
Still another kind of drawing, with the
Working Drawings. rudiments of which we should be familiar, is

A working drawing is a drawing that gives topographic drawing. This includes the
all the information for the complete con- drawing of maps and plats, showing the
struction of the object represented. Thus — method of representing land and water
the essential difference between a pictorial features, and is the kind of drawing used in
drawing and a working drawing is that the connection with surveying. Its particular
pictorial drawing shows the object as it value and interest to the farmer is explained
appears, while the working drawing must in Chapter V.
show it as it
actually giving the exact
is, Fig. 5 is a topographic drawing of a farm
shape and dimensions of every part. This and farmstead, and shows not only the
is done by making different "views" of the location of the various features, as buildings,
object, in a system known technically as fields, ditches, etc., but also the contour, or
"orthographic projection," the principles of as it is sometimes called, the lay of the land.
CHAPTER II
THEORY AND TECHNIQUE
Of the several kinds of drawing just re- The following is a list of instruments and
ferred to, each has a particular use. For materials needed:
constructive drawings, that is for drawings 1 . A set of drawing instruments, con-
of things which are to be made, the system taining a 6 inch compass with pen,
known as orthographic projection is used pencil and lengthening bar, a pair of
almost exclusively, as being the method best dividers, a ruling pen and a bow pen.
adapted for showing an object exactly as it A bow pencil and bow spacer are de-
is to be. As it does not show the object as sirablebut not necessary additions.
it will appear to the eye, one must be trained 2. A drawing board of soft pine, cleated
in reading it, and in exercising the visualiz- to prevent warping (or a drawing
ing power of the imagination to see the table with pine top).
object from its projections. 3. A T-square. These come in various
our purpose in this chapter to study
It is lengths and grades. For the work
the principles of this system and the tech- outlined in this book a 30" blade is
nique of its execution. long enough.
Constructive drawing is sometimes done 4. A 45° triangle and a 30°-60° triangle.
freehand, when it is called "technical sketch- Transparent amber is the best.
ing," but for designing structures and making 5. An architect's scale, either one tri-
accurate working drawings it is necessary to angular shape or two flat ones. (An
use instruments and work to dimensions. engineer's scale of decimal parts is
Preliminary studies and schemes for new needed in map work, and a protractor
structures or machines are usually sketched should also be at hand.)
first freehand, and often the final working 6. Thumb tacks.
drawing of a simple object wanted is made 7. Drawing pencils.
without instruments. Our first work in 8. Waterproof drawing ink.
studying the principles will be done as free- 9. Eraser.
hand sketching, after which the technique 10. Sandpaper pad for sharpening pencils,
of instrumental or mechanical drawing will 11. Drawing paper. Most working draw-
be taken up. ings are made on buff or cream-
colored "detail paper" which is sold
Instruments
by the yard, in rolls, and are after-
For instrumental drawing an outfit of wards traced on tracing cloth or
drawing materials must be at hand. Profes- tracing paper.

sional draftsmen use expensive, high-grade
Orthographic Projection
instruments. Those who will do only oc-
casional drawing can get along with a com- Orthographic projection is the theoretical
paratively inexpensive outfit. name given to a method of drawing two or

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE
more views of an object in order to show the

exact shapes of its parts and their relation to
each other. It means practically that we
draw one view of the object as it would
appear if we looked directly down on the
top of it, another view looking straight at
the front, and if necessary, a third" looking
directly at the end or side of the object.
Thus if we were asked to make the projec-
FiG. 6. — Pictorial view of block.

tions of the block shown in pictorial view in
Fig. 6, we would have, by looking straight
down at from the top, a top view as
it
shown in Fig. 7(a), on which the faces A, C

and E would show. Looking at it directly
from the front would give the front view (h) ,
on which the face B only would be visible,

while on the side view (c) the faces D and F
only would show. Evidently the width of
c
8 AGRICULTURAL DRAWING
sides of the glass box were hinged, and 1. A surface parallel to a plane of pro-
is shown in its true size; as
opened out). Thus the flat view of these jection
opened planes would be like Fig. 12, and, B on the front view of Fig. 7.
leaving off the outlines of the edges, and the 2. A surface perpendicular to a plane of
lines of the hinges, the three views would projection is projected as a line; as
appear as in Fig. 13.
o o
Fig. 10.
^£/
This shows the reason for the rule already- Fig. 12. —The box opened.
given, that the top view is directly above the
front view, and the side view directly across faces A, C and E on the same view
from the front view. Notice particularly (Fig. 76).
_
that on the side view the front of the object 3. A surface inclined to a plane of pro-
is facing the front view. Sometimes two jection is foreshortened; as face C on

side views are necessary, and in compara- the top view of Fig. 7, and K on the
side view of Fig. 13.
o o
FiG. IL— The "glass box."

\2/
—
Fig. 13. The three projections.
tively rare cases a bottom view is desirable
(as the other end of the glass box, and the
if Similarly
—
bottom of it were opened on their hinges 4. A line parallel to a plane of pro-
until flush with the front). jection will show in its true length.
From a study of these projections the 5. A perpendicular to a plane of
line
following principles will be noted. projection will be projected as a point.

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE 9
6. An inclined line will have a projection clipped on a board, are all the materials
shorter than its true length. needed. Sometimes coordinate paper, ruled
As a general rule to be followed, the view in faint lines, is used.
showing the characteristic contour or shape The pencil should be held with freedom,
of a piece should be drawn first; thus in not close to the point, vertical lines drawn
Figs. 6 and 8 the front view would be the downward. Fig. 14, and horizontal lines from
to right. Fig. 15.
left
In beginning a sketch, after studying the

object until the views are clear, mentally,
always start with center lines or base lines,
and remember that the view showing
the contour or characteristic shape should
Fig. 14. —Sketching a vertical line.
firstone to be made, while in Fig. 21o on

page 13 the top view would be drawn first,
to advantage.
In architectural drawing the top view is
always called the plan, and the front and
side views the front elevation and side
elevation respectively.
Fig. 1G.
be drawn first. This is generally the view

showing circles if there are any. Get the
Fig. Jo. —Sketching a horizontal line.
main dimensions and proportions first,
blocking in the necessary number of views so
Sketching. that they will fit the sheet.
Training in freehand sketching is so im- In such a figure as Fig. 16 the sketch would
portant that there should be much practice be started by drawing a vertical center line,
in it. Our first work will be sketching in on which would be spaced the principal
orthographic projection from pictorial views points of the front and top views. The side
and models. view would then be blocked in, and the
An H, F, or No. 3 drawing pencil sharp- sketch at this stage would be something like
ened to a long conical point, not too sharp, a Fig. 17. The holes would then be added and
pencil eraser, to be used sparingly, and paper, the outlines brightened, so that the finished
either in note book, pad, or single sheet sketch would look like Fig. 18.
Figs. 20 and 21 are collections of

19,
pictorial views of various familiar objects,
which are to be sketched in orthographic
projection, making the views necessary to
describe the object fully and clearly. This
is primarily for practice in projection but is
also a test of the student's judgment in
observing and recording proportions.
-- -f
Fig. 19. — Problems for working sketches.

/<
Fig. 20. —Problems for working sketches.
Fig. 21. — Problems for working sketches.

while drawings of machine parts are usually Use of T Square and Triangles,
outlined with a much wider line. The T square is for drawing parallel hori-
Center lines, dimension lines and cross zontal lines, and is always used with its head
(1) visible outline
(2) invisible outline
-(3) center line
(3a) center line in pencil
(4) dimension line

1-
(5) extension line
(6) alternate position
(7) line of motion
(8) cutting plane
^\J^J^ Uj[a^^\ (9) break line
-V*~ -^ y |v (10) limiting break
(11) cross hatching line

Fig. 22.—The alphabet of lines.
ibn //ha
\Sec/ybn //>?es (Cross hak/t/r^J /y\
Fig. 23. —The alphabet illustrated.
hatching lines should be clean fine against the lejt edge of the drawing board,
uniform lines. Fig. 23 shows these and The triangles are used against the square T
the various other lines as used on a for drawing vertical lines and lines at 30,
drawing. \ 45 and 60 degrees.

With the two triangles together, lines at edge (the paper should preferably be a little
15 degrees and 75 degrees may be drawn. larger than the finished drawing is to be).
Fig. 24 illustrates these combinations. Lay the scale down on the paper close to the
Fig. 24. —Use of triangles.
The detailed construction of the two

following sheets given to illustrate the
is
method of procedure in making a drawing,

and the use of some of the instruments. If
these drawings are made following the in-
structions carefully, making them over if
necessary until a satisfactory result is ob-
tained, the use of the instruments and the
method of laying out a drawing should be
sufficiently familiar to the beginner, so that
succeeding work can be done without hesi-
tation or fault in execution.
Sharpen a hard pencil (4H or 6H) to a
long sharp point, cutting away the wood and
pointing the lead by rubbing it on the sand-
paper pad. (For straight line work some
prefer a flat wedge-shaped point, as it stays
sharp longer.) Have the sand-paper pad
always at hand and keep the pencil point
sharp.
Fasten a piece of paper to the board,
squaring the top edge with the T square, Drawing a vertical line.
and putting a thumb tack in each corner,

pushing the tacks down to their heads. lower edge and measure 18", marking the
Suppose the size of the drawing is to be distances with the pencil, at the same time
12" X 18" with a border line Xi" from the marking 3^^" for the border line. Always
use a short dash, not a dot, in laying off a adjusting the pencil point to the mark,
dimension. At the left edge mark 12" and using one hand only in opening and closing
y^" border line points. Through these four the compasses. The needle point may be
points on the left edge, draw horizontal lines guided to the center with the little finger of
with the T square, and through the points the left hand, Fig. 26. When the lead is
Fig. 26. —Setting the compass.

Fig. 28. — Completing the circle.
on the lower edge draw vertical lines with
the triangle against the T
square in the adjusted to pass exactly through the mark,
illustrated in 25. Horizontal the hand should be raised to the handle and
position Big.
lines should always be drawn from left to
the circle drawn (clockwise) in one sweep
right, and vertical lines upward. by twirling the handle with the thumb and
forefinger, keeping the compasses inclined
Fig. 27. —Starting the circle.
Use of the Compasses.

Fig. 29. —Position for large circle.
In drawing a circle the radius should be
measured and marked on the center line and slightly. Fig. 27.The position of the fingers
the compass adjusted to it by first pinching after completing the circle is shown in Fig.
the instrument open with the thumb and 28. Circles up to perhaps 3 inches in
second finger, then setting the needle point diameter may be drawn with legs straight
(shoulder point) in position at the center and but for larger sizes the legs are bent at the
Fig. 30. —Use of lengthening bar.
joints so as to be perpendicular to the against the nut should be relieved by holding

Circles too for the the points in the left hand and spinning the
paper, Fig. 29. large
reach of the compass are drawn with nut in or out with the finger. Small adjust-
ments are made with one hand, with the
needle point in position on the paper. Fig.
31. Notice particularly, in drawing tangent
circles, that two lines are tangent to each
other when their centers are tangent, and
not when the lines simply touch each other;
as illustrated in enlarged form in Fig. 32.
Fig. 31. —Setting the bow pen.

the lengthening bar as shown in Fig. 30.
Small circles, particularly when there are
a number of the same diameter, are made
Fig. 33. —Bisecting a line with dividers.
Use of Dividers.
— Correct and incorrect tangents. The dividers are used for transferring
Fig. 32.
measurements from one part of the drawing
with the bow-pen. In changing the set- to another, for stepping off distances, and for
ting, to avoid wear and final stripping dividing lines by trial. They are handled
of the thread, the pressure of the spring in the same way as the compasses. Fig. 33
illustrates the method of bisecting a line by between front and side views, and
subtracting
these 15" from the length of the
trial, first opening the dividers at a guess to sheet, 17", we find
that the left edge of the front view should be started
one-half the length of the line and stepping
an inch from the left border.
the distance off. If the division be short,
Now with the scale measure along the base line
the leg should be thrown out to one-half the the horizontal dimensions for the front view,
remainder, estimated by the eye, without marking points for the thickness of the
end boards.
removing the other leg from its position on At the same time measure on the base line the width
of the side view, leaving an inch between views.
the paper, and the line spaced again with the
Through the first point on the front view draw a long
new setting.
perpendicular, measure on this the height of the front
Avoid pricking unsightly holes in the view and the thickness of the bottom board. On
The the same line mark the width of the
paper. position of a small prick point top view,
be preserved if necessary by drawing a leaving about 1>^" between views. Through these
may
points draw horizontal and vertical lines, thus
little ring around it with the pencil.
blocking out the three views. Next draw on the side
Fig. 34. —Feeding stick for birds.
PROBLEM 1. view, the slant line of the end boards and a dotted
The first sheet is to be three views of the feeding
line showing the block behind. This block will
stick 1 for birds shown in Fig. 34.
show as a full line on the top view. On the front
view draw the center line A-B for the holes, and on
Lay off a 12" X 18" sheet with K" border as
this measure the distances for the centers, and at one
described on page 15.
The of the centers mark the radius (%") of the circle.
requirement of a good drawing, after
first
At this stage the drawing will appear something like
deciding on the requisite views, is to have the views
well spaced on the sheet. A quick preliminary Fig. 35.
freehand sketch will aid in this study. In adding When the circles are drawn and the short line
the width of the top view, 4", and the height of the formed by the chamfer of the end boards is pro-
front view, 2^^", and leaving say l}î" between jected across from the side view, the front view is
views, we would have 7}4"- Subtracting this

completed.
from the width of the sheet inside the border, 11", The top and side views of the holes, showing their
and dividing this space between top and bottom, we depth, are hidden lines, shown as indicated in the
find that the base line should be drawn about 1%" alphabet of lines, and are projected from the front
view.
from the bottom border line. Adding the length,
When the drawing is finished in pencil it is to be
10", and the width, 4", and allowing an inch
inked. It is shown in finished stage in Fig. 36.
1
Such a feeding stick, with the holes filled with Over-running pencil lines should not be erased
suet is greatly enjoyed by birds in winter. until after the drawing is inked.
of penciling.
11 11 11
Inking. If the ink refuses to flow

it is because it is
Finished drawings are either inked on the dried and clogged extreme point of the
in the
paper or traced on tracing cloth, or some- pen. This clot or obstruction may be re-
times on tracing paper. Straight Unes are moved by touching the pen on the finger or
inked with the ruHng pen, which is filled by by pinching the blades slightly. If it still
refuses to start it should be wiped out and
fresh ink added. The pen should always be
wiped clean after using.
Faulty Lines.
If inked lines appear imperfect in any
way, the reason should be ascertained im-

mediately. Fig. 38 illustrates the char-
acteristic appearance of several kinds of
faulty lines. The correction in each case
will suggest itself.
Fig. 37. — Correct pisition of ruling pen.
touching the quill filler attached to the cork

of the ink bottle, between the nibs of the
pen, being careful not to get any ink on the

outside of the blades. Not more than three-
sixteenths of an inch should be put in or it
Pen pressed agafnst Tscfuare Too hatz/
Fig. 39. — Windmill brake shoe.

Fk/7 s/opec/ away /mm Tsqaare PROBLEM 2.
The next sheet, three views of a windmill brake

Pen foo c/ose fo ec/ê Jnk rar) under shoe, Fig. 39, is an exercise in straight and curved
lines.
Draw the border lines, figure the spacing as was
/nk or? oufsJde of S/ade^ ran urfder done on Sheet 1 and lay out base line, and a vertical
m w— center line for the front view. Evidently the front
view is the one to make first. On the base line of
Pen b/ades nof kepf para//e/ A? Tsquare the front view set off the centers A and B IM" from
the vertical center line. Measure up J^" on the
vertical center line and draw the horizontal line
w r\
—
Tsquare for frianff/ej s/ipped info wet /me
—
n liiwipii iiiiiiiiinin—p—mwwîpîg
I
DE. On this mark the 1" radius for the middle
whose center is at C. Measure up from the
circle,
f/of er?oug/h mk fo f/h'/sh //'ne center C 1^^" and draw the upper horizontal line.
Next draw vertical lines through A and B. With
Fig. 38.— Faulty lines. the radii indicated draw the circle arcs with A, B
and C as centers. The construction for the arcs
will drop out in a blot. After adjusting the from the centers F and G is suggested on the figure.
nibs with the screw to give the correct thick- Complete the measurements for the front view,
then draw top and side views, measuring the widths
ness of line, the pen is held as illustrated in
and projecting the other dimensions from the front
Fig. 37. Keep it in a plane perpendicular
view. Fig. 40 illustrates a partially completed
to the paper and draw the lines with T stage of the drawing, and 41 the finished
Fig.
square and triangle. drawing. Remember as a fundamental rule that
1
circles and circle arcs are always inked before the only by continued and careful practice.
straight lines are inked.
Working drawings are lettered in a rapid
single-stroke style, either vertical or inclined,
Lettering
and usually all capitals. The term "single-
A working drawing requires the addition stroke" or "one stroke" does not mean that
of dimensions, notes on material and finish, the entire letter is made without lifting the
ABCDEFGHIJKLMN
OP0RSTUVWXYZ&
1234567890^ Fig. 42. —Upright single-stroke capitals.
and a title, all of which must be lettered free- pen, but that the width of the stroke of the
hand in a style that is perfectly legible, pen is the width of the stem of the letter.
uniform and capable of rapid execution. So For large sizes in this style,, a comparatively
far as its appearance is concerned, there is no coarse pen such as Hunt's No. 512 or
part of a drawing so important as the letter- Leonard's ball point No. 516 F is used.
Fig. 43. — Position for lettering.
ing. A good drawing may be ruined not Single-stroke Vertical Caps.

only in appearance, but in usefulness by The upright single stroke "commercial
lettering done ignorantly or carelessly, as gothic" letter shown in Fig. 42 is one of the
illegible figures are very apt to cause mistakes standard forms. To practice this letter
in the work. draw a page of guide lines ^fe" apart, hold
The ability to letter well can be acquired the pen in position shown in Fig. 43 and
practice each letter a number of times, Single-stroke Inclined Caps.

following the order and direction of strokes Many draftsmen prefer inclined letters to
given in Fig. 44, and watching the copy vertical letters. They should be practiced
I'll II EEE////\\\\O0
|i iH' L 'F C T N" N' ¥% 'Mf W' A V
W X ¥ Z#0 QCGOUJP
'R0SSB' 3. Z 0'€9 6 7 & Fig. 44. —Order and direction of strokes.
carefully. Letters should then be combined in the same way as explained for vertical
into words, remembering three general rules: letters, but with the addition of slant
1. Keep the letters close together, direction lines drawn lightly in pencil with a
OPQF^S TU VWX YZ&

I234$'67890i: Fig. 45. — Inclined single-stroke capitals.
2. Have
the areas of the white spaces triangle either at 60 degrees or at a slant of
between letters approximately equal (thus 2 to 5, in order to keep the slant uniform,
two would be spaced much
o's closer together. Fig. 45 shows the alphabet with the order
than two n's). and direction of strokes indicated.
Fig. 46. —Single-stroke lower case, showing strokes.
Keep words well separated, leaving a

3. Single-stroke Inclined Lower Case.
In connection with the inclined capitals, a
space between them at least equal to the
height of the letters. standard letter for notes known to engineers
as the Reinhardt letter,is much used. This standardized in form, and examples are
isa very simple, legible and effective style shown in connection with the drawings in
which can be made very rapidly after Chapters IV and V.
its swing has been mastered. The body
letters are made two-thirds the height of Single-stroke Roman.
the capitals. It is shown in analyzed form Fig. 47 shows a single stroke letter based
in Fig. 46. on the Roman, which is appropriate for
ABCDEFGHIJFCLMN
OP aR.5TUVWXYZ&'
12345678901 Fig. 47. —Single-stroke Old Roman.
As soon as the letter forms have been architectural drawings. The addition of
mastered, all the practice should be in com- the terminal cross strokes, called serifs,
position. requires a more time than the straight

little
Never do any lettering without having a Gothic letters, and it will be noted that the
guide line for both tops and bottoms of the shapes vary somewhat from the Gothic.
letters. When well executed, this letter adds much
Donot combine vertical letters and in- to the beauty of an architectural drawing
clined letters on the same drawing. and should be used for such work in prefer-
Titles and bills of material are somewhat ence to the other styles given.
THEORY AND TECHNIQUE -
26
A PAGE OF CAUTIONS
Never use the scale as a ruler.
Never draw with the lower edge of the T-square.
Never cut paper with a knife and the edge of the T-square as a guide.
Never use the T-square as a hammer.
Never put either end of a pencil in the mouth.
Never jab the dividers into the drawing board.
Never oil the joints of compasses.
Never use the dividers as reamers or pincers or picks.

