Časopis Za Nauku o Jeziku I

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA:
ASOPIS ZA NAUKU O JEZIKU I

KNJIEVNOSTI
(3/4)

Institut za jezik i knjievnost
Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Univerzitet Crne Gore

FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: asopis za nauku o jeziku i knjievnosti
FOLIA LINGUISTICA ET LITTERARIA: Journal of Language and Literary Studies

Glavni urednik / General Editor: Marija Kneevi

Izdava: Institut za jezik i knjievnost, Filozofski fakultet, Niki
Publisher: Institute for Language and Literature, Faculty of Philosophy, Niki

Ureivaki odbor / Board of Editors:
Rossella Abbaticchio, University of Bari
Aleksandra Banjevi, University of Montenegro
Nick Ceramella, University for Foreigners of Perugia
Vesna Vukievi Jankovi, University of Montenegro
Ginette Katz-Roy, Pairs West University Nanterre La Dfense
Bernhard Kettemann, University of Graz
Jelena Kneevi, University of Montenegro
Radmila Lazarevi University of Montenegro
Aleksandra Nikevi Batrievi, University of Montenegro
Ana Pejanovi, University of Montengero
Ljiljana Pajovi Dujovi, University of Montenegr
Dirk Skiba, Friedrich Schiller University of Jena

Sekretar / Secretary: Mihaela Lali, University of Montenegro

Recenzenti / Reviewed by:

Janko Andrijaevi, University of
Montenegro
Vesna Beri uki, University of Novi Sad
Biljana ubrovi, University of Belgrade
Mirjana Danii, University of Belgrade
Boris Duda, University of Rijeka
Dubravka uri, Singidunum University,
Belgrade
Annette urovi, University of Belgrade
Rajka Gluica, University of Montenegro
Darja Hribar, University of Maribor
Aleksandra V. Jovanovi, University of
Belgrade
Duan Krcunovi, University of Montenegro
Biljana Mii Ili, University of Ni
Sonja Nenezi, University of Montenegro
Mark Oparin, Udmurt State University,
Izhevsk
Petar Penda, University of Banja Luka
Marina Ragachewskaya, Minsk State
Linguistic University
Smilja Srdi, University of Belgrade
Violeta Stojii, University of Ni
Gjovalin Shkurtaj, University of Tirana
Sanja ubari, University of Montenegro
Elida Tabaku, University of Tirana
Alexey Volskiy,Russian State Pedagogical
University Herzen , St. Petersburg
Jelena Vuji, University of Belgrade
Radojka Vukevi, University of Belgrade

Grafiki dizajn / Graphic Design: Biljana ivkovi, Studio Mouse

tampa / Printed by: ITP Kolo, Niki
Copies: 1000

Filozofski fakultet, Niki, 2011
Sadraj / Table of Contents

Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies 7

The Dialogical Identity of Pragmatic Markers
in Political Argumentation
Bledar Toska _________________________________________________ 9

Prvo lice jednine u crnogorskom parlamentarnom diskursu
Milica Vukovi _______________________________________________ 19

Partitativni kvantifikatori u engleskom i crnogorskom jeziku
Dragana Dedovi ____________________________________________ 35

Klassifikationsproblematik der Genitivattribute im Deutschen
Mihaela Lali ________________________________________________ 43

Pristupi diskursnim oznakama u jezikoslovnoj tradiciji
engleskoga govornog podruja
Magdalena Nigoevi __________________________________________ 57

Adverbijalni frazeologizmi sa sintagmatskom strukturom
u djelima A. P. ehova (meuslovenski prevod)
Marija Paunovi _____________________________________________ 77

Prikaz teorija o usvajanju jezika i odnosu izmeu jezika i miljenja
Nataa Jovovi ______________________________________________ 93

Tosk and Geg in the Spoken Albanian of Struga
Ajten Qamili _______________________________________________ 109

Facing the Data Soliloquies Crossing the Boundaries
of Quantum Gravity Hermeneutics
Milo D. uri ______________________________________________ 119

Nauka o knjievnosti / Literary Studies

Usmenost kao maska autorskog statusa
(Bankonja Fra-Brne Sima Matavulja)
Ljiljana Pajovi Dujovi _______________________________________ 131

Zaboravljeno putovanje tragovi utisnuti u bajkama (II deo)
Dragana Krenkovi Brkovi ___________________________________ 139

Dve vrste lutanja u anglosaksonskoj elegiji Potuka
Danko Kamevski, Milutinovi, Jelena Andreji _______________ 161

The Aesthetic Response: The Reader in Macbeth
Ismail Salami _______________________________________________ 175

Intertekstualne varijante u savremenoj makedonskoj prii:
vakantna citatnost
Marija Gjorgjieva Dimova _____________________________________ 191

Engaging the Cities of Exile in Modern Arabic/Palestinian Poetry
Saddik M. Gohar ____________________________________________ 201

Failed Heroines: The Paradox of Female Liberation in
John Nkemngong Nkengasongs The Widows Might and
AlobwedEpies The Lady with a Beard
Adamu Pangmeshi __________________________________________ 213

Narrating Trauma: Reflections on Argentine Dirty War Novels and
Films Shonu Nangia _________________________________________ 227

ene i knjievnost u esejima Virginije Woolf
Nina Sirkovi _______________________________________________ 239

Die Funktion der Erzhlperspektiven in Uwe Tellkamps
Roman Der Eisvogel
Marijana Jele ______________________________________________ 249

Teievo vienje mita o amerikom snu
Milena Kosti ______________________________________________ 263

Sem epard Amerika porodica ameriki sniva
(Dugo putovanje kui)
Vesna Brati _______________________________________________ 275

Sustav i pojedinac distopijska obiljeja Don DeLillove fikcije
Marko Luki _______________________________________________ 289

Psiholoko nijansiranje mukih likova u romanu Ljubavnik Duklje
Olga Vojii ________________________________________________ 301

The Enlargement of Various Definitions Parody and Its Revival
Iskra Tasevska Hadji Boshkova _________________________________ 315

Derridas methodology
Chung Chin-Yi ______________________________________________ 329

Metodika nastave stranih jezika / Foreign Language Teaching

Development of Generic Competencies Through
English for Specific Purposes
Solzica Popovska and Danica Pirl ______________________________ 347

Vocabulary Learning Strategy Use of EFL Learners in the
Republic of Macedonia in Correlation with Language Proficiency
Anzela Nikolovska ___________________________________________ 357

Standardized EFL Teaching
Shpresa Delija ______________________________________________ 369

The Evolution and the Expectation in the Teaching/Learning
of Quality Bilingualism for Quality Education at the Tertiary
Level of Education in Cameroon
Ojage Nicoline Agbor Tabe ____________________________________ 379

Film u nastavi stranog jezika
Budimka Uskokovi _________________________________________ 391

Razliiti struni prilozi /Miscellaneous

PRIKAZI / BOOK REVIEWS
Harald Vajnrih, LETA Umetnost i kritika zaborava
Sandra Novkini ____________________________________________ 405

PREVODI / TRANSLATIONS
Teorija i biografija: Drugi kao Neko
Adrian Frazier ______________________________________________ 413

Mo jezika: ta je to, ko je ima i kako se razvila?
Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomski, W. Tecumseh Fitch _______________ 425

INTERVJUI / INTERVIEWS
Moving Us Beyond Formulas:
An Interview with Craig S. Womack
Marija Kneevi ____________________________________________ 449

ANOTIRANE BIBLIOGRAFIJE / ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Anotirane bibliografije naunih radova u vezi sa temom
uenja i usvajanja leksike L2
Jelena Drljevi ______________________________________________ 465

UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA _______________________________________ 479
INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS ____________________________ 480

Nauka o jeziku / Language Studies

Folia linguistica et litteraria 9

UDK 811.111:32

The Dialogical Identity of Pragmatic Markers
in Political Argumentation

Bledar Toska, University of Vlora

Abstract: The purpose of this discussion is to test the hypothesis that politicians attempt
to construct their own political identity in argumentation by dint of some strategic
maneuvering and as a part of their verbal interaction with their audience. Pragmatic
markers seem to assist in this entire communicative process. Empirical findings are
based on the one-million-word Corpus of English Argumentation (CEA). The data
analysis provides important illustrations, in which pragmatic markers contribute to the
dialogical sphere of argumentative discourse and to the political identity construction in
interpersonal communication.

Key words: Dialogical Theory, Pragmatic Markers, Language and Politics,
Argumentative Discourse

Research into the relation between language and politics is not new (Lakoff
12; OBarr and OBarr 1-3; Silberstein xiii-xiv). Various works on such connection
have attracted the attention of linguists as well as scholars working in other
fields, such as sociology, philosophy, psychology and so on. Obviously, the
frameworks for these studies have been shaped according to the interests of
these scientists, who have attempted to enlighten many of the amazing
features of political language.
This paper is an attempt to argue that political discourse, in particular
argumentation, is dominated by the political identity construction by dint of
some strategic maneuvering and as a part of politicians verbal interaction with
their audience. It is thought to be a cumulative process, in which specific steps
are taken until various objectives are or appear to be accomplished. Rather
than analyzing the concrete individualistic aspects of politicians speech in
argumentation, the paper aims at providing an analysis based on the Bakhtins
theory of dialogism, which offers a multidimensional interpretation of speech
and communication and seeks the duality of voices in discourse.
Since such an analysis will be too broad for the scope of this paper, although
very rich in elements, we wish to consider and weight the importance of only
pragmatic markers. Our research and discussion has been restricted to three
10 Journal of Language and Literary Studies

important elements: their interectional relevance, (meta)pragmatic and (meta)-
communicative effects and political identity allocation in argumentation. Other
aspects of pragmatic markers, such as semantic, cohesive or coherent values
have been left out of this paper.
Our analysis is based on the one-million-word Corpus of English
Argumentation (CEA)
1
, which is composed of oral and written argumentative
texts. The research discussed in this paper has been narrowed down to only
political texts, which make up about 47 % of the total corpus. This subcorpus
was named CEA 2 for our convenience and the 20 most common pragmatic
markers (20 occurrences and above) have been considered for our research.
12,792 examples were found out of 471,740 words and they cover 2, 7 % of the
total subcorpus.

Total number of words in CEA: 1,001,562 (all in all 86 texts)
Total number of words in political argumentative texts, CEA 2: 471,740 (all in all 29
texts)

Pragmatic
Markers
Occurrences in CEA 2 % in CEA 2
1 and 7,756 1.644
2 but 2,050 0.434
3 if 816 0.172
4 Then 548 0.116
5 Believe 411 0.087
6 So 363 0.076
7 Well 252 0.053
8 Now 110 0.023
9 Yet 78 0.016
10 Though 73 0.015
11 However 65 0.013
12 Or 45 0.009
13 Promise 41 0.008
14 Probably 34 0.007
15 Anyway 30 0.006
16 unfortunately 29 0.006
17 Fortunately 26 0.005
18 Nonetheless 24 0.005

1
Supported by the TextSTAT (Simple Text Analysis Tool) Software (http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-
berlin.de/en/textstat/).

19 Moreover 21 0.004
20 Although 20 0.004
TOTAL 12,792 2.703

All the instances have been considered in the light of their contribution to
the three elements mentioned above, their interectional relevance, (meta)-
pragmatic and (meta)communicative effects and political identity allocation in
argumentation. And one example for each element has been included in this
discussion, which illustrate the five top pragmatic markers in the table.
As it has been stated in other papers (Toska, Pragma-argumentative
markers 335-337; Bakhtinian Dialogical Communication and Pragmatic
Markers 228-229), argumentation in all its layers is mostly dominated by the
duality of present or absent voices, real or imaginary viewpoints and provides a
myriad of interpretative discourse possibilities. It is our attempt in this paper to
show with clarity the interconnection and interdependence between dialogical
nuances and pragmatic markers and their contribution to political
argumentative discourse.
The principles I will mention below are central to Bakhtins dialogism, and
they best suit my argumentative needs in this paper. Bakhtin insists that
dialogue is at the heart of humans interacting with each other and all meaning
of this interaction is relative to the relation between interlocutors. Dialogue
and dialogical aspects are the starting point of the interaction and not
subsequent to that. The speakers own voice is made up of the voices of others,
but it still remains powerful in the dialogical sphere. In this respect, even
language is seen as a dialogue, out of which it is hard to be perceived. Speakers
own words are uttered in a dialogue with the other interlocutor and have an
impact on them and within a particular dialogue. Bakhtin notes that The word
in living conversation is directly, blatantly, oriented toward a future answer-
word: it provokes an answer, anticipates it and structures itself in the answers
direction. Such is the situation in any living dialogue (280).
Example 1 helps us to see how the dialogic aspects are applied to political
speech through pragmatic markers. To be noted is the interactional relevance
of them.
(1) a. This is an enemy without conscience,
b.and they cannot be appeased.
c.If were not fighting and destroying this enemy in Iraq, they would not
be idle.
d.They would be plotting and killing Americans across the world and
within our own borders.
(George Bush, War on terrorism, 2005)


Mr. Bush has delivered several speeches, in which he has supported and
justified his and his administration choice for the war that America started and
conducted in Iraq. This short passage highlights the necessity of fighting and
destroying terrorists. It is interesting to see how the pragmatic markers used in
(b) and (c), that is and and if, structure the interaction between the speaker and
the audience. The semantic relation between (a) and (b) can be established
even without the use of the coordinating conjunction and, but the speaker
intends to display his position on the issues and also to make the other voice
heard in his utterance. The cause-result relation established by and (in the
meaning of so) demonstrates the speaker tentative to have an impact on his
interlocutor (either present or absent, real or imaginary) by interacting with
them within the dialogical sphere of silent conversation. In (b), through and,
Mr. Bush anticipates a reaction and a response from the interlocutor and
consequently makes apparent the pragmatic meaning of it. It does not seem to
me that the proposition in (b) is just the result for the cause stated in (a).
Rather, it is the inclusion of both voices of the interlocutors, who attempt to
solve divergences of opinions and contrary stances.
Mr. Bush dialogue with the interlocutors continues in (c), which appears to
be a way of argument progression on the issue of war. If does not offer much in
terms of meaning but it certainly creates the environment, in which different
voices and positions between interlocutors could be confronted and evaluated.
The interactional relevance of both and and if is displayed throughout the short
structured passage. Their major role is to informationally and interactionally
function in discourse by structuring and progression. Mr. Bush argument for his
choice (war in Iraq) is not simply a justification of this decision but also a
confrontation with the silent interlocutor.
Our argumentation discourse examples involve not only social or political
interactional value, which we briefly discussed in Example 1, but also pragmatic
and communicative effects. Van Eemeren, Grootendorst, and Kruiger have
defined argumentation as "a social, intellectual, verbal activity serving to justify
or refute an opinion, consisting of a constellation of statements and directed
toward obtaining the approbation of an audience" (7).Thus, speakers present
arguments and seek support for a disputable issue or position. Their speech is
audience-oriented, constructed and based on their linguistic and metalinguistic
repertoire of persuasive and manipulative strategies. This is achieved by
forwarding to the audience the information needed for creating the desired
pragmacommunicative effects. Moreover, their underlying discourse structure
frequently comprises an asymmetric distribution of information and knowledge
with the audience, although the divergences of opinions and stances dominate
the core part of argumentation after all.

