This document provides a summary of Chapter 1 from the book Evolution by Futuyma which discusses the history of evolutionary thought. It describes key figures like Plato, Aristotle, Hutton, Lyell who contributed ideas about fixism and gradualism before Darwin. Lamarck is discussed as the first biologist to actively propose evolution, suggesting acquired characteristics could be inherited and species gradually modify over time in response to their environment. The document also summarizes Linnaeus' development of taxonomy and his view that species were related in the mind of the Creator.
This document provides a summary of Chapter 1 from the book Evolution by Futuyma which discusses the history of evolutionary thought. It describes key figures like Plato, Aristotle, Hutton, Lyell who contributed ideas about fixism and gradualism before Darwin. Lamarck is discussed as the first biologist to actively propose evolution, suggesting acquired characteristics could be inherited and species gradually modify over time in response to their environment. The document also summarizes Linnaeus' development of taxonomy and his view that species were related in the mind of the Creator.
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Chapter 1 EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
Summary of Chapter 1: EVOLUTION, D. Futuyma, 2
nd Ed., 2!. WHAT IS EVOLUTION? The "ord e#o$ut%on &ome' from the Lat%n "ord evolvere, "h%&h mean' to unfo$d or unro$$. (To re#ea$ the h%dden potent%a$%t%e'. (It ha' &ome to mean )&han*e+. Biological evolution refer' to the &han*e %n the &hara&ter%'t%&' of *roup' of or*an%'m' o#er many *enerat%on', o#er t%me. The de#e$opment or ontogeny of an %nd%#%dua$ or*an%'m %' not &on'%dered e#o$ut%on. Ind%#%dua$ or*an%'m' do not e#o$#e. ,opu$at%on' of or*an%'m' e#o$#e- they under*o descent with modification. Chan*e' that are pa''ed from one *enerat%on to the ne.t are &on'%dered e#o$ut%onary- the'e are *enet%& &han*e'. The re'ur*en&e of ant%/%ot%& re'%'tant d%'ea'e' %' an e.amp$e of natura$ 'e$e&t%on. BEFORE ARWIN Dar"%n0' theory of /%o$o*%&a$ e#o$ut%on re#o$ut%on%1ed the pre#a%$%n* "or$d#%e" %n the 2e't that had e.%'ted from the t%me of ,$ato and 3r%'tot$e. !lato" 425(645 7. C. 8ree9 ,h%$o'opher. )Idea+ or )form+ %' rea$ and e#eryth%n* e$'e %' a ref$e&t%on of th%' rea$%ty. The e''en&e or %dea %' %mperfe&t$y %m%tated /y %t' earth$y repre'entat%on'. The rea$ "or$d %' the "or$d of %dea', and "hat "e 'ee on earth %' on$y an %m%tat%on of tho'e %dea'. The e''en&e or form of a 'tru&ture &ou$d /e under'tood from %t' fun&t%on, '%n&e the fun&t%on d%&tated the form. Spe&%e' /e&ame the %n%t%a$ mo$d for a$$ $ater rep$%&ate' of that 'pe&%e'. 3n %nd%#%dua$ or*an%'m ha' %mperfe&t%on'. Var%at%on' /et"een or*an%'m' of the 'ame 'pe&%e' are a&&%denta$ %mperfe&t%on'. Theory of e''ent%a$%'m. A#i$totle" 654(622 7. C. 8ree9 ph%$o'opher. 3r%'tot$e de#e$oped the ,$ato0' &on&ept of %mmuta/$e e''en&e %nto the not%on that 'pe&%e' ha#e f%.ed propert%e'. 