Never take dimensions by setting the dividers on the scale.
Never lay a weight on the T-square to hold it in position.
Never use a blotter on inked lines.
Never screw the nibs of the pen too tight.
Never run backward over a line either with pencil or pen.
Never leave the ink bottle uncorked.
Never hold the pen over the drawing while filling.
Never dilute ink with water. If too thick throw it away. (Ink once frozen is worth-
lessafterward.)
Never try to use the same thumb tack holes when putting paper down the second time.
Never scrub a drawing all over with the eraser after finishing. It takes the life out of
the inked lines.
Never put instruments away without cleaning. This applies with particular force to pens.
Never fold a drawing or tracing.
Never put a writing pen which has been used in ordinary writing ink, into the draw-
ing-ink bottle.
CHAPTER III
WORKING DRAWINGS
The working drawing has
definition of a drawing is, as its name implies, a drawing of
already been stated as being ''a drawing a structure or machine showing the relative
which gives all the information necessary positions of the different parts.
for the complete construction of the object A detail drawing is a drawing of a separate
represented." It is a technical description piece or group of pieces, giving the complete
of a structure or machine which has been description for the making of each piece.
designed for a certain purpose and place, and In a very simple case the assembly drawing
should convey all the facts regarding it so may be made to serve also as the detail
clearly and explicitly that no further in- drawing, by dimensioning it fully.
struction to the builder would be required. Fig. 114 on page 60 illustrates an assem-
The drawing will thus include, (1) the full bly drawing, and Fig. 115, page 61 a detail
graphic representation of the shape of every drawing.
part of the object, (2) figured dimensions of
all the parts, (3) explanatory notes giving
specifications in regard to material, finish,

etc., (4) a descriptive title, and in some cases
a bill of material.
In architectural drawing the notes of ex-
planation and information regarding details
of materials and finish are often too extensive
to be included on the drawings, so are
written separately and are called the speci-
fications.These specifications have equal
importance and weight with the drawings.
The basis of practically all working draw- Fig. 48. — Illustration of a section.
ing is orthographic projection, as explained

in Chapter II. Thus to represent an object Sectional Views.
completely, at least two views would be Often it is not possible to show interior
necessary, often more. The general rule construction clearly by dotted lines on the
would be, make as many views as are exterior view. In such cases a view is
necessary to describe the object, and no drawn as if the object were sawed through
more. and the front removed so as to expose the
interior, as illustrated in Fig. 48. A view
Classes of Working Drawings. of this kind is known as a sectional view, or a
Working drawings are divided into two "section," and the surfaces of the materials
general classes, assembly drawings and detail thus cut are indicated by "section lining" or
drawings. An assembly drawing or general "cross-hatching" with diagonal lines. Two
26
WORKING DRAWINGS 27
adjoining surfaces are sectioned in different Section lines are spaced by eye, and on a
directions. finished drawing are generally put in directly
A line is drawn (line 8 in the alphabet of in ink without penciling.
lines) on the adjacent view to show where the "Turned sections" or revolved sections
section is assumed to be cut, and short are little sectional views drawn on some part
arrows indicate the direction in which the of a figure as if they had been cut and re-
Section of roller bearing.
view is taken. This line is lettered on each volved in place. They show the shape of
end and the section is named to correspond, the cross-section of the object at that place,
"
as Section A B ". (See Fig. 54.) Some- and are often used to good advantage. Ex-
times several sections through different amples are shown in Figs. 49 and 50.
places are required to explain the construc-
tion fully. H/fh
A common practice, which saves space and 'W—mii
labor, is to show one-half a view in section and H <?-/<? »-j
the other half in as in Fig. 116, page 62.
full, Fig. 50. — Revolved sections.
In a sectional view it is not necessary to
cut through everything in the plane of the Auxiliary Views.
section. For example, bolts, nuts, shafts, Sometimes when it is necessary to show
etc., show to better advantage if left in full. some feature on an inclined face of an object,
Fig. 49 illustrates the method of showing a it can be done to better advantage by making
section containing shafts, bearings and bolts, what is known as an auxiliary view, which
all of which are drawn in full. may be thought of as simply a projection
looking straight against the incHned surface, sixteenths, which is used both for full size,
as illustrated in Fig. 50. Evidently the and also for half size (scale of 6 inches = 1
width of this auxiliary view would be the foot), by considering the divisions on the
"
true width of the object, as indicated by W" scale to have double values.
on the and its length is
figure, of course If the object is too large to be dsawn half
shown in edge on the front view. Thus to size, the drawing is made to the scale of 3
draw an auxiliary view we would firstdraw inches to the foot, often called quarter size,
a center line for it, parallel to the inclined that is, a length of 3 inches on the drawing
is equal to one foot on the object. On this
scale the distance of 3 inches is divided into
twelve equal parts and each of these sub-
divided into eighths. This distance should
be thought of not as 3 inches but as a foot,
divided into inches and eighths of inches.
Notice that the divided foot has the zero
on the inside, with the inches running from
itone way, and the feet numbered tKe other
way, so that dimensions given in feet and
inches may be measured directly, as illus-
trated in Fig. 52. On the other end of the
Fig. 51. —An auxiliary view. 3 inch scale will be found the scale of 13^
inches = 1 foot. Other scales used are 1
face, then project the lengths across perpen- inch = 1 foot, %, inch = 1 foot, % inch
dicular to this center line from the inclined = 1 foot, 3^^ inch = 1 foot, ^g inch = 1',
face, and would measure the width each and }/^ inch = 1 foot. The scale of }/i inch
way from the center Thus the width
line. = 1 foot is the usual one for ordinary
of the auxiliary view would be the same as house plans. For very large buildings the
the width of the top view of the object, scale of 3^^ inch = 1 foot is used. Fig. 53
although in many cases, as in the example illustrates the scale in position for measuring
given, a top view is not needed, and therefore the length 7 feet 5 inches.
not drawn. The scale and its divisions should be
1" 1
WORKING DRAWINGS 29
Dimensioning. alphabet of lines, and the exact points
After the correct representation of the between which the distance is measured are
object by its projections, the entire value of indicated by arrow heads on the ends of the
the drawing as a working drawing lies in the line, short extension lines being drawn from
dimensioiiing. This placing of the figured the object if the dimension line is on the
dimensions must be done with careful outside.
thought of the purpose of the drawing, All the and dimension lines
extension
should be drawn before any figures are
added.
Dimensions always indicate the finished
size of the piece.
Dimensions should read from the bottom
and right side of the sheet, no matter what
part of the sheet they are on.
Feet and inches are indicated thus 5'-6".
Where there are no inches it should be
Fig. 53. — Measuring with scale (7 ft. 5 in.) written 5'-0", 5'-0>^".
Fractions should be made with a hori-
getting the figures necessaryand most con-
zontal line as 2|".
venient for the workman who is to work
The diameter of a circle should be given,
from it. To make the best drawing the
not the radius.
draftsman should be familiar with the various
Dimensions should generally be placed
processes of construction and shop methods
between views.
which enter into the building of the object
In general do not repeat dimensions on
represented.
adjacent views.
General Rules for Dimensioning. Always give an over-all dimension. Never
Dimension figures are placed in a space require the workman to add or subtract
left in the dimension line, as shown in the figures.
Dimensioning.
Never use any center line as a dimension Several examples are shown in Chapter IV.
line. For a large structure, as a barn for example,
Never put a dimension on a line of the the bill of material is too extensive to be put
drawing. on the drawings, so is written separately.
A dimension not agreeing with the scaled
distance, should be heavily underscored as Checking.
in Fig. 54. Before being sent out for use, a working
Fig. 54 should be observed carefully, drawing should be checked for errors and
noting the shape of the arrow heads, and the omissions, if possible by some one other than
method of showing dimensions in special the man who made it. In doing this the
cases. The figure also illustrates the use of system below should be followed, taking the
the symbol "f" to indicate that a metal divisions through one at a time.
CAST IRON BABBITT

WHITE METAL)
BRASS CAST STEEL WffOUGHT IRON
(metal in general) (Ofi (or compositjon)
WOOD LIQUID
( C/f055 SECTION]
Fig. 55. —Symbols for materials in section.
surface is to be "finished" or machined, and First, put yourself in the place of the one
the placing of the check mark. who is towork from the drawing, and see if
Do not he afraid to put notes on drawings. it iseasy to read.
Supplement the graphic language by the Second, see that each piece is correctly
English language whenever added infor- illustrated.
mation can be conveyed, but be careful to Third, check all dimensions by scaling,
word it so clearly that the meaning cannot and also by calculation where necessary.
possibly be misunderstood. As each dimension is verified, put a check
The title to a working drawing is usually mark (y/) in pencil above it.
boxed in the lower right hand corner, and Fourth, see that all specifications for
its contents will vary according to the kind of material are correctly given.
drawing. In general it should contain the Fifth, see that stock sizes of materials
name of the structure, name of manufacturer have been used as far as possible.
or owner, date, scale, and drafting record Sixth, add any explanatory notes that will
including number, initials or name of drafts- vncrease the efficiency of the drawing.
man, tracer, checker, etc. Various titles are
shown in Chapter IV. Conventional Symbols

The bill of material is a tabulated form on In technical drawing there are certain
the drawing giving the name, number signs %^d simplified outlines called ''con-
wanted, size and material of each piece. ventions" which are adopted and recognized
WORKING DRAWINGS 31
as standing for materials or commonly used than to depend on a symbol. The drawing
constructions. Screw threads and gear is easier to read however if
generally recog-
wheels for example are not drawn in their nized sections are used for the commoner
actual outline but are shown conventionally. materials. Fig. 55 shows some of the con-
Other conventions are used for electrical ventional section lining symbols, and Fig.
56 a number of conventional breaks and
other symbols. Symbols used in building
construction are shown in Fig. 96, page 48.
A long object of uniform section may be
shown to larger scale and thus to better ad-
vantage by drawing it as if a piece were
SQUARE SECTION broken out of the middle and the ends
pushed up together, indicating the break by
the symbols of Fig. 56 or by the "limiting
break line" (line 10 of the alphabet of lines),
ROUND SECTION and giving the over-all dimension. Fig. 126,
page 74, an example of this principle
is
If. applied to the drawing of a building.

ROUND SECTION
Fastenings.
In every working drawing will occur the
necessity of representing the methods of
fastening together.
parts Fastenings are
PIPE OR TUBING either permanent, as rivets and nails, or
removable, as bolts, screws, keys and pins.
In drawing ordinary wooden structures the
nails are not shown, unless there is some
special reason for their location or number.

WOOD (square SECTION) Other fastenings, such as rivets, bolts, etc.,
are indicated by conventional symbols.
I BEAM Bolts and Screws.
] J
ANGLE IRON
Bolts and screws are used for fastening
parts together, for adjusting, and for trans-
mitting power or motion. There are many
^-^ CHAIN different forms of bolts, and several different
kinds of threads, for these different purposes.
ROPE OR CABLE In drawing, we should know the conven-
Fig. 56. -Conventional breaks and symbols. tional method of representing the ordinary
types used.
wiring and apparatus, for sections of con- The usual form of screw thread is the U. S.
crete, wood, etc., and for topography. Such Standard, a V thread at 60 degrees, with the
of these as may be useful in agricultural tip flattened and the root filled in. Among
drawing have been given in various places in other forms are the sharp V, the square
this book. thread and the buttress thread. Fig. 57.
In specifying materials it is much safer When not otherwise specified, the U. S.
to add the name of the material as a note Standard is always understood as required.
In ordinary drawing, threads are not and the only dimensions required are the
drawn form but are indicated con-
in actual diameter, the length (under the head) and
ventionally. Fig. 58 shows several methods the amount of thread, Fig. 59. In drawing
used. That shown in A is the simplest and a hex. head three faces are shown, and in
best. It is not necessary to have the lines a square head, one face. Figs. 60 and 61 are
full size %" bolts, given to show the pro-
portions and method of drawing a hex. head

and a square head bolt and nut, with the con-
struction of the chamfer finish.
Fig. 62 illustrates a number of common
forms of screw fastenings.
'
l/.S. STANDARD SHARP V
Pipes.
Pipe threads are cut on a taper, which is
usually exaggerated slightly in drawing.

Pipe is designated by the nominal inside
diameter, which differs slightly from the
actual diameter, so that in drawing pipe we
should know the outside diameter, and in
SQUARE know
BUTTRESS figuring sizes needed, we should the
Fig. 57. —Some forms of threads. actual inside diameters or areas. The fol-
lowing table gives these sizes.
ABC Fig. 58. —Conventional threads.
Fig. 59. — Dimensioned bolt.
spaced exactly to the pitch, or distance apart,

of the actual threads, but to look well they
should somewhat approximate it.
To Dtaw a Bolt.
There are adopted standards for standard
hexagonal and square head bolts and nuts,
hence in drawing, one view only is necessary,
WORKING DRAWINGS 33
D= DiANi, OF BOLT
Fig. 60. —Construction of hexagonal head bolt.
D = DIAM. OF BOLT.
3 = /i D ^s'
k=l4l4S
Fig. 61. — Construction of square head bolt.

our limited space we can only suggest the To develop a Cylinder. Fig. 66.
fundamentals of this branch of working In rolling a cylinder out, the base will
drawings. develop into a straight line, called the
The pattern for a cylinder would evidently "stretchout line." Divide the base into a
be a rectangle, whose width would be the number of equalparts. Project these points
length of the cylinder and whose length as elements on the front view. Draw the
would be equal to the circumference, Fig. 64, stretchout line and step off the divisions of
CARRIAGE BOLT
Straight «aO!XV^_=iI
riot Round
EYE BOLT Fillister
PLOW BOLT MACHINE SCREWS Round cocoKZ^fj)
mM>
LAG SCREW
i
HANGER BOLT
Bent ^«««-'=^)
EXPANSION BOLT SCREW HOOKS
^
o
^^ W^® ^^'^
CAP SCREW
(c^ TURN BUCKLES

(
^,^ (D
STUD
© Button Head Pan "Head
RIVET
El ^^^>
DRIVE SCREW
M
1/
tl:-t-ti--r\:î:>
WOOD SCREWS ^^^^^^^.
Sq.
^
Head
\7
Headlesa Safety
SET SCREWS
5 tee I Cast Iron

WAGON BOX BOLT WASHERS
Fig. 62. —Various bolts and screws.
and the pattern for a cone would be a sector, the base on it. Through these points draw
with a radius equal to the slant height and the elements and project their lengths across
an arc equal in length to the circumference in order from the front view. Connect
of the base. Fig. 65. these points by a smooth curve.
In the development of any object we
must first have its projections, and in prac- jTo developa Truncated Cone. Fig. 67.
tical applications must allow for seams and Divide the base as before. Draw the
lap. stretchout line with a radius equal to the
WORKING DRAWINGS 35
5« ^T*
Fig. 63. —Pipe fittings, as drawn in small scale and large scale.
slant height of the completed cone, O'A'. on EA. Complete the pyramid, finding the
Step off the divisions of the base on the apex O.Since the edge EA is not shown in
stretchout line as shown and connect the its true length on the front view, it must be
two end points with the center 0' Then . revolved about the axis of the pyramid until
draw the arc for the small end with the radius it is parallel to the vertical plane, by swing-
O'B'. ing the top view of the line from OA to OA"
Fig. 65.
Fig. 64.
To
and projecting the point A" down to A^
develop a Prism.
68 illustrates the of the Project E
across to the line O'A', then E'A.'
Fig. development
will be true length of the edge EA. (The
surface of a square prism with a sloping top,
pyramid may be imagined to be slipped in-
with the seam at the corner EA. The con-
side of a cone having the same slant as the
struction is evident from the figure.
edges of the pyramid, and O'A' will be the
To develop a Pyramid. true length of an element of this cone.)
Fig. 69 shows the method of developing With O'A' as a radius, draw an arc as in the
a truncated square pyramid with the seam development of the cone and on this step off
''I
WORKING DRAWINGS 37
GC FB
£>C A3 A 3 C
Fig. 68. — Development of a prism.
Fi«. 69. — Development of a pyramid.

the four edges of the base of the pyramid ting any figures in; fifth, measure the object
.
ABCD. Connect the points ABCDA with and put the dimensions on the sketch; sixth,
O giving the folding edges. Find the devel- check for errors and omissions; seventh, date
opment of the upper end by drawing an arc and sign the sketch.
with the radius 0'£". Sometimes it requires considerable ingenu-
ity to get accurate measurements. A two
Method of Working foot rule and calipers would be required for
In making a working drawing, after the castings and small objects, and a steel tape
scheming and inventing has been done in for larger structures. A
plumb line is often
freehand sketches, the order of procedure of service, and other devices will suggest
in penciling should be about as follows: themselves as the occasion demands.
first, lay off the sheet with border line, and The commonest fault in sketching is the
block out space for the title; second, plan overlooking of some important dimension
the sheet, deciding upon the number and ar- whose omission is discovered as soon as the
rangement of views, always selecting as large working drawing to scale is started.
a scale as possible; third, draw center lines
for each view and lay off the principal dimen-
PROBLEMS
sions; fourth, complete the projections; fifth, In application of the principles of this
draw the dimension lines, and put in the chapter, selections from the following prob-
dimensions; sixth, lay out the title; seventh, lems are to be made, and the complete
check the drawing carefully. working drawings with all necessary dimen-
sions, notes, and title are to be drawn.
Order of Inking. Use a standard sized sheet (either 12" X
First, ink all circles, then circle arcs; sec- 18" or 18" X 24"), and follow the method
ond, ink the straight lines in the order
— of working as outlined on the previous
horizontal, vertical, inclined; third, ink cen- page, selecting suitable scale, deciding upon
ter lines, extension and dimension lines; the views necessary, and making prelimin-
fourth, ink the dimensions; fifth, section line ary sketch plan for the sheet. The draw-
cut surfaces sixth, ink notes, title and border
; ings may be inked, or preferably traced on
line; seventh, check the tracing. tracing cloth for blue printing. Some of
the problems have complete data and di-
Sketching from the Object. mensions given, others are intended to be
In our previous consideration of freehand designed by the student.
sketching from pictorial views (page 9), Be particularly careful to follow the
we were concerned with the projections only. rules for dimensioning.
In connection with working drawings, it is
often necessary to make a dimensioned Problems
1. Make the working drawing of a box for fence
sketch from the object itself, as for example,
in the case of a broken piece of machinery. repair kit, from the sketch, Fig. 70. (Of course the
words "hammer," etc., will not appear on the
The procedure would be somewhat in the
drawing.)
order indicated. First, study the object and Working drawing of germinating or corn testing
2.
determine the necessary views; second, box, from the sketch, Fig. 71. The bottom is
sketch center observe the proportions rabbeted so as to be water tight, and the saw cuts
lines,
are to hold cords for
making divisions.
and block in principal parts of the outline;
Working drawing of heavy clevis, Fig.
3. 72.
third, finish the projections; fourth, draw all Specify wrought iron or mild steel.
dimension lines and arrow-heads, before put- 4. Working drawing of sheep feeding rack, Fig.
WORKING DRAWINGS 39
73. Decide length wanted and space sills not more

than six feet apart.
5. Working drawing of sheep feeding rack using
alternate form shown in Fig. 74. This has larger
capacity than Fig. 73, and the flaring boards pre-
vent dirt from getting into the wool on the sheep's
neck.
6. Working drawing of milk stool, Fig. 75.
Fig. 70.— Toolbox.
5<7»v Cuf3 I
'Osep / MATER tAL
Fig. 72.— Clevis.
7. Working drawing of sack holder, Fig. 76. A

mortised wood brace may be substituted for the
wrought iron brace. The hooks may be made of
finishing nails.
gang mold for test pieces,
Fig, 71. — Corn tester.
8.
Fig. 77.
Working drawing
This
of
ttiold is for making standard IJ^" X
IJ^" X 6" test specimens used in the rough determi-
FiG. 73. —Sheep rack.

nation of the breaking strength of cement. Detail

such parts as are necessary for showing construction.
9. Working drawing of forms for concrete hog
trough, Fig. 78 (the trough is cast inverted).

10. Working drawing of plank road drag, Fig.
79. Use conventional symbol in showing a %"
chain 7 ft. long, attached to hooks.
Fig. 74. —Sheep rack.

-
11. Working drawing of split log drag, using
same dimensions as in Problem 10.
12. Working drawing of low-down silo rack. Fig.
80. The wrought iron end plates are }i" stock
with 13^" hole and fastened with %" bolts. The
rack is swung under the axles of a wagon from which
^s'U-
FiG. 75.— Milk stool.
the bed and reach have been removed. The bed

pieces are hung to the rear axle by clip irons.
13. Working drawing of stone boat. Fig. 81,
using auxiliary projection for nose.
14. Working drawing of boot jack. Fig. 82 (side iVHITE: PINE . APPLy A MIXTUPE OP
view and auxiliary projection are the only views £:quau PAPrs bo/lco i.//\/5£:£:o o/i.
AND HEPOS£:/V£
needed). Fig. 77. —Gang mold.
WORKING DRAWINGS 41
Fig. 78. —Form for concrete trough.
Fig. 79. —Road drag.