Example 2 illustrates how the speaker provides information to the audience
and at the same time attempt to align the asymmetric distribution of it. And
coming to our point, how pragmatic markers function (meta)pragma-
communicatively in the progression of the politicians argumentative discourse.

(2) a. If anyone had told me when I walked into 10 Downing Street in May
1997that before I left Ian Paisley and Martin McGuinness would be sharing
power in Northern Ireland, I would have thought they were mad.
b.But I never believed the problem of Northern Ireland
was insoluble.
c.When people told me I was crazy to be spending so much time on the
issue, I told them I was convinced that if we worked at it, if we kept going, in
the end we would be able to find a solution acceptable to both sides.
d.I admit that at times I came close to losing hope,
e.but I knew above all else the importance of having a process.
f. The talking had to go on, we had to keep it moving forward and prevent a
vacuum developing that would have soon been filled by violence.
(Tony Blair, Together, we took some risks for peace.
I believe they were worth it, 2008)

In (a) Mr. Blair presents the audience with an imaginary situation, part of
his meta knowledge of the audience not shared knowledge, to achieve
pragmatic effect and to reply to those potential voices that seem skeptical
about finding a solution to the case. This becomes even clearer in (b), which
contradicts the previous situation. In fact it is not a contraction per se, but a
strategic move to present his belief in finding a solution to the problem, which,
undoubtedly, could have been presented as a proposition on its own right at
the beginning of the passage. The presence of other positions and opinions
(either in (a) or (b)) strengthen his stance. But in (b) plays an important role in
this and comprises a (+) and (-) polarization of viewpoints.
The pragmatic effect achieved sets the environment for the speaker to
metacomunicate with the audience through language and by means of the
codification of the message (in proposition (c)) and the relationship between
interlocutors, Mr. Blair and the audience who do not necessarily share the
same opinion. The metapragmatic effect and the metacommunication effects
are achieved owing to the pragmatic marker if in (c), which has been used
strategically twice, instead of, say, should (and by syntactically structuring
differently the sentence), in order to involve the abovementioned effects.
The second part of the passage is similar to the first but only that the
argument is progressing even more. In (d) the performative verb I admit
introduces the proposition, which as in (a) is Mr. Blairs meta knowledge of the

audience not shared knowledge. In (e) Mr. Blair presents shared knowledge with
the audience and the same time dialogizes the proposition and neutralizes the
effect of the proposition in (d). The last statement, unlike (c) is more definite
because discourse has progressed to a desired point in argumentation and
because the asymmetric distribution of knowledge and information has been
aligned. The uses of had to in (f) are certainly indicative of the speaker firm
position and at the same time are signs of the author attempt to exclude the
presence of voices in the proposition, which would be more apparent with if.
Political identity allocation is a third aspect that pragmatic markers display in
argumentation. As it was shown in Example (2), the use of meta knowledge of
the audience not shared knowledge or background information by the
politician was exploited to their advantage. Pragmatic markers, both in Example
1 and 2, mark the modifications of both propositional information and above all
of the speakers intention and the hearers perception of it. Furthermore, the
speaker intends to display and negotiate his position and orientation. By
directing their utterance to the audience, politicians also display themselves to
others, although it is not a case of overall generalization. Their orientation has
interactional relevance but also causes pragmacommunicative effects and
allocates to them a certain type of identity, say, different from that of the other
interlocutor. Example 3 illustrates such strategic move and such an expected
outcome.

(3) a. I believe every Senator on the other side of the aisle,
b.if they were honest,
c.would acknowledge that the same unyielding, unbending, dogmatic
approach to judicial confirmation has in large part been responsible for the
kind of poisonous atmosphere that exists in this Chamber regarding judicial
nominations.
d. It is tempting,then, for us on this side of the aisle to go tit for tat.
(Barack Obama, Confirmation of Judge John Roberts, 2009)

Mr. Obama main concern in this extracted passage is not to argue in favour
or against a certain issue, but to display his authoritative self, and arguably the
viewpoint of his adherers, and to show his position in relation to other
Senators. His authoritative self appearance comes out as a dual picture, which
includes the self of his political opponents. His linguistic choices intervene and
thus affect the outcome of his political speech by displaying a certain identity
compared to the opponents. The performative verb I believe in(a) introduces
the proposition expressed in (a) and (c) as a belief of Mr. Obama. However, its
effect or role is greatly diminished by the presence of the parenthetical clause
in (b), which, to me, is the main proposition that the speaker wishes to convey

to the audience. Such a statement would have been hard to stand alone as a
separate utterance. The strategic use of if is in good part a move to express Mr.
Obamas opinion about the other silent interlocutors, which comes as a dialogic
coexistence with its counterpart. In (d) the speaker displays his final and
authoritative decision about further political actions. Then in (d) shows his
progression to the decision reached and serves as a linguistic and, of course,
political threatening device. It seems that the author develops and displays a
self in dialogue with others by sending and displaying his own intentions and
identity as well.
Although it was attempted to illustrate each of the elements separately and
to highlight their contribution to the political argumentative discourse, we
strongly believe that their existence and most of the work they do in the realm
of the dialogical sphere, it is simultaneous and interdependent on the role of
each of them. Their functions are interconnected and they display a harmony of
coexistence, either in terms of use or in terms of pragmatization of discourse.
In sum, language and politics are in mutual interaction and feed on each
other. Politicians intentions and their interlocutors expected interpretation
coexist within the same utterance or discourse and their linguistic elements
appear to be dialogical in the dialogic sphere of exchanges, whether real or
imaginary. The presence of different voices enriches every aspect of language
use and the main purpose of this paper was to tentatively demonstrate this fact
with and through pragmatic markers, which displayed interactional relevance,
metapragma-communicative effects and political identity allocation. Further
studies, however, have to demonstrate their importance in the dialogical
sphere of discourse in comparison to other lexical devices and many other
issues related to their status and as part of the overall linguistic system.

Bibliography

Bakhtin, Mikhail. M. Discourse in the Novel. Austin and London: U of Texas P,
1981.
Bakhtin, Mikhail. M. Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. Trans. Vern W.
McGee. Ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. 1.st ed. Austin, TX: U of
Texas P, 1986.
Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. Talking Power: The Politics of Language in Our Lives.
New York: Basic, 1990.
Silberstein, Sandra. War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11. London:
Routledge, 2002.
OBarr, William O. and Jean F. OBarr (eds.). Language and Politics. The Hague:
Mouton, 1976.

Toska, Bledar. Pragma-argumentative markers: A Bakhtinian perspective.
Proceedings of the 3
rd
International Conference on British and American
Studies, Suceava University. 2008. 333-348.
---. Bakhtinian Dialogical Communication and Pragmatic Markers.Advances in
Discourse Approaches. Ed. Marta Dynel. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing, 2009. 227-245.
Van Eemeren, Rob Grootendorst and Tjark Kruiger. Handbook of
Argumentation Theory: A Critical Survey of Classical Backgrounds and
Modern Studies. Providence: Foris, 1987.

IDENTITETI DIALOGJIK I SHNJUESVE PRAGMATIK N ARGUMENTIMIN POLITIK

Synimi i ktij trajtimi sht t testoj hipotezn se politikant prpiqen t
ndrtojn identitetin e tyre politik n argumentim nprmjet disa manovrave
strategjike dhe si pjese e ndrveprimit t tyre verbal me audiencn. Shnjuesit
pragmatik duket se ndihmojn n gjith kt proces komunikativ. Studimet
empirike jan bazuar n Korpusin e Argumentimit n Anglisht, q prbehet prej
rreth nj milion fjalsh. Analiza e t dhnave sjell ilustrime t rndsishme, n
t cilat shnjuesit pragmatik kontribuojn n sfern dialogjike t ligjrimit
argumentues dhe n ndrtimin e identitetit politik n komunikimin ndrvetjak.

Fjale kye: Teoria e Dialogjizmit, Shnjuesit Pragmatike, Gjuha dhe Politika,
Ligjrimi Argumentues


UDK 811.163.436:32(497.16)

Prvo lice jednine u crnogorskom
parlamentarnom diskursu

Milica Vukovi, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: Upotreba pojedinih linih zamjenica i glagolskog lica, tj. kategorija
personalnosti, moe da enkodira politike ideologije i time odgovori na pitanje da li se
radi o politici autoriteta, politici koja polae na graenje grupnog identiteta ili politici
koja se zasniva na polarizaciji izmeu onih koji pripadaju grupi i koji se pozitivno
samopredstavljaju i onih koji joj ne pripadaju, a koji se negativno karakteriu. U tom
svjetlu, na primjeru crnogorskog parlamentarnog diskursa iz 2009. godine, objanjavamo
upotrebu zamjenice ja i prvog lica jednine. Poredei spontani diskurs iz replika sa
unaprijed pripremljenim govorima, primjeujemo znatne razlike koje upuuju na to da
poslanici svjesno izbjegavaju upotrebu perspektive ja, odnosno da su svjesni uloge
personalnosti, a time i znaaja jezika u konstituisanju politike stvarnosti. Tako je veina
glagolskih oblika u prvom licu jednine metadiskursno angaovana.

Kljune rijei: prvo lice jednine, glagolsko lice, parlamentarni diskurs.

Uvod

Jezik nije samo ogledalo stvarnosti, jezik je i initelj stvarnosti. Osim to
predstavlja medij koji omoguava komunikaciju u socijalnom kontekstu, jezik
uslovljava i nain na koji se drutvena realnost percipira, kategorie, karakterie
i procjenjuje. Tako politiki diskurs u dananjici, koja je obiljeena sve eim
promjenama drutvenih paradigmi i politikom polarizacijom (Ilie 879), pred-
stavlja jednog od neizostavnih elemenata bitisanja svakog drutva njegove
politike stvarnosti. Jer, kao to kae Hodis, osim to opisuju istinu, rijei u
politikom diskursu i stvaraju istinu (2).
Upotreba zamjenica i odreenog glagolskog lica, tj. kategorija personalnosti
po definiciji Pipera i kolega (592), u politikom diskursu predstavlja dio procesa
koji se naziva polarizacija. Ovaj proces podrazumijeva grupisanje aktera, tj.
formiranje grupa koje su, po pravilu, suprotstavljene. Polarizacija na one koji
pripadaju grupi i one koji joj ne pripadaju realizuje se kroz poseban reference-
jalni menadment i niz strategija pozitivnog samopredstavljanja i negativnog
predstavljanja drugih (up. van Dijk 68), a mi / oni asimetrija, gdje smo mi uvijek
dobri, a oni uvijek loi, provjerena je politika strategija (Perovi 97).

Suprotstavljene strane emo za potrebe rada nazvati pozicijama. Prva je
zastupljena perspektivom prvog lica jednine i mnoine, druga se izraava kroz
drugo lice mnoine
2
, dok se trea realizuje kroz tree lice oba broja. Tako ja i mi
stoje naspram vas i njih. Budui da se u ovom radu bavimo anrom debate u
parlamentarnom diskursu, deiktiki kontekst diktira veu polarizaciju u pravcu
opozicije mi / vi, odnosno suprotstavljanje prve i druge pozicije.
U procesu polarizacije posebnu ulogu imaju zamjenice budui da iscrtavaju
mapu sociopolitikih odnosa koji su implicitni u diskursu, tj. otkrivaju kako se
diskursni uesnici pozicioniraju kao neko ko govori, nareuje, savjetuje, iznosi
injenice ili kao neko ko slua, prima savjete i prihvata injenice (Chilton and
Schffner 216). Meutim, dok ovakav sud vai za engleski jezik, u flektivnijim
jezicima, kakav je crnogorski, mehanizam koji stoji iza ovog procesa u velikoj
mjeri oslanja se i na upotrebu odreenog glagolskog lica, budui da se zamjeni-
ce esto izostavljaju. U ovom radu ispitujemo upotrebu zamjenice ja, ali i
glagola u prvom licu jednine i to na korpusu crnogorskog parlamentarnog
diskursa.
Zamjenica i perspektiva ja u politikom diskursu enkodira autoritativnu
retoriku, u kojoj politiar stavlja u prvi plan lina dostignua, ali koja mu
istovremeno tovari i breme odgovornosti (Partington 72), to nije sluaj sa za-
mjenicom mi, koja pomjera odgovornost s pojedinca na grupu (Bull and Fetzer
282). Dalje, pretjerana upotreba perspektive ja moe ukazati na egocentrinost,
za razliku od perspektive mi, koja laska publici, budui da govornik, na
podsvjesnom nivou, signalizira da se publika smatra dijelom grupe govornika, tj.
da je govornik dio publike (Halmari 266), ime se lider asimilira u narod
(Fairclough 179). Naravno, upotreba odreene perspektive, tj. kategorija
personalnosti, posjeduje ogroman manipulativni potencijal.