3r%'tot$e propo'ed that the $a't 'ta*e of de#e$opment, the adu$t form, e.p$a%n' the &han*e' that o&&ur %n the %mmature form' :te$eo$o*%&a$ e.p$anat%on;- the ad#an&ed 'ta*e' %nf$uen&e the ear$%er 'ta*e'. <e a$'o propo'ed that a$$ $%#%n* form' are $%n9ed %n a pro*re''%on from %mperfe&t to mo't perfe&t. <e &a$$ed th%' the Scale o% Natu#e :S&a$a Naturae;. Chr%'t%an thou*ht e$a/orated on ,$aton%& and 3r%'tote$%an ph%$o'ophy that e.%'ten&e %' *ood and the 8od0' /ene#o$en&e %' &omp$ete, therefore, <e mu't ha#e /e'to"ed e.%'ten&e on e#ery &reature *%#%n* ea&h %t' o"n e''en&e. S%n&e order %' 'uper%or to d%'order, 8od0' &reat%on mu't fo$$o" a p$an, e'pe&%a$$y a *radat%on from %mperfe&t to perfe&t. Inan%mate o/=e&t' to p$ant' to %n#erte/rate' up to #erte/rate', human, and f%na$$y, an*e$'. S&a$a Naturae or S&a$e of Nature or the 8reat Cha%n of 7e%n*. T&e !#inci'le o% !lenitu(e The $e*a&y of ,$ato to European th%n9%n* a/out the natura$ "or$d ha' /een e.pre''ed a' the ,r%n&%p$e of ,$en%tude :Lo#e=oy, 1!6>- ?o$fe, 1!5@;. Th%' "a' the /e$%ef that a$$ po''%/$e 9%nd' of th%n*' e.%'t %n the "or$d a$ready and noth%n* more &an /e &reated. 3r%'tot$eA' $e*a&y "a' more &omp$%&ated /ut ha' /een 'ummar%1ed /y ?o$fe a' the &on&ept of &ont%nu%ty and *radat%on /et"een ad=a&ent 9%nd' of /e%n* "hen h%erar&h%&a$$y arran*ed :1!5@, p. 6;. To*ether, the ,r%n&%p$e of ,$en%tude and the 8reat Cha%n of 7e%n* $ed to the /e$%ef, from med%e#a$ t%me', that a &ont%nuou' &ha%n e.tended from the %nan%mate "or$d of non($%#%n* matter, 'u&h a' earth and 'tone', throu*h the an%mate "or$d of p$ant', 1oophyte', and the $o"e't form' of an%ma$ $%fe, up"ard' to the Buadruped' and e#entua$$y throu*h Can to the rea$m' of an*e$' and f%na$$y to the Chr%'t%an 8od. Th%' /e$%ef a$'o enta%$ed the #%e" that =u't a' noth%n* ne" &ou$d /e &reated- ne%ther &ou$d anyth%n* /e e.term%nated, '%n&e th%' "ou$d &ountera&t the "%$$ of 8od :?o$fe, 1!5@, p. 1;. http:DD"e/.e/'&oho't.&omDeho'tDdeta%$E'%dF>d6!562&(@e6&(4eG4(565e(&&G5e&1G/1/ H4'e''%onm*r11I#%dF1Ih%dF1@I/dataFJnNpd8U!K2h#&6Lt/8$2KSK1M2!"KT11aN?$Od/ FaphI3NF!>12>G>2 A#i$totle" t&e Scale o% Natu#e" an( )o(e#n attitu(e$ to ani)al$ * In t&e +o)'any o% Ani)al$ So&%a$ ?e'ear&h, Fa$$, 1!!@ /y Ju$%et C$utton(7ro&9 Linnaeu$" +a#olu$, 1GG(G5, S"ed%'h /otan%'t and ta.onom%'t, L%nnaeu' %' &on'%dered the founder of the -ino)ial $y$te) o% no)enclatu#e and the or%*%nator of modern '&%ent%f%& &$a''%f%&at%on of p$ant' and an%ma$'. <e u'ed the 'pe&%e' a' the /a'%& un%t %n /u%$d%n* h%' 'y'tem up"ard to $ar*er &ate*or%e'. <e *rouped re$ated 'pe&%e' %nto *enera, and re$ated *enera %nto order', and 'o on. In h%' m%nd, th%' 'pe&%e' had /een re$ated %n the m%nd of the Creator. Hutton" .a)e$, 1G2>(!G, S&ott%'h *eo$o*%'t. <utton formu$ated &ontro#er'%a$ theor%e' of the or%*%n of the earth %n 1G5@. <e "a' of the op%n%on that the earth mu't /e #ery o$d. Uni%o#)ita#iani$)/ the do&tr%ne that pa't *eo$o*%&a$ &han*e' %n the earth "ere /rou*ht a/out /y the 'ame &au'e' a' tho'e no" ta9%n* p$a&e. It 'tre''ed the '$o"ne'' and *radua$ne'' of rate' of &han*e. Lyell" Si# +&a#le$, 1G!G(15G@, En*$%'h *eo$o*%'t. Lye$$ ar*ued %n h%' /oo9 that, at the t%me, pre'ent$y o/'er#a/$e *eo$o*%&a$ pro&e''e' "ere adeBuate to e.p$a%n *eo$o*%&a$ h%'tory. <e