15. Working drawing of fly wheel, Fig. 83 (front 19. Working drawing of ice box. Fig. 87. This
view and section). design is called the Rochester cold box, and is
easily built and very efficient.
20. Working drawing of farm gate, Fig. 88.
Length may be varied if desired.
21. Working drawing of farm gate of your own
design. Suggestions of different forms may be
had from Fig. 133, page 81.
22. Working drawing of grindstone and frame,
Fig. 89, making assembly and detail drawings.
23. Working drawing of sheave, Fig. 90. Show
right half of side view in section.
24. Working drawing of cattle breeding crate.
Fig. 80.—Silo rack.
Fig. 91, including bill of material.
16. Working drawing of flanged roller, Fig. 84 25. Working drawing of fly trap, Fig. 92. The
(front view and section). bait holders d are can lids.
17. Working drawing of home made muffler for 26. Develop patterns for three piece elbow, Fig. 93.
0££CH
Fig. 81. —Stone boat.

gas engine. Fig. 85 (for dimension of pipe, see 27. Develop pattern for conical reflector. Fig. 94.
table of pipe sizes). 28. Develop pattern for hexagonal lamp shade,
18. Working drawing of road, or community Fig. 94.
29. Develop pattern for funnel. Fig. 95.
30. Develop patterns for sheet metal hopper,
Fig. 95.
Models may be made of problems 26 to 30 by
cutting the patterns out of paper and rolling or
forming them up and pasting. If this is done,
allowance must be made for lap.
31. Make a working drawing of a hay rack. The
two bed or body pieces are to be 2" X 8" hard pine
sixteen feet long set on edge. Across these place on
Fig. 82.—Boot jack.
edge five 2" X 6" pieces seven feet long for narrow
bulletin board. Fig. 86. This drawing may be rack, or eight feet for wide rack. Floor the whole
fully completed by adding in upright Gothic with 1" material. For securing the cross pieces to
letters, the lettering to be painted on the board. the bed, use clip irons as shown in Fig. 20 (M and
WORKING DRAWINGS 43
N) page 12. The bed pieces should be placed so as forty-two inches long at each end of every cross-
to overhang the front bolster eighteen inches, and piece, securing them with bolts or irons. To these
should be twenty-four inches apart in front to allow fasten three fence boards lengthwise and spaced
a wide turning radius for the front wheels, and evenly up and down. On the end standards nail
flare back to full width, forty-two inches, at the similar boards and secure the corners with large
rear bolster. The front should be provided with a hasps and staples.
Fig. 84. —Flanged roller.
Fig. 83.— Flywheel. 33. Make a working drawing of a gate post mold
for 12" X 12" X 8'-0" concrete post. The post
false bolster to prevent shifting from side to side. to be reinforced by four %" rods wired at each foot
A standard, made of 2" X 4" pieces six feet long of length.
willbe required. 34. Working drawing of gang mold for fence
32. Design a basket rack. A simple basket rack posts seven feet long with 4X4
top and 4X6
may be made as follows. On the hay rack described bottom, posts to be reinforced with four }^" rods.
in Prob. 31, erect 2" X 4" pieces thirty-eight to Rods not to be closer than 1" to outside.
Fyange for 3 "Sfoneford /t?/p<s

y' Sfo/7c/ard P'/pe
/d f/pe ^
Fig. 85.— Muffler.

36. Design a work bench 34" high, using the farm where the water is piped from a well to a
following material
— sink in the kitchen; from the well to a tank in the
barn yard, and off this line three outlets, one to
Top 2 pes. 1 X 14 X 8'- 0"
horse stable, one to hog house and one to dairy
Aprons 2 pes. 1 X 12 X 8'- 0"
house. The house supply pipe is 1", that to tank
Cross Boards. . 4 pes. 1 X 12 X 2'- 2"
4 X 4X2'- 9" 2"; all others J^" pipe. Note on drawing and
Legs pes. 2
make of all necessary fittings.
Cross Ties 2 pes. IX 4X2'- 2" list
Wood vise screw 8" from top.
ni.
!\
/<<? tVHITC
fWCMATCHCD
AND O/tESSED
/1*AMTEP/AL
AND
SIDeS. £ND5
LOCUST OR BOTTO/iÔf /NSIDE Of
CHCsrNur WOODEN BOX UNCO WITH
HOLE J'-O'OCCP 'WIR£ FLY SCHEEN. <^
SPACSr AROUND ZINC TANtA ZINC TANH

TO B£ riLLEO AND "<, 23"i.ON6
G/fAD£ 'v
PACtêO TIGHT IVITH FINE IS^'t^lOE
WOOD SHfi\//NGS. IS "0£EP
Fig. 86.— Bulletin board. Fig. 87. —Ice box.

36. Design a pipe railing for the approach to a 38. Design a cold frame, using 34" X 52" sash.
bank barn —use 1}4," pip^ and the following 39. Design a suitable wood box for firewood.
fittings: cross, tee, 90° ell, flange. Box to be of neat design to match woodwork in
37. Design a layout of the water piping for a kitchen. A sloping, hinged lid should be provided.
I2-0'
Fig. 88. —Farm gate.

WORKING DRAWINGS 45
MoAe / ffigh/-
" /. Leff
BEARING, C. /. V
<0^"^ -^ ^^tn^^t.^fclj^'"^^^^^'^^ "^"^
L^ A^ .^ SHAFT. 3T£:£:l
3T£:£L.
Fig. 89. —Grindstone frame details.
Fig. 90.—Sheave. Fig. 91. —Cattle breeding crate.

40. Design and draw a trap nest. The Connect!- chest. The two till chest shown in Fig. 180, page
cut trap nest is illustrated in Fig. 2, page 2. Nest 110, may
serve for suggestion.
should be at least 12" square in the clear. Additional working drawing problems may be
Fig. 93. — Three-piece elbow.
r^H
Fig. 94. —Reflector and lamp shade.
Fig. 92. —Homemade fly trap. Fig. 95. —Funnel and hopper.
41. Design a wash bench 16" high, 3 ft. long, made from Figs. 160 to 181 in Chapter VI, and may
with wringer board in the middle. be suggested by other illustrations throughout the
42. Design and make working drawing of a tool book.
CHAPTER IV
FARM STRUCTURES
Under the head of farm structures would drawings is comparatively simple, as they
properly be included any structural work are made up principally of straight lines.
built for confining, enclosing or covering After one is familiar with the instruments
animals, machinery, or materials, and of and the theory of working drawings, all
course including dwellings. Thus fences, that is needed in making drawings of struc-
paddocks, pens, gates, etc., would be called tures is a facility in the use of the scale
confining structures, while enclosing and and a knowledge of the conventional symbols
covering structures would include houses, used in representing different materials

barns,and sheds, together with any building and different parts. The drawing of larger
work which would improve them or make structures must be done to such small scale
them more efficient; for example, a manure that the details of these parts can not be
pit and a silo would add to the eflEiciency shown but are only indicated by standard
ofa dairy barn. signs. Their construction is shown by de-
In this chapter we are to consider the taildrawings to larger scale, which are usu-
methods of designing and drawing these ally grouped on separate sheets.
structures.
Designing is simply suiting form to Symbols.
function. Thus in the design of any struc- On page 30 the use of conventional
ture we must first consider the reasons symbols was explained, and examples used
and uses for it, following mentally in detail in working drawings were illustrated. In
all through the operations which will be structural drawing we need to know the
performed in it, and making it to such form conventional symbols for doors, windows,
that it will serve its full purpose to the best etc.,as well as the symbols for sections of
advantage possible, and be practical and different materials. Fig. 96 gives a number
economical both in construction and opera- of these symbols, whose application will
tion. After the general design has been be needed in reading the drawings following,
thought out, the drawing of it is the ap- and in drawing the problems given.
plication of the principles of the language
which we have been studying. Training in Plans.
this systematic process of reasoning, and in As mentioned in Chapter II the terms
the ability to think on paper is of particu- plan and front, side or end elevation are used
lar value to the farmer. It gives him the instead of top view, front view and side
power to plan for improvements, to esti- view. The plan of a building is really a
mate costs, and to read intelligently plans horizontal section as the building were cut
if
presented to him'. through at the height of the windows and

The actual execution of these structural the top lifted off. This cutting plane may be
47
RiZ&BLE J-TONE IM JECTION CUT JTONE IM JECTION
^^^^ I
ROUGH LUMBER^ lli JECTION
wmummmm
FIMI5HED LUMBER- IN JECTION
—n—V n—^ II V r
r
'yv. ^
^ =?
-/y II
Y \T^ 11 —
i\f^
VW -/yv—
BR.ICIC m ELEVATIOJi. Large Scale. BR.ICIC1N ELEVATION, 5maII Scale
"^•.•.-
•'
: '••; ; ••; :: : •/. •:'.• : :••:•:.•: : '.•:.'f
?
-îi
—
FRAME WALL IN JECTION
WMMmm
^^Y« " = '"1^1111//// v^^^^
W ~'%
EARTH IN JECTIOIi
FARM STRUCTURES 49
assumed to vary in height at different points ''wall section" should always first be laid
show the parts of the plan to the
in order to off at one side, in order to determine the
best advantage- This is illustrated in Fig. heights of windows from the floor, heights
97 where it passes through the fireplace, and these points
of floors, cornice lines, etc.,
then through a high window. projected across to the elevation. This
Plans of houses and larger buildings are wall section is often left on the finished
usually drawn to the scale of ]/i"

= 1 ft. drawing, to show heights, and cornice
(sometimes written \" = 4 ft.), and gen- construction.
erally one view only is placed on a sheet.
Drawings of smaller structures may be made Sections.
to 3^^" or even 1" scale, and all the views Vertical sections are often necessary to
shown on one sheet. show interior construction, such as framing,
Fig. 97. — Pictorial illustration of a "plan."
In planning a new building the thinking stairways, trusses and other details. Nu-
and scheming should be done with the aid merous examples of vertical sections are
of rough freehand sketches, using single given in this chapter. The terms "longi-
lines for the walls, before a scale drawing tudinal section" and "transverse" or "cross
is started. Cross section paper is often used section" are sometimes used to indicate
in sketching, to aid in getting correct pro- that the section is taken lengthwise or
portions. No drawing should be finished crosswise.
in ink until all the sheets are complete in
pencil, as often a change on one view will Dimensions.
necessitate changing several others. As in other working drawings, dimensions
and notes are most important. The rules
Elevations. for dimensioning given on page 29 should
An elevation is a front or side view of a be applied, and the needs of the builder
building, showing the exterior appearance, always kept in mind. Thus dimensions
and is of use in indicating the location of should always be given to and from acces-
windows and doors, glass sizes, heights of sible points so that they may be laid off
floors, etc. In drawing an elevation, a accurately and without computation.

Dimensions for building work should the available wood best suited to the par-
be given in even feet and inches, avoiding ticular purpose. If used for carrying load
fractions of inches as far as possible, except or stress, the sizes needed in the wood
as they may be necessary in details. selected must be figured for safe load. The
Commercial and stock sizes should be used table of comparative strength of timbers
as far as possible on account of economy. and the loads they will carry given on page
For example, a piece of glass 1" X 10" 114, will be of use in these computations.
costs more than one 8" X 10" because A list of the kinds of wood used for differ-
the latter is a stock size while the former ent purposes, somewhat in the order of
has to be cut to order. Some tables of their desirability and availability, is given
commercial sizes for reference will be on page 113.
found on page 112. In making a drawing for a framed struc-
tureit is necessary to show clearly the method
Plan of the Chapter. of construction. The sizes and lengths of

In the plan of this chapter, a short dis- timbers must be given in order that the
cussion of different building materials and quantities may be taken off, and to prevent
their uses, and of general methods of pre- the cutting up of special timbers in places
paring be followed by a dis-
drawings, will where shorter lengths have been designed.
cussion and illustration of each of several The kinds of joints intended must be
typical farm structures, representing modern shown, and if necessary supplemented by

practice in design and construction; the details.
first one giving complete plans, si>ecifica- In large construction, such as barn fram-
tions, bill of material, and estimate, as an ing, there are two general systems, the
example to be followed. The application braced, frame, made of heavy
pin-joint
of the principles explained is to be made in timbers, and the plank frame, made up
the problems given at the end of the chapter. of two inch planking, either in the form of
Many variations of the problems as stated, the "plank truss" or the "balloon frame."
will suggest themselves to the student, and In the structures which follow, these
it ishoped that the varied selection of ex- different methods of framing are illustrated.
amples and the description of requirements The braced frame isshown in the horse
and present practice will enable him to adapt barn, Fig. 116, the plank truss in Fig. 114,
the principles and make dependable working and the "balloon frame" in Figs. 117 and
drawings of any ordinary structure needed. 127.
The timber frame is the older type and is
Wood Construction. very substantial and reliable. It isused in

By far the greatest number of farm struc- localities where large squared timber of
tures are at present built of wood. The good quality and sufficient length is readily
wood used is largely from local timber, but available. The plank frame is adapted
itsgradual diminution in many sections, is to sections where timber is purchased or
leading to the use of southern and western must be hauled long distances.
lumber. Regarding the advantages and disad-
"Wood is classifieda general way com-
in vantages of the two systems, workmerl
mercially, as hard wood and soft wood, hard through the country are more famihar with
wood being from deciduous trees, and soft timber framing. Often they are not at all
wood from cone-bearing trees. The de- familiar with plank frame construction. In-
signer will select, and specify on the drawing, stances of collapse are numerous, due to
FARM STRUCTURES 51
faulty workmanship and lack of information the time saved in cutting out and erection.
regarding plank frame requirements. Also fewer men are required for raising.
The advantages of the plank frame are While it is comparatively simple to obtain
FishPlai-e
Splice
Gained Joint IHalvec/ Joint daIloon Frame Plale

Fig. 98. —Joints and framing details.
BROK.EIi GABLE R.OOF &AnBREL OB.CUP.B RDOF MANiAILD R.OOF
Fig. 99. — Forms of roofs.
that it is constructed at some saving in mow space partially free from timbers in
timber (perhaps 10% of complete cost of pin-joint construction, it is possible to get
barn). A greater advantage in cost is in a mow practically free from obstruction with
the plank frame, or the self-supporting roof of the rise to the span,thus when the height
of the balloon frame. of the ridge one-half the span the slope,
is
In deciding upon the kind of framing to evidently 45°, is called "one-half pitch."
be used these advantages and disadvantages
must be weighed and local conditions taken
into account.
Roof
Sheafhin^-
Fig. 100. — Comparative diagram of roof shapes.
In smaller structures the stresses from

loads and wind pressure are not so large a
factor, and the framing becomes a much
simpler problem tiian that of the barn.
A few examples of the more common
*
Tm
rDrick
^'>Horizon^d Bridge
Fig. 101. — Fire-stopping and rat-proofing.

Fig. 102. — Detail of frame construction.
joints and details of construction used in
framing are illustrated in Fig. 98. Fig. 100 is a diagram showing the com-
Fig. 99 shows some, of the 'different forms parative mow capacity of a 3^ pitch and 3^
of roofs used. The pitch, or slope of a pitch gable roof, and a gambrel (or curb)
gable roof as usually spoken of, is the ratio roof of the- same span.
FARM STRUCTURES 53
structures is occasioning a steadily increasing

Fig. 101 illustrates details of fire-stopping
and rat proofing, which are important con- use of concrete as a building material. It is
siderations in plank frame construction, par- a material practically indestructible, and with
ticularly so in granaries and residences. good design and careful supervision makes a
If not already familiar with them, the most desirable and easily erected structure.
student should learn the builder's names of Concrete is made by mixing cement, sand,
the various pieces used in building, as joists. and gravel or crushed stone in proportions
to suit various classes of work. It is put in
place by pouring or tamping it into pre-

viously prepared forms or molds.
Oê
Portland cement as manufactured by the
I leading companies, is a reliable material,
P Ffat
Ship Lap Bmêf Cribbing

Batfmns
four" Type s'Orop Siding 3er0/ Siding, although for important engineering struc-
Fig. 103. — Forms of siding,
tures every shipment is tested. Poor stor-
age, that is storage in damp places, will
studs, sills, girders, ribbons, plates and injure the best of cements. It is thus well
rafters. These names are given on Figs. to examine it to be sure that no lumps are
102 and 115 and are used throughout the present. If lumpy cement must be used, throw
chapter. ,
out all lumps, not easily crushed with the
The frame of a wooden structure is en- fingers.
closed by covering it in various ways, by Sand should be free from vegetable and
siding or weather-boarding. Different forms earthy matter, although a small percentage

of weather boarding are shown in Fig. 103. of clay is not injurious. In general it should
i ffoM/hd Reinforcement -
^^rv-'!.;-.'.;?;iv^.'J:«^>-y,^:A/ : a;
:
2' Coupling ;•
Clinton Wine Cloth Reinforcement

1
This tank has a capacity
of 2 barrels for each foof
^ Xinder Fills"
This cfi'mension isgowrned by
yJ. the character of the soil.
in lengthy when maile the
ttidth shoirn.
p'Orai or (jrareJ Fill

\?:\^.''''g'Cind^r
Fig. 104. —Concrete water tank.

Concrete. be rather coarse, or a mixture of fine and
The growing scarcity of timber and the coarse particles. Gravel and crushed stone
increasing demand for fireproof and sanitary should be fairly clean and varied in size.
When concrete is used in beams, tall posts, work has gone entirely out of vogue, being
unsupported floor slabs, or walls sustaining replaced by rougher texture face bricks of a
pressures, it has to be reinforced with steel or
iron rods, wires or wire netting. The advice
of a competent engineer should be sought
for such structures. Concrete is an ex-
cellent material when properly used, but
the large number of failures recorded shows
that one can not be too careful in mixing and
applying it.
1 5^^»SaT?«5
The
table given on page 115 will serve as
a guide as to the proportions to be used in
^^m ^^^M '^^Mm- ^^^^m
*S&>v3î^*55KSI' •4'J«<'i?Vij^^'-'5cSv(nfi<&4Sfi^^^^ &'ft^S^SS§^^
the various forms of construction, and also Fig. 105. —American bond.
the amounts of cement, sand and stone in
each cubic yard. great variety of surfaces and colors, giving
Two distinct things must be considered much more artistic and beautiful effects.
in concrete the The prospective builder expecting to use

drawing structures, first,
representation of the structure itself, and

second the construction of the forms. This
gSi
latter is often a separate problem as the
1
forms must be designed so as to be set up

practically and economically, and be strong
enough to support the weight of the con-
crete until it sets. Thus the drawings for
concrete structures are somewhat different
^^§
^^^B
from those of any other kind.
The section of a water tank shown in
Fig. 106.— Flemish bond.
Fig. 104 is an example. Notice the use of
the symbol for concrete in this and the fol-
brick, will inform himself in regard to the
lowing figures. kinds available in his section, and the prices
of common brick and face brick. In draw-
Brick.
One of the oldest known building ma-
terials, brick has had and will continue to
maintain a preeminent place for durability
and beauty. It is used throughout the entire
country, but more extensively in sections
where brick works are located, as the cost
of transportation greatly increases the ex-
^^^^^ ^^Sii^ ^^^^^ Siiî^
pense of the material.
In the last few years there has been a
great advance made in the quality and tex- Fig. 107.—English bond.
ture, or appearance, of face brick and there
is more beautiful brick work now being ing brick structures there are several points
built than Incidentally, the
ever before. with which he should be familiar. The
smooth pressed brick formerly used for fine symbols for brick in section and elevation
FARM STRUCTURES 55
are shown in Fig. 96. The sizes of brick English cross bond, Fig. 108. These form
vary considerably in different locaUties and pleasing variations from the American bond
for different kinds, an average size is 2K but cost a little more for laying. Where
X 4 X 8. For careful designing he should resistanceto heat is necessary, fire brick
should be used.
Stone.
Stone is not so generally common as a wall
building material, except com-
in certain
paratively small sections where local stone
is plentiful, and even for foundations it is
being largely replaced by concrete. Some-

^S '^^^B ^^^S S^^S MS: times it is used for picturesque effect, field
stones often being used for the purpose.
Fig. 108.— Dutch bond. Stone sills and caps are in general use,
and should be dimensioned to come out
know accurately the size of brick to be used.
even with the brick courses.
Brick walls are drawn 8" and 12" thick, or
Stone walls are from 16" to 24" in thick-
as they are usually termed, 9" wall and
ness. Fig. 96 shows the symbols used for
13" wall. Face brick are laid usually in
stone in section and elevation, and Fig. 109
illustrates different forms of laying up.
Fig, 109. — Random and coursed rubble. Fig. 1 10. —Stucco on hollow tile.
common or American bond, as illustrated Stucco.

in Fig. 105. Other forms are Flemish Stucco is a mixture of cement and sand
bond, Fig. 106, Enghsh bond. Fig. 107 and with a little lime, applied as plaster to the
Dutch bond, or as it is sometimes called, exterior of a building and finished either
"
smooth or oftener rough-cast." It is some- Preparing Plans
times put on wood lath, oftener on metal In preparing plans for any building the
lath, and best of all on hollow tile. As a
designer will go through the following
building material it is becoming increas-
operations:
ingly popular on account of its appearance
and durability. Old brick buildings are (1 ) Make preliminary sketches .
(2) Carry through the general drawings, plans,

sometimes resurfaced by adding a coat of
elevations and sections.
stucco, as it adheres perfectly if properly Make detail drawings of such parts as require
(3)
applied. additional explanation.
Hollow tile with stucco finish is un- (4) Take off the quantities required of each
material and tabulate in a bill of material.
doubtedly one of the coming building ma-
(5) Write specifications.
terials. It makes a dry wall, is light,
(6) Estimate the cost.
fireproof and easily constructed. A sec-
tional view of hollow tile construction To illustrate these steps, the design of
(from the National Fireproofing Company) a dairy barn, including drawings, specifica-
is shown in Fig. 110. tions and bill of material has been carried
through, commencing on page 57, and will
serve as a guide for other buildings.
Roofing Materials.
Wood more commonly used Dairy Barn
shingles are
than any other roof covering. They are With the sale ofmilk regulated by health
made of cypress, redwood and cedar, and authorities, and the successful attempt to
various color effects may be obtained by the stop filth at the source, the present-day dairy
use of shingle stains. barn has come to be a clean, well lighted
Slate makes a desirable roofing material. and well ventilated structure.
Various colors and grades are on the The location must be well drained, or so
market. It is heavier than shingles, hence situated as to make good drainage possible.
the roof must be framed to carry it. The The barn should be faced possible so that
if
cost is somewhat greater than for shingle the yard is at the south or east. Ample
roof. storage for feed should be provided, and
Roofing tile is used principally for large bedding must not be overlooked. Provi-
buildings. It is heavier per square than sion must be made for the removal of manure
slate, costs more, and requires sheathing at least once daily, to a pit required to be
and paper under it. at least 50 feet from the barn, but better
Composition roofing of various kinds and if placed 100 feet away. The floors should
trade names is very common. It is easily be of Some water tight, non-absorbent
applied and the better grades are very material. Concrete fills this requirement,
durable. but is objected to by some persons. The,
Galvanized roofing, made of galvanized objections may be overcome by making
iron or steel is coming into general use. the floors with sand or float finish, and by
It comes in lengths 6, 8, 10 and 12 feet, flooring the stalls with cork brick or creosoted
and the framing should be built to suit. wood blocks, or by using a plank overlay
It has the advantage of being cheap and in them over the concrete.
easily put on, but would not be used on The lighting should be well distributed,
residences on account of its appearance and at least 4 feet of glass provided for
and its heat absorption. each animal. There should be at least 500
FARM STRUCTURES 57
cubic feet of space allowed for each animal to prevent dust, dirt and seed from sifting
and in addition flue ventilation should be through. Hog houses or chicken houses
installed of such capacity that each animal must not be located within 100 feet of the
will have 25 square inches of flue area. barn.
F...^^^ ^^^ ^^"^ ;t^XvW./r:

_l^^ Hr /UUt
Fig. 111. —Preliminary sketch of dairy barn.