Korpus

Korpus za ovaj rad ine zapisi sa sjednice Skuptine Crne Gore koja je bila
posveena raspravi o budetu za 2010. godinu. U potpunosti smo preuzeli zapis
s prvog dana zasijedanja i proirili korpus s jo dva sata rasprave koja je odrana
drugog dana sjednice. Slijede detalji ovog korpusa:

2
Budui da je politiki diskurs u velikoj mjeri institucionalizovan kao oblik javnog diskursa,
ogranien je normama etikecije, pa se zamjenica ti i drugo lice jednine gotovo ne koriste i
zamijenjeni su oblicima utivog obraanja, tj. zamjenicom Vi i drugim licem mnoine.

Parlamentarn
zasijedanje
esta sjednica drugog redovnog zasijedanja
Rasprava Rasprava o budetu za kalendarsku 2010. godinu
Izvor korpusa Autorizovani fonografski zapisi sa sjednice
3

Datum 15.12.2009. i 16.12.2009.
Trajanje 7h 30 min
Broj rijei 45 435
Broj tampanih strana 127
Broj razmjena 140 (predsjednik i potpredsjednici skuptine: 70;
DPS: 33; SDP: 7; SNP: 10; PZP: 13; Nova: 7)
Uestvovalo poslanika 25
Tabela 1. Detalji korpusa

Metodologija

Opti okvir za nae ispitivanje je analiza diskursa i, specifinije, analiza
politikog diskursa. U radu se bavimo pragmatikom analizom upotrebe zamje-
nica i naina na koji funkcionie sistem personalnosti.
Metodologija je sljedea: najprije izdvajamo sve pojave zamjenice ja u
korpusu i komentariemo njenu uestalost u odnosu na ostale zamjenice kori-
stei metode korpusne lingvistike, a zatim izdvajamo sve glagolske oblike koji su
u prvom licu jednine, a nakon toga tabelarno prikazujemo one najfrekventnije
(s preko 10 pojava) i kvalitativno analiziramo podatke iz tabele. Na kraju
ispitivanja dajemo pregled naina i vremena koja su koritena u prvom licu
jednine. Pristup je kritiki, u duhu kritike analize diskursa.

Upotreba zamjenice ja

Iako je personalnost, kao semantika kategorija, najizrazitije gramatikalizo-
vana u glagolskoj kategoriji lica (Piper i dr. 592), rezultati koji se odnose na
prostu uestalost zamjenica bili su indikativni za objanjenje nekih aspekata
parlamentarnog diskursa, pa emo se u sljedeem tekstu baviti analizom
upravo tih podataka. Kada se analizira samo upotreba zamjenica u funkciji
subjekta u crnogorskoj parlamentarnoj debati, dobijamo sljedee rezultate:

3
Preuzeto sa: http://www.skupstina.me/cms/site_data/AKTI%202010-1/FONOGRAFSKI%20ZAPIS-
%206_sj_2_red_zas_15,16_i%2017_12_2009_.pdf

Rasprava o budetu
Zamjenica u
funkciji subjekta
SF
4
NF
5

Zamjenica u
funkciji subjekta
SF NF
ja 118 2,59 mi 119 2,61
ti 1 0,02 vi 127 2,79
on 19 0,41 oni 33 0,72
Tabela 2. Distribucija zamjenica u funkciji subjekta

Tabela 2 pokazuje da se najvie koristi zamjenica drugog lica mnoine, koja
se koristi za utivo obraanje drugim poslanicima, pojedinano i kolektivno.
Zamjenica iju upotrebu ovdje ispitujemo nalazi se na treem mjestu po
uestalosti, no ipak vrlo blizu zamjenice mi, koja je na drugoj poziciji. Ove
zamjenice se koriste da oznae govornika, bilo ire, kao pripadnika grupe, ili
ue, kao pojedinca.
Navoenje zamjenica ima funkciju isticanja govornika ili adresata, to
naroito dolazi do izraaja u razmjenama replika. Naime, pokazalo se da
rasprave, tj. izlaganja ili parlamentarni govori, imaju drugaije odlike od replika
u crnogorskom parlamentu u ovoj kategoriji. Razlike su u toj mjeri evidentne da
moemo govoriti o dva podanra parlamentarne debate kao anra. Tako nai
podaci pokazuju da se zamjenica ja koristi 3,6% ee u replikama nego u
raspravama, a uporedni podaci za zamjenicu mi kreu se u istom pravcu,
ukazujui da je njena upotreba u replikama 2,07% puta ea, dakle dvostruko.
Najveu razliku u podacima zabiljeili smo kod eksplicitne upotrebe zamjenice
vi, koja je ak 7,75% ea u replikama. Intuitivna pretpostavka da e
polarizacija biti vie izraena u replikama time se potvruje. Pomenute zamje-
nice se u datim sluajevima koriste da se istakne autoritet i persona politiara
koji govori (ja), da se zatiti time to e govoriti iz perspektive grupe ili istakne
pripadanje grupi (mi), i najee, da eksplicitno adresira poslanika iz druge
partije kojem upuuje repliku (vi).
Zamjenica ja oigledno se izbjegava u parlamentarnim govorima, koji su
pisani da bi bili govoreni, tj. kod kojih se paljivo bira perspektiva. Ovo je
vjerovatno iz razloga to se na taj nain poslanik ne predstavlja kao dio grupe,
ve zasebno, a takoe moe upuivati i na pretjeranu egocentrinost. U sponta-
nijem govoru, kakav je jezik replika, i pored korienja dosta standardnih fraza i
ve upakovanog politikog jezika, vie se koristi ova perspektiva i politiari

4
SF: sirova frekvencija (engl. raw frequency), tj. ukupan broj pojava rijei u cijelom korpusu.
5
NF: normalizovana frekvencija (engl. normalised frequency), tj. ukupan broj pojave rijei na
hiljadu rijei korpusa.

zapravo otkrivaju svoje pravo lice: lice pojedinca koji manipulie kada se u
unaprijed pripremljenim govorima predstavlja kao jedan od nas.
Zamjenica ja seobino koristi u kolokacijama s glagolima vjerovanja i
miljenja, tj. koristei verba sentiendi, i to u sadanjem vremenu, pri emu
nastaju fraze tipa ja mislim, ja smatram, ja vjerujem i sl., koje u propoziciju uno-
se modalno znaenje. Za razliku od opteg jezika, u kojem je najea funkcija
ovih izraza ograivanje od odgovornosti i ublaavanje iskaza, u parlamenta-
rnom diskursu i politikom diskursu uopte, ove fraze se koriste i u svrhu
isticanja autoriteta politiara (Simon-Vanderbergen 1997). Prisustvo zamjenice
u ovim frazama pojaava znaenje i istie govornika:

(1) IVKOVI: Ja mislim da ste Vi, gospodine Lukiu, da je Vlada pomogla,
tano je to, bankarski sektor
(2) KONJEVI: Znai, nemojte Vi mene da kritikujete ako ja kao poslanik
imam odreenu primjedbu na to to radi gospodin Luki

Sigurno da bi propozicija iz primjera 1 bila slabija da je iskaz glasio: Mislim
da ste pomogli. Sintagmom ja mislim istie se autoritet politiara da donosi
odreene sudove, a zamjenicom vi naglaava se i persona primaoca poruke.
Isto vai i za primjer broj 2, koji bi mnogo slabije zvuao da je formulacija bila
nemojte da me kritikujete. Upotrebom zamjenica namjerno se istiu govorno
lice i adresat radi pomeranja fokusa reenice (Piper i dr. 1006).
Meutim, u crnogorskom jeziku, zamjenice se esto i ne navode, pa
potpuniju predstavu o tome kako funkcionie personalnost u crnogorskom
parlamentu moemo imati tek nakon pregleda upotrebe glagolskog lica.

Prvo lice jednine

Razmotriemo podatke iz tabele 3, koji se odnose na upotrebu glagolskog
lica u crnogorskom parlamentu:

Rasprava o budetu
Lini glagolski
oblici sa
animatnim
subjektom u:
1. l.jed. 2.l.jed. 3.l.jed. 1.l.mn. 2.l.mn. 3.l.mn.
2570 699 5 241 887 531 207
100% 27,19% 0,19% 9,38% 34,51% 20,66% 8,05%
Tabela 3. Distribucija glagolskih oblika sa animatnim subjektom u kategoriji lice

Ako ove podatke uporedimo s podacima u tabeli 2, uoavamo da se distribu-
cija zamjenica ne poklapa u potpunosti s distribucijom glagolskog lica. Meu-
tim, podaci u tabelama nisu u suprotnosti. Direktno pomenute zamjenice u
funkciji subjekta odlika su konfrontacionih djelova debate, u kojima je, kako
smo vidjeli, mnogo vea zastupljenost zamjenice vi. Tabela 2 je, dakle, repre-
zentativna uglavnom za one djelove debate u kojima je polarizacija vie izrae-
na, obino replike, zbog ega rezultati u potpunosti ne odgovaraju rezultatima
iz tabele 3. Vjerujemo da je tabela glagolskih oblika sa animatnim subjektom
reprezentativnija za cjelokupni korpus, u kojem su izlaganja dobila mnogo veu
minutau u odnosu na replike.
Vaan podatak iz tabele 3 je da perspektiva prvog lica jednine biljei zastu-
pljenost od skoro 30%, te da se, ako se dodaju rezultati koji se odnose na
perspektivu mi, u crnogorskom parlamentu u oko 60% sluajeva govori iz
perspektive prvog lica, koju u procesu polarizacije oznaavamo kao prvu pozi-
ciju. Ovo znai da je vie pozitivne nego negativne kampanje u parlamentu,
tj. da se politika stvarnost prevashodno gradi na autoritetu pojedinca i
grupnom identitetu, a da je oponiranje u drugom planu. Kao to smo vidjeli,
ovo je uglavnom karakteristika izlaganja, dok je situacija neto drugaija u
razmjenama replika.
Ono to se najprije primjeuje je da se dobar dio linih glagolskih oblika
prvog lica jednine upotrebljava metadiskursno. Metadiskurs ovdje definiemo u
najuem smislu, dakle mislimo na ona jezika sredstva koja direktno komenata-
riu tekst, odnosno sredstva koja uestvuju u njegovoj organizaciji i koja
pomau da se isti jasnije prenese i interpretira. ak 26,6% ovih oblika (186 od
ukupno 699) uestvuje u ovim frazama. Metadiskurs obino slui za struktu-
riranje, kao to se moe vidjeti u primjeru 3:

(3) DAMJANOVI: Kolega Konjeviu, ja se neu baviti dijelom diskusije koja se
dotie direktno budeta, baviu se dijelom vaih diskusija, to ste istina
dosta kratko diskutovali, koji se tie rada regulatornih agencija. To u
poeti, a naravno obraanjem i potpredsjedniku Vlade, citatom Izvjetaja
Svjetske banke oko ocjene javne potronje i finansijske odgovornosti i u
pregledu javnih finansija gdje se kae da autonomne vladine agencije,
javna preduzea, a ja dodajem, ako smijem, i lokalne samouprave,
stvaraju potencijalne fiskalne rizike za budetsku predvidljivost. Da se
nadoveem na predlog zakljuaka koje ste podnijeli,Vi i Va kolega Damir
ehovi, koje smo odloili za razmatranje na Odboru i koje emo
vjerovatno imati, ako ostanete pri zakljucima na kraju rasprave gdje
traite da Skuptina Crne Gore zadui Ministarstvo da se analizira politika
zarada u lokalnoj samoupravi i kod imenovanih lica. Sloiemo se da su
plate od po 1.500 do 2.000 u lokalnim samoupravama enormne i da

zaista ministar finansija, a i matini odbor Skuptine treba da pomogne
ministru, treba da zavede red u politici zarada. Ako govorimo o
agencijama, ovdje u da iskoristim prisustvo pet predstavnika
regulatornih agencija, a ujedno kolega ehovi e neto rei u pola
minuta, onda bih htio da kaem da to se tie agencija, novca ima. Dobro
bi bilo da to graani znaju. Mi smo danas ustanovili u raspravi na Odboru,
da recimo kod Komisije od hartije od vrijednosti ima oko milion evra ili
1.400.000 evra uteda iz ranijih godina. Kod Agencije za nadzor
osiguranja to je 400.000 evra, kod Agencije za elektronske komunikacije
to je nekoliko miliona evra. Dakle, nee tih est, sedam miliona da spasi
sistem. I nee tih est, sedam miliona nee mnogo pomoi, ako mi sami
sebi ne pomognemo jednom opreznom budetskom politikom. Ali, ovo
govorim iz jednog sistemskog razloga. Gospodin Sra Boovi je na
prethodnoj sjednici kada smo govorili o zaradama predloio jedno
sistemsko rjeenje da se na zakonski nain rijei pitanje zarada lanova
Savjeta i onih koji upravljaju agencijama. Da to rijeimo na nain da te
plate budu na nivou plata poslanika ili plata vladinih ministara, a ne da,
budu u ponekim agencijama, mnogo vee. Drugo to hou da kaem je da
imate takoe, situacije da u pojedinim javnim preduzeima ili
akcionarskim drutvima gdje ima drava veinsko vlasnitvo, naveu
primjer Barske plovidbe, imate plate direktora od oko 3.500 evra. Neka to
graani znaju. Ovdje elim da ministru uputim pitanje, a i Vama da
uputim pitanje mi danas razgovaramo o radu agencija, a ini mi se da
smo jednu agenciju propustili da analiziramo i mene udi zato ta
agencija nije na tapetu. U toj agenciji direktor ima platu 3.000 evra. Tu
imamo prostora da razgovaramo, kaem da se ove stvari rjeavaju na
sistemski nain. Ono to takoe hou na kraju preostalog vremena za
komentar kaem da imamo problema, a to je opravdanje koje dolazi od
agencija. Ukoliko mi krenemo u skraivanje njihovih trokova ili
eliminaciju nepotrebnih trokova, onda oni imaju problem sa
operaterima, tj. sa onima od kojih naplauju naknade, jer moraju da
umanjuju te naknade. Ja se slaem da su naknade i ovako male i da
moramo nai prostora i vie naknada da naplatimo, i od Pro-montea i M-
tela, da ne idem dalje, to je Jugopetrol, Elektroprivreda itd.