thou*ht the a&t%on of the ra%n, 'ea, #o$&anoe' and earthBua9e' e.p$a%ned the *eo$o*%&a$ h%'tory of more an&%ent t%me'. Lye$$ &on&$u'%#e$y 'ho"ed that the earth "a' #ery o$d and had &han*ed %t' form '$o"$y, ma%n$y from &ond%t%on' 'u&h a' ero'%on. Lye$$ "a' a/$e to date the a*e' of ro&9' /y u'%n* fo''%$' em/edded %n the 'tone a' t%me %nd%&ator'. Lye$$ he$ped "%n a&&eptan&e of Jame' <uttonA' theory of uni%o#)ita#iani$) and of Char$e' Dar"%nA' theory of e#o$ut%on. La)a#c0" .ean Ba'ti$te !ie##e Antoine (e 1onet" +&evalie# (e" 1G44(152!. Lamar&9 "a' /orn %n 7a1ent%n($e(,et%t, Fran&e. Sent to a Je'u%t '&hoo$ %n 3m%en'. <e re&e%#ed a &$a''%&a$ edu&at%on unt%$ 1G@!. That year, h%' father d%ed, and Lamar&9 entered the m%$%tary and /e*an to 'tudy p$ant'. In 1G>5 he $eft m%$%tary 'er#%&e and 'tud%ed med%&%ne %n ,ar%' for four year', dur%n* "h%&h t%me he /e&ame %ntere'ted %n meteoro$o*y, &hem%'try, and 'he$$ &o$$e&t%n*. Lamar&9 "a' e$e&ted to the 3&ademy of S&%en&e' and /e&ame an a''o&%ate /otan%'t %n 1G56, <%' mo't '%*n%f%&ant "or9 "a' done "hen he /e*an to "or9 at the Jard%n du ?o% :P%n*A' 8arden; %n 1G55. 2hen the *arden "a' reor*an%1ed %n 1G!6, Lamar&9A' %dea' he$ped to frame the 'tru&ture of the ne" Cu'eum of Natura$ <%'tory. <e /e&ame profe''or of %n'e&t' and "orm' %n the Cu'eum of Natura$ <%'tory, a d%#%'%on he named %n#erte/rate 1oo$o*y. Lamar&9A' theoret%&a$ o/'er#at%on' on e#o$ut%on, referred to %n the ear$y 1!th &entury a' tran'form%'m or tran'mutat%on, pre&eded h%' e.ten'%#e o/'er#at%ona$ "or9 on %n#erte/rate'. Lamar&9 a&&epted the #%e" that an%ma$' %n nature "ere arran*ed on one &ont%nuou' Q'&a$a naturaeQ. F%r't /%o$o*%'t to a&t%#e$y propo'e e#o$ut%on. Lamar&9 d%ed "%th $%tt$e '&%ent%f%& re&o*n%t%on of h%' "or9 or h%' %dea'. Not unt%$ the 'e&ond ha$f of the 1!th &entury "ere Lamar&9A' %dea' 'er%ou'$y &on'%dered a*a%n. LA1AR+2IS1 Lamar&9 propo'ed the pr%n&%p$e of the in&e#itance o% ac3ui#e( c&a#acte#i$tic$. Lamar&9 /a'ed h%' theory of e#o$ut%on %n part on h%' 'tudy of the fo''%$' of mar%ne %n#erte/rate', "a' that 'pe&%e' do &han*e o#er t%me. <e /e$%e#ed, furthermore, that an%ma$' e#o$#e /e&au'e unfa#ora/$e &ond%t%on' produ&e need' that an%ma$' try to 'at%'fy. Spe&%e' not on$y /e&ome e.t%n&t /ut a$'o under*o a *radua$ mod%f%&at%on throu*h t%me. Or*an%'m' ha#e an inne# 'e#%ecting '#inci'le that R &ou$d 'en'e the need' of the en#%ronment re'pond /y de#e$op%n* adaptat%on'R mo't$y from '%mp$e to &omp$e.. The%r en#%ronment doe' not pa''%#e$y a$ter or*an%'m'. 3 &han*e %n the en#%ronment &au'e' &han*e' %n the need' of or*an%'m' $%#%n* %n that en#%ronment, "h%&h %n turn &au'e' &han*e' %n the%r /eha#%or. T"o )ec&ani$)$ are %n#o$#ed %n e#o$ut%on: ,r%n&%p$e of u'e and d%'u'e. Inher%tan&e of a&Bu%red &hara&ter'. Lamar&9 #%e"ed e#o$ut%on a' a pro&e'' of %n&rea'%n* &omp$e.%ty and Qperfe&t%on,Q not dr%#en /y &han&e. QNature, %n produ&%n* %n 'u&&e''%on e#ery 'pe&%e' of an%ma$, and /e*%nn%n* "%th the $ea't perfe&t or '%mp$e't to end her "or9 "%th the mo't perfe&t, ha' *radua$$y &omp$%&ated the%r 'tru&ture.Q Philosophie zoologique. 