Flues with a cross sectional area of less than In planning, the following data may be
200 square inches are not very efficient. used. Small cows require stall space 3 ft.
Where hay or straw is to be stored above wide, 4'-6" long; large cows from 3'-6" to
the stable, the floor must be tightly ceiled 4'-0" stall width and 5-0" to 5-6" in length.
5 t
-J to tU CN
H H
— <n
uj>-
a"
:z <<1U
O w
FARM STRUCTURES 59
FARM STRUCTURES 61
i'»:?-f;>.-î'!.--,;^vs--.^'
Mangers may be from 2'-6" to 3'-0" wide. and manger construction, window detail
Feeding alleys should not be less than 3 and framing joints. This sheet, incidentally,
feet wide. Litter alleys should have a illustrates the advantageous use of pictorial
minimum width of 4 feet, and this increased drawing for details of construction.
to 8 feet if to be driven through.
a spreader is
Gutters may range from 12" to 22" in width Specifications.

and vary from 5" to 16" in depth. An Accompanying the drawings for any
average gutter is shown in detail in Fig. structure should be the specifications, con-
115. taining a definite, itemized statement re-
Floors and stalls should slope toward the garding the materials and methods of
gutter from 3^^" to 3^^" per foot. A slope of construction required. In a very simple
1" in 10 feet will be sufficient for the flow of structure it is possible to include all of this
the gutter. information as notes on the drawing, but
In figuring storage space, calculate on the in such a structure as a barn or residence,
average basis that each animal will require they should be typewritten, under a separate
the following amounts per feeding season: cover and the different items grouped under
4 tons of ensilage, 2 tons of hay, 1000 lbs. appropriate headings.
of grain or other concentrates, and 2 tons of After the introductory head, specifications
straw bedding. Data regarding the space always contain first, what is known as the
occupied by various materials is given in general condition clause, covering all the
Chapter VII. work and forming part of the contract.
A careful study of the dairy score card This clause should therefore be worded
given on page 116 is advised. This may carefully so that in case of dispute, its mean-
be used in checking up a set of plans, or ing can not be questioned.
in scoring an existing barn to see if it con- The general condition clause is followed by
forms to the requirements. Different states specific clauses for the different classes of
have similar score cards, which may be ob- work and material, usually about in the
tained from the State Dairy and Food order of their occurrence in the progress
Commissioner. of construction.
The following specifications for the dairy
Plans for a Dairy Bam. barn illustrated may serve as an example of
Beginning with Fig. Ill illustrating the the general form used for such structures.
preliminary freehand sketch, a complete These are short and concise, but sufficient
set of drawings for a dairy barn of modern for full explanation of the requirements.
design to accommodate 24 Holstein cows Architects' forms for residences and public
and providing for bull, calves, and hospital buildings are much longer, particularly in
cases, is shown. Silos and hay capacity the general condition clause.
have been estimated for a year's feed.
Specifications for Dairy Barn.
Fig. 112 is the plan of this barn, Fig. 113 Specifications of materials and workmanship
the side elevation, and Fig. 114 the end required for the erection and completion of a frame
elevation and sections, showing that the dairy barn for Mr. George W. Jones, Jefferson
construction is the plank truss type. The County, Ohio. Thos. P. Smith, .
Architect.
plank truss frame is usually called the General.
"Shawver barn," as it was first developed All materials shall be of best grade and no sub-
by Mr. John L. Shawver. stitutions shall be allowed in place of material here-
Fig. 115 is a sheet of details showing floor inafter specified, except on written order of the
FARM STRUCTURES 63
owner and All work must be done in

architect. weighing 40 lbs. per square. All trim and finishing
the best manner by skilled workmen.
possible lumber to be clear white pine.
Work not done according to the manner specifically Slate shall be No. 1 grade of (black Bangor) slate.
stated, must at the discretion of the architect, be Gutters, spouting and flashing shall be No. 24
taken out and properly constructed, all expense gauge galvanized iron, painted with two coats red
attached for such work and materials to be borne lead and linseed oil paint. All exterior wood work
by the contractor. shall be primed with pure boiled linseed oil and best
All rejected material must be removed from the quality white lead. Two additional coats of pure
premises within 24 hours after notification. linseed oiland pure white lead paint shall be applied
Any changes from the drawings or specifications, as soon as consistent with good results.
or any extras, are to be agreed upon in writing All hardware and stable fittings to be furnished
before being made. by the owner, and set in place by the contractor.
Excavation. Bill of Material

The excavation shall be made according to lines
and levels set by the architect, and all trenches A complete bill of all the materials re-
dressed smooth. Tile drains shall be laid as directed quired in the construction would be needed
by the architect, tile being furnished by the owner. for ordering and estimating. Concrete piers
The laying of such tile is to be paid for by the owner and walls are figured for their cubic con-
at a rate not to exceed 30 cents for each lineal rod.
tents, and reduced to cubic yards. Concrete
'
floors are estimated in square feet (or
Concrete.
All concrete shall be composed of Portland cement, square yards), excavation in cubic yards,
clean sand, and crushed stone ranging in size from lumber in board measure, slate, roofing felt
^2" to l}4"- The proportions shall be as follows; and ft.) and hard-
paint, in squares (100 sq.
and walls below grade, 1 part Portland
for all piers
ware, from dealers'
stable fittings, etc.,
cement, 2 parts sand and 4 parts stone. All floors, Lumber should be figured
prices obtained.
mangers, gutters and other concrete work not
in length to the nearest even foot over, and
-included in piers, foundation and walls, shall be
one course work with 1 part cement, 2 parts sand in tongue and grooved flooring and ceiling
and 3 parts stone. All cement, sand and stone will }/^ more than the total should be added.
be inspected and approved by the architect. A The bill of lumber of the superstructure
batch mixer must be used and each batch turned of the dairy barn is here given as a guide.
not less than 25 times after the addition of water.
The mixture must be wet enough to fill all forms and
Bill of Materials, Superstructure.
trenches and always show a film of water after
reasonable tamping. Sill. . . .2 X 10 - 384 linear ft. = 640ft. B.M. y-p-
All forms shall be water-tight and made of Girders 2 X 12 - 480 linear ft. = 960 ft. B.M. yp-
material strong enough to prevent bulging. Forms Posts .4 .
- 8 X 8 X 4'-0" = 86 ft. B.M, yp-
for work above grade must be of dressed lumber or oak.
and leave the walls smooth. 6 Trusses
Ma-
All concrete sliall be placed within 20 minutes Size No. Length Ft. B.M. terial
after mixing, and tamped free from voids. Posts 2X8 24 18'-0" 576 y-p-
Retempering of concrete will not be permitted. Main Brace ... 2 X 12 12 28'-0" 672 yp-
Purlin Support 2 X 10 24 28'-0" 1120 y-p-
Timber. Short Brace ... 2 X 8 12 14'-0" 224 yp-
All timber shall be well seasoned. All framing (cut into 4'-4",
lumber shall be clear grade, long leaf yellow pine 5'-0" and 3'-2")
free from shakes and winds. Siding shall be clear Foot pieces
cypress (red cedar, redwood or white pine). Mow (Foundation &
flooring,tongue and grooved yellow pine (hemlock, Ribbon) 2X8 36 6'-0" 288 y-p-
fir or local wood) laid tightly in
painted joints. Purlin Strut... 2 X 6 24 4'-0" 72 y-p.
Roof sheathing to be No. 1 hemlock laid close and Purlin Braces..2X6 22 8'-0" 176 y-p-
covered with good quality tarred roofing felt, Collar Beams. .2X6 31 6'-0" 186 yp.
Size No. Length Ft. B.M. ^^?^ Data used as a basis in determining the
Intermediate estimate will be found under "estimating,"
Posts 2X6 18 18'-0" 324 y.p. on page 119.
Inter. Posts
(above end The Horse Barn
plate) 2X6 8 14'-0" 112 y.p.
The essentials for a good horse barn are,
Inter. Braces. . 2X6 28 14'-0" 392 y.p.
convenience of location, good drainage in
all directions, convenient interior arrange-
Girts (Nail) ..2X6 68 12'-0" 816 y.p
2X6 4 14'-0" 56 y.p ment, plenty of light, and ample storage
2X8 6 12'-0" 96 y.p for hay and grain.
Ribbon 2X6 10 12'-0" 120 y.p The walls be of a single thickness of
may
Joists 2 X 10 118 12'-0" 2360 y.p barn boards, they are tight and draft
if
Joists at truss .2X8 18 12'-0" 288 y.p
The floor may be of plank, tamped
Bridging 1X3 432' lin- 108 y.p
proof.
eal clay, concrete or cork brick. Clay is some-
Rafters (short) 2X6 62 12'-0" 744 y.p times considered as the best floor, but con-
(long) 2X8 62 16'-0" 1224 y.p crete has proven to be satisfactory and sani-
Lookouts &
tary; usually however, a removable plank
filler 2X4 166'-0" 112 y.p
lineal overlay is used in stalls in connection with
Hay Pole 4X6 1 16'-0" 32 y.p
the concrete floor. Brick with plank overlay
Plate 2X8 20 12'-0" 320 y.p isalso used sometimes. Cork brick makes
Purlin
2 X 10 20 12'-0" 400 y.p an ideal floor, being water proof and resiHent,
.
2X4 10 12'-0" 80 y.p but the initial cost is high (about $55.00
Studs (short at
lower floor)... 2 X 6 42 12'-0" 504 y.p. per thousand). It should be laid on con-
X 12 X 18'-0" 3800 ft. B.M. crete foundation.
^ . f 1
Covering
| j >< 12 X 16'-0" 800 ft. B.M. "yP^^^^ The ceiling should be at least eight feet
Battens. ..1X3 3896 lin- 975 ft. B.M. cypress high in the clear, and nine feet would be a
eal ft.
better height. Seven hundred to one thou-
Roof Sheathing—3840 ft. B.M. 1" X 10" random
sand cubic feet of space should be allowed for
length.
Slate— 16" X 10" 39 squares. each animal.
Windows — Single stalls are made from four feet to
14frames complete for 10" X 12". 8 Light six feet in width. Five feet is comfortable
check rail windows, 4 double as per details on for a heavy horse. Double stalls are
usually
Sheet 4, 6 single windows. 56 sash wts. C.I. eight feet wide. The length of stalls is nine
14 check rail windows 8 Lt. 10" X 12".
feet, six inches including mangers. Box stalls
4-4 Lt. barn sash 10" X 12" for gable.
10-6 Lt. barn sash 10 X 12 complete with frames range in size from 8 X 10 to 10 X 12 feet.
24 lineal ft. track and hangers for gable doors. An average manger is two feet wide and
400 lineal feet 1X6
white pine trim. three feet six inches high. The side toward
2 -cupolas to be built at mill. the animal should slope inward from four
—
Floor 2400 sq. ft. superficial area, l}4" X 6"
inches to six inches, to prevent injury to
T.&G.
the knees.
Ceiling 2400 sq. ft. 1 X 4 T. and G.
Feed alleys, if used, should be at least three
Estimate. feet wide. The litter alley should be at least
The estimated cost of this barn, without four feet wide, to allow a medium horse to
and feed room, is $4200. One thousand
silos back from the stall comfortably. If a
dollars,as an average estimate, may be manure spreader is to be driven through,
added for these items. eight feet will be necessary.
FARM STRUCTURES 65
W
FARM STRUCTURES 67
.\
Windows with sash tilting inward at the The General Purpose Barn
top, make a good means of ventilation. On farms where the separate highly
When ventilating flues aroused, thirty square specialized dairy or horse barns are not
inches should be provided for each horse. required, a combination general purpose
Stall partitions should be very sohdly barn for cattle, horses, and possibly other
constructed for at least five feet in height. farm animals, as well as for the storage of
Some prefer to build them six feet. A five feed, etc., is used. When this barn contains
foot solid partition surmounted by steel a dairy stable it is necessary to observe the
bars or heavy wire mesh has the advantage laws in force for dairy barns, with the addi-
that it allows the horses to see each other tion that there must be provided either a
and does not shut the light from interior tight partition between horse and cow
stalls. stables, or a clear space of twelve feet be-
The horse barn shown in Fig. 116 may be tween the cowp and the horses.
studied as an example of the application of A common form of general purpose barn
the features mentioned in a compact and now in use has attached to it a large storage
practical design. The plan is a familiar shed for straw, the first story of which is
one in that the horses are fed from the main used as a covered and sheltered barn yard.
drive-way. Solid drop swing doors are This barn yard should be paved with con-
provided on the manger fronts so that in crete or brick. It is estimated that the
cold weather the stable maybe closed tightly. paving of such a yard will pay for itself
The size and spacing of the windows is within two years in the value of the manure
designed for ample light and ventilation. saved.
A concrete floor extends throughout the An example of another form of general
length of the barn. In the stable proper purpose barn is shown in Figs. 117 and 118,
the stall floors and alley slope toward a which give the plan, elevation and section
shallow gutter at the rear of the stall. of an L shaped barn of the balloon framed
The stalls are floored with plank over the and self-supporting roof type of construc-
concrete. tion. This barn is designed to face with the
The stall partitions are of concrete rein- internal angle of the L to the south, so as
forced with round rods extending above
%" to secure a maximum of sunlight throughout
the partition and forming a grating up to the day. Both the rolling doors and the
the ceiling. The stalls are of different widths open run between the horse stable and the
to accommodate horses of varying sizes.
milking stalls comply with the law in effec-
Three box are provided.
stalls tually separating the two stables.
A detail of a horse stall is shown in Fig. The cow stalls are designed to be used for
118. the feeding of concentrates, and for milk-
The frame the pin joint timber frame
is
ing only. Roughage is to be fed in the open
type and is constructed so that the mow run, where the cows are confined except
space is free from cross beams, thus allowing during milking time.
the use of the newer type of hay slings. Ample storage space has been provided
The space above the drive-way in the lean-to for hay, straw, grain and silage.
may be used to advantage for the storage The Swinb House
of hay or This barn would be built
grain.
by raising the two longitudinal bents first, There are two types of swine
distinct
this construction permitting a more econom- houses in general use, the individual cot
ical arrangement of floor joists. and the colony house.
FARM STRUCTURES 69
The individual house is used where one and labor in feeding and at the same time
sow and her htter are to be kept apart from practically divide the herd, which might be
other swine. It is usually built upon skids desirable in time of epidemic.
so that it may be moved from time to time Sunshine tables are published in Farmer's
for sanitary reasons or to change the run. Bulletin No. 438 U. S. Department of
A common and inexpensive cot is shown in Agriculture, enabling one to build the house
so as to take advantage of the sun in his
locality during the months from January to
June inclusive. An abbreviation of this
table will be found on page 117, Chapter
seven.
Window in rear Fig. 122shows two other types of house. A,
/Z's</uare with a monitor roof, which is best when
full
necessary to have the house running north

and south and B, for a house facing south,
;
with a single row of pens.

A dipping vat is connection with the hog
house may be made 30 wide at the top and
'^
from 18" to 20" wide at the bottom. The

tank should start with one vertical end, and
Doer Z4'*30' Make of.ilah

/i Z'on mre. St/sptnd of top to
awing, fret/^
Fig. 119. — "A-type" individual hog cot.
Fig. 119. Fig. 120 shows other models of

the same general class.
Fig. 121 shows a unit plan and sectional Wisconsin Type M'fh Shacfe
elevation, together with some details, of a

colony hog house. The half-monitor roof
shown is peculiarly adapted to give a two
row hog house sunshine on both sides of the
alley. It will be seen that, to be effective,
the house must face with windows to the
south. The plan shows two units of 2
pens each. The house may be made of
any desired length by adding the required
number of units. A good scheme to follow
for a large plant would consist of a central
feed storageand mixing house with principal Fig. 120. — Individual hog cots.
axis running north and south, with wings of

five units each extending to the east and continue with a level bottpm 3'-0" deep and
west respectively. This would make an 6-0" long. A slope 7-0" long to the level
establishment of 20 pens and feed house that of the floor should be provided, to aid the
would be very well arranged to save time hogs in getting out. A tilting board at the
Reinforcemenf ,
ForFrame
GUARDRAIL SUGGESTIONS
FARM STRUCTURES 71
perpendicular end is used for throwing the provided for dividing the space into tem-
animals into the dip. porary pens.
Feed storage should be provided for as
follows :
2 to 4 lbs. ensilage, 4 lbs. of hay, and 2 to

3 lbs, of grain per sheep per day.
The Poultry House

A B It isonly possible in this discussion to
Fig. 122. —Alternate forms of colony swine house.
present the general requirements of such
a building as a poultry house. There is no
The Sheep Barn
generally accepted standard form as com-
The requirements for sheep sheltering are pared to other farm buildings, as climatic
few so long as the sheep are kept dry and and other conditions vary so widely in differ-
out of drafts, hence the location should be ent parts of the country. There are pre-
well drained, and while the shed may be vailing types in different sections, each well
location.
open toward the south or southeast, it adapted for its particular
PLAN END ELEVATION

Fig. 123. —Poultry house designed for 100 hens.
should be so built as to permit closing in Comfort may be called the key word in
case of driving storms from the south. poultry house construction. Fresh air is
In designing, twelve square feet of floor demanded, hence the ventilation is an im-
space should be allowed for each breeding portant consideration. Care in both drain-
ewe, and six square feet for each fatting age and ventilation will give the dryness
lamb. required. Sunlight must be admitted, thus
A sufficient number of hurdles should be the house should face south or southeast.
ifpossible being built on a south or southeast Implement Sheds

slope. One square foot of glass area for
each twenty square feet of floor space is It is generally recognized that he is a
a minimum, but other openings for ventila- wise farmer who houses his implements and
tion should be provided. These openings tools when not in actual service in the field.
should be so placed as to allow circulation Experience has shown that taking into
without drafts. If covered with muslin account the amount and kind of machinery
frames, the cloth will allow good circulation now in use, a shed of eighteen to twenty-
without any draft, and will give sufficient four feet in width is the most economical
protection during the cold months. Too in construction. Twelve foot openings will
much glass radiates an excessive amount of take in the widest machine, and if made
heat, and sometimes causes condensation of twelve feet in height will accommodate
too much moisture. tractors, hay-loaders and other implements
Small houses with a capacity of from requiring head room.
seventy-five to three hundred birds are to The best way to plan a machine shed is
be preferred, and from two to five
square to make a list of the implements to be housed,
feet of floor space to each bird Should be including probable later additions. Measure
allowed. the overall dimensions, length and width, of
Floors may be of earth if well drained, each of these machines, lay off these dimen-
but the concrete floor has the advantage sions separately to scale and cut out paper
of being sanitary and rat and vermin rectangles representing different ma-
the
proof. chines, writing the name on each. By shift-
Roofs should be water-tight. They may ing and arranging these little dummies,
be of any type, as shed, half monitor or gable, bearing in mind the season and use of each
but the shed roof with slope to the north is implement, the approximate dimensions
cheap and satisfactory, if the span is not of the building necessary for them, with a
over fourteen feet wide. definite place for each implement may be
Roosts should be about ten inches above derived,and a plan drawn with the exact
the dropping boards, from twelve to four- knowledge of what it will hold.
teen inches apart, and eight to twelve inches Fig. 124 shows the working drawing of one
of space allowed for each fowl. The roost type of shed, together with a lumber bill
frame should be hinged to facilitate cleaning for it. The concrete floor is optional, but is
the dropping board. Nests must be con- desirable in that it raises the wheels of the
venient for the laying hens. One nest for machines above the surrounding grade and
three to five birds is a fair allowance. They thus prevents rust. It should be made to
should be twelve by twelve by sixteeen slope toward the front of the shed, dropping
inches and placed about twelve inches above one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch to a
the floor. Wire mesh bottoms will aid in foot.
cleaning. The top board of the nest box:" Doors may be added to prevent snow
should slope, to prevent roosting, unless or rain from being driven in on the ma-
the nests are placed under the dropping chinery.
board. A good trap nest is shown in Fig. 2, A repair room or tool house is sometimes
Chapter I. added.
Fig. 123 is a house designed for one hundred A list of the floor space required for some
birds, and will give suggestions as to pos- standard farm implements is given on page
sible arrangement and construction. 113.
FARM STRUCTURES 73
and one-half cubic feet should be allowed

Corn Cribs
for a bushel of ear corn.
A corn crib should be constructed so as Rat, mouse, and bird proof cribs are easily
to allow the air to circulate freely through constructed. A concrete floor will practi-
3 \
Roof covering may be

V-criiriped galvanizeJ
metal, shingles, e>r3-ply
prepared roofirig.
\ li'3'Hart/wooa^V^
Slats spaced
;,j ^''^^^
W jj l
H I
jl
l'Z-4
Concrete^
a'
FARM STRUCTURES 75
slats of wood floors, and between slats and ings the use of the "limiting break" line
studs on the walls, will effectually stop is illustrated.
rodents and birds.