U ovom primjeru, replika poinje metadiskursnim objanjenjem ta e biti
sadraj replike (baviu se ), to strukturira ostatak izlaganja i slui da privue
panju publike. Replika je dalje podijeljena na dva dijela metadiskursnim
konstrukcijama (to u poeti citatom i drugo to hou da kaem). Ove fraze
esto slue i kao diskursni markeri, u smislu da omoguavaju strukturiranje
teksta i doprinose njegovoj koherenciji (da dodam, da se nadoveem, naveu

primjer, da kaem). Najbitnija funkcija metadiskursnih fraza je da pojasne
znaenje. Naime, fraze tipa ovo govorim iz razloga, mi danas razgovaramo o,
elim da uputim pitanje, slue da iskristaliu poentu izlaganja, a strukturiranje
koje smo ve pomenuli omoguava jasnije shvatanje poruke govornika. Jedan
broj fraza u ovom diskursu slui i da se dobije na vremenu dok se ne osmisli
adekvatan odgovor (npr. ono to takoe hou na kraju preostalog vremena za
komentar kaem).
Skup ovih fraza je ogranien, to znai da govornici raspolau odreenim
brojem sredstava koja im omoguavaju da strukturiraju i pojanjavaju znaenje
koje prenose dok govore, privuku panju publike i kupuju vrijeme kada
spontano izlau. Primijetili smo da se metadiskursno strukturiranje uglavnom
koristi u replikama, najvjerovatnije iz razloga to su replike spontana izlaganja,
pri emu gotove fraze kao one iz primjera uveliko pomau poslaniku da organi-
zuje svoj govor. Smatramo da ova karakteristika nije tipina samo za politiki
diskurs, ve da je to generalno odlika izlaganja koja pripadaju formalnom
registru.
Neki od najzastupljenijih glagola u prvom licu jednine upravo su upotrije-
bljeni u metadiskursnoj funkciji (kazati, rei, podsjetiti, govoriti, pomenuti), kao
to se moe vidjeti u tabeli 5, koja sumira sve ovakve glagolske oblike s
frekvencijom od deset i vie pojava:

Aktivni glagolski oblik
u prvom licu jednine
SF NF
Mislim 84 1,85
Zahvaljujem 35 0,77
Smatram 28 0,62
kaem (26)
sam kazao (2)
28 0,62
slaem se (22)
sloio bih se (2)
24 0,53
molim (19)
bih molio (2)
sam molio (2)
23 0,51
imam/nemam (18)
sam imao (2)
bih imao (1)
21 0,46
rekao sam (11)
rekao bih (3)
rei u (3)
u rei (1)
18 0,40
vidim (14)
sam vidio (2)
16 0,35

Vjerujem 15 0,33
podsjetim (7)
podsjetiu (7)
u podsjetiti (1)
15 0,33
Moram 12 0,26
znam 12 0,26
govorim (9)
sam govorio (3)
12 0,26
sam
6
(11)
jesam (1)
12 0,26
cijenim 10 0,22
izvinjavam se 10 0,22
pomenuo sam 6
pominjem 3
pomenuo bih 1
10 0,22
Ukupno
385
(55,07%
od 699
oblika)
Tabela 5. Uestalost aktivnih glagolskih oblika u prvom licu jednine

Ono to tabela 5 otkriva jeste da preko 50% glagola u prvom licu jednine
ine navedenih 18 glagola. Ovaj podatak nam govori da poslanici ne pokazuju
naroitu kreativnost u svojim izlaganjima, ve da u velikoj mjeri koriste gotove i
standardne forme. Kliei ovog tipa ne privlae panju gledalaca, ali njihovom
upotrebom postie se drugi cilj. Naime, navedene standardne fraze odlika su
javnog diskursa koji obino ima presti kao odreeni standard kome se tei,
tako da njihovom upotrebom poslanici ustvari potvruju svoj autoritet i status,
odnosno istiu svoje retorike sposobnosti, tj. akumuliraju simboliki kapital
(Bourdieu).
Osim metadiskursnih fraza o kojima smo prethodno govorili, meu glago-
lima u tabeli 5, naao se i modalni glagoli morati, ije konkordance otkrivaju da
se on nalazi u kolokacijama koje se esto takoe metadiskursno upotrebljavaju:

6
U situacijama gdje je to kopulativni, a ne pomoni glagol.

Prikaz 1. Konkordance glagolskog oblika moram

Metadiskursna fraza nosi jae znaenje ukoliko joj prethodi modalni glagol
morati, koji ovdje izraava obligaciju. Svi ovi oblici imaju deontiko znaenje,
budui da se epistemiko u crnogorskom jeziku i ne moe izraziti linim oblici-
ma, ve samo bezlinim (mora da je, mora da su i sl.). Interesantan podatak je
da je treina kolokacija ovog modalnog glagola s glagolom priznati, koji se inae
u korpusu javlja samo u ova etiri sluaja, to znai da se govorni in priznanja u
politikom diskursu ostvaruje rijetko i samo u uslovima obligacije. Svaki in pri-
znanja slabi poziciju i autoritet politiara, pa ne iznenauje to je ovaj govorni
in rijedak. in slaganja i neslaganja koji se izraava kroz performativni glagol
slagati se pripada standardnom debatnom vokabularu, gdje je potvrivanje ili
oponiranje odreenim pozicijama eksplicitno izraeno kroz fraze slaem se i ne
slaem se.
Kada je rije o govornim inovima, u tabeli 5 u prvom licu jednine naao se
znaajan broj performativnih glagola (podsjetiti, izvinjavati se, zahvaljivati se,
slagati se, moliti). Podsjetiti funkcionie uglavnom metadiskursno. Fraza zahva-
ljujem se je standardna prilikom otvaranja ili zatvaranja izlaganja politiara, ali
nije i obavezujua. Govorni in izvinjenja koji se ostvaruje pomou performa-
tivnog glagola izvinjavati se koristi se gotovo iskljuivo da se poslanik izvini to
je prekoraio dozvoljeni vremenski okvir i to u obraanju predsjedniku Skupti-
ne, a isto kao i in priznavanja, i ovaj se in u drugim prilikama sistematski
izbjegava iz razloga to bi umanjivao poziciju i autoritet poslanika koji govori.
Budui da su inovi priznanja i izvinjenja rijetkost u parlamentarnom dis-
kursu, moe se zakljuiti da debata nema za cilj ubjeivanje protivnike strane,
to bi bilo iluzorno za oekivati, ve joj je jedina svrha odmjeravanje snaga pred
biraima koji prate zasijedanje, zbog ega je asertivnost glavna odlika rasprave
(reprezentativi su najei govorni inovi), a ograivanje, okolianje i ustupanje
se sistematski izbjegavaju. Na prvi pogled onda iznenauje to se na listi glagola
naao i glagol moliti, kojim se ostvaruje govorni in molbe, a koja pretpostavlja
umanjenje vlastitog autoriteta i priznavanje tueg. Meutim, pregled upotrebe

oblika molim pokazuje da se njime izraava govorni in koji najee izvode
predsjednik i potpredsjednici Skuptine, kada dodjeljuju rije poslanicima (mo-
lim poslanika X da uzme rije), gdje je ovaj oblik samo konvencionalna fraza za
izraavanje utivosti koja se toliko esto koristi da je izgubila pravo znaenje
molbe.
Autoritet poslanika jaa i njegova linost se istie zahvaljujui glagolima
miljenja i vjerovanja upotrijebljenim u prvom licu jednine (mislim, smatram,
vidim, vjerujem, znam, cijenim).
Kao to smo ranije vidjeli, analize Simon-Vanderbergenove (Simon-Vander-
bergen, 1997; 2001) pokazale su da ekvivalenti fraze ja mislim u engleskom i
holandskom jeziku u diskursu parlamenta i politike uopte mnogo ee slue
za isticanje autoriteta govornika nego za ograivanje od odgovornosti. Ovi
nalazi su u skladu s rezultatitima do kojih je dola Fecer (391), koja kae da u
politikom diskursu pomenuta fraza slui za pojaavanje epistemike sigurnosti.
Nai zakljuci idu u prilog ovoj tezi, s tim to, kao to smo istakli, znaenje biva
pojaano kada je prisutna zamjenica. Osnovni nain na koji se mogu razlikovati
ova dva prilino razliita znaenja iste fraze je na osnovu fonolokih karakte-
ristika i mjesta fraze u reenici. Razmotriemo nekoliko primjera:

(4) IVKOVI: Nije imao, ja mislim, gospodine predsjednie, kolega
Konjevi namjeru da me uvrijedi, on se malo ali poto ja esto pominjem
ANB
(5) KRIVOKAPI: Imamo itavih, ja mislim, 18 sati, da to ispravimo zajedno.
Kolega ivkovi ima repliku jer je spomenut. Kolega Konjevi je danas
sijao imena okolo, oigledno parlamentarno neiskustvo
(6) UGI: Poeu od ovog to ste posljednje saoptili. Kad je u pitanju
poreski kapacitet, poreska osnova ili poreska baza, imali ste skoro
predloge, ja mislim, 13 poreskih propisa koji su razmatrani dugo, nekoliko
puta, u nekoliko koraka na samom matinom Odboru za finansije
(7) KONJEVI: Kod rasprave o rebalansu smo govorili da je Crna Gora
stvarno bila jedna od rijetkih zemalja u regionu koja je svoj rebalans
tokom 2009. godine radila samo jednom. Hrvatska je, mislim, radila dva
ili tri puta. Nije Budet sveto pismo koje ne moemo mijenjati

U navedenim primjerima, fraza (ja) mislim slui za ograivanje i ima znaenje
moda, vjerovatno, mogue je. Ova fraza je umetnuta u reenici, tj. nalazi se na
mjestu gdje se to ne bi oekivalo, pri emu joj prethodi, a onda i slijedi pauza. Ova
pozicija fraze je sasvim drugaija od one gdje (ja) mislim izraava autoritet:

(8) SEKULI: Mislim da bi to bilo mnogo bolje nego da to mi radimo
amandmanski. Ja zaista nemam nita protiv... (Prekid).

(9) KONJEVI: Mislim da Vam je konstrukcija koju ste iznijeli potpuno
netana, jer rekao bih da na neki nain optuujete veliki dio graana koji
rade u dravnoj upravi
(10) VUKSANOVI: Mislim da ta praksa treba da bude i u narednom
periodu vrlo znaajna, i to vrlo znaajna u pripremanju Nacrta budeta u
kojem bismo uestvovali svi, od ministarstava do odreenih odbora, koji
bi mogli da proprate
(11) BULAJI: Na kraju krajeva, pitanje je vanosti procenta da li je to 27%,
da li je to 23% ili je to 35%. Mislim da je mnogo vanije da li privreda
moe da servisira svoj dug
(12) LUKI:...Mislim da ovdje nema dileme da je crnogorska ekonomija
pokazala vitalnost i da su se politike koje smo vodili u godinama pokazale
ispravnim

U navedenim primjerima, kakvih je velika veina u naem korpusu, fraza (ja)
mislim nije umetnuta i njena interpretacija je moje je (vrsto) miljenje. Obi-
no ima inicijalnu poziciju i praena je subordinatorom da iza kojeg mora uslije-
diti neki zavisni sadraj. Da se zaista radi o isticanju autoriteta vidi se i iz fraza i
rijei koje su u primjerima podvuene i koje su obino u funkciji intenzifikatora, a
koje bi izostale u sluaju da se istie samo neko vjerovanje od kojeg se posla-nik
ograuje i na ijem bi mjestu bili ublaivai i ograivai (engl. hedging devices).
Poto je makromodalnost crnogorskog parlamentarnog diskursa u tonu sigurnosti
i samouvjerenosti, u ovom kontekstu fraza ja mislim izraava upravo ovakvo
znaenje.
Dakle, za crnogorski parlament smo za sada zakljuili da vai isticanje auto-
riteta, pojedinanog i grupnog, i izbjegavanje sredstava koja bi umanjila simbo-
liki kapital ili ograivala od odgovornosti (izbjegavanje inova molbe, izvinje-
nja, priznavanja i korienje fraza za isticanje autoriteta, a ne za ograivanje).
Zakljuujemo da je priroda crnogorske parlamentarne debate uglavnom kon-
frontaciona i da je polarizacija diskursnih uesnika izmeu kojih postoji stalna
borba njena osnovna karakteristika. Vjerovatno da je ovo tipino za politiki
diskurs u svijetu uopte, ali ini nam se da je proces polarizacije neto izraeniji
u Crnoj Gori. Diskurs koji polarizuje uesnike gradi i veoma polarizovanu poli-
tiku stvarnost Crne Gore.
Oblik smatram praktino je sinoniman sa oblikom mislim u funkciji isticanja
autoriteta poslanika da donosi odreene sudove i istie stavove:

(13) PINJATIS: Smatram da je ovaj budet odriv, da se na jedan kvalitetan
nain izvriti opsluivanje svih budetskih korisnika i smatram ga potpuno
prilagoenim situaciji u kojoj se nalazi crnogorska ekonomija.
Zahvaljujem.

(14) MILI: Gospodine ugiu, slaem se da je prihodna strana budeta
potcijenjena. Ne slaem se u odnosu na strukturu o kojoj Vi govorite i
smatram da je koncipiranje prihodne strane budeta u ovom sluaju
nastavilo kontinuitet onoga to su radile i prethodne vlade

Oblici vidim i vjerujem se takoe mogu koristiti u znaenju mislim i smatram,
mada je takva upotreba rjea:

(15) LUKI: Ali, takoe ja ne vidim da treba bjeati ni od smanjivanja
budeta u kranjem sluaju ukoliko bi to vodilo smanjivanju cijena koje
plaaju krajnji potroai
(16) IVKOVI: Ne vjerujem da ete vi ostvariti jer se prvim rebalansom
ovo biti prepolovljeno, ali makar nemojte dirati ovo sa sjevera.