2h%$e the me&han%'m of Lamar&9%an e#o$ut%on %' Bu%te d%fferent from that propo'ed /y Dar"%n, the pred%&ted re'u$t %' the 'ame: adapt%#e &han*e %n $%nea*e', u$t%mate$y dr%#en /y en#%ronmenta$ &han*e, o#er $on* per%od' of t%me. Lamar&9 d%d not /e$%e#e %n e.t%n&t%on: for h%m, 'pe&%e' that d%'appeared d%d 'o /e&au'e they e#o$#ed %nto d%fferent 'pe&%e'. Lamar&9A' Philosophie zoologique ment%on' the *reat #ar%ety of an%ma$ and p$ant form' produ&ed under human &u$t%#at%on :Lamar&9 e#en ant%&%pated Dar"%n %n ment%on%n* fanta%$ p%*eon'S;- the pre'en&e of #e't%*%a$, non(fun&t%ona$ 'tru&ture' %n many an%ma$'- and the pre'en&e of em/ryon%& 'tru&ture' that ha#e no &ounterpart %n the adu$t. Lamar&9 /e$%e#ed that the Earth "a' #ery o$d. +&a#le$ a#4in" 15!(1552. Char$e' ?o/ert Dar"%n "a' /orn %n Shre"'/ury, En*$and %n 15!. The 'on of an em%nent $o&a$ do&tor, Dr ?o/ert Dar"%n, Char$e' "a' /orn %nto a mode't$y "ea$thy fam%$y. <e "a' the *rand'on of Era'mu' Dar"%n, En*$%'h natura$%'t, and promoter of the %dea of e#o$ut%on. Dar"%n 'tud%ed med%&%ne at Ed%n/ur*h Un%#er'%ty from 152@ to 152G. <e tran'ferred to Chr%'tA' Co$$e*e, Cam/r%d*e %n 1525 "%th the %ntent%on of /e&om%n* a m%n%'ter %n the Chur&h of En*$and. <e "a' a med%o&re 'tudent and d%d not $%9e &$a''%&a$ edu&at%on. <%' %ntere't' "ere %n natura$ h%'tory, /otany, *eo$o*y, &o$$e&t%n* and hunt%n*. In 1561, "%th the he$p of h%' /otany profe''or John <en'$o" and h%' un&$e Jo'%ah 2ed*e"ood, he too9 the po't of natura$%'t on /oard the H,1,S, Beagle on a '&%ent%f%& m%''%on to South 3mer%&a. 7y the t%me of h%' return %n 156>, he had /e&ome an author%ty on many form' of $%fe. 7et"een 1542 and 1544 he de#e$oped h%' t&eo#y o% natu#al $election, a$thou*h he d%d not announ&e h%' "or9 unt%$ 15@5. In 15@! he pu/$%'hed a &on'%dera/$y e.panded #er'%on of h%' re'ear&he' %n the &ontro#er'%a$ Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. <e pu/$%'hed The Descent of Man %n 15G1. THE VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE <.C.S. 7ea*$e, under the &ommand of Capta%n ?o/ert F%t1roy, $eft for ,ata*on%a, South 3mer%&a, %n 1561 "%th Char$e' Dar"%n on /oard. 3t th%' t%me Char$e' d%d not /e$%e#e %n e#o$ut%on, %n&$ud%n* h%' *randfather0' theory, a' any e#%den&e pre'ented 'o far &ou$d not &on#%n&e h%m. The 7ea*$e rea&hed South 3mer%&a %n 1562 and Char$e' too9 &are to o/'er#e the f$ora and fauna. Char$e' "ent then to 7ueno' 3r%e' "here he 'a" fo''%$' of more an&%ent an%ma$', %n&$ud%n* a ma'todon. <e e.per%en&ed a #%o$ent earthBua9e %n Ch%$e that ra%'ed the $and %n 'ome p$a&e' /et"een 2 and 1 feet. Dar"%n "a' mo't %ntere'ted %n the p$ant' and an%ma$' on the 8a$Tpa*o', a *roup of 1> $ar*e %'$and' :and many 'ma$$er; off the &oa't of E&uador. 8%ant torto%'e' %nha/%t e#ery one of the %'$and', "h%&h *a#e the %'$and &ha%n %t' name, from the Span%'h 8a$Tpa*o', mean%n* torto%'e. Ea&h %'$and ha' %t' o"n type of torto%'e, d%'t%n*u%'ha/$e /y the 'hape and pattern of %t' 'he$$. Dar"%n "a' a'ton%'hed that the %'$ander' fe$t that th%' "a' due to the d%fferen&e %n en#%ronment on ea&h %'$and. Dar"%n a$'o o/'er#ed the f%n&he', "h%&h #ar%ed %n '%1e and 'hape from %'$and to %'$and. The%r /ea9' a$'o #ar%ed depend%n* on "h%&h food they ate and 'ome e#en had e.tra $on* ton*ue' for *ra//%n* &erta%n type' of food' 'u&h a' %n'e&t', nut' or 'eed'. I'$and an%ma$' and p$ant' "ere d%fferent to tho'e on the ma%n$and /ut a re$at%on'h%p &ou$d /e 'een. 2hat "a' e#en 'tran*er thou*h, to Dar"%n, "a' the fa&t that or*an%'m' on d%fferent %'$and' #ar%ed, /ut 't%$$ 'eemed re$ated. ALFRE RUSSEL WALLA+E" 1526(1!16. 