Granaries
Figs. 125 and 126 show suggested construc-
tion for two types of double crib. In addi- The important consideration in the con-
tion to shelter and stability, the double crib struction of granaries and bins for loose
ROCHESTER MODEL ICE H0U5E- J5T0N5 aP'CY.

BUREAU OF HEALTH ROCHESTER. NEW YORK. I909.
ke to be packet/ in solid mass ivifh broken joints, at least /2 of
tightly rammed saw dust all

around ice.
ICE STORAGE Side boards oftiemlock to l>e laid so tfye shrinkage will proiîde
J £space betyyeen each board to insure drying of outside layer ofsair

dust
A All air to be enctuded from underneath the ice. Free circulation
of air oirer ice.
Drainage must but drain shou/id be blinded mth sand

i>e proiîded,
and brokenstone, or dnders.Jhus warm air ivill not find its

grairel,
\^30'\
—
>; way in along the drain and melt the ice.
M. Ml' M M Do not build this house in a sheltered place The sun and wind
.
4'k4'J
dry ttie outer layer of sa/y dust. Dry sairdust is a âod non-con-
ductor
^•V^r" Alt sfudd/n^ Z'''<4' hem/ock. Corner pasts ^"'<4:
SAW \DU5T BIN
I' '^8' hemlock fence boards.
$idin^ l'':<6" or
Open\ Underneath
Foundation t-Pd-S Concrete.
PLAN
HE
but in any, case the weight of the maximum (3) Ventilation of space above ice.
grain contents should be figured and the The elaborate and expensive insulated
structure designed to suit. The numerous walla, with many thicknesses of different
recorded accidents from failure of elevated materials, are being replacedvby simpler con-'
bin floors serve as warnings. Concrete, struction, the limit of simplicity being
properly reinforced, is the ideal material reached in the Rochester ice house illustrated
for granaries. Concrete floors laid directly in Fig. 127, which is being built by many
on earth should be well underdrained ^nd farmers, and shows remarkable results in
damp-proofed. In any granary construction efficiency. In it the entire insulation is the

rat proofing is essential. Incidentally, rats layer of saw dust, which, when the building
and mice will not gnaw hemlock. is properly located in an exposed position,
The growing tendency to build com- is kept dry by the free air circulation through
munity elevators is lessening the number of the openings between the boards, and dry
farm granaries. saw dust is one of the most effective insulat-
ing materials known. The requirements
Ice Houses for the successful construction and packing
Ice storage, formerly regarded as a luxury, of this house are given on the drawing.
is, for dairy farms at least, a necessity. In designing a building of specified ca-
The proper cooling of milk and the storage pacity, figure on the basis that a cubic foot
/St
N
^S
sV.
lnsi<fe /nsie/e Inside
l/ibterproof Plaper.
Fig. 128. —Insulated walls for ice-house construction.
of dairy products demands the use of ice of ice weighs about fifty-seven pounds, or
in summer. The average dairy requires a roughly one ton of ice will require forty
storage of from one-half to one and one-half cubic feet, including packing. Twelve inches
tons of ice per cow. should be allowed on top, bottom and sides
The requirements for ice house construc- for saw dust. Several approved types of
tion are simple but they must be carried out insulated walls are shown in Fig. 128.
very carefully.
There must be ample drainage, and Gabages
(1)
the drainage so arranged as to exclude air. A simple problem in building construction
(2) Careful insulation of walls. may be made in the design of a garage.
FARM STRUCTURES 77
It may be built of wood, brick, stucco or The Dairy House

even galvanized iron. The size of machine The dairy houseis an adjunct to the
or machines to be housed is of course the
dairy barn, and in its simplest form is
first consideration. Provision for a work
used for the temporary storage of milk.
bench or shelf, the method of gasoline storage, It is sometimes built in combination with
the desirability of a repair pit, convenience the ice house; but probably oftener the
of entrance and exit, conformity of the ex- cooling of the milk depends upon a water
terior to the surrounding architecture, ma-
supply from a spring or well, flowing con-
terials for walls and roof, provision for water
stantly through a tank in which the milk
and drainage, best location for windows, cans are set. It must be of a type that will
and method of artificial lighting will all
protect against heat, dust and flies, and
be decided in the preliminary study of the
necessarily of simple construction so that
problem. it may easily be kept clean and sanitary.
Fig. 129 shows a garage for a small car, Concrete or concrete blocks, hollow tile,
built of brick, with a hip roof. The symbol and brick are particularly well adapted for
for brick in elevation to small scale is used
dairy house construction, but the ice-house
on the drawing.
type of insulated frame wall is satisfactory.
Concrete floors and tanks are sanitary, per-
Smoke Houses
manent and easily constructed.
The smoke house, found on
formerly A very common type for keeping the night
every farm, is not so common a farm
milking until the following morning, is a
structure at the present day, but the problem house eight by ten feet inside, with a tank ex-
of its design may be used, as many still
tending across one side, opposite the door,
prefer to smoke their own meats. It may and provided with a window, and a ventila-
be built of frame, brick, concrete, con-
tor in the roof.
crete hollow tile, although the
blocks, or A
dairy house in which an aerator, cooler,
frame smoke house has an undesirable fire
separator, and churn are to be used, be-
risk.
comes a problem in design, in the arranging
A small building, five feet square, has of the equipment in the most convenient
a capacity for eight hams. The meat and economical form, and planning a build-
should be hung at least five feet above the
ing to suit.
fire.
For an average farm, a brick house 6' by

The Silo
8', having a grate arranged for burning Much has been written in recent years on
cobs or chips, and with vents near the roof, the silo and its desirability, some has even
is a common type. A safeguard in the form been written against it, and the average
of an arch or sheet of metal above the fire farmer is well informed as to its advantages
to prevent loss of meat from blazing fat or and limitations. Regarding the silo from
unexpected flares, is desirable. A suspended the point of view of design and drawing it
iron rack on which the meat is laid is an seems unnecessary to include the details
improvement over the usual sticks and of construction, either of the forms for
strings. The alternative of sharp steel building concrete silos, or the method of
hooks for suspending the meat will eliminate construction of wooden ones, as in the
the unsightly holes usually made when former case forms may be secured from those
stringing hams. The moral effect of a good who make a specialty of building and rent-
strong lock should not be overlooked. ing them, much more cheaply than they can
FARM STRUCTURES 79
be made for use on one job, and stave, tile, It is desirable that it be roofed, and if pos-
and galvanized iron silos are purchased sible screened against flies.
ready for erection. Fig. 132 shows a manure pit designed for
In connection with a barn problem our twenty head of stock. The small appended
interest is in the required capacity, and our table gives the size and capacity required for
drawing simply circles of the required di- herds of various sizes.
ameter on the plan, and the exterior outline
on the elevation. •
The Septic Tank
The introduction of water supply, and
CM 9'!.
Finish top h 3(//f laundry and bath conveniences in country
homes has made the provision for suitable
kJnd of s/Io.
and sanitary means for taking care of house
/:2:4 Concrefe wastes and sewage, a necessity. The open
6
cesspool at best a temporary affair, un-
is
\ *\^ >S f^dlâfs 6'aparf satisfactory and dangerous to health. Scien-

tific study of bacteria and bacterial action
.J •<»
..^/^ on sewage has resulted in the recommendation
Jff^\AV//lV\V/<\V^^ of the use of the septic tank, a simple under-
Jl ground receptacle with inlet and outlet,

in which the sewage is by natural
Fig. 130. — Silo foundation of concrete.
bacterial action.
purified
The thickness of the wall, as indicated on Manhole Cover. CI"

the plan, will depend upon the material and ;^''^^^^«t5,u^
size. Concrete block and vitrified tile

Inlet
varies from 4 to 8 inches, monolithic con-
crete 6 inches, stave silos 2 inches, lath and
plaster, or Gurler type 6'^ and galvanized
iron a single black line.
Fig. 130 shows a section of concrete founda-
DIMENSIONS OF TANK
tion adaptable for silos of any type.
NO. OF
Silo tables of use in this connection are PER50U5
found on page 115.
The Manure Pit
The value of the covered manure pit for

the preservation and conservation of stable
manure is becoming more and more ap-
preciated. Manure pits are simply large
tanks or vats to which the manure is taken
and stored until finally used on the fields.
The pit should be built not less than 100 feet
from the dairy stable, although most dairy
requirements permit a minimum of fifty
feet, and should be so arranged as to be
easily accessible for wagon or spreader.
1
FARM STRUCTURES 81
deeply and be firmly anchored. All corners are common heights, and the sections may be
or ends must be thoroughly braced. The of any length convenient for handling.
average wire fence is 48" high with posts 16 Pens are used for smaller enclosures than
feet apart and in the ground from 18" paddocks, intended for a single animal or
to 3 feet, depending upon the nature of a few animals. The construction will vary
the soil. Corner and brace posts are set according to the animals to be confined.
4 feet deep. Gates, as a rule should be made stronger
Paddocks are designed for close confine- than the fence of which they form a movable
ment of animals, and are usually constructed section, as they receive harder service than
each case is designed to form a truss and made plans made with no reference as to
prevent deformation. where the house is to be placed or who is to
occupy it.
The Farm House Our discussion of the farm house is in-
In the design of the buildings previously tended to assist the prospective owner in
considered, the principles of planning and setting down his ideas, so as to present work-
construction involved were based on the able sketch plans to the architect, as a basis
consideration of the uses and functions of for the final plans and specifications.
each, and the securing of the maximum of Planning is simply a process of reasoning,
convenience, economy of space and labor, and the thought of the needs of the family,
and durability. In designing the farm resi- collectively and individually, gives the
dence there must be added to these the items reason for everything put in the plan; and
of beauty, and architectural correctness, success in it depends upon one's knowledge
with not only the general requirements of a of these needs and the ability to correlate
farm house considered, but also the in- and adapt them into a well-balanced design.
dividual requirements, wishes and taste of Where interests conflict, the advantages and
the particular family which is to occupy the disadvantages are weighed, and sometimes
one proposed. Thus this problem becomes a desired feature must be omitted, because
the most interesting as well as the most of inability to adapt it.
complicated of all the structures about the The first floor plan is the first to be made.
farm. A list of the rooms desired is written, and
The house must be planned to fit both the preliminary freehand sketches tried until
surroundings and the family. The "lay" an apparently satisfactory arrangement is
of the land, the direction to the road, the obtained. This is worked up in a 1/8"
views toward the house and from the house, scale drawing. These are usually made on
and the planting, all have a bearing on the tracing paper. Part or all of the following
shape and the architectural style to be de- rooms may be included in the first floor:
termined upon. The house must look as 1. Kitchen (and pantry).
if it belonged in its location, and should 2. Dining room.
express in its appearance the individuality 3. Living room.
of the owner. 4. Wash room.
To secure all this, the service of a compe- 5. Den, office or bed room.
tent architect should be engaged, who will 6. Stair hall.
be able to work up the owner's ideas into a 7. Screened work porch.
harmonious design, exterior and interior, 8. Living porch.
and whose knowledge and advice on the The kitchen is in many most
respects the
technical points of construction will protect important room in the house, and much
from mistakes. The architect is the owner's thought should be given to its arrangement.
representative in dealing with the contractor. The reasoning mentioned should be applied,
There is a temptation sometimes to accept in making a list of the stores and supplies
a contractor's offer to furnish plans free, and planning the most convenient place
but the fee of a good architect is more than for each, and in locating the table, range,
saved in his protection of the owner, to say cupboards, pantry, and sink, with thought
nothing of the satisfaction of having ja. of the purpose of each, mentally answering
pleasing house. the question, "why is this the best place,

A greater mistake is to buy a set of ready- will any steps be saved?" Women walk
FARM STRUCTURES 83
FIRST*
•
FLOOU-PLAN
5CALEL: Va'-IFT-
Fig. 134. —First floor plan of farm house.
miles of useless steps because the men who way is made a feature of the house, and rear
planned their kitchens did not think! stairs are always provided as well. In small
The kitchen should have cross-ventilation, houses one stairway may serve all purposes.
be well lighted and sanitary, not too large, Stairs should never be less than 3 feet wide.
and should open to a rear porch. In planning the stairway the number of
The kitchen score card given on page 117 risers should be figured, and the rule may be
has been used in checking the desirable used that the sum of the rise and tread
points in existing kitchens, on a scale of 100. should be 173^^ inches. Thus if the rise is
In nearly all city and suburban houses, 73-^ inches the tread would be 10 inches, and
the kitchen is connected to the dining room on the plan the lines representing the risers
through a serving pantry, which provides would be drawn 10 inches apart. The
an air lock, keeping out odors and heat, entire run is never shown on one plan, but
but many in building farm houses prefer a is broken to show what is under.
direct double swinging door. . Good comfortable porches should be re-

The dining room should preferably face garded as a necessity in farm house planning.
east, should be light and cheerful, and A working porch off the kitchen should be
rectangular rather than square in shape. screened, and a screened living porch,
The size can be figured accurately from the conveniently arranged for summer dining
number to be
accommodated, by knowing isa desirable consideration.
the size of a dining table and the space In a large house other rooms, such as a
needed for each person. Group windows are library,music room, reception room, helps'
more effective and pleasing than single dining and sitting rooms, etc., may be added^
windows. according to the owners' desires and financial
The living room is the largest room in the ability.
house. It shouldhave a south and west be noticed that the isolated and
It will
exposure, be convenient of access, have quiet generally unused "parlor" has been omitted
continuous lines, and if possible a fire-place. from the list of first floor rooms.
The sentiment of the home centers about the The second floor should contain
fire-place. 1. Hall, on which all rooms should open.
The wash room an important considera-
is 2. Sleeping rooms, with ample closet
tion that should not be omitted. It should space in each.
open to the rear, and have ample lavatory 3. Bath.
facilities for men's convenience in coming 4. Linen closet.

from the field. Provision for plenty of coat 5. Rooms for help.
hooks should not be forgotten. 6. Sewing room.
A first floor bed room is often desired, 7. Sleeping porch.
sometimes for continuous use and sometimes In planning the second floor it is not nec-
for emergency use in case of illness. In essary that all walls run through from the
the latter case a room may be designed as first floor partitions. The outside walls,
an office or den, and used as an emergency stair well and chimneys are traced from the
bed room. It should be somewhat isolated first floor, and the space cut up to the
in location, and if planned for an office best advantage. No room should be made
should be easily accessible from the outside. to serve as a passageway to another room.
The amount of space given to stairs and Bed rooms should have at least two win-
stair hall depends upon the economy dows, with cross-ventilation if possible.The
necessary. In large houses the main stair- first consideration in a bed room is a well-
FARM STRUCTURES 85
"SECOND* FLOOR- PLAN-

* scale: V^"-1ft*
Fig. 135. —Second floor plan of farm house.
planned space for the bed, the second is If drawing the preliminary sketch
after
ample closet room. External angles should plans the estimate runs higher than the
be avoided, that is, closets should not break owner wishes to go, the process of "cutting"
into the rectangle of the room, nor should must be resorted to, by simplifying construc-
they be cut off across corners. tion,changing materials, cutting down sizes
The bath room should be located so as to of rooms, or omitting some. The mistake
make the plumbing simple and economical. should not be made of having many small
It need not be larger than 6' X 9'. All the rooms. It is better to have fewer and larger
fixtures should be drawn, to show their ones. Radical cutting may mean the entire
location. For a farm where much help is revision or discarding of the first plan.
employed it is very desirable to have more and 136 show the basement,
Figs. 134, 135
than one bath room. and second floor plans of a farm
first floor
A
large linen closet opening to the hall is house, embodying some desirable features.
very desirable. A
clothes chute to the These plans illustrate the use of the symbols
laundry may be provided. and the appearance of the usual set of plans.
Rooms forhelp are best arranged to be Problems.
reached from a rear stairway and isolated The following problems are to have com-
from the rest of the second floor.
plete working plans'drawn, with dimensions,
A small sewing room is a convenient addi- title and bills of material. The sizes of
tion.
buildings are not given, but are to be deter-
A
sleeping porch is becoming a popular mined from the requirements stated, figuring
addition to every house plan. It should be the space required for animals and storage
tightly screened, and canvas curtains pro- and planning its practical and economical
vided for inclement weather. These may be distribution. Some of the problems are
fastened with carriage buttons, or mounted
suggestive rather than definite, and the data
on rollers. The porch may open from the isto be assumed by the student, or assigned
upstairs hall, or a private sleeping porch by the instructor.
may open to a bed room or dressing room. Before starting a problem read the discus-
Attic stairs should always start from the sion carefully, look up other reference read-
hall, and not from any room. Generally and supplement the information found
ing,
on house plans the attic plan and roof plan from your own practical knowledge and
are combined in one figure.
experience.
The basement should extend under the
entire house, with concrete floor and drains.
PROBLEMS.
1. Design and make working drawings for the
It should have an outside grade entrance as
forms of a concrete watering trough to hold ten
well as the inside cellar stairs. If a furnace barrels of water when filled within two inches of the
isused, the furnace and fuel room should be top. Provide concrete paving six feet wide on
three sides of the tank. Select suitable scale and
separate from the storage room.
follow directions for working given on page 38.
A basement laundry and drying room, with
2. Draw an "A" type of hog cot, with 6-0" X
water and flue connections should be ar-
8'-0" floor. Make end view first and project side
ranged. A clothes chute opening into the view from it. If necessary, use an auxiliary pro-
laundry is a convenience. jection.
Modern farm houses often have the lighting 3. Design a machine shed for the following imple-
ments: Two wagons, one grain binder, one corn
and water supply systems in the basement.
binder, one grain drill, one mower, one side delivery
The probable cost of a proposed house may
hay rake, one hay tedder, one common rake, one
be estimated roughly by cubing it, as ex- haj' loader, one disc harrow, two peg tooth harrows,
plained under "estimating" on page 118. one gang plow, one sulky plow, one ensilage cutter,
FARM STRUCTURES 87
BASEMENT^ PLAN*
- SCALE Vq = FT
: 1 •
Fig. 136. — Basement plan of farm house.

=-^^
^3he(/\ KITCHEN
^ /3'-2"KtZ-0'
n
PANTRY
B.R.
^
\
a OS.
Up
L.R.
'
OFHCt /S'X/S'
/^-6"x//'-6''
^J/^
-30-0
B FOfecH
/o X Z&:
'
us. Goyr. TeA/ANT house

PA^/TRY
VASH tnz
—'—
izooiyf F- = —Km
9'-6'kS' •
\ ^, „
J /6-6"x6'
/3'x /J'
L. £.
/z'-6"x./e'-o"
Hall
I
P5
-=1--L_r f^êcH
Fig. 137. —Sketch plans of farm houses.