Oblik vidim je ei u ustaljenim frazama vidijeti prostor, vidjeti nain i vidjeti
problem, a oblik vjerujem je mnogo ei u znaenju uzdati se, gdje se obino
kombinuje as dativom:

(17) LABUDOVI: Ali, evo, ako neu da vjerujem vama i neu da vjerujem
onima koji svaki dan kukaju kako je crnogorska privreda u kolapsu, jer ne
radi nita, ja u da vjerujem gospodinu ministru. Dodue, on jednu priu
pria ovdje nama, ali drugu tamo gdje su oni pred kojima ne smije da
govori nita drugo bez onako kako jeste

Budui da se poslanici stalno optuuju za iznoenje neistina i netanosti
(eufemizmi za rije la, koja je zabranjena poslovnikom), inovi vjerovanja i
nevjerovanja igraju jednako vanu ulogu u parlamentarnom diskursu.
Obliku znam najee prethodi negacija:

Prikaz 2. Konkordance oblika znam

Iznenauje to fraza (ja) ne znam u politikom diskursu takoe izraava
autoritet politiara:


(18) BULAJI: Pravo da vam kaem ne znam emu slui ovoliki dravni
aparat i inovnici
(19) RADUNOVI: mislim da biste na Kolegijumu, gospodine predsjedava-
jui, morali da obezbijedite da efovi poslanikih klubova obezbijede pri-
sustvo poslanika makar iz pozicije, jer to je nain da uju to mi mislimo o
svemu ovome i da moda u nekom dijelu koriguju svoje miljenje. Ovako
kada nema nikoga, ne znamkome priamo. Naravno, graanima Crne
Gore, ali oni ne odluuju o ovome. Hvala.

U ovakvim situacijama, poslanik skree panju na apsurdnost odreenih si-
tuacija i argumentacije, istiui da on, s pozicije svog autoriteta da iznosi eva-
luacije, ne vidi njihovu loginost. Ovakve konstrukcije su tipino praene
ironijom i karakteristine su za crnogorski jezik.
Poslednji oblik iz tabele 5 je oblik cijenim, koji je odlika retorikog stila samo
jednog poslanika (Sekulia). Ranije smo primijetili da je diskurs pojedinih politi-
ara vie ili manje konfrontacioni, a sada primjeujemo da svaki idiolekt poka-
zuje preferencije prema odreenim frazama koje organizuju izlaganje.
Tabela 5 nam je takoe nagovijestila da se u diskursu parlamentarnih debata
uglavnom koristi prezent. Gotovo nevjerovatno zvui podatak da se u prvom li-
cu jednine iskljuivo koriste samo tri glagolska vremena: prezent, perfekat i fu-
tur I. Pored indikativa, od drugih naina u upotrebi je jedino sadanji potencijal,
to se moe vidjeti u tabeli 6:

Prvo lice jednine
Vremena
7
:
Prezent 524 74,96%
Perfekat 91 13,01%
Futur I
8
47 6,72%
Naini:
Sadanji potencijal: 37 5,29%
Ukupno 699 100%
Tabela 6. Aktivni glagolski oblici u prvom licu jednine

7
Indikativ nismo izdvojili kao poseban nain, jer to nije uobiajeno u prikazima sistema naina i
vremena u gramatikama regionalnih jezika.
8
Futur I smo predstavili kao glagolsko vrijeme, kako je to prikazano u najveem broju gramatika,
iako ima i jakih argumenata da je futur I zapravo nain, budui da izraava izrazito epistemiko
znaenje kada je upotrebljen samostalno kao futur I leksikih glagola, kada se njime pokazuje
najvii stepen opredeljenosti govornika/subjekta prema istinitosti propozicije iskazane leksikim
glagolom (Trbojevi-Miloevi 141).

U prvom licu jednine u korpusu ne moemo nai nijedan primjer imperfekta,
aorista, pluskvamperfekta, futura II i potencijala prolog. Meutim, rekli bismo
da ovakav sistem glagolskih oblika nije tipian samo za parlamentarni diskurs
ve za javni diskurs u Crnoj Gori uopte. Iz nekog razloga, taj sistem poiva na
samo tri glagolska vremena, a budui da javni diskurs ima presti i da ga mnogi
doivljavaju kao standard, vjerovatno da e ovaj sistem uticati na dalji razvoj
jezika, i to u pravcu osiromaenja sistema glagolskih vremena.
U parlamentu dominira prezent, budui da se rasprava uglavnom svodi na
razmjenu miljenja i znanja kroz kognitivne glagole i glagole percepcije koji se
inae uglavnom upotrebljavaju u prezentu, budui da oznaavaju stanja. Iako je
futur est u politikom diskursu i to kod govornih inova obeanja, rasprava u
parlamentu nije direktno obraanje graanima, to je vjerovatno razlog za nji-
hovu manju uestalost. I perfekat i futur se uglavnom metadiskursno koriste
(govorio sam, rekao sam, iznosio sam, odgovorio sam; podsjetiu, napomenuu,
naveu i sl.). Istu funkciju, ali s dozom ograivanja, ima i oblik potencijala
sadanjeg (rekao bih, ne bih komentarisao, dodao bih i sl.).
Ovi podaci pokazuju da su poslanici kada govore u prvom licu uglavnom
usredsreeni na predmet rasprave i da manje istiu svoja prola djela i iznose
obeanja, to bi jo jednom uputilo na injenicu da su oni najprije okrenuti jedni
drugima, a da tek onda raspravu doivljavaju kao obraanje graanima.

Zakljuak

U crnogorskom parlamentu, u oko 60% sluajeva govori se iz perspektive
prvog lica jednine i mnoine, odnosno s prve pozicije. Ovo znai da je vie pozi-
tivne nego negativne kampanje u parlamentu, tj. da se politika stvarnost
prevashodno gradi na autoritetu pojedinica i grupnom identitetu.
Zakljuili smo da se u prvom licu najee koriste glagoli vjerovanja i milje-
nja, kao i glagoli saoptavanja, koji su uglavnom u zastupljeni u metadiskursnim
frazama, iji je dominantan glagolski oblik prezent. Najbitnija funkcija meta-
diskursnih fraza je organizovanje diskursa i pojanjavanje znaenja. Broj ovih
fraza je ogranien, to znai da govornici raspolau odreenim brojem jezikih
sredstava koja im omoguavaju da strukturiraju i pojanjavaju znaenje koje
prenose dok govore, privuku panju publike i kupuju vrijeme kada spontano
izlau. Primijetili smo da se metadiskursno strukturiranje uglavnom koristi u
replikama, navjerovatnije iz razloga to su replike spontana izlaganja, pri emu
gotove fraze uveliko pomau poslaniku da organizuje ono to govori. Dakle,
poslanici i nisu previe kreativni, jer u velikoj mjeri koriste gotove i standardne
forme. Kliei ne privlae panju gledalaca, ali se njihovom upotrebom postie
drugi cilj. Naime, navedene standardne fraze odlika su javnog diskursa koji ima

presti kao odreeni standard kome se tei, tako da njihovom upotrebom
poslanici ustvari potvruju svoj autoritet i status, ime akumuliraju simboliki
kapital.
Upotreba zamjenice ja i prvog lica mnoine enkodira autoritativnu retoriku
koja istie pojedinca i moe da ukae na egocentrinost. Svjesni ove injenice,
politiari u unaprijed pripremljenom diskursu, tj. tekstovima koji su pisani da bi
bili govoreni, koriste ak 3,6 puta manje ove perspektive nego kada spontano
izlau u razmjenama replika. U spontanijem govoru, poslanici mogu manje da
kontroliu izbor perspektive i otkrivaju svoje pravo lice.

Literatura

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Chilton, Paul, and Christina Schffner. Discourse and Politics.Discourse as
Social Interaction Discourse Studies: A MultidisciplinaryIntroduction
Volume 2. Ed. Teun van Dijk. London-Thousand Oaks-New Delhi: Sage, 1997.
206-230.
Fairclough, Norman. Language and Power. New York: Longman, 1989.
Fetzer, Anita. And I Think That Is a Very Straightforward Way of Dealing with It:
The Communicative Function of Cognitive Verbs in Political Discourse.
Journal of Language and Social Psychology 27.4 (2008): 384-396.
Fetzer, Anita and Bull, Peter. Well, I Answer It by Simply Inviting You to Look at
the Evidence: The Strategic Use of Pronouns in Political Interviews. Journal
of Language and Politics 7.2 (2008): 271-289.
Halmari, Helena. On the Language of the Clinton-Dole Presidential Campaign
Debates: General Tendencies and Successful Strategies. Journal of
Language and Politics 7.2 (2008): 247-270.
Hodges, Adam. The Dialogic Emergence of Truth in Politics: reproduction and
Subversion of the War on Terror Discourse. Colorado Research in
Linguistics 21.1 (2008): 1-12.
Ilie, C. Analytical perspectives on parliamentary andextra-parliamentary
discourses in Journal of Pragmatics 42.4. (2010): 879-884.
Partington, Alan. The Linguistics of Political Argument. London: Routledge,
2003.
Perovi, Slavica. Jezik u akciji. Podgorica: CID/ISJ, 2009.
Piper, P. et al. Sintaksa savremenog srpskog jezika. Beograd: SANU, Beogradska
knjiga i Matica srpska, 2005.
Simon-Vandenbergen, Anne. Meanings of I think: a study based on parallel
corpora. Quarterly Newsletter of the Contrastive Grammar Research Group
of the University of Gent 10 (1997).

http://www.contragram.ugent.be/index.php?id=20&type=content. 31 July
2010.
Simon-Vandernbergen, Anne. The Functions of I Think in Political Discourse.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics 10.1 (2001), 41-63.
Trbojevi-Miloevi, Ivana. Modalnost, sud, iskaz: epistemika modalnost u
engleskom i srpskom jeziku.Beograd: Filoloki fakultet, 2004.
van Dijk, Teun. War Rhetoric of a Little Ally. Political implicatures of Aznars
Legitimization of the War in Iraq.Journal of Language and Politics 4.1
(2005): 65-92.

FIRST PERSON SINGULAR IN MONTENEGRIN PARLIAMENTARY DISCOURSE

The use of certain personal pronouns and the person of the verb, i.e.
personality, may encode a political ideology and answer the question of
whether it is personality-driven politics, politics of group identity or politics
based on the polarisation of the positively self-presented in-group and the
negatively presented out-group. With this in mind, we explain the use of the
pronoun I and the verbs in the first person singular on a corpus of the budget
debate conducted in the Parliament of Montenegro in 2009. Comparing the
spontaneous discourse of rebuttals with that of parliamentary speeches, which
has been prepared in advance, we conclude that there are considerable
differences between the two, suggesting that MPs consciously avoid the use of
the I-perspective, i.e. that they are aware of the significance of personality and
the role that language plays in the creation of political reality. Thus, the first
person singular verbs are prevailingly used as metadiscourse.

Key words: first person singular, person of the verb, parliamentary
discourse.


UDK 811.111:811.163.4(497.16)

Partitativni kvantifikatori u engleskom i
crnogorskom jeziku

Dragana Dedovi, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: U ovom radu pokuaemo da produbimo dosadanja saznanja o partitivnim
kvantifikatorima i da ukazemo na znaaj koji partitivni kvantifikatori imaju u optoj
lingvistikoj teoriji. Analiza ja vrena na partitivnim kvantifikatorima engleskog jezika,
a saznanja i zakljuci do kojih smo doli su zatim prenijeti na crnogorski jezik. Partitivne
konstrukcije engleskog jezika zahtijevaju obaveznu upotrebu prepozicije of, dok
crnogorski jezik koristi imenicu u genitivu jednine. Polazei od kategorije brojivosti i
injenice da neke imenice nije mogue numeriki kvantifikovati, izdvojili smo nebrojive
imenice koje su od posebnog znaaja za na rad. Naime, partitivni kvantifikatori,
odnosno imenice u partitivnoj funkciji, su jezika sredstva koja nam omoguuju da
individualizujemo, izdvojimo i kvantifikujemo nebrojive imenice.

Key words: partitivni kvantifikatori, numerika kvantifikacija, kategorija brojivosti,
nebrojive imenice.