5 January 1526: 3$fred ?u''e$ 2a$$a&e /orn at U'9, Conmouth'h%re. m%dD$ate 156G: Jo%n' the e$de't /rother 2%$$%am %n 7edford'h%re to $earn the 'ur#ey%n* trade. 2@ 3pr%$ 1545: 2a$$a&e and 7ate' $ea#e En*$and for 3ma1on%an South 3mer%&a to /e*%n a natura$ h%'tory &o$$e&t%n* e.ped%t%on. Car&h 15@4: Lea#e' En*$and for the Far Ea't to /e*%n a natura$ h%'tory &o$$e&t%n* e.ped%t%on. 2 3pr%$ 15@4 to 2 Fe/ruary 15>2: Co$$e&t%n* e.ped%t%on %n the Ca$ay 3r&h%pe$a*o. Fe/ruary 15@5: 2r%te' 'On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type' and 'end' %t off to Char$e' Dar"%n for &omment. 1 Ju$y 15@5: 2a$$a&e and Dar"%nA' "r%t%n*' on natura$ 'e$e&t%on are pre'ented at a meet%n* of the L%nnaean So&%ety. No#em/er 15@!: )On the oological !eography of the "alay #rchipelago$% the paper de'&r%/%n* 2a$$a&e0' L%ne %' read /efore the L%nnaean So&%ety- Dar"%nA' )On the Or%*%n of Spe&%e'+ %' pu/$%'hed. 1 3pr%$ 15>2: ?eturn' to En*$%'h 'o%$. G No#em/er 1!16: D%e' at O$d Or&hard. QIn Fe/ruary of 15@5, "h%$e 'uffer%n* from an atta&9 of ma$ar%a %n the Co$u&&a' :%t %' not fu$$y &erta%n "h%&h %'$and he "a' a&tua$$y on, thou*h e%ther 8%$o$o or Ternate 'eem' the $%9e$y &and%date;, 2a$$a&e 'udden$y, and rather une.pe&ted$y, &onne&ted the %dea' of Thoma' Ca$thu' on the $%m%t' to popu$at%on *ro"th to a me&han%'m that m%*ht %n'ure $on*(term or*an%& &han*e. Th%' "a' the &on&ept of the Q'ur#%#a$ of the f%tte't,Q %n "h%&h tho'e %nd%#%dua$ or*an%'m' that are /e't adapted to the%r $o&a$ 'urround%n*' are 'een to ha#e a /etter &han&e of 'ur#%#%n*, and thu' of d%fferent%a$$y pa''%n* a$on* the%r tra%t' to pro*eny. E.&%ted o#er h%' d%'&o#ery, 2a$$a&e penned an e''ay on the 'u/=e&t a' 'oon a' he "a' "e$$ enou*h to do 'o, and 'ent %t off to Dar"%n. <e had /e*un a &orre'ponden&e "%th Dar"%n t"o year' ear$%er and 9ne" that he "a' *enera$$y %ntere'ted %n Qthe 'pe&%e' Bue't%onQ- perhap' Dar"%n "ou$d /e 9%nd enou*h to /r%n* the "or9, t%t$ed AOn the Tenden&y of Var%et%e' to Depart Indef%n%te$y from the Or%*%na$ Type,A to the attent%on of Lye$$E Q http:DD"""."9u.eduDU'm%th&hD%nde.1.htm ARWIN5S EVOLUTINARY THEORY Dar"%n0' e#o$ut%onary theory ha' t4o t&e$e$: 6, e$cent 4it& )o(i%ication: 3$$ $%#%n* and e.t%n&t 'pe&%e' ha#e de'&ended "%thout %nterrupt%on from one or 'e#era$ or%*%na$ form' of $%fe. The'e ne" 'pe&%e' a&&umu$ated &han*e' o#er *reat e.pan'e of t%me and no" $oo9 d%fferent from one another. 7, Natu#al Selection: U'efu$ #ar%at%on "%$$ a$$o" tho'e or*an%'m' that po''e'' them to 'ur#%#e and reprodu&e, and pa'' the'e *ood #ar%at%on' to the%r off'pr%n*. ARWIN8S THEORY OF NATURAL SELE+TION, Fa&t O1 ( 2%thout &on'tra%nt', popu$at%on' "%$$ *ro" e.ponent%a$$y, produ&%n* an e#er more rap%d$y *ro"%n* num/er of or*an%'m'.