FARM STRUCTURES 89
two 2-row cultivators, one single row sulky culti- brick arch, to allow of covering with earth. The
vator, one walking plow, one small cultivator, one concrete arch should be at least 6" thick and strongly
2-row corn planter, one manure spreader, one spring Have the
reinforced, with a span of not over 8 feet.
wagon, and miscellaneous small tools. Add twelve entrance on south end.
feet for a tool repair room. 26. Design a storage barn for 75 tons of hay.
4. Design a machine shed for the implements in 26. Design a dairy house, made of concrete blocks
use on your farm. 8" X 8" X 16", figuring sizes and spacing of
5. Design a laying house for 50 hens. openings to fit these blocks. Provide a tank 18"
6. Design a poultry house for 200 birds. This deep and not less than 17" wide. Show piping for
may be divided into two compartments. continuous flow of water, (If tank and floor are
7. Design a sheep shed for 200 breeding ewes. elevated above grade it will save labor in handling
(There will be 50% more lambs than ewes in the cans.)
average flock.) 27. Design a water storage tank with a capacity
8. Design a colony type house for ten brood sows. of 50 barrels, having a base 6 feet square, or 6 feet
In the plan show runs and dipping vat. Provide in diameter, inside. The tank should have a floor
feed room, and bedding storage.
g. Design a colony type house for twenty brood
sows. Provide central storage and feed house.
10. Design a single corn crib, 500 bushels capacity.
11. Design a double corn crib, 1200 bushels
capacity.
12. Design a dairy barn for 12 cows, making
provision for box stalls and calf pens. Feed room
to be separated from, but accessible to dairy stable.
13. Design a dairy barn for 30 cows. Compute
sizes and add silos, hay storage and grain bins. To
the barn attach a straw shed, the first floor of which
is a covered yard, the shed capacity to be two tons
of straw per animal. The shed may be arranged

either to form an ell, or may be parallel to the main A real example of poor planning.
structure,
14. A farmer has 8 milch cows, 8 work horses, 8" thick, reinforced in both directions with î" rods
and is feeding 25 steers. Design a general purpose spaced 6" apart, and bent to extend up into the
barn to house this stock and provide necessary walls 2'-6", The walls should taper (on the inside)
feed. Allow 25 sq. ft. of floor space for each steer. from 10" thick at the base to 5" at the top, and a
(Try Lor T shape in preliminary sketches.) footing must be provided. The walls should be
16. Design a rectangular general purpose barn reinforced with %" vertical rods spaced 16" apart,
for 6 regular horse stalls, four box stalls for brood and }4" horizontal rods spaced 6" apart for first
mares, and a dairy stable for 16 cows. The dairy 30", 8" apart for next 30", and above this %" rods
stable must conform to the score card on page 116. spaced 7" apart. If square or rectangular tank is
It is suggested that this be made a bank barn, with made the horizontal rods should be bent so as to
a bridge leading to the approach, so that there may turn corners.
be no interference with light on the bank side. 28. Design a granary to hold 1200 bushels of
16. Design a manure pit for the barn of Problem 13. wheat and 600 bushels of oats.
17. Design a manure pit for the barn of Problem 15. 29. Make a sketch and bill of material for a
18. Design a garage for a machine. paddock for horses, to enclose one acre. Have it
19. Design a combination garage and carriage 6 feet high, using 2" X 6" X 16' plank, bolted to
house, using stucco on 8" hollow tile walls. posts 8 feet from center to center; and provide
20. Design an ice house for 10 tons of ice. suitable gate,
21. Design an ice house for a dairy farm having 30. Design a farm house, selecting the scheme
24 cows, and a dairy house provided with cold from one of the sketches of Fig, 137.
storage room and cooler. 31. Design a tenant house, containing a kitchen,
22. Design a brick smoke house. combined dining and living room, and two bed rooms.
23. Design a septic tank for a family of 6 persons. 32. Remodel the house shown in Fig, 138, to
24. Design a root cellar of 600 bushels capacity, make it more convenient and comfortable, (This
built four feet below ground; the top a concrete or figure was taken from an actual house!)
CHAPTER V
MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING
An important consideration in both the horizontal circle, as many are, it will be
ownership and management of a farm is to found very valuable in laying out fields.
have accurate maps and plats, in ownership For rough determination of levels for
so that there may be no question nor dispute grading or ditching, a hand level may be
regarding Unes or boundaries, and in manage- used. An "A" frame for this purpose is
ment, in order to plan work, and keep a illustrated in Fig. 172.
record of crop production, soil fertility, rota- Land measurernents were formerly given
tion of crops, etc. in rods,and measurements made with a
A
farm map gives at once a comprehensive ''Gunter's chain" of 4 rods (66 feet), divided
idea of the entire farm and the relative areas,
sizes and locations of the parts composing
it;and imparts to the owner or manager,

and incidentally \ \\ \\ \\ v\ \\ \\ v'lX \\ \\'^
to the interested visitor, a
better conception or mental picture of these
relations than can be gained without it.
It gives a kind of birdseye view which is of
great assistance to him in planning his work,
in showing the most desirable locations for
roads and lanes, for division of fields, and
for the addition of improvements.
This chapter takes up briefly the methods
and application of this branch of the lan-
Fig. 139. —Engineers' scale and protractor.
guage of drawing.
into 100 "links" of 7.92 inches. Lengths
Instruments. are now
given in feet and tenths of feet.
A
surveyor uses a transit for turning off For general use on the farm a 100 ft. steel
angles and for obtaining magnetic bearings tape, graduated in feet and inches will be of
or directions of lines. It is an expensive constant service in laying out and measuring
instrument and, while desirable, is not a fields, buildings and boundaries; and for the
necessary investment on the farm; but a few times when tenths of feet are needed
small farm level (prices of which range from they may be calculated from inches.
ten to forty dollars) will be of constant value A farm office should have on hand a
on every farm, for laying out drains, leveling protractor for laying off angles on the map,
building foundations, determining fall of and a 12 inch engineer's scale, divided into
streams for water power, and laying out 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts to the inch.
road and fence lines. If provided with a With it a map may be made to any desired
90
MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING 91
scale, or number of feet to the inch ;

or if the bearing of a line is its deviation from north
old-style measurements are preferred, may and south. Thus a N. 15° W. would
line
be made to such a scale as 10 chains to the be a an angle of 15 degrees
line deflecting at
inch. The protractor and engineer's scale to the west of the north and south line. (2)
are illustrated in Fig. 139. The acreage of a farm or field is calculated
A map is virtually a top view of the area by well-known methods. (3) Monuments
represented, showing the natural features are markers set in the ground, or sometimes
and the works of man, and the imaginary on the older surveys, blazed on a tree. The
lines representing divisions of authority or importance of good monuments should be
ownership. The relief, or relative elevations emphasized, and wooden stakes should be'
and depressions of the surface of the ground, avoided. An iron pin or pipe is sometimes
is sometimes added, to give the complete used. A better marker is a gas pipe stake
description of an area, in which case the map set in concrete in a land tile. When it is
is called a contour map. necessary to move and put back a monu-

The scale of a map varies of course with ment, as for example in road improvements,
the extent of territory to be shown on a sheet witness stakes should be set first, with which
of given size, but in any map the scale is the monument may be aligned. (4) High-
relatively so small that objects are shown ways and streams should be indicated by the
symbolically. The map of an ordinary symbols of Fig. 142. Waterlining if at-
farm may be drawn from 40 feet to 100 feet tempted, should be done carefully. If a
to the inch. boundary runs up the middle of a stream on a
farm survey, it is best to omit the water-
Plats. lining. (5) Official division lines would
A mapplotted from a plane survey, and mean township and range lines, or other
having the relief omitted, is called a "plat" legal divisions. (6) Adding the names of
or "land map." Under
head would
this the owners of abutting property aids in
come the plat of a farm survey, made from fixing the location of the land in relation to
the surveyor's record, or from the description adjacent property holders. (7) The title
in the deed to the property. to a map is a concise formal statement of
A Farm Survey. general information, giving name of owner,
The plat of a farm survey should give location, purpose of the map, when made and
clearly all the information necessary for by whom, scale, date, and key to symbols.
the legal description of the parcel of land. The North Point serves to orient the map,
It should contain: and a note should state whether the true or
(1) Lengths and bearings of the several magnetic meridian is referred to. (8) A
sides. survey to be legal must be made by a sur-
Acreage.
(2) veyor, and be certified as correct by the
Location and description of monu-
(3) County Surveyor's office. The owner should
ments found and set. familiarize himself with the State laws of his
(4) Location of highways, streams, etc. state.
f5) Official division lines within the tract. Fig. 140 is an example of a farm plat.
(6) Names of owners of abutting property.
(.7) Title and north point. A Farm Office Map.
(8) Certification. In addition to the items of tne farm survey,
Under these heads, (1) a survey to be legal a map for office use should contain —
must be made in "metes and bounds." The (1) Location of buildings.
(2) Location of all drains and underground This map, with the fields numbered and
pipes. recorded in a farm book will be a valuable
(3) Division lines of all fields, fenced or aid in recording crop rotation, production,
unfenced. state of fertility, soil tests, dates of improve-
. T/re êar//7^s are cc/Zay/o'/ea' /h?/77
PLAT
TH£J.C.yt/ARD FARM
/.ore r/fACT/z &LOT'f- rfiAcre
M/iD/SOA/ TtVP.
LA/<£ CO.
/ Z?ere6y cer//fy /he o/?owe p/erZ /o be correct o.
scAie /'mzoo' uu/vss,/s/s
S.3Jp23c.r}K Co. Sur:
Fig. 140. —Farm plat from plane survey.

(4) Numbers on all fields. ments, etc. It will also serve in directing
(5) All lanes and drives. farm labor, and planning work ahead, such
-X SC K X— r-X y X p—X X ^X- -K K X K- -K '
X K Kt X . tfr-
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Railroad iiiHltll!t!tM?t»Mttii...
Hedge
"'lUllkll^lllllkWIUilllf'
Rail or Worm Fence Cuf
Elecfric Railway
floods and BuUdinffs 5lane Fence .uUUllllll UilUiiu
Wire Fence '"MUTiTrnmnif"'

Sfafe Line Embankment
Private Roads
Picket Fence
County Line
Township Line
i?^
Cemeteries
m
Levees
Property orfield Line not
Fenced Church School
Bridge
CULTURE
Falls and Rapids in Large Stream Canals
Small Stream - _ Hife _-i!t — *%_-i,

Contours
Intermittent Streams
Fresh Marsh
Depression Contours Lake or Pond Spring
RELIEF WATER FEATURES
••^
.*. ...
Meado>y Deciduous Trees Oak Trees Evergreen Trees

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Willows /'/>7^, m/Z^n/ &. Brush Cleared Land Cultivated Land

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Orchard Corn Tobacco Vineyard
VEGETATION
Fig. 142. —Topographic symbols.

as fence repairs, plowing, etc. Some use lines, the positions of natural land and water
such a map, mounted on soft pine, or cork features, and the "culture" (as topographers
board, by using pins 'with variously colored call the works of man), but also the relative
heads in locating and recording operations. elevations and depressions, or the slopes of
Sometimes the contour lines are drawn on the and valleys. The different kinds
hills
the farm map to aid still further in its use, of plantingand vegetation are indicated by
particularly in planning drainage. symbols, and the relief is generally shown by
If the map is made on tracing cloth, blue contour lines.
prints or blue line prints may be made, and Fig. 142 is a page of standard symbols
the original tracing kept up to date in regard used in topographic drawing. They should
to permanent improvements, while the be made with a fine pen and not overworked.
82 50'
Fig. 143. — Contour map.
prints are used to work from, and filed from Contours.
year to year. In extensive operating a A contour is a line on the surface of the
print maybe given to each tenant. ground which at every point passes through
Fig. 141 shows a farm map for office use. the same elevation, that is, the same "level."
Thus the shore line of a body of still water
Topographical Drawing. represents a contour. If a portion of a farm
A topographic map is a more nearly com- should be flooded, the edge of the water
plete description than a land map, in that would be one possible contour. If the water
it gives not only the imaginary division went down one foot in depth, the new shore
line would form a new contour, with a con- features in inclined letters. For plats, the
tour interval of one foot. letters of Fig. 42 are well adapted.
Notes
143 illustrates a contour map, in
Fig. on contour and profile maps are generally
which the contour intervals are ten feet for made in Reinhardt letters; Fig. 46. On
the light lines and fifty feet for the heavier landscape maps the Roman of Fig. 47 may
lines. Contour lines are also shown in Fig. be used.
5, page 4.
Profiles.
Quadrangle Sheets. If a vertical section is taken along the line
The U. S. Government, in cooperation ABCD of Fig. 143 the view is termed a pro-
with the different states, and under the direc- file, as shown in Fig. 144. Here it is seen
tion of the Geological Survey, is mapping that the vertical distances are exaggerated,
each state, in sections called quadrangles, or plotted to a larger scale in order to show
on separate sheets of about 16" X
20", and the grades to better advantage. Profiles
mostly to the scale of approximately one are usually made on ruled profile paper,
inch to the mile. These maps show all that known as "Plate A" paper, with 4
Fig. 144. — Profile from contour map.
roads, housesand other topography, together horizontal divisions and 20 vertical divi-
with the contours, and give the elevations sions to the inch, being generally used.
of all cross roads, in feet above mean sea They are of value in grading drains and
level. They are distributed at the nominal highways.
cost of ten cents each, and be found of
will The
gradient, or grade of a line is the per-
much value and interest to any land owner. centage of its vertical rise or fall, thus a
To find if a particular section has been com- road of 7 per cent, grade would rise seven
pleted, write to the Director, U. S. Geolog- feet in a distance of 100 feet, and a drain
ical Survey, Washington, D. C. with —0.5 per cent, grade would have a fall
Landscape Maps are used in the study of of 6 inches in 100 feet. Tile drains should
improvements for estates, country places, not have less than —0.1% grade. Open
parks and additions, and for showing the ditches vary from 2 to 8 feet fall per mile.
artistic effect to be gained in the arrangement
and planting. Some degree of embellish- Problems.
ment is permissible, and color is sometimes The following problems illustrate the type
used on them. Fig. 145 illustrates a land- that arise in connection with this
may
scape map of an addition. branch of drawing, and will serve as sugges-
The lettering done on maps should be tions for the student or farm owner; and will
simple and legible. Land features are give a familiarity with the symbols, and the
usually indicated in vertical letters and water method of using maps.
Fig. 145. —^Landscape map.
35 Survey of Truck Fcrrm of A. 6. Harder PTdailey, Suryeyor lape ?4 36

Osyyeffo, Ohio. J.fi.Pugh.Chain Compass /7
5fa. Bearing D/sfance Ju/y ê./9/5 Fa/r
NlZ'tSE- 760.32 Iron inConcreA Monumenf cor./}.Har/-er,J.Bro^n, A. Liayd.
Pit,
N72°38'E 1149. 72 Iron pipe driven in ffround.

5 7'26'f 1634. 20 5tone 17, onument 4 of Highway
D 5 79''28W 1014.48 iron peg j of H'ghway
N34°00W /d05. 76 L arge < '>al< tree t/a zed. 5p/ke driven in b/aze.
C^y^kÂMtf^ ^g{^//e<^>eg",>a-^^^
a^ t^jf^
(fiê.
Fig. 146. —Page from field book.

MAPS AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING
PROBLEMS. highway, accessibility to fields, and a prevailing

1. Fromthe note book page shown in Fig. 146, westerly wind.
plat the farm, recording all data as outlined on 6. It is proposed to build a 40 ft. road from P to
page 91. Q, Fig. 147. Choose a location bearing in mind
2. Draw a map of your home farm, from deeds, grades, natural obstacles, divisions of ownership
or measurements, showing location of all buildings, etc., and draw a strip map 300 feet wide showing
and natural and cultural features. the proposed road. Draw a profile, showing all
3. Redesign the above, to secure if possible, drains, bridges, culverts, etc.
better and more economical arrangement of plant. 7. Draw a farm map for office use, of Fig. 147,
4. From the contour map shown in Fig. 5, page showing all the items referred to under this head.
4, locate the best place for a drain
or drains. The western farm needs drainage.
half of this
Draw the map, locating each stretch, and indicate 8. On dam at an advantageous
Fig. 147 locate a
the grade of each. To obtain the grade, draw on position. Plot the impounding reservoir.
Plate A profile paper, a profile of the chosen location. 9. Enlarge a portion of Fig. 141, and make a
On profile show gradient and depth of ditch at each finished drawing, showing planting of different fields
50 feet of length. Locate these 50 ft. points or by symbols.

"hubs" on the location map. Enlarge the farmstead of Fig. 5 to the scale
10.
6. Locate on the contour map, Fig. 147, a farm- of 20 = 1 inch, and draw a landscape map, with
ft.
stead, bearing in mind drainage, proximity to proposed planting, walks and drives.
CHAPTER VI
PICTORIAL DRAWING
In Chapter I a general division was made under side of an object the axes are reversed,
between pictorial drawings and working as at (B). The intersection of these three
drawings. Perspective drawing was defined, lines would be the front corner of a rectangu-
and reference was made to the simpler lar object. If the length, breadth and thick-
pictorial methods of isometric and oblique
drawing, which are designed to combine the
advantages of both orthographic and per-
spective. Although they have disadvan-
tages and limitations, familiarity with these
two methods is very desirable, as they are
often used both to illustrate some object
or detail more clearly and to make working
FiG. 148. —Isometric axes.
sketches and drawings. Working drawings,
as we have seen, are generally made in ortho-
graphic projection, but often a working
drawing of simple construction may be
drawn to better advantage in isometric or
oblique.
Although theoretically these two systems
are somewhat different, the method of con-
struction isvery much the same for both.
In orthographic projection we had vir-
tually a separate view for each face of a
rectangular object. In these pictorial repre-
sentations the object is so placed that three
faces of it are visible on one view. To avoid
confusion each system will be explained
separately, and the student should be careful
not to confuse the two methods in the same
drawing.
Isometric Drawing. Fig. 149.
Isometric drawing is based on a skeleton ness of the object be laid off on the three
of three lines at 120 degrees apart, called the axes, the figure may be completed by drawing
isometric axes. One is drawn
vertically, through these points, lines parallel to the
the others with the 30° triangle, as shown in axes. Fig. 149.
Fig. 148 (A). When it is desired to show the A line parallel to an isometric axis is
100
PICTORIAL DRAWING 101
called an isometric line. A line which is object composed entirely of isometric lines,
not parallel to an isometric axis is called and illustrates the method of making meas-
a non-isometric line. The one important urements on the original isometric axes and
rule is measurements can be made only on on lines parallel to them.
isometric lines. Thus all the lines of an To draw an object which has non-isometric
object which has square corners can be lines in it, a skeleton of isometric construc-
FiG. 150. —Object with isometric lines
Fig. 151. —Object with non-isometric Hnes.

measured directly. Non-isometric lines can tion lines must be built up, upon which
not be measured. For example, the diag- measurements can be made. Often it is
onals of the rectangle on Fig. 149 are of equal necessary to draw one or more orthographic
length on the object but evidently of very views first and box them with rectangular
unequal length on the isometric drawing. construction lines, which can be drawn iso-
Fig. 150 is the isometric drawing of an metrically and measurements upon them
made and transferred. Fig. 151 illustrates of any circle-arc the isometric square of its
this construction. diameter should be drawn in the plane of the
To draw intelligently in isometric it is face with as much of this construction as is
only necessary to remember the direction of necessary to find centers for the part of the
the three principal isometric planes, repre- circle needed. Fig. 153 illustrates this
sented by the three visible faces of a cube or construction on the isometric of a shelf,
which has been drawn with reversed axes to
show the under side.
Fig. 152. —Approximate isometric circle.
Hidden lines are always

rectangular figure.
omitted except when necessary for the de-
scription of the piece.
A circle on any isometric plane will be
projected as an ellipse, and the isometric Fig. 154. —An isometric section.
square circumscribing the circle must always
Isometric sections as illustrated in Fig.
154 may sometimes be used to good advan-
tage, the cut faces always being taken in
isometric planes.
Oblique Drawing.
Oblique drawing is similar to isometric in
having three axes representing three mutu-
ally perpendicular lines upon which meas-
urements can be made. It differs in that
two of the axes are always at right angles to
each other, while the third, or cross axis may
be at any angle. Fig. 155, though 30 degrees
Fig. 153.
is generally used. Thus, the face drawn on
be drawn first. The usual construction is to the plane of the two axes at right angles will
make a four centered circle-arc approxima- appear without distortion, a circle on it for
tion, finding the centers for the arcs by draw- example showing its true shape.
ing 60 degree lines from the corners A and B This oblique drawing a distinct
gives
to the middle of the opposite sides, giving advantage over isometric for the represen-
centers A, B, C, and D
for the ellipse, as tation of objects with curved or irregular
shown in Fig. 152. Thus to get the isometric outlines, and the first rule would be, place
the object with the irregular outline or con- the apparent distortion, which is noticeable
tour on the front plane. Fig. 156. both in oblique and isometric drawings,
If there is no irregular outhne the second objects in oblique drawing always appearing
Fig. 155. —Oblique axes illustrated.
/ A
THUS
THUS
Cabinet Drawing. Keep dimension and extension lines in the

Cabinet drawing is a modification of plane of the face.
oblique drawing in which all of the measure- Do not confuse the drawing with dotted
ments parallel to the cross axis are reduced lines.
one-half, in an attempt to overcome the

appearance of excessive thickness. Fig. 158 Problems.
comparative appearance of a
illustrates the The following problems are intended to
figure drawn in isometric, oblique and cabi- serve two purposes:
net drawing. 1st, for practice in isometric and oblique
The numerous examples of pictorial draw- drawing,
ing used in illustration and explanation 2nd, for practice in reading orthographic
throughout this book will serve to suggest projection.
various practical applications of the subject In reading a drawing remember that a line
that may be made after the student has on any view always means a corner or edge
acquired a facility in its use. and that one must always look at the other
Fig. 158. —'Isometric, oblique, and cabinet drawing compared.
Sketching. view to find out what kind of a corner it is.

One of the valuable uses of isometric and Do not try, nor expect to be able, to read a
oblique is in making freehand sketches, whole drawing at one glance.
either dimensioned to form working sketches, The sketches are dimensioned, and it is
or for illustrating some object or detail of expected that some will be made as finished
construction. The following points should drawings, with instruments, while others
be observed. may be taken as reading problems to be
Keep the axes flat. The beginner's mis- sketched freehand. This translation from
take is in spoiling the appearance of his orthographic to pictorial form is, it will be
sketch by getting the axes too steep. noticed, just the reverse of what was done
Keep parallel lines parallel. in our preliminary study of working draw-
Always block in squares before sketching ings, when, in Figs. 19, 20 and 21 we made
circles. orthographic projections from the pictures.
In isometric drawing remember that a To the dimensions and scales given, a
on the top face will be an ellipse with
circle 12" X 18" sheet will contain any four of the
its axis horizontal. first sixteen problems, thus a sheet may be
^"^
V
3
// 4-
Fig. 159. —Angle stop.
Fig. 160. —Work bench drawer.

MATERIAL
WHOU6HT IffON Off
Fig. 166. —Comer bracket.

Fig. 168. —Bolster stake iron.
Fig. 169. —Adjustable spacing block.