Ovaj rad bavi se opisom i analizom partitivnih kvantifikatora u engleskom
jeziku i njima odgovarajuih oblika u crnogorskom jeziku. U imenikoj frazi
9
a
glass of water, odnosno aa vode, imenice glass i aa predstavljaju primjere
partitivnih kvantifikatora ova dva jezika.
Partitivnim kvantifikatorima, kako u engleskom, tako i u crnogorskom jeziku,
nije posveeno dovoljno panje u dosadanjoj lingvistikoj literaturi. Dosadanja
istraivanja uglavnom su se odnosila na njihovo pominjanje, prvenstveno u
gramatikama engleskog jezika, kao jednog od naina kvantifikacije, ali ne i neke
dublje analize o njima. U rjenicima engleskog jezika esto su partitivni kvanti-
fikatori izdvojeni kao primjer leksikih kolokacija, ali opet se pominje samo ne-
znatan broj njih i nije dato gotovo nikakvo njihovo objanjenje.
Takoe, u literaturi o srpskohrvatskom i crnogorskom jeziku, ne sree se
mnogo radova o jezikoj kvantifikaciji uopte, pa ni o partitivnim kvantifikato-
rima. U radovima koji se tiu kategorije brojivosti imenica pominju se i partitivni

9
termin iz engleskog jezika (noun phrase) koji podrazumijeva ono to nai lingvisti nazivaju
imenskom sintagmom

kvantifikatori kao jezika kategorija, ali oni nisu lingvistiki analizirani sa svih
aspekata.
Osnovna pozicija sa koje smo krenuli u analizu bila je odreivanje samog
pojma partitivni kvantifikatori i njihovo poimanje u teorijskoj lingvistici. Parti-
tivni kvantifikatori su definisani kao leksiko-semantika kategorija koja je u
funkciji izdvajanja pojedinanog ili dijela neke materije, zbira ili mnotva, a
posebno mjesto partitivni kvantifikatori nalaze u izrazima sa nebrojivim imeni-
cama jer slue kvantifikovanju materije ili apstraktnih pojmova koje nije mo-
gue na drugi nain koliinski odrediti.
Za ovaj rad od posebnog su znaaja nebrojive imenice, dakle one koje je
nemogue odrediti po broju. Nebrojive imenice ne iskazuju razliku jednina /
mnoina zato to imenuju materiju, dakle neto to se oznaava kao neuo-
bliena masa i to je nemogue odrediti po broju (voda, brano, pijesak, itd.), ili
su to apstraktni pojmovi koji najee nisu brojivi. Gradivne imenice uvijek
istim oblikom jednine imenuju svaki dio materije, ma u koliko se estica ili
dijelova ona javljala: voda je npr. jedna kap, voda je aa vode i itav niz aa
vode, voda je takoe rijeka, more, okean (Stevanovi, 1991: 185). Iako se
podjela na brojive i nebrojive imenice moe primijeniti i na engleski i na
crnogorski jezik, ne dolazi uvijek do poklapanja obiljeja broja u ova dva jezika.
Naime, neke rijei koje su u crnogorskom jeziku brojive u engleskom su
nebrojive i obrnuto. Na primjer, u naem jeziku imenica luk je nebrojiva, dok je
njen ekvivalent u engleskom jeziku brojiv (onion / onions), u naem je jeziku
rije informacija brojiva, dok je u engleskom rije information nebrojiva.
Ovdje emo samo napomenuti, bez dubljeg zalaenja u ovaj problem, i to da
ne iznenauje injenica da dolazi do nepoklapanja u vezi brojivosti imenica u dva
jezika, kada nije jasno ni unutar jednog jezika zato su neke imenice brojive, dok
su druge nebrojive iako posjeduju gotovo iste osobine. Vjebicka (Wierzbicka) u
svojoj knjizi The Semantics of Grammar (501)u poglavlju koje je nazvala Oats and
Wheat govori o ovom problemu i daje niz zanimljivih primjera: Razmotrimo prvo
parove kao to su rice prema peas ili flour prema noodles. Postoji li ijedan razlog
zato se peas i noodles razlikuju od rice i flour u gramatikoj formi i ponaanju?
10

Kao odgovor na ovo pitanje ona navodi nekoliko razloga kao to su veliina (zrno
graka je vee od zrna rie), nain konzumiranja ili uobiajeni oblici pripremanja
odreene vrste hrane (garlic je nebrojiva imenica jer se obino isjecka i tako
koristi kao dodatak jelima, dok je olive brojiva jer se jede u komadima). Za na rad
znaajne su gradivne i apstraktne imenice koje nemaju oblik mnoine, ali ne i
injenica zato je to tako.
Ako gradivne imenice nisu brojive, postavlja se pitanje da li je mogue
izbrojati materiju koju one predstavljaju, kao i kako to uiniti kada nam jezik,

10
Wierzbicka, (501) Consider first pairs such as rice versus peas or flour versus noodles. Is there
any reason why peas and noodles differ from rice and flour in grammatical form and behaviour?

odnosno situacija, namee da izbrojimo neto to nije brojivo. Iako je npr. voda,
kao to smo ve rekli, uvijek voda, kada o njoj govorimo mi imamo potrebu da
je izdvojimo iz tog mnotva, da je nekako odredimo, da je to upravo ta voda,
taj dio vode, voda o kojoj govorimo, odnosno na koju mislimo.
Upravo su partitivni kvantifikatori, odnosno imenice u partitivnoj funkciji,
jezika sredstva koja nam omoguuju da izbrojimo nebrojivo, da izdvojimo, da
individualizujemo, da partikularizujemo (termin uvela Ivieva, 1980), da iz
neuobliene i neodreene mase izdvojimo dio koji nam je u odreenoj situaciji
potreban.
Dakle, sve imenice, kako brojive, tako i nebrojive, podlone su kvantifikaciji.
Sve njih mogue je kvantifikovati pomou partitivne konstrukcije (partitive
construction). Partitivna konstrukcija je u engleskom jeziku imenika fraza koja
se tipino sastoji od brojive imenice, prepozicije of i nebrojive imenice:

(det)____________ of _____________ e.g. a drop of water
[count noun] [noncount noun]

U crnogorskom jeziku ova partitivna konstrukcija sastoji se od brojive
imenice i nebrojive imenice u genitivu jednine:

______________ ______________________________ primjer: kap vode
[brojiva imenica] [nebrojiva imenica u genitivu jednine]

Kvantifikacija, odnosno brojno odreivanje imenica, u razliitim jezicima vri
se na razliite naine. Veina jezika ima gramatiku kategoriju broja (razliko-
vanje jednine i mnoine imenica), ali osim ove kategorije svi jezici imaju i razne
vrste kvantifikatora koji imenicama omoguavaju kvantifikaciju.
Kvantifikacija je, uz referencijalnost, druga od dvije osnovne odlike imenike
fraze koja je od primarnog znaaja za njeno funkcionisanje. Kvantifikacija u
imenikoj frazi obuhvata kvantifikatore koji eksplicitno ili implicitno sadre ideju
broja.

Kvantifikatori predstavljaju funkcionalno-semantiku kategoriju za koju
je karakteristino obiljeje neodreenog kvantiteta i u smislu koliine i
u smislu broja. Kvantifikatori, kao vrsta rijei, dodiruju se sa determina-
torima i pridjevima. Nekim oblicima kvantifikatora se pripisuje vie de-
terminativni karakter, a za druge se kae da u veoj mjeri imaju nu-
merike vrijednosti. (orevi 641)

Partitivna kvantifikacija, koja je predmet naeg rada, leksike je prirode.
Partitivni kvantifikatori su uglavnom lekseme iz roda imenica. Leksika kvanti-

fikacija, npr. malo,mnogo, svaki, mnotvo i sl. je neodreena, pa zapravo slui
za kvantitativnu konkretizaciju mnoine ili jednine nebrojivih imenica, s tim da i
takva kvantifikacija ipak ostaje (brojno) neodreena (npr. puno ljudi, mnotvo
problema, malo soli i sl.). Leksiki kvantifikatori iza kojih dolazi genitiv mnoine
ponaaju se isto kao brojevi (npr. puno ljudi prema deset ljudi), ali nije tako
kada je rije o partitivnim kvantifikatorima uz nebrojive imenice. Nebrojive
imenice su u genitivu jednine i u takvim spojevima brojevi se ne mogu upotre-
bljavati umjesto leksikih kvantifikatora, iz prostog razloga to sadraj nebro-
jivih imenica nije brojiv (npr. malosoli prema *deset soli).
Partitivni kvantifikatori su leksiko-semantika i funkcionalno-sintaksika kate-
gorija koja slui izdvajanju nekog dijela ili koliine materije ili zbira, mnotva i
njegovo opredmeivanje, pojedinano izdvajanje, kvantifikovanje. I u engleskom i
u crnogorskom jeziku partitivni kvantifikatori su brojive imenice koje predstavljaju
glavni dio, upravni lan partitivne imenike fraze. U naem jeziku, u ovakvoj sinta-
ksikoj vezi zavisni lan je u genitivu, a u engleskom jeziku obavezna je upotreba
prepozicije of. Pri sintaksikoj analizi partitivnih, odnosno pseudo-partitivnih
imenikih fraza problem predstavlja odreivanje glavnog dijela, upravnog lana
imenike fraze s obzirom da ove konstrukcije sadre dvije imenice. Postoje
razliita tumaenja koja od dvije imenice je glavni, upravni lan. Meutim, iako
prva imenica u ovakvim sklopovima slui kao kvantifikator i nema svoju prima-
rnu funkciju imenovanja, veina lingvista je smatra glavnim upravnim lanom
partitivne imenike fraze.
Dekendof (123) govorei o partitivnoj strukturi kae da je ona (of the N2)
objekat N1. On objanjava da objekat stoji odmah nakon upravnog lana
imenike fraze, pa bi prema tome gallon bio upravni lan u primjeru:

A gallon of the wine is in the kitchen.
N1 of the N2
(object)

U prilog tome da je imenica u funkciji kvantifikatora upravni lan partitivne
imenike fraze je i njeno slaganje sa predikatom:

A piece of bread is on the table. Pare hleba je na stolu.
Two pieces of bread are on the table. Dva pareta hleba su na stolu.

Prihvativi miljenje veine lingvista da su partititivni kvantifikatori upravni
lanovi imenike fraze u sintaksikoj analizi, moramo rei i to da oni najee
semantiki to nisu.


We drank a bottle of wine.
Popili smo flau vina.

Formalno oni su zavisna i komplementarna komponenta u izrazu jer su se-
mantiki nedefinisani ako ih u izrazu posmatramo samostalno, a sa sintaksikog
aspekta oni predstavljaju upravnu, nadreenu komponentu. Odlika svih
partitivnih kvantifikatora je leksika nepotpunost. Oni jedino uz druge imenice
sa kojima ine semantiku cjelinu stiu potpunu semantiku validnost.
Partitivni kvantifikatori su leksike prirode brojive imenice i u engleskom i
u crnogorskom jeziku, s tim to je u naem jeziku mogua (mada rijetko) sufi-
ksacija. Na jezik zapostavlja ovu mogunost, pa se ona javlja samo u spora-
dinim sluajevima, dok je drugi slovenski jezici mnogo vie koriste. Sufiks ka u
rijeima slamka i travka slui odreivanju pojedinanog, dakle u funkciji je
partitivnog kvantifikatora.
Kod nebrojivih imenica koje imenuju materiju ili neki apstraktni pojam kriteri-
jum jednina / mnoina nije mogue primjeniti prije svega zbog znaenja samih
imenica: one oznaavaju neto to nije mogue izdvojiti kao posebno. A ipak
nain korienja tih materija i potreba da se one izdvoje zahtjeva jeziko sredstvo
i nain. To sredstvo je imenica u funkciji partitivnog kvantifikatora, a nain je ime-
nika fraza u kojoj je partitivni kvantifikator-opredmeiva gramatiki nezavisna
imenica, a imenica koja oznaava materiju-opredmeivano je u genitivu jednine u
crnogorskom jeziku, a u engleskom jeziku ta imenica je u of frazi.
Kverk (Quirk) i autori u svojoj gramatici A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language (130) govore o tri podvrste partitivnih konstrukcija koje
nazivaju mjerni, tipini i opti.
Opti partitivni kvantifikatori su one imenice koje mogu da odrede koliinu
veeg broja nebrojivih imenica, pa se zbog toga i nazivaju optim. Oni su
semantiki najneutralniji i imaju vrlo irok distribucioni potencijal. Kverk i autori
(131) navode a piece of, a bit of i an item of kao opte partitivne kvantifikatore.
U naem jeziku tipini primjer optih partitivnih kvantifikatora bio bi kvantifi-
kator komad (nekada je moda bolji prevod pare pogotovo uz imenice koje
oznaavaju hranu)koji se moe upotrebiti uz veliki broj imenica, a u engleskom
jeziku to je svakako konstrukcija a piece of to nam potvruju primjeri u kojima
nalazimo ovaj partitivni kvantifikator:

a piece of bread komad (pare) hleba
a piece of cheese komad (pare) sira
a piece of glass komad stakla

Mjerni partitivni kvantifikatori su ona vrsta partitivnih kvantifikatora koja
vre izdvajanje dijela iz nekakvog mnotva kao cijeline u jedinicama mjere. S

obzirom da te jedinice mjere mogu biti zvanino verifikovane ili ne, mjerne
partitivne kvantifikatore moemo podijeliti na: kvantifikatore konvencionalnih i
nekonvencionalnih jedinica mjere. Mjerni partitivni kvantifikatori konvencio-
nalnih jedinica mjere pripadaju zatvorenoj klasi kvantifikatora jer ih je odreen
broj i zvanino su verifikovani. Dakle, kao to im i naziv kae, oni su odreene i
opteprihvaene mjere koje se ne mogu slobodno mijenjati i koji nam govore o
odreenoj koliini materije uz koju stoje:

a kilo of sugar kilo eera
a liter of oil litar ulja
a meter of cloth metar tkanine

Partitivni kvantifikatori nekonvencionalnih jedinica mjere nisu zvanino kodi-
fikovane jedinice. To su imenice koje oznaavaju nazive za predmete kojima se
zahvata ili obuhvata dio materije ili nekog mnotva. Njih smatramo otvorenom
klasom kvantifikatora:

a bag of wheat vrea penice
a bowl of salad inija salate
a bucket of water kanta vode

Tipini partitivni kvantifikatori su oni kvantifikatori koji, kao to im i samo
ime kae, tipino koristimo uz odreene imenice. Ova grupa partitivnih kvanti-
fikatora je najbrojnija i pripada otvorenoj klasi kvantifikatora, to znai da po-
stoji mogunost stvaranja novih primjera, i veoma su irokog opsega i distri-
bucije. Gotovo je zanemarljiv broj onih tipinih partitivnih kvantifikatora koje
moemo koristiti samo uz jednu imenicu, niti svaka imenica ima samo jedan
tipini partitivni kvantifikator:

a bale of hay stog sijena
a cloud of dust oblak praine
a cube of ice kocka leda
a fall of snow - -

Zakljuak

Kao to se iz primjera moe vidjeti, analiza partitivnih kvantifikatora poka-
zala je da i engleski i crnogorski jezik koriste imenice koje svojim semantikim
sadrajem, na razliite naine, postiu kvantifikaciju. Partitivne konstrukcije
mogu se koristiti i uz brojive i uz nebrojive imenice, ali smo naglasak i cio rad

usresredili na nebrojive imenice kojima je ovo jedini nain kvantifikacije, jer u
konstrukcijama s nebrojivim imenicama partitivni kvantifikatori imaju poseban
znaaj. Partitivni kvantifikatori su imenice, ali su oni preuzeli funkciju koja nije
tipina za imenice, oni ne imenuju ve odreuju koliinu.
Dakle, moe se zakljuiti da su partitivni kvantifikatori imenice koje odre-
enim semantikim svojstvima mogu imati kvantifikatorsku funkciju i da su oni
veoma prisutna lingvistika kategorija i u engleskom i u crnogorskom jeziku, te
da postoji velika slinost u sredstvima i nainu korienja partitivnih
kvantifikatora u ova dva jezika.