Fa&t O2 ( In 'p%te of th%' pred%&t%on, the num/er' of %nd%#%dua$' %n a popu$at%on rema%n' near eBu%$%/r%um, f$u&tuat%n* a/o#e and /e$o" 'ome mean #a$ue. Fa&t O6 ( ?e'our&e' are $%m%ted.
+onclu$ion: From the'e three fa&t', Dar"%n &on&$uded that there was a struggle for e&istence. Dar"%n &om/%ned th%' "%th t"o add%t%ona$ fa&t':
Fa&t O4 ( Ind%#%dua$' are un%Bue. There %' %nd%#%dua$ #ar%at%on. Th%' &ame from o/'er#%n* an%ma$ /reed%n*.
Fa&t O@ ( Cu&h, /ut not a$$, of the %nd%#%dua$ #ar%at%on %' her%ta/$e. Th%' o/'er#at%on a$'o &ame from an%ma$ /reeder'. Some of the o/'er#ed #ar%at%on %' en#%ronmenta$, 'ome %' *enet%&. +onclu$ion: The'e fa&t' $ed Dar"%n to the &on&$u'%on that 'ome %nd%#%dua$' are /etter eBu%pped to 'ur#%#e and reprodu&e :Natura$ Se$e&t%on; %n the%r 'tru**$e for e.%'ten&e. Throu*h many *enerat%on' of t%me, e#o$ut%on %' the re'u$t. Dar"%n u'ed 9(e$cent 4it& )o(i%ication,9 Cayr :1!52; 'tated that Dar"%n0' Theory of E#o$ut%on %n&$uded f%#e theor%e': 1. Evolution a' 'u&h: $%nea*e' of or*an%'m' &han*e o#er t%me. 2. +o))on (e$cent: a$$ $%fe &an /e repre'ented a' a '%n*$e fam%$y tree "here there %' &ommon an&e'tor to a$$ 'pe&%e'. 6. G#a(uali$): *radua$ &han*e' produ&ed ne" 'pe&%e'- th%' %' %n &ontra't "%th $altation, the hypothe'%' that propo'e' that e#o$ut%on o&&ur' /y 'udden $eap'. 4. !o'ulation c&ange: e#o$ut%on o&&ur' due to the proport%on of %nd%#%dua$' %n the popu$at%on that %nher%t a *%#en &hara&ter%'t%&. @. Natu#al $election: 'ur#%#a$ and reprodu&t%on. 3 /%* *ap %n Dar"%n0' theory "a' the $a&9 of an e.p$anat%on a/out the or%*%n of the #ar%at%on' found %n a popu$at%on: "here do the'e #ar%at%on' &ome fromE Dar"%n0' theory "a' a )va#iational t&eo#y+ %n "h%&h popu$at%on' &han*e due to 'ur#%#a$ reprodu&t%on and 'e$e&t%on of &erta%n *ene'. Lamar&90' theory "a' a )t#an$%o#)ational t&eo#y+ %n "h%&h the %nd%#%dua$ &han*e', %' tran'formed, and then pa''e' tho'e tra%t' to the off'pr%n*. Blen(ing In&e#itance. Th%' "a' the pre#a%$%n* hypothe'%' a/out the %nher%tan&e of tra%t'. Caterna$ and paterna$ &ontr%/ut%on' /$end %n the off'pr%n*. 3' a re'u$t, a ne" adaptat%on "%$$ /e d%$uted %n 'u&&e''%#e *enerat%on' and e#entua$$y d%'appear. Therefore, #ar%at%on 'hou$d de&rea'e and not %n&rea'e. Dar"%n ne#er 9ne" that 8re*or Cende$ had 'o$#ed the pro/$em of %nher%tan&e %n a paper pu/$%'hed %n 15>@. EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES AFTER ARWIN 3fter Dar"%n0' theory "a' propo'ed %n the 15@' there "a' per%od of 'u/'tant%a$ &ontro#er'y and 'e#era$ theor%e' "ere propo'ed, "h%&h %n&$uded neo(Lamar&9%'m, ortho*enet%& and mutat%on%'t' theor%e'. 3 *reat dea$ of %nformat%on "a' a&&umu$ated after the 15G due to the "or9 done %n pa$eonto$o*y, &omparat%#e morpho$o*y and &omparat%#e em/ryo$o*y Neo*La)a#c0i$): 'e#era$ theor%e' /a'ed on the %dea of the %nher%tan&e of a&Bu%red &hara&ter%'t%&' O#t&ogenetic t&eo#y: e#o$ut%on pro&eed' to"ard a predeterm%ned *oa$ and doe' not reBu%re natura$ 'e$e&t%on. No me&han%'m "a' e#er propo'ed for th%' theory. 