MATERIAL
U^-^
LENGTH TO SUJT SfACE:
Fig. 167. —Section of barn door track. Fig. 170.—Bench.
t'"-1 M
©
Fig. 171. —Two forms of saw horse.
made up of Nos. 1, 3, 5 and 7, or an alternate pictorial problems such as 24 and 25, may be
of 2, 4, 6 and 8. Selections from problems made from the problems at the end of
'
— — .
-
Chapter III, selecting scale to fit the space
allowed.
PROBLEMS.
1. Isometric drawing of angle stop, Fig. 159.
Full size.
2. Isometric drawing of drawer, Fig. 160. Scale
IK" = 1'.
3. Isometric drawing of button, Fig. 161. Full

size.
4. Isometric drawing of corner plate, Fig. 162.
Full size.
5. Isometric section of washer. Fig. 163. Full size.
6. Isometric section of washer, Fig. 164. Full size.
Fig. 172.— "A" frame.
7. Isometric drawing of shelf. Fig. 165. Scale
6" = 1'. Use reversed axes so as to show under
17 to 22 be placed two on a sheet, and
may side.
23 should preferably be made large enough 8. Isometric drawing of corner bracket, Fig. 166.
to occupy a sheet alone. Numerous other Scale 3" = 1'. Use reversed axes
Fig. 173.—Sheep hurdle.

9. Oblique drawing of section of bird-proof track 13. Isometric drawing of horse, Fig. 171. Scale
for rolling door. Fig. 167. Full size. Have break 1" = 1'. Notice construction for non-isometric
line follow form of section. lines.
10. Oblique drawing of bolster stake iron, Fig. 14. Isometric drawing of horse, alternate form
6" = Boi =
168. Scale 1'.
—
9i- Scale
Fig. 171.
15. Oblique
16. Oblique
%" = 1'.
Scale 1" 1'.
drawing of land level frame. Fig. 172.
drawing of sheep
(or isometric)
Tr hurdle. Fig. 173. Scale Yi" = 1'.
II
11
17. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of bird house.
-H— Fig. 174. Scale 6" 1'. =
18. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of book rack.
Fig. 175. Scale 6" = 1'.
19. Oblique (or cabinet) drawing of wheel, Fig.
176. Scale 3" = 1'.
/O A 20. Isometric (or oblique) drawing of angle brace,
g M/ir£f(IAL Full size.
Fig. 177.
Fig. 174. — Bird house. 21. Isometric (oblique or cabinet) drawing of
kitchen step ladder. Fig. 178. Scale 3" = 1'.
22. Isometric (or oblique) drawing of stone rake,
Fig. 179. Scale %"=!'•
23. Oblique (isometric or cabinet) drawing of
two-till tool chest, Fig. 180. Scale 3" = 1'. Draw
with lid open, or break out a section, in order to
show interior.
24. Isometric or oblique drawing of milking stool.
Fig. 75.
LCHtTH ro SUI T
25. Isometric or oblique drawing of gang mold,,
Fig. 175. —Book rack. Fig. 77.
11. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of spreader

^^^ ^^.^^ ^^ ^. ^g^ ^^^ ^^ ê sketched'
for concrete forms. Fig. 169. Scale 3" = 1'. • •
v
12. Oblique (or isometric) drawing of bench, Fig.
.
freehand
, ,
m
. ,
the most
, -^ i
suitable
i
pictorial.
i.
170. Scale 13^" = 1'. System.
Fig. 176. —Wooden wheelbarrow wheel.

no AGRICULTURAL DRAWING
3-0"-
£Opfneyeiio/f-jforpt///. ,
S-gxySoJts irlfhivasherj
.OV _^ ,°°. -g" ^ \y'^^%

\ortcl /oc/f nut.
^-ff^S^So/fj with
tvashmrs
Fig. 179. —Stone rake.
-
4N\>
r=f
^
"«^lTj-
^
'i--^-'-'-^'^
^^vv^.^'s^<'v'^'^<>'^-<'^^ SX:
--^
r^ ;i
r=!f 1/
,^! .s^jv /ri4c/<
r
1 _5 '
)l/W///y'////y/f'^^^^^^/^y>/yyV//yk\
— 15
j-^
T/LLS TO 0£ MAPe: OF^ jyJATSR/AL.
Fig. 180. —Tool chest.
rr
II
II
o
!Sl^>&Wi'^ i;
ff
^-
CHAPTER VII
CONSTRUCTION DATA
In designing structures, and preparing
working drawings and specifications, the
designer needs certain information as
to materials and commercial practice. A
number of tables, and items of miscellaneous
information are assembled in this chapter,
for ready reference; and as suggestions in
their use a few problems are appended.
Stock and Commercial Sizes.
For economy, and avoidance of trouble
in procuring, stock sizes of materials should
be used as far as possible. As these com-
mercial sizes and standards vary somewhat
in different parts of the country, one should
be sure that grades and sizes of any mate-
rials specified are locally recognized, and
obtainable.
Lumber.
Lumber comes in standard lengths of
10-0", 12'-0", 14'-0", up to 24'-0".

etc.,
Over 24'-0" and under 10-0" is special.
In width and thickness the following
nominal sizes are obtainable.
Thickness
1"
2"
3" (local).
4"
6"
8"
10"
12"
14"...-....
CONSTRUCTION DATA 113
become with the Lbs. per cu. ft.

tions should at once so,
Sand, dry .... 95
assistance of a hardware store man.
Sand, wet .... 130
Rope is measured by its largest diameter, Gravel 130
and specified by its number of strands, as Cast iron 450
3 strand or 4 strand. The best sash cord is Wrought iron. 480
Granite 170
braided.
Ice 53
Drain Tile comes 12" and 24".
in lengths
Water 62.5
The smallest practical size is 3", and diame- A 8K and contains
gallon of water weighs lbs.
ters advance by inches up to 10" then by 231 cu. inches.
2" up to 24".
Space Required for Storage.
Slate is sold by the square, 100 sq. ft.
Hay, one ton occupies 512 cu. ft.
There are various kinds and grades. Widths
Straw, one ton occupies 600 to 800 cu. ft.
advance by inches and lengths by two inches.
Hay, pressed, 25 lbs. per cu. ft.
Metal Roofing comes in sheets or rolls, = IK
Small grain, 1 bu. cu. ft.
the sizes the same as galvanized iron. = 2}-^
Corn on cob, 1 bu. cu. ft.
Ready Roofing comes under various trade
names, and is usually a composition of Space Required for Farm Implements.
bituminous or resinous compounds and felt The following table gives the over-all
or paper. It is sometimes coated with allowance for some common implements.

coarse sand or slate. It is sold in rolls of Add to the list for your own requirements.
108 sq. ft., making one square with allow- Side delivery rake lOK' X 12'
Corn planter 6' X5'
ance for laps.
Mower 6
Hay loader 9
Weight of Roofing.
Rake (common 2 horse) 5
The approximate weights of different roof
30 H.P. tractor 8
coverings are needed in determining the Corn cultivator 5
strength of rafters. The snow and
load, Corn binder 9
wind pressure are also factors to be added Grain binder (7 ft. cut) 9
Manure spreader 8
in figuring roofs, and an important problem
Grain drill (8 hoe) 5
should not be attempted without assistance.
Roller
Shingles run about 250 lbs. per square.
Slate 750 to 900, tile 1100 to 1400, ready
Ration for Beef Feeders.
12 lbs. shelled corn
roofing 40 to 150, galvanized iron 100 to
2 lbs. cotton seed meal
300.
20 lbs. corn silage
Weights of Materials. 5 lbs. clover or alfalfa
The weight per cubic foot of different per 1000 lbs. weight of live animal.
materials often required.
is The following Table for the Selection of Native Woods.
table gives the weight of some of the com-
The following list gives the suitable woods
mon materials. for different purposes, arranged somewhat in
Lbs. per cu. ft.
the order of their desirability and availability.
Oak 52
Yellow pine 45 —
Light framing hemlock, poplar, spruce, oak.
White pine 25 —
Heavy framing yellow pine, oak.
Hemlock 25 Joists —
yellow pine, oak, redwood.
Maple 49 —
Siding cypress, redwood, yellow pine, poplar.
Brick (average) 125 —
Shingles cypress, red cedar, redwood, white
Concrete (average) 140 cedar, pine.
—
Flooring oak, maple, edge grain yellow pine, Table II
birch (cypress for porch).
Interior finish —oak, birch, cypress, yellow pine;
Beam fixed at one end and uniformly loaded.
etc. l<ormula W = —
Tanks—cypress,mahogany,
cherry, walnut,
redwood, fir.
-~~^
Fence posts — order

(in of durability) osage
B
orange, black locust,
red cedar, mulberry, white
cedar, catalpa, chestnut, oak, black ash.
Vehicles—hickory, oak, ash.
Strength of Timbers.
The following tables give the safe load in
pounds that can be carried by long leaf
yellow pine timbers, as figured from the
formulas indicated. To find the compara-
tive strength of other kinds of wood take
75% of the amount for white oak; 60%
for white pine and 55% for hemlock.
Table I
Beam fixed at one end and concentrated load at

the other end. Formula W —
.j ,
where W
is the safe load in lbs., B the breadth of the beam
in inches, D
its depth in inches and L its length in
feet. A the constant, 100 for yellow pine, and as
is
indicated above, 75 for white oak, etc.

Table IV
Beam supported at both ends, with concentrated
load in the middle. Formula W ——
= BDÂ
j
B
Dairy Score Card

Score Score
Equipment Methods
Perfect Allowed Perfect Allowed
Cows Cows
Health Clean
Apparently in good health 1 (Free from visible dirt, 6.)
If tested with tuberculin within a year
Stables
and no tuberculosis is found, or if
tested within six months and all re- Cleanliness of stables
5 Floor 2
acting animals removed
Walls 1
(If tested within a year and react-
ing animals are found and Ceiling and ledges 1
removed, 3.) Mangers and partitions 1
Food (clean and wholesome) Windows 1
Water and Stable air at milking time

(clean fresh)
Freedom from dust 3
Stables Freedom from odors 2
Location of stable ,
Cleanliness of bedding
Well drained 1 Barnyard
Free from contaminating surround- Clean I
ings 1 Well drained 1

Construction of stable Removal of manure daily to 50 feet
Tight, sound floor and proper gutter. 2 from stable
Smooth, tight walls and ceiling 1
Milk Room ob Milk House
Proper stall, tie, and manger 1
Provision for light: Four sq. ft. of glass room
Cleanliness of milk
per cow Utensils and Milking

(Three sq. ft., 3; 2 sq. ft., 2; 1 sq. ft.,
Care and cleanliness of utensils
1. Deduct for uneven distribu-
Thoroughly washed 2
tion.)
Sterilized in steam for 15 minutes. 3 . .
Bedding
(Placed over steam jet, or scalded
Ventilation
with boiling water, 2.)
Provision for fresh air, controllable
Protected from contamination 3
flue system 3
Cleanliness of milking
(Windows hinged at bottom, 1.5;
Clean, dry hands 3
sliding windows, 1 other open- ;
Udders washed and wiped 6
ings, 0.5.)
(Udders cleaned with moist cloth,
Cubic feet of space per cow 500 ft
4; cleaned with dry cloth or
(Less than 500 ft., 2; less than 400
brush at least 15 minutes before
ft., 1; less than 300 ft., 0.)
milking, 1.)
Provision for controlling tempera-
ture 1
Handling the Milk
Utensils
Construction and condition of utensils. . . .
Cleanliness of attendants in milk room . . . .
Water for cleaning Milk removed immediately from stable

without pouring from pail
(Clean, convenient, and abundant.)
Cooled immediately after milking each
Small-top milking pail
Milk cooler cow
Clean milking suits Cooled below 50° F
(51° to 55°, 4; 56° to 60°, 2.)
Milk Room or Milk House Stored below 50° F
Location: Free from contaminating sur- (51° to 55°, 2; 56° to 60°, 1.)
roundings Transportation below 50° F
Construction of milk room (51° to 55°, 1.5; 56° to 60°, 1.)
Floor, walls, and ceiling 1 (If delivered twice a day, allow per-
Light, ventilation, screens 1 fect score for storage and trans-
Separate rooms for washing utensils and portation.)
handling milk
steam
Facilities for
(Hot water, 0.5.)
Total 40 Total 60
Equipment + Methods = Final Score.

Note —
1. If any exceptionally found, particularly dirty utensils, the total score may be further limited.
filthy condition is
Note 2. —
If the water is exposed to dangerous contamination, or there is evidence of the presence of a dangerous disease in
animals or attendants, the score shall be 0.
Table VII. —Sun in Rear at 10 a. m. and 2 p. m.

{Kitchen score card, cont.). If no water in Kitchen, cut 40 points.

If no hot water in Kitchen, cut 20 points.
If Kitchen is used as Laundry, cut 15 points.
Remarks
Glass area = 20% of floor area,
cut 1 point for each 1% under.
Window in Pantry, cut 2 pts. if
none. Suggestions for Improvement

Satisfactory daylight at stove,
—
at sink, at table, 3 points each.
Satisfactory artificial light at
—
stove, at sink, at table, 3 points
each.
Transom on outside door, 1 point. Estimating.
Height of sills — If under 34" cut In making an estimate of the cost of a
1 point.
proposed structure, there are two general
Ventilating hood or flue
— point. 1
methods, the approximate estimate, and the
III. Floors and Walls — 10 Points.
1 —Floor Resilient and grease proof. detailed estimate.
Hardwood, Monolith or Lino- Approximate estimates are used for de-
termining the size given for a

leum, O. K. possible
Cut for cracks, softwood, oil cloth, cost, or getting the approximate cost
for
carpet, etc. after prehminary sketches are made. The
2—Walls methods are based on a knowledge of the
Light, cheerful, sanitary.
cost of similar structures, and are fairly-
Cut for wall paper or dark color.
3 —^Woodwork accurate and reliable if all conditions, such
Cut for dust catching mouldings as the relative cost of labor and materials,
or projections — 1 point. are known.
Cut for wood wainscot — 1 point.
The cubic method is the one generally
IV. Equipment —30 points. used. simply in figuring the
1 —Stove—adequate size and con-
It consists
cubic contents of the entire building, meas-
dition 12
If oven is less than 10" from floor uring to the outside of the walls, and mul-
cut 1 pt. per inch. tiplying by a unit price per cubic foot,
If no broiler, cut 2 points. which has been determined by dividing the
If no thermometer, cut 1 point.
cost of one, or a number of similar structures
2—Sink
Enamel or Porcelain O. K. by the number of cubic feet contained.
Cut for iron, tin, etc., 3 points. The following list of unit costs may be
Drainboard double, cut 3 points taken as giving safe general averages at
if single. the present time. The cost of building is
Splashboard, cut 2 points if wood
steadily increasing, with the rise in prices of
3—Table
—cut
Size 1 pt. if smaller than 6
materials and labor, and a house built for
sq. ft.
8 or 10)^ ten years ago would run 12 to 18}!f
Height —cut 1 pt. if uncom- now.

fortable.
4 —Refrigerator Dwellings, small frame, no plumbing 5 to 6
" • " "
frame, good 8 to 9
Size, material, condition,drainage
5 —Fireless Cooker " "
plumbing, heating, etc ... 10 to 12
6 — Chair and stool "

brick, plain, complete
" "
12 to 15
good 15 to 20
Barns, small 3 to 4
Total 100 " 4 to 5
large (with stables)
Other approximate methods for pre- As a general guide to present prices, the
liminary estimates are square the foot following figures, from actual costs, were
method, based on the area in square feet used in the estimate of the dairy barn whose
covered by the plan, and the unit methods plans were given in Figs. 112 to 115. All
of cost per room, per animal to be housed, figures refer to work in place.
or per ton of material to be stored. Average
costs per unit are listed below. Excavation $0 30 per cu. yd.
.
Unit costs Foundation $7 20 per cu. yd.

.
Dwellings, per sq. ft $1.50 to $10.00 Concrete floor $0.11 per sq. ft.
Stables, complete, per sq. ft $2 50 to $ 3.25
.
Frame $35.40 per M
Dairy barns (large), per sq. ft $1.50 to $ 2.00 Floor $25.40 per M
Sheathing $30.54 per M
Residences, per room $400 00 . Windows, average $5 68 each
.
Stables (horse or dairy), per animal $200 00 . .

Doors $0 48 per sq. ft.
.
Swine houses, per pen $25 .00 Siding $59.00 per M

Hay storage barns, per ton capacity. $12 00 .
Slate $11 .00 per sq.
Silos, per ton capacity $1 50 to $4 50 . . Painting $2.25 per sq.
Concrete floors and walks, per sq. ft. 7 to 12fi

Concrete work in place (no forms),
The total cost of barn as estimated is
$4320.00. In .a cubic estimate this would

per cu. yd $5.00
Concrete work in place (forms), per give 5^ per cubic foot, or $2.00 per square
cu. yd $5 .00 to $10 .00 foot.
Concrete work in place (reinforced),
per cu. yd $8.00 to $10.00
Heating, Lighting, Ventilation, Plumbing,
Detailed Estimates.
and Sewage Disposal.
The accurate method of estimating is to
It is beyond the scope of this book to
"take off" from the finished drawings, the
discuss these subjects, except to call atten-
amounts of all the different materials enter-
tion to the need of considering them care-
ing into the structure, and with ascertained and
fully in connection with the planning
local prices on materials and labor, add the
design of farm structures, and to provide
totals of the cost of each item in place. To on the for the
drawings systems pro-
this total should be added say 10% for con-
posed.
tingencies, and in the case of a general con-
Thus in planning a residence we have to
tractor, 10% for profits.
decide whether stoves and fireplaces will
Materials are measured in the following
be used for heating, and if so to see that flues
units of measurement.
and chimneys are arranged in the most
Lumber Feet of board measure convenient and economical way; or if a hot-
(B.M. = 1" X 12" X 12") air or hot-water furnace is to be installed,
Brick Thousand (M)
to place furnace and fuel rooms to the best
Brick work sq. ft. wall surface
Stone work cu. ft. (or sometimes cord or perch) advantage for runs of pipe and location of
Concrete and masonry cu. yd. air intake, and to locate registers or radiators
Excavation cu. yd. where desired in each room.
Roofing square (100 sq. ft.) In lighting, if gas or electric plants are
Paint square to be installed, suitable provision must be
Shingles thousand
Cement bbl. (4 sacks)
made and shown on the plans for location
Sand, gravel and crushed stone yd. (cu. yd.)
and outlets. The advantage of an inde-
(sometimes sold by the ton) pendent electric plant for both light and
power for the entire farmstead should be the frame with inked side toward the glass
considered, particularly if water power is and place the unexposed paper on it with the
obtainable. sensitized surface against the tracing, Fig.
Theventilation of dairy and horse barns 182. Lock up in the frame, seeing that no
has already been referred to, and is a very corners are turned under, and expose to
important consideration in modern con- sunlight for from one-half to three minutes,
struction. King's "Ventilation" should be depending upon the speed of the paper.
procured and studied. Then take out exposed paper and put it in a
It is not usual in residence construction bath of water for about five minutes, and
to provide a ventilating system, except as hang up to dry.
fresh air is introduced through furnace reg- In almost any town one is able to have
isters. The open fireplace has a distinct blue prints made at comparatively slight
value as a ventilator, apart from its senti- cost.
mental value as the spot about which home
memories cluster. Problems.
Aventilating flue and hood is a desirable
The following problems are suggestive of
addition to the kitchen. a large number that can be made, using
In planning for plumbing, pipes should be the data given, either alone or in con-
on inside walls if possible, and should for nection with the illustrations or problems
economy be kept in vertical runs. Thus the in Chapters III and IV.
bath room is best located somewhere over
the kitchen. There are various state codes
PROBLEMS.
to be observed regarding soil pipes, vents,
1. Hay is taken in at the end of a barn in loads
etc.
varying from 500 to 1200 pounds. The track is
In sewage disposal the advantage of the supported by a yellow pine timber projecting 6'-0"
septic tank has already been referred to. without support. What should its dimensions be?
The dangerous cesspool should be abandoned. 2. A grain bin with a capacity of 500 bushels of
wheat is 12'-0" X 8'-0". The joists are of white
A general estimate of $30.00 per person for
pine spaced 12" from center to center. How large
a family of ordinary size may be made in
must they be to support the load safely?
figuring the cost of an approved type. 3. How much cement, sand, and stone will be
necessary to construct the water tank shown in Fig.

Blue Printing. 104 if its capacity is 15 barrels of water?
4. At $5.00 per cubic yard, estimate the cost of
Practically all working drawings are made
the foundation for the machine shed shown in Fig.
in pencil on detail paper and traced on trac-
124. Footing 30" below grade. What will the floor
ing cloth, a transparentized fabric, or some- cost at 9)4 per sq. ft.?
times on tracing paper. These tracings are 5. Silage (compacted) weighs approximately 40
blue-printed by exposing a piece of sensitized pounds per cubic ft. How many tons of silage will
be contained in a silo 14' X 38' if 6' is allowed for
paper in contact with the tracing to sun-
settlement after filling?
light or electric light in a printing frame
6. A farmer is feeding 40 steers the ration given
made for the purpose. The resulting print on page 113. How large must his silo be to allow
has white lines on a blue ground. Any 200 days' feeding, supposing that the ration is the
number of prints may be taken from one same for the whole period?
7. At 30)4 per cubic yard, what will be the cost
tracing. Blue print paper is bought ready
of excavating for the house shown in Fig. 134?
sensitized and may be had in different
Make a sketch of wall section showing grade line,
weights and degrees of rapidity. and basement 7' in the clear.
To make a blue print, lay the tracing in 8. The dairy barn shown in Figs. 112 to 115 is to
be painted two coats. Allowing 1 gal. to 300 sq. ft. barn shown in Fig. 116. Use approximate methods
for priming coat and 1 gal.to 500 sq. ft. for second to check your detailed estimate.
coat, how much will the paint cost at $2.00 per 11. What will be the dimensions of a storage barn
gallon? to hold 120 tons of hay? Make allowance for one-
9. Make a cubic estimate of the cost of the house half of space above plate.
shown in Fig. 134. 12. What is the weight of the wrought iron bolster
10. Make an estimate of the cost of the horse iron shown in Fig. 168?
G/a»s
Fig. 182. — Blue-print frame.