Literatura

Cruse, A. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics.
Oxford: OUP, 2004.
orevi, R. Engleski i srpskohrvatski jezik. Kontrastivna gramatika imenike
grupe. Beograd: Nauna knjiga, 1989.
Ivi, M. O partikularizatorima. Beograd: Junoslovenski filolog XXXVI (1980):1-
12.
Jackendoff, R. Syntax: A Study of Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge: MIT,
1977.
Langacker, W. R. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar.Vol.I.Theoretical
Prerequisites. Stanford, California: Stanford UP, 1987.
Langacker, W. R. Foundations of Cognitive Grammar. Vol. II. Descriptive
Application. Stanford, California: Stanford UP, 1991.
Leech, G. Semantics. The Study of Meaning. London: Penguin Books, 1981.
Lyons, J. Linguistic Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1995.
Piper, P. O tipovima kvantifikatora u srpskohrvatskom jeziku.Nauni sastanak
slavista u Vukove dane. 11 (1981): 99-100.
Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Stevanovi, M. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik (I). Beograd: Nauna knjiga, 1986.
Stevanovi, M. Savremeni srpskohrvatski jezik (II). Beograd: Nauna knjiga,
1986.
Wierzbicka, A. The Semantics of Grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1988.

PARTITIVE QUANTIFIER IN ENGLISH AND MONTENEGRIN

This paper analyzes partitive quantifiers and tries to deepen the linguistic
understanding of partitive quantifiers, as well as to draw attention to the

significance of the notion of partitive quantifiers for general linguistic theory.
The analysis is based on the linguistic corpus of the English language and,
applying the method of contrastive analysis, the findings and conclusions are
transferred to the Montenegrin language. English partitive constructions
require preposition of while the Montenegrin partitive constructions require
singular noun in genitive case. Taking the category of countability as the
starting point and the fact that some nouns cannot be numerically quantified,
we have focused on uncount nouns which are of utmost importance for our
study. Namely, partitive quantifiers are linguistic devices by which we
individualize, itemize and quantify uncount nouns.

Key words: partitive quantifiers, numerical quantification, countability,
uncount nouns


UDK 811.112.236

Klassifikationsproblematik der Genitivattribute im
Deutschen

Mihaela Lali, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Abstract: Den Gegenstand des vorliegenden Aufsatzes bildet die Darstellung der
semantischen und morphosyntaktischen Besonderheiten des Genitivattributs im
Deutschen und die damit in Verbindung stehende Klassifikationsproblematik.
Genitivattribute nehmen in der traditionellen Grammatikschreibung einen wichtigen
Platz ein, whrend sie innerhalb der neueren linguistischen Forschung kaum Beachtung
gefunden haben. Den Genitivattributen werden sehr unterschiedliche Interpretationen
zugeschrieben, die im Rahmen dieses Aufsatzes anhand von zahlreichen Beispielen
veranschaulicht werden. Dabei wird begrndet, warum die vorhandene Klassifizierung
der Genitivattribute einer Problematik unterliegt, die eine Kritik an der Klassifikation der
Genitivattribute rechtfertigt.

Schlsselwrter: Genitiv, Nominalphrase, Genitivattribut, semantische Klassifikation,
morphosyntaktische Klassifikation.

1. Allgemeines zum Genitivattribut

Der Genitiv als morphologischer Kasus dient vor allem der Kennzeichnung des
Attributs eines Substantivs (das Auto meines Bruders). In vielen Sprachen der
Welt wird der Genitiv am hufigsten eingesetzt, um die possessive Bedeutung
zum Ausdruck zu bringen. Neben der attributiven Verwendung, kann der Genitiv
auch die Funktion des Objektes sowie die adverbiale und prdikative Funktion
bernehmen (Bumann 246). Der attributive Genitiv hat jedoch im heutigen
Deutsch im Vergleich zu den anderen Genitivfunktionen in der Hufigkeit der
Verwendung den eindeutigen Vorrang (Hentschel/Weydt 153).
Das Genitivattribut ist ein Gliedteil, das die Form einer Nominalphrase im
Genitiv hat. Jedes Substantiv kann ein Genitivattribut zu sich nehmen, also den
Genitiv regieren. Im Deutschen knnen komplexe Attributskonstruktionen
vorkommen (Eisenberg 242). Dazu gehrt zum Beispiel:

Der Versuch einer Einschchterung des Groteils der Bevlkerung Hannovers


Hier kann man sehen, dass die NP als bergeordnete Konstituente eine
weitere NP enthlt, diese wiederum eine usw. Konstruktionen dieser Art nennt
man endozentrisch oder rekursiv. Das charakteristische Merkmal solcher
Konstruktionen ist die prinzipiell unbegrenzte Hinzufgbarkeit eines Ausdrucks
einer bestimmten Kategorie. Im Deutschen gibt es mehrere endozentrische
Konstruktionen, aber bei keiner wird von dieser Eigenschaft hufiger Gebrauch
gemacht als beim Genitivattribut. Trotz der Komplexitt der Attributs-
konstruktionen bereiten sie keine Verstndnisschwierigkeiten. Das hngt damit
zusammen, dass das Genitivattribut im Gegensatz zu dem prpositionalen
Attribut dem Kernsubstantiv adjazent ist und immer das nchststehende
Substantiv modifiziert (Eisenberg 246). Ein Prpositionalattribut dagegen kann
sowohl ein Genitivattribut als auch ein anderes Prpositionalattribut
"berbrcken" und sich auf ein weit entferntes Substantiv beziehen. Damit ist
auch die Mglichkeit gegeben, dass auch viele Attribute zum selben Substantiv
stehen knnen.
Die zwei aufeinander folgenden Prpositionalattribute beziehen sich im
Gegensatz zu den Genitivattributen nicht immer auf dasselbe Substantiv.
Konstruktionen dieser Art sind syntaktisch mehrdeutig und ihnen entsprechen
zwei Konstituentenstrukturen. So kann der Satz "Die Brcke ber den Kanal in
Buchholz" als

1. die Brcke ber den Kanal, die sich in Buchholz befindet.
2. die Brcke ber den Kanal, der sich in Buchholz befindet.
gelesen/verstanden werden.

Bei den Genitivattributen entstehen keine solchen mehrdeutigen
Konstruktionen. Erst in Kombination mit prpositionalen Attributen ergeben
sich mgliche Ambiguitten (Eroms 281). Dazu ein Beispiel: Der Schlssel des
Schlosses aus Gold.
Hier bieten sich zwei Lesarten an:
1. der Schlssel des goldenen Schlosses
2. der goldene Schlssel des Schlosses.

Was die Position der Genitivattribute anbetrifft, kann davon ausgegangen
werden, dass sie in der Regel postnominal realisiert werden. In prnominaler
Position sind im heutigen Deutsch nur noch Genitivattribute mit Eigennamen
mglich, also fast immer ohne Artikel. Diese Genitivattribute werden auch
"schsische Genitive" genannt. Sie alternieren in dieser Position mit Artikeln
und schlieen sich damit gegenseitig aus. Zum Beispiel: Egons Auto, aber nicht
*das /*ein Egons Auto

Der prnominale Genitiv von Eigennamen wird fr alle Genera mit -s
gebildet (Peters Antrag / Renates Geburtstag / Deutschlands Auenpolitik). Bei -
s Auslaut einer betonten Silbe auch mit -ens (Hansens Freundin), sonst
endungslos (Johannes Freundin).
Das postnominale Genitivattribut kennt keine Beschrnkungen in Bezug auf
die kategoriale Fllung. Es folgt unmittelbar auf das Kernnomen und alterniert
mit dem postnominalen Adjektivattribut. Zum Beispiel: das Auto Egons. Wie
oben angedeutet, kann innerhalb einer komplexen Nominalphrase jede Teil-
Nominalphrase, auch ein Genitivattribut aufweisen. Dazu das folgende Beispiel:

Die Ablehnung der Befrderung weiterer Mitglieder des Ingenieurkreises des
Zentralbereichs Forschung und Technik der Firma.

Derartige Hufungen von Genitiven werden im gesprochenen Deutsch
gemieden. Das heit, eine Genitivphrase sollte kein vorangestelltes
Genitivattribut haben. Dazu wiederum ein Beispiel:

Der Pfarrer gedachte Brgermeister Epprechts verstorbenen Bruders.

Hier wird der possessive Genitiv meist durch eine von-Phrase ersetzt. Zum
Beispiel:

Der Pfarrer gedachte des verstorbenen Bruders von Brgermeister Epprecht.

2. Semantische Funktion

Genitivphrasen sind in der Regel (mit wenigen Ausnahmen) restriktiv zu
verstehen. Diese Aussage lsst sich durch die beiden folgenden Beispiele
belegen (Eisenberg 243):

1. Da drben steht ein Auto. Das Auto gehrt der Stadtreinigung.
Da drben steht ein Auto der Stadtreinigung.
2. Da drben fhrt ein Auto. Das Auto gehrt deiner Tochter.
Da drben fhrt das Auto deiner Tochter.

Im ersten Beispiel ist erkennbar, dass das Genitivattribut eine Teilklasse
ausgrenzt. Denn die Klasse der Autos ist grer als die der Autos der
Stadtreinigung. Das Genitivattribut mit nicht restriktiver Lesart ist eher eine
Ausnahme. Dazu ein Beispiel:
So ein Vorwurf trifft den Papst nicht. Der Papst ist das Oberhaupt der
rmischen Kirche.

So ein Vorwurf trifft den Papst der rmischen Kirche nicht.

Hier grenzt das Genitivattribut keine Teilklasse aus, denn "Papst" bezeichnet
eine Klasse mit genau einem Element. So kann "Papst der rmischen Kirche"
hinsichtlich der Extension, des Begriffsumfanges, gegenber Papst nicht
eingeschrnkt sein.
Zwischen Genitivattributen und Stzen bestehen vor allem semantische
Beziehungen (Eisenberg 251). Zum Beispiel:

Karls Befrderung freut mich. vs. Dass Karl befrdert wird, freut mich.

Diese beiden Konstruktionen weisen keinen Bedeutungsunterschied auf. Der
grte Unterschied liegt darin, dass die Nominalphrase kein Finitum hat. Die
meisten Nebenstze lassen sich in eine Nominalphrase umwandeln (mit der
Zufgung einer Prposition). Beispiel:

Weil Karl den Kanzler befragt vs. Wegen Karls Befragung des Kanzlers

Von dieser nominalen Paraphrasierung wird vor allem im Nominalstil
Gebrauch gemacht. In der Transformationsgrammatik herrschte die Annahme,
dass Nominalphrasen auf die Stze zurckzufhren sind, wenn ihr Kern ein
deverbales oder deadjektivisches Substantiv ist. Viele der Nominalphrasen sind
aber lexikalisiert und ihre Umwandlung in einen Satz ist nicht immer mglich.
So sind bspw. "Duldung" und "Hebung" beide auf transitive Verben
zurckzufhren, verhalten sich aber als Substantive anders. Whrend die
Aussage Pauls Duldung dieses Vorfalls grammatisch ist, gilt Pauls Hebung dieses
Kartoffelsacks als ungrammatisch. Dies hngt damit zusammen, dass das
Substantiv "Hebung", obwohl vom transitiven Verb "heben" abgeleitet, ein
grammatisches und semantisches Eigenleben entwickelt hat.

3. Klassifikation der Genitivattribute

Zur Beschreibung der Bedeutung des Genitivattributs verfgen
Grammatiken ber verschiedene Einteilungen der Genitivattribute. Diese
unterschiedlichen Klassifikationen schreiben dem Genitiv eine Flle von
Interpretationsmglichkeiten zu. Genitivattribute werden grundstzlich nach
der semantischen und morphosyntaktischen Klassifikation unterschieden.


3.1. Die semantische Klassifikation

Zur Beschreibung der Bedeutung, die mit dem Genitivattribut transportiert
wird, verfgen Grammatiken ber verschiedene semantische Klassifikationen.
Diese Klassifikationen basieren auf semantischen Kategorien und schreiben
dem Genitivattribut verschiedene Interpretationsmglichkeiten zu. Im
Allgemeinen wird zwischen possessiven, explikativen, qualitativen und
partitiven Genitiven unterschieden, die sich auch ihrerseits weiter
subklassifizieren lassen.

3.1.1. Der possessive Genitiv

Der possessive Genitiv (Genitivus possessivus) wird als der Kernbereich des
Genitivattributs angesehen. Er drckt eine Zugehrigkeit im weitesten Sinn aus
und nicht nur einen Besitz im wrtlichen Sinn. Zum Beispiel:

Das Auto meines Onkels (mein Onkel besitzt ein Auto)
Das Nest der Amsel (die Amsel hat ein Nest).

Als besonderes Charakteristikum des possessiven Genitivs wird auf die Teil-
von-Relation verwiesen (Eisenberg 249). Zum Beispiel:

Das Dach des Hauses / der Kopf des Angeklagten

Der possessive Genitiv wird in manchen Grammatiken mit dem Genitivus
auctoris und dem Genitiv des Produkts zusammengefasst. Zum Beispiel:

Genitivus auctoris: ein Frhwerk des Meisters
Genitiv des Produkts: der Komponist dieser Sinfonien

Heibig (1989) argumentiert, dass bei dem Genitivus auctoris ein Verhltnis
des Schaffens im Vordergrund steht. So bedeutet Das Werk des Dichters, dass
der Dichter das Werk geschaffen hat, whrend der Genitiv des Produkts das
Verhltnis des Geschaffen-Seins zum Ausdruck bringt: Der Dichter des Werkes.
Hier steht das Produkt im Genitiv, wohingegen beim Genitivus auctoris der
Produzent die Genitivform hat.