1utationi$t t&eo#y: *enet%&%'t' o/'er#ed that mutat%on' ar%'e and produ&e ne" #ar%at%on' %n the popu$at%on, therefore, natura$ 'e$e&t%on "a' not ne&e''ary for e#o$ut%on to o&&ur- the mutant' repre'ent ne" 'pe&%e'. THE EVOLUTIONARY SYNTHESIS Th%' 'ynthe'%' %n&orporate' the %nformat%on o/ta%ned /y *enet%&%'t', 'y'temat%'t' and pa$eonto$o*%'t' %nto the theory of e#o$ut%on propo'ed /y Dar"%n. Cutat%on' and natura$ 'e$e&t%on together &au'e adapt%#e e#o$ut%on. Cutat%on' are the ra" mater%a$ of natura$ 'e$e&t%on. Cutat%on', re&om/%nat%on, natura$ 'e$e&t%on and other pro&e''e' operat%n* "%th%n 'pe&%e' a&&ount for the or%*%n of ne" 'pe&%e' and for the ma=or, $on*(term feature' of e#o$ut%on :ma&roe#o$ut%on;. Fun(a)ental !#inci'le$ o% Evolution 1. The phenotype %' d%fferent form the *enotype- phenotyp%& d%fferen&e' may /e due to *enet%&' or en#%ronmenta$ fa&tor'. 2. En#%ronmenta$ effe&t' do not affe&t *ene' pa''ed on to the ne.t *enerat%on- a&Bu%red &hara&ter%'t%&' are not %nher%ted. 6. 8ene' reta%n the%r %dent%ty and do not /$end. 4. 8ene' mutate u'ua$$y at a '$o" rate. @. E#o$ut%onary &han*e o&&ur' %n the popu$at%on. >. The rate of mutat%on %' too '$o" for mutat%on a$one to &au'e e#o$ut%onary &han*e, the 'h%ft from one *enotype to another. Chan*e %n *enotype proport%on' %n a popu$at%on &an /e &au'ed /y *enet%& dr%ft :random f$u&tuat%on'; and /y 'ur#%#a$ of the f%tte't :nonrandom- natura$ 'e$e&t%on;. G. Natura$ 'e$e&t%on &an, under &erta%n &%r&um'tan&e', /r%n* a/out 'u/'tant%a$ e#o$ut%onary &han*e %n a rea$%'t%& amount of t%me. 5. Natura$ 'e$e&t%on &an &han*e the freBuen&y of a$$e$e' that may re&om/%ne "%th other *ene' that affe&t the 'ame tra%t, and *%#e r%'e to ne" phenotype'. !. Natura$ popu$at%on' are #ar%a/$e and &an &han*e rap%d$y "hen en#%ronmenta$ &ond%t%on' &han*e. 1. ,opu$at%on' %n d%fferent *eo*raph%& re*%on' d%ffer %n &hara&ter%'t%&' that ha#e a *enet%& /a'%'. 11. The num/er of d%fferent *ene' form' the /a'%' for d%fferen&e' /et"een popu$at%on' of the 'ame 'pe&%e' and /et"een 'pe&%e'. Th%' 'upport' the hypothe'%' that 'pe&%e' e#o$#ed %n a 'er%e' of 'ma$$ 'tep'. 12. D%fferen&e' /et"een *eo*raph%& popu$at%on' of a 'pe&%e' are often adapt%#e and are the &on'eBuen&e of natura$ 'e$e&t%on. 16. ,henotype a$one doe' not def%ne a 'pe&%e'- there are d%fferent phenotype' "%th%n an %nter/reed%n* popu$at%on. D%fferent 'pe&%e' repre'ent d%fferent *ene poo$' and do not e.&han*e *ene' "%th other 'pe&%e'. 14. S'eciation %' the or%*%n of t"o or more 'pe&%e' from a &ommon '%n*$e an&e'tor. Spe&%at%on o&&ur' /y the *enet%& d%fferent%at%on of a *eo*raph%&a$$y 'e*re*ated popu$at%on. 1@. There are many *radat%on' of phenotyp%& d%fferen&e' %n $%#%n* or*an%'m' a''%*ned to 'pe&%e' *rouped under the 'ame *enu', *enera to fam%$%e', et&. <%*her ta.a ar%'e /y the 'eBuent%a$ a&&umu$at%on of 'ma$$ d%fferen&e' rather /y the 'udden appearan&e of a ne" )type+. 