CHAPTER VIII
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
A short list of books and pamphlets on "Farm buildings of practical, sanitary and ar-
a possible
allied subjects is here included, as
A book designed for large es-
tistic lines."
tates country places, rather than the
or
aid to those wishing to investigate further
average farm.
into some of the branches referred to in the —
Ekblaw, J. K. T, Farm Structures.
present work. 347 pp. ill. $1.75. MacMillan & Co.,
It is not to be regarded at all as a complete N. Y. 1914.
list, but simply as a representative selection A text book for Agricultural Engineering
of recent publications. courses, with a general discussion of materials,
On account of the rapid strides in scientific construction and engineering of farm struc-
tures.
and sanitary research, and the use of new
or improved building materials and methods
— —Farm Buildings.
:
354 pp. 637 ill. $2.00. Sanders Publish-

of construction, a large portion of the books
ing Co., Chicago. 1914.
and other material now in print may be
A compila;tion of articles appearing in the
regarded as practically obsolete. Breeder's Gazette, contributed by practical
The list is classified into books; bulletins men and dealing with actual structures.
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture; Radford, W. A.
—Practical Barn Plans.
bulletins of State Colleges and Agricultural 172 pp. ill. $1.00. Radford Architec-
Experiment Stations; and books or pamph- tural Co., Chicago. 1909.
lets issued by manufacturing concerns. "a collection of common-sense plans of barns,
Government and state bulletins are pub- out-buildings, and stock sheds."
lished with some frequency, and much .
— Poultry Houses and Fixtures.
information may be gained from them. A 95 pp. ill. $.50. Rehable Poultry Jour-
nal Pub. Co., Quincy, 111. 1913.
monthly list of the bulletins published by
the U. S. Department of Agriculture at A compilation of articles appearing in the
ReUable Poultry Journal. "Poultry house
Washington, D. C, may be had on apphca- suggestions for every breed, every climate,
tion to the Editor and Chief, Division of every fancy."
Publications. State bulletins may be se- Child, Georgie Boynton. The Efficient
—
cured by applying to the Agricultural Ex- Kitchen.
periment Station of the State. 242 pp. ill. $1.25. McBride Nast & Co.
Manufacturers are compiling valuable and 1914.
interesting data and information in their A discussion of the planning of the kitchen
from the standpoint of in operation.
catalogues of materials or appliances, and
while intended for advertising purposes,
.
— The Rochestereconomy
Ice House.
some of these publications are well worth Board of Health, Rochester, N. Y.

A bulletin describing in detail the construc-
securing and preserving.
tion and operation of the ice house illustrated
in Fig. 127.
BOOKS.
Ellis, A. R.
—Making a Garage.
—
Hopkins, Alfred. Modern Farm Buildings. $.50. McBride Nast & Co. 1913.
206 pp. ill. $2.00. McBride Nast & Co., One of the series of "House and Garden Mak-
N. Y. 1913. ing" books.
122
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 123
White, C. E., Jr.

—Successful Houses and Workable explanation of concrete, stave and
modified Wisconsin types of Silo.
How to Build Them.
— Hog Houses.
MacMillanCo. 1912. Farmers' Bulletin No. 438.
$2.00.
An extensive discussion of planning, specifi- 29 pp. 21 figs.
cations, fixtures and devices. Tables of position of sun's rays at different

—— —— — Book of Little Houses.
:
times of the year.
Valuable for the design of sunlight type of
107 pp. $.50. MacMillan & Co. 1914.
Ives, H. C.
— Surveying Manual. swine house.
—The Farm
Farmers' Bulletin No. 607.
296 pp. $2.25. Jno. Wiley & Sons, N. Y.
Kitchen as a Workshop.
1914.
20 pp. 6 figs.
A short treatise on surveying, especially de-
Of interest principally to farm women.
signed for a brief course, or for home study.
.
—
Elliott, C. G. Practical Farm Drainage. Farmers' Bulletin No. 475. Ice Houses. —
188 pp. $1 .50. Jno. Wiley & Sons, N. Y. 20 pp. 11 figs.
1908. Brief discussion of ice houses and application.

The essentials, principles, and practice of Farmers' Bulletin No. 623. Ice Houses —
drainage. and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm.
FoRTiER, Samuel.
.
— The Use of Water in 24 pp. 17 figs.

Irrigation. The use of ice on the dairy farm for keeping
265 pp. $2.00. McGraw-Hill, N. Y. of milk and cream in the best marketable
1915. condition is discussed. Suggested designs
Methods and structures pertaining to irriga- for six ice houses.
tion, principally of arid lands. State Experiment Station and Agricultural

French, Thos. E. —A Manual of Engineer-
College Bulletins.
ing Drawing. Bulletin No. 132. — Farm Poultry Houses.
289 pp. $2.00. McGraw-Hill, N. Y.
Agricultural Experiment Station Iowa State
1911.
College, Ames, Iowa.
A reference book on the different branches of
26 pp. 7 figs. 8 pi.
^ Handbooks.
technical drawing.
—
Bulletin No. 152. Movable Hog Houses.
Valuable "pocket size" reference books with Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
engineering data and information are pub- 43 pp. 37 figs.
lished for architects, mechanical and
civil, —
Bulletin No. 141, Modern Silo Construc-
electrical engineers. The student who ex-
tion, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
pects to work along these lines will find such
a book 9,lmost necessary. 68 pp. 62 figs.
These three bulletins are excellent compre-
U.S. Department of Agricvlture.
Bulletins
hensive treatments, in each case with working
Bulletin No. 57.— Water Supply, Plumb- drawings and cost based on actual experience.
ing, and Sewage Disposal for Country Bulletin No. 179. Construction — and
Homes. Equipment of Dairy Barn, Kentucky Agri-
46 pp. 38 figs. cultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.
Discussion of Farm Sanitation. 82 pp. 50
Farmers' Bulletin No. 574. — Poultry figs.
While this discussion is intended primarily
House Construction. for the State of Kentucky, it is wide enough
20 pp. 13 to be of interest to dairymen generally.
figs.
Covers average conditions met in this field. Monthly Bulletin No. Vol. XII. —
Farmers' Bulletin No. 589. Homemade — ' '
The Missouri Silo."
8,
Missouri State Board
Silos. of Agriculture, Columbia, Mo.
47 pp. 37 figs. Well adapted to southern conditions.
Bulletin No. 110. — Georgia Experiment The Modern Farmer. Lehigh Portland
Station, Experiment, Ga. Cement Co., Allentown, Pa.
26 pp. 9 figs. 64 pp. ill.
Able discussion of types of silo suitable to

Small Farm Buildings of Concrete.
region.
Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago,
Bulletin No. 143. Economy of the Round
111.
Dairy Barn. Illinois Agricultural Experi-
158 pp. 136 figs.
ment Station, Urbana, 111.
44 pp. 42 Concrete in the Country. Alpha Port-

figs.
Presents arguments for round barn as a type. land Cement Co., Easton, Pa.
Bulletin No. 274. —Building
Poultry 112 pp. ill.
Houses. Agricultural Experiment Station, Successful Stucco Houses. Clinton Wire
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Cloth Co., Clinton, Mass.
44 pp. 66 figs. 94 pp. ill.
Covers the subject in a thorough manner.
'^Concrete Silos. Universal Portland Ce-
Trade Publications. ment Co., Chicago, 111.
Lowden's Barn Plans. Lowden Mfg. Co., 104 pp. ill.
Fairfield, Iowa. A Concrete Construction, about the Home

The James Way. (How to build a Dairy
AND ON THE Farm. Atlas Portland Cement
Barn.) James Mfg. Co., Fort Atkinson, Wis. New York.
—
King, F. H. Ventilation. King Ventilat-
Co.,
128 pp. ill.
ing Co., Owatonna, Minn. The Concrete House and its Construc-
126 pp. 63 figs.
tion. American Association Portland Ce-
A standard work on stable ventilation,
ment Mfrs.
adapted by a manufacturer of stable venti-
lators. $1.00.
INDEX
Breaks, conventional, 31
Breeding crate, 45
Adjustable spacing block, 106 Brick, 54
Agricultural college bulletins, 123 bonding, 54, 55
Alphabet of lines, 10, 24 cork, 64
Approximate estimates, 118 symbols, 48
Architect, service of, 82 weight of, 113
Architect's scale, 28 Bulletin board, 44
Architectural drawing, 5, 9
lettering, 24 c
symbols, 48
Artist, 3 Cabinet drawing, 104
Assembly drawing, 26 Cattle breeding crate, 45
Auxiliary views, 27 Cautions, 25
Axes, isometric, 100 Cement, 115
oblique, 103 Certification, of a survey, 91
Chain, Gunter's, 90
B Checking, 30
Circle, isometric, 102
Balloon frame, 50 to draw, 16
Barn-yard, covered, 68 Clevis, 39
Barns, cost of, 118, 119 Colony swine house, 70
dairy, 56 Commercial sizes, 50, 112
general purpose, 68 Compass, 6
horse, 64 lengthening bar, 17
Basement, 86 use of, 16
plan, 87 Concrete, 53
Bath-room, 86 cost of, 119
Beams, strength of, 114 fence post, 43
Bed rooms, 84 gate post, 43
Bench, 44, 106 hog trough, 41
Bill of material, 24, 30 proportions for, 115
for dairy barn, 63 specifications for, 63
for implement shed, 73 symbols, 48
Bird house, 108 watering trough, 53
Blue prints, 95 weight of, 113
printing, 120 Cone, to develop, 34
Bolster stake iron, 106 Connecticut trap nest, 2
Bolts, 31 Contour map, 4, 95, 98
in section, 27 profile from, 96
standard, 33 Contours, 95
to draw, 32 Conventional lines, 14
Book rack, 108 symbols, 30, 31, 94
Books, list of, 122 Corn crib, 74
Boot jack, 42 tester, 39
Bow pen, 17 Crosshatching, 26
Braced frame, 50 Cubic estimating, 118
125
126 INDEX
Culture, 95
symbols, 94
Farm house, 82
Cylinder, to develop, 34
plans of, 83, 85, 87, 88
implements, space required, 113
D
level, 90
map, 90, 91
Dairy barn, cost 119
of, structures, 47
estimate for, 64
survey, 91
plans for, 58, 59, 60, 61
Fastenings, 31
requirements 56
for, Faulty lines, 20
specifications for, 62 Feeding stick, 18
house, 78 Feed alleys, 61, 62, 64
problem, 89 Fence posts, 12
score card, 116 concrete, 43
Detail drawings, 26 115
proportions for,
Detailed estimates, 119 wood for, 114
Developed surfaces, 32 Fences, 79
problems, 46 Field book, 97
Dimensioning, of bolt, 32 Finish mark, 30
rules for, 29
Fire-stopping, 52
structures, 49 Flooring, woods for, 114
Dining room, 84 Floors, concrete for, 115
Dipping vat, 69 Fly wheel, 43
Ditches, fall of, 96 trap, 46
Dividers, 6 Form, for concrete trough, 41
cautions, 25 Foundation, silo 79
use of, 17 concrete for, 115
Doors, 112 Framing, 50
symbols, 48 balloon frame, 66, 68
Drain, tile, 113 braced frame, 50, 64
Drains, grade of, 96 details, 51
Drawing, assembly, 26 pin joints, 50, 68
cabinet, 104 Freehand sketching, 9
detail, 26
isometric, 2, 5, 100 G
oblique, 5, 102
26 Galvanized iron, 56, 112
orthographic, 5, 6, 7,
roofing, weight of,113
perspective, 3
Drawing paper, 6 Gang mold, 40
DwelUngs, cost of, 118 Garage, 76, 77
Gates, 44, 81
General purpose barn, 68
E
plans for, 66, 67
Glass, 112
Elevations, 9, 49 Good form, 10
Engineer's scale, 90 Gradient, 96
Ensilage, 62, 78, 115 Grammar, 5
weight of, 120 Granaries, 75
Estimate, for dairy barn, 64, 119 Grindstone, 45
Estimating, 86, 118 Gunter's chain, 90
approximate, 118
cubic, 118
detailed, 119
Extension lines, 29 Half-section, 27
station bulletins, 123 Hall, stair, 84
Experiment
INDEX 127
Hay rack, 42 Lettering, single stroke inclined, 23

basket, 43 roman, 24
Heating, 119 upright, 22
Hog cot, 69 Level, farm, 90
problem, 86 frame, 107
Horse barn, 64 Lighting, 119
plan for, 65 symbols, 48
House, dairy, 78 Lines, alphabet of 10, 14
farm, 82 bearing of, 91
ice, 75, 76 dimension, 29
implement, 73 faulty, 20
poultry, 71 grade of, 96
smoke, 78 isometric, 101
swine, 70 section, 26
Hurdles, 71, 81, 107 sketching, 9
tangent, 17
to divide by trial, 17
Living room, 84
Ice boxes, 44 Lumber, sizes of, 112
houses, 76 symbols, 48
weight of, 113
Implement sheds, 72, 73 M
Implements, space required for, 113
Inking, 20, 25 Machine shed, 72, 73
order of, 22, 38 problem, 86
Instruments, civil engineering, 90 Mangers, cow, 62, 67
drawing with, 10 horse 64
list of, 6 Manure pit, 79, 80
measuring, 38 Maps, 5, 90
Insulated walls, 76 farm office, 91
Interior finish, woods for, 114 landscape, 96, 97
Isometric, circle, 102 problems, 99
drawing, 2, 5, 100 quadrangle, 96
lines, 101 topographic, 95
problems, 104 Markers, 91
Metal roofing, 113
Milk stool, 40
Mill work, 112
Joints, framing, 51 Miter box, 3
Joists, 113 Monuments, 91
Muffler, 43
K
N
Kitchen, 82, 84
step ladder, 109 Nests, poultry, 2, 72
score card, 117 Non-isometric lines, 101
Notes on drawings, 30
O
Landscape maps, 96
Language, 1 Oblique drawing, 5, 102
Lengthening bar, 17 Office, 84
Lettering, 22 map, 91
on maps, 96 Order, of inking, 22, 38
Reinhardt, 23 of penciling, 38
128 INDEX
Order of preparing plans, 56 Rochester ice house, 75, 76
Orthographic projection, 5, 6, 7, 26 Roman letters, 24
Rope, 113
Roofing, materials, 56
metal, 113
Paddocks, 81 ready, 113
Painting, 121 56
tile,
cost of, 119 weight of, 113
Patterns, 32 Roofs, forms of, 51
to make, 42 diagram, 52
Paving, concrete for, 115 Rules, for checking, 30
Pencil, 15 for dimensioning, 29
sketching with, 9 for oblique drawing, 103
Penciling, order of, 38 Ruling pen, 6
Pens, animal, 81 use of, 20
lettering, 22
ruling, 20 S
Perspective drawing, 3
Pictorial drawing, 3, 100 Sack-holder, 40
Pipe, 32, 112 Sash, 112
fittings, 35 Saw-horse, 107
Pit,manure, 79, 80 Scale, 6
Plank frame, 50 architect's, 28
Planning, 82 engineer's, 90
Plans, 9, 47 of a map, 91
Plats, 91 use of, 28
Plumbing, 120 Score card, dairy, 116
Porches, 84 kitchen, 117
sleeping, 86 Screened porch, 84
Portland cement, 53 Screws, 31, 34
Posts, wood for, 114 Sectional views, 26
Poultry houses, 71 Sections, 26, 49
Prism, to develop, 35 turned, 27
Problems, elementary, 18, 20 isometric, 102
isometric, 104 Septic tank, 79
map, 99 Sewage disposal, 79, 120
sketching, 11, 12, 13 Sheave, 45
structural, 86, 89 Sheep, bam, 71
working drawings, 38 hurdle, 107
Profiles, 96 rack, 39, 40
Protractor, 90 Sheet metal, 112
Pyramid, to develop, 35 Shingles, 56, 112
suitable woods for, 113
Q weight of, 113
Quadrangle sheet, 96 Siding, forms of, 53
selection of woods for, 113
R Silo, 78
cost of, 119
Rat-proofing, 52, 74, 76 foundations, 79
Ration for beef feeders, 113 proportions of concrete for, 115
Record, farm, 92 rack, 42
Reinhardt letters, 23 tables, 115
Rendering, 3 Single stroke, inclined letters, 23
Revolved sections, 27 roman letters, 24
Road drag, 41 vertical letters, 22
INDEX 129
Sizes, lumber, 112 Threads, U. S. Standard, 31

pipe, 32 Tile, drain,113
*
stall, 57, 64 hollow, 56
Sketching, 9 roofing, 56
from objects, 38 weight of, 113
pictorial, 104 Timber, specifications for, 63
problems, 11, 12, 13 strength of, 114
Slate, 56, 113 weight of, 113
weight 113
of, Tin, 112
Smoke houses, 78 Titles, 24
Space required, for storage, 113 map, 91
for farm implements, 113 working drawing, 30
Specifications, 26 Tool box, 39
for dairy barn, 62 chest, 110
Spring house, 78 Topographic drawing, 5, 90, 95
Stables, cost of, 119 symbols, 94
Stairs, 84 Trade publications, 124
Stalls, size of, 57, 64 Trap nest, 2, 72
detail of, 61, 67, 68 Triangles, 6
Steers, space for, 89 use of, 14, 15
Stock and commercial sizes, 112 Troughs, concrete, 41
Stone, 55 Turned section, 27
boat, 42
rake, 110 u
Storage, space required for, 113
Strength of timbers, 114 Unit costs, 118, 119
Structures, farm, 47 Units of measurement, 119
problems, 86, 89 U. S. Government, bulletins, 122, 123
Stucco, 55 quadrangle sheets, 96
Sunshine table for swine houses, 115, 117 standard threads, 32
Survey, a farm, 91 Use of compass, 16
certification, 91 dividers, 17
Swine house, 68 scale, 28
cost of, 119 T-square and triangles, 14
sunshine tables for, 115, 117
Symbols, architectural, 48
conventional, 30, 31
Vat, dipping, 69
lighting, 48
Vegetation symbols, 94
materials in section, 30
Vehicles, wood for, 114
topographic, 94
Ventilation, 120
W
T-square, 6 Walks, concrete for, 115
use of, 14 Wash room, 84
Table, concrete proportions, 115 Water features, 94
pipe sizes, 32 storage tank, 89
selection of woods, 113 weight of, 113
silo, 115 Weight, roofing, 113
strength of timbers, 114, 115 Weights of materials, 113
sunshine, 115, 117 Wheelbarrow wheel, 108
Tangents, 17 Windmill brake shoe, 20
Tanks, proportions of concrete for, 115 Windows, 112
woods for, 114 detail of, 61
Threads, forms of, 32 symbols, 48
130 INDEX
Windows, ventilating, 67 Work bench, 44, 111

Wire, 112 drawer, 105
Wood, construction, 50 Working drawing, 3, 5
selection of, 113 classes of, 26
strength of, 114 definition, 5, 26
weight of, 113 method of making, 38
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW
^ VE 21779
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
^-••-
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UC-NRLF

ElGCtrical World Thetngineeiin^ and Mining Journal

EngkieGring Record Engineering Ngws

Signal EngiriGGr American Engineer

FREDERICK W. IVES, B. S., M. E.

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

copykight, 1915, by the

the; mafias: press york PA

cultural engineering. Engineering Drawing is a required subject in practically all college

Theory and Technique 6

requirements— Plans of a farm house—Problems.

Uses Isometric drawing —Oblique drawing— Cabinet

tile, slate, metal roofing, ready roofing

Selected Bibliography 122

Fig. 1. —A pen-and-ink perspective drawing.

Fig. 2. —An isometric drawing.

Fig. 3. —An isometric illustration.

•Z No. 10 Wood Screws

Fig. 5. —A topographical drawing.

Working Drawings. rudiments of which we should be familiar, is

THEORY AND TECHNIQUE

drawing materials must be at hand. Profes- tracing paper.

paratively inexpensive outfit. name given to a method of drawing two or

more views of an object in order to show the

FiG. 6. — Pictorial view of block.

shown in Fig. 7(a), on which the faces A, C

on which the face B only would be visible,

is facing the front view. Sometimes two jection is foreshortened; as face C on

FiG. IL— The "glass box."

following principles will be noted. projection will be projected as a point.

In beginning a sketch, after studying the

Fig. 14. —Sketching a vertical line.

firstone to be made, while in Fig. 21o on

be drawn first. This is generally the view

Figs. 20 and 21 are collections of

also a test of the student's judgment in

observing and recording proportions.

Fig. 19. — Problems for working sketches.

Fig. 21. — Problems for working sketches.

(1) visible outline

(2) invisible outline

-(3) center line

(3a) center line in pencil

(4) dimension line

(6) alternate position

(7) line of motion

(8) cutting plane

^\J^J^ Uj[a^^\ (9) break line

-V*~ -^ y |v (10) limiting break

(11) cross hatching line

\Sec/ybn //>?es (Cross hak/t/r^J /y\

Fig. 23. —The alphabet illustrated.

drawing. \ 45 and 60 degrees.

Fig. 24. —Use of triangles.

The detailed construction of the two

method of procedure in making a drawing,

and putting a thumb tack in each corner,

Fig. 26. —Setting the compass.

Fig. 27. —Starting the circle.