3.1.2. Der explikative Genitiv

Der explikative Genitiv (Genitivus explicativus) fgt einem allgemeineren
Begriff einen speziellen hinzu (DUDEN 838). Wenn der Genitiv zum

Bezugssubstantiv in einem hnlichen Verhltnis wie die Bezeichnung der Art zur
Bezeichnung der Gattung in Begriffsdefinitionen steht, wird auch von einem
Definitionsgenitiv (Genitivus definitivus) gesprochen. Beispiel: Er erluterte das
Rechtsmittel des Einspruchs. Der Einspruch (spezieller Begriff) ist ein
Rechtsmittel (allgemeiner Begriff) sowie Die Mglichkeit der Rckkehr bestand
nach wie vor. Die Rckkehr (spezieller Begriff) war eine Mglichkeit
(allgemeiner Begriff). Durch den explikativen Genitiv kann auch ein Vergleich
zum Ausdruck gebracht werden. Hier spricht man von dem sog.
metaphorischen Genitiv wie beispielsweise in den folgenden Formulierungen:

Ich sprte einen Strahl der Hoffnung. Die Hoffnung ist wie ein Strahl.
Die Nacht des Faschismus senkte sich ber Mitteleuropa. Der Faschismus
ist wie die Nacht.

Konkurrenzformen des explikativen Genitivs stellen explikative Appositionen
dar. Zum Beispiel: Mich beschftigt das Rtsel des Urknalls vs. Mich beschftigt
das Rtsel Urknall.

3.1.3. Der qualitative Genitiv

Der qualitative Genitiv (Genitivus qualitatis) steht fr eine Eigenschaft oder
Qualitt von etwas. Er ist vor allem in gehobener Sprache anzutreffen, sonst
kommt er in festen Wendungen vor. Dies lsst sich an folgenden Beispielen
veranschaulichen:

(Allgemein blich): Ein Mann mittleren Alters trat herein.
(Gehoben): Ein Mensch guten Willens kann das lsen.
(Daneben): Ein Mensch mit gutem Willen kann das lsen.
(Gehoben, veraltend): Er reichte ihr einen Becher edlen Goldes.
(Heute blicher): Er reichte ihr einen Becher aus edlem Gold.

3.1.4. Der partitive Genitiv

Der partitive Genitiv (Genitivus partitivus) nennt eine Menge oder Substanz,
aus der das Kernsubstantiv einen Teil ausgliedert. Zum Beispiel:

Die Hlfte des Kuchens war schon weggegessen.
Ein Kilo reifer Erdbeeren kostet 4 Euro.
Sie haben 10 Tonnen japanischen Stahls verkauft.


Auch der Partitivgenitiv steht in Konkurrenz mit den partitiven Appositionen.
Beispiel:

Er strkte sich mit einer Tasse heien Kaffees. (Genitiv)
Erstzrkte sich mit einer Tasse heiem Kaffee. (Apposition)

3.2. Die morphosyntaktische Klassifikation

Neben dieser semantischen Klassifikation der Genitivattribute lassen sich zwei
weitere Teilrelationen des Genitivattributs nennen. Diese werden im Unterschied
zu den oben genannten Genitivattributen mehr auf morphosyntaktische als auf
semantische Fakten bezogen. Es sind der Subjektsgenitiv und der Objektsgenitiv.

3.2.1. Der Subjektsgenitiv

Der Subjektsgenitiv (Genitivus subiectivus) tritt bei deverbalen oder
deadjektivischen Substantiven auf. Bei der Umformung des regierenden
Substantivs in ein Verb wird es zum Subjekt. Zum Beispiel:

Das Bellen der Meute vs. Die Meute bellt.
Die Entstehung der Welt vs. Die Welt entsteht.

Aus diesen Beispielen ist ersichtlich, dass sich der Subjektsgenitiv auf das
grammatische Subjekt bezieht unabhngig davon, ob das Subjekt ein Agens ist
oder nicht.

3.2.2. Der Objektsgenitiv

Der Objektsgenitiv (Genitivus obiectivus) bezieht sich in aller Regel auf das
direkte Objekt des zugrunde liegenden Verbs. So kommt logischerweise der
Objektsgenitiv vor allem bei Substantiven vor, die von transitiven Verben
abgeleitet sind.

Die Zerstrung Karthagos vs. Jemand zerstrt Karthago.
Der Verfasser dieser Zeilen vs. Jemand verfasst diese Zeilen.

Zur Unterscheidung zwischen Subjektivus und Objektivus bringt Eisenberg
(250) folgendes Argument: Der Subjektsgenitiv kommt in der Regel bei
deverbalen Substantiven vor, die von denjenigen Verben abgeleitet sind, die
kein direktes Objekt regieren, und bei den deadjektivischen Substantiven
(Substantive, die von einem Adjektiv abgeleitet sind).

Beispiele dafr sind:

Die Hilfe des Roten Kreuzes
Die Mndung der Mosel
Die Hhe des Turmes

Eisenberg verweist aber darauf, dass eine Nichtunttischeidbarkeit von
Subjektivus und Objektivus bei Ableitungen von transitiven Verben auftreten
kann. Das gilt etwa fr:

Regierung, Leitung, Beobachtung, Begleitung, Erfindung, Grndung.

Die Tatsache aber, dass das direkte Objekt vorrangig als Genitivattribut
auftritt, whrend das Subjekt ber andere Mglichkeiten der Kodierung
verfgt, macht die Unterscheidung zwischen Subjektivus und Objektivus in
schwierigen Fllen leichter. Die Unterscheidung von Subjektivus und Objektivus
ist auerdem klar, wenn es in einem Ausdruck neben dem prnominalen
Genitiv noch einen postnominalen Genitiv gibt. ln solchen Fllen ist der
schsische Genitiv immer ein Subjektivus. Zum Beispiel: Karls Befragung des
Kanzlers.
Erscheint aber eine durch-Phrase neben einem Genitivattribut, so ist dann
dieses Geni-tivattribut kein Subjektivus, sondern ein Objektivus. Das
Prpositionalattribut mit "durch" ist deshalb notwendig, weil der schsische
Genitiv nur fr Eigennamen verwendet wird. So sagt man beispielsweise nicht
smtlicher Journalisten Befragung des Kanzlers sondern die Befragung des
Kanzlers durch smtliche Journalisten.
Ob ein Subjektivus oder Objektivus vorliegt, knnen uns in vielen Fllen auch
die verschiedenen Nominalisierungstypen sagen. Zum Beispiel im Falle von
Agensnominalisierungen von deverbalen Substantiven auf er.

Karl schreibt diesen Brief vs. Karl ist der Schreiber dieses Briefes.

Das Genitivattribut der Agensnominalisierungen ist nie ein Subjektivus, weil
die nominalisierte Form (in diesem Fall der Schreiber) bereits semantisch das
Subjekt des zugrunde liegenden Verbs inkorporiert.

4. Kritik an der Klassifizierung der Genitivattribute

Die genannte Klassifizierung der Genitivattribute ist rein beschreibend.
Dabei ist nicht einmal genau bekannt, wie vollstndig die genannte Liste von

Attributen ist. Als Begrndung fr die bereits genannten Klassifizierungen der
Genitivattribute werden vor allem die verschiedenen Mglichkeiten der
Paraphrasierung herangezogen, welche die verschiedenen Interpretationen
verdeutlichen sollen und deren Mglichkeit als Kriterium fr das Vorliegen
eines der Genitive dienen soll. Es gibt aber zahlreiche Einwnde gegen eine
solche Vorgehensweise, Genitive zu klassifizieren. Ballweg (157) hat dies in
seinem Aufsatz Eine einheitliche Interpretation des attributiven Genitivs mithilfe
zahlreicher Beispiele zu belegen versucht. So fllt im Beispielsatz "Ich sammle
Picassos Bilder" den meisten sofort eine Genitivus auctoris-Interpretation ein.
Die Genitivus auctoris-Interpretation ist aber nicht die einzig mgliche
Interpretation. Wenn derselbe Satz beispielsweise von einem Sammler
geuert wird, der sich auf groe Maler zeigende Darstellungen spezialisiert
hat, dann knnen natrlich auch Picasso darstellende Portrts gemeint sein. In
diesem Fall htten wir eine Objektivus-Interpretation. Es ist aber auch eine
Possessivus-Interpretation mglich. Hier knnen z.B. Bilder gemeint sein, die im
Besitz von Picasso waren. Es wird aus diesem Beispiel klar, dass die
vorgeschlagenen Interpretationsvarianten der Genitivattribute bei weitem
nicht ausreichen, denn die Interpretation sollte immer an den jeweiligen
Kontext, in dem der Satz geuert wird, gebunden sein. Im Zusammenhang mit
der Kontextabhngigkeit spielen auersprachliche Faktoren, wie z.B. das
Wissen ber den normalen oder wahrscheinlichen Zustand der Welt, eine
groe Rolle. So ist es beispielsweise wahrscheinlicher, dass ein Bild des
Prsidenten diesen darstellt, als dass er es selbst gemalt hat. Dieses allgemeine
Weltwissen kann aber durch spezielles Kontextwissen berschrieben werden
(Zifonun et.al. l997, 2028). Normalerweise wird man annehmen, dass das Bild
eines Prinzen ein Portrt dieses Prinzen ist. Ist aber von Prinz Charles die Rede,
muss man dazu wissen, dass Prinz Charles ein Hobbymaler ist. Der Ausdruck
Das Bild des Prinzen kann demzufolge auch als Genitivus auctoris verstanden
werden. Wie mit derartigen Interpretationsschwierigkeiten der Genitivattribute
umzugehen ist, hat Ballweg anhand einiger Beispiele zu skizzieren versucht.
Sein Ausgangssatz lautet:

Der Deutschland-Kalender zeigt heute ein Bild der Mannheimer Kunsthalle.

Dieser Satz ist ohne viel Nachdenken und ohne das jeweilige Kontextwissen
zweideutig zu verstehen. Auf der einen Seite wrde man die NP Ein Bild der
Mannheimer Kunsthalle als ein Objekt interpretieren, das der Mannheimer
Kunsthalle gehrt; auf der anderen Seite indes ist diese Konstruktion
interpretierbar als ein Bild, das die Mannheimer Kunsthalle darstellt. Wenn wir
aber das jeweilige Kontextwissen heranziehen, erweist sich nur eine
Interpretation als wahrscheinlich. Der Autor dieses Ansatzes spricht in diesem

Zusammenhang von den sog. Rsonnements, mit deren Hilfe wir eine auf den
ersten Blick zweideutige Aussage rekonstruieren knnen, um so zu der
korrekten Interpretation dieser Aussage zu gelangen. Diese Rsonnements
schlagen sich in folgenden Aussagen nieder.

1. Die Mannheimer Kunsthalle ist ein historisches Jugendstilgebude. In
diesem Gebude ist eine bedeutende Kunstsammlung ausgestellt.
2. Historische Gebude sind beliebte Motive fr Kalenderbilder.
3. Der Deutschland-Kalender ist ein Fotokalender und kein Kunstkalender.

Wenn man die genannten Rsonnements bercksichtigt, ist man berechtigt,
Bild der Kunsthalle zunchst als Fotografie, die die Kunsthalle darstellt, zu
interpretieren und nicht als ein Bild aus der Kunstsammlung der Mannheimer
Kunsthalle. Ein weiteres Beispiel:

Einige Bilder der Mannheimer Kunsthalle sind Millionen wert.

Zunchst einmal kommt hier das allgemeine Kontextwissen zur Geltung, wie
im vorherigen Beispiel:

1. Die Mannheimer Kunsthalle ist ein historisches Jugendstilgebude. In
diesem Gebude ist eine bedeutende Kunstsammlung ausgestellt.
2. Bilder bilden oft Gebude ab und historische Gebude sind beliebte
Motive.
3. Gemlde in Kunstsammlungen sind eher Millionen wert als Bilder von
historischen Gebuden.

Angesichts all dieser Feststellungen ist man berechtigt, Bilder der Kunsthalle
zunchst als Bilder, die zur Sammlung in der Kunsthalle gehren, zu
interpretieren. Ballweg zeigt auch anhand von zahlreichen Beispielen, dass die
gleiche uerung in verschiedenen uerungskontexten auch unterschiedlich
interpretiert werden kann. Dazu zhlen uerungen wie z.B.: Wie sind die Bilder
der Ausstellung?
Der erste Kontext sieht ungefhr so aus: Der Chefredakteur des Mannheimer
Morgen sieht den Fotografen, den er zur Erffnung einer Ausstellung geschickt
hat, aus dem Fotolabor treten und fragt ihn: Wie sind die Bilder der Ausstellung?
Der zweite Kontext sieht ungefhr so aus: Der Chefredakteur des
Mannheimer Morgen sieht den Feuilletonchef, den er zur Erffnung einer
Ausstellung geschickt hat, abends im Foyer des Theaters und fragt ihn: Wie sind
die Bilder der Ausstellung?

Es ist klar, dass sich der Redakteur im ersten Kontext fr die Fotografien von
der Vernissage interessiert, im zweiten Kontext jedoch fr die ausgestellten
Kunstwerke.
Mit der Klassifikationsproblematik der Genitivattribute hat sich auch Lindauer
(1995) beschftigt. Ihm zufolge liegt das Problem mit solchen Klassifikationen der
Genitivattribute darin, dass sie vor allem inhaltliche Beschreibungen darstellen.
Deswegen versuchte er, eine solche Klassifizierung so weit zu modifizieren,
indem er auch morphologische und syntaktische Eigenschaften der
Genitivattribute als Kriterien fr die Klassifizierung herangezogen hat. Sein
Anliegen war es auerdem, mit Hilfe der morphologischen und syntaktischen
Kriterien die Menge der Klassen der Genitivattribute mglichst zu minimieren.
Dabei hat er sich vor allem auf das Kriterium der (Nicht)Ersetzbarkeit des
Genitivattributs durch ein Possessivpronomen gesttzt. Als Folge der Anwendung
dieses Kriteriums unterschied er zwischen zwei Arten von Genitivattributen:

1. Attributive Genitive (sog. thematische Genitive), denen eine Theta-
Rolle zugewiesen wird.
2. Attributive Genitive (sog. funktionale Genitive), denen keine Theta-
Rolle zugewiesen wird.