1>. The fo''%$ re&ord ha' many *ap' amon* Bu%te d%fferent 9%nd' of or*an%'m', /ut %t a$'o %n&$ude' e.amp$e' of *radat%on from an&e'tra$ form' to ne"er one. EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY SIN+E THE SYNTHESIS S%n&e the 1!@' ad#an&e' %n *enet%&' and mo$e&u$ar /%o$o*y ha#e re#o$ut%on%1ed the 'tudy of e#o$ut%on. In the '%.t%e', e#o$ut%onary theory ha' e.panded %nto e&o$o*y, an%ma$ /eha#%or and reprodu&t%#e /%o$o*y. 1olecula# evolution: ana$y'%' of the pro&e''e' and h%'tory of &han*e %n *ene'. Neut#al Hi$to#y o% 1olecula# Evolution: a hypothe'%' that ho$d' that the e#o$ut%on of DN3 'eBuen&e' o&&ur' /y *enet%& dr%ft rather than /y natura$ 'e$e&t%on. Evolutiona#y evelo')ental Biology: 'tud%e' ho" de#e$opmenta$ pro&e''e' /oth e#o$#ed and &on'tra%nt' e#o$ut%on: Evo*evo for 'hort. Tr%e' to under'tand and determ%ne the an&e'tra$ re$at%on'h%p' of or*an%'m' and the pro&e''e' %n#o$#ed %n de#e$opment. Evolutiona#y Geno)ic$: dea$' "%th the #ar%at%on and e#o$ut%on of mu$t%p$e *ene' and ent%re *enome'. !HILOSO!HI+AL I1!LI+ATIONS The theory of e#o$ut%on &han*ed the e''ent%a$%'m of ,$ato and 3r%'tot$e and p$a&ed #ar%at%on %n %t' p$a&e. E#ery &hara&ter%'t%& of a 'pe&%e' &an #ary and rad%&a$$y 'o %f *%#en enou*h t%me. The theory of e#o$ut%on &han*ed the 'tat%& &on&ept of the "or$d for one of &han*e. Chan*e and not 'ta'%' %' the natura$ order. ?andom purpo'e$e'' #ar%at%on a&ted on /y /$%nd, purpo'e$e'' natura$ 'e$e&t%on pro#%ded a re#o$ut%onary ne" 9%nd of an'"er to a$mo't a$$ Bue't%on' that /e*%n "%th )2hyE+. The 'tru&ture' of or*an%'m' ha#e a fun&t%on, not a purpo'e. ETHI+S" RELIGION AN EVOLUTION Creat%on%'t mo#ement: $%tera$ read%n* of the &reat%on 'tor%e' found %n the 7%/$e. The 'uppo'%t%on that natura$ %' *ood %' &a$$ed /y ph%$o'opher' the Natura$%'t%& Fa$$a&y. There are no eth%&a$ or mora$ pr%n&%p$e' %n '&%en&e. S&%en&e doe' not deny or aff%rm the e.%'ten&e of a Creator. EVOLUTION 3 &y'ot&e$i$ %' an edu&ated *ue''- an %nformed &on=e&ture of "hat may /e true. 3 $cienti%ic t&eo#y %' a mature, &oherent /ody of %nter&onne&ted 'tatement', /a'ed on rea'on%n* and e#%den&e that e.p$a%n a #ar%ety of o/'er#at%on'. E#o$ut%on %' a fa&t that %' e.p$a%ned /y the e#o$ut%onary theory. De'&ent "%th mod%f%&at%on' %' 'upported /y e#%den&e pro#%ded /y pa$eonto$o*y, *eo*raph%& d%'tr%/ut%on' of 'pe&%e', &omparat%#e anatomy, em/ryo$o*y, *enet%&', /%o&hem%'try and mo$e&u$ar /%o$o*y. <o" mod%f%&at%on' o&&ur and ho" an&e'tor' *%#e r%'e to d%#er'e de'&endant' &on't%tute' the theory of e#o$ut%on. 3 /ody of %dea' a/out the &au'e' of e#o$ut%on, %n&$ud%n* mutat%on, re&om/%nat%on, *ene f$o", %'o$at%on, random *enet%& dr%ft, the many form' of natura$ 'e$e&t%on, and other fa&tor', &on't%tute our &urrent theory of e#o$ut%on. L%9e a$$ theor%e' %n '&%en&e, %t %' %n&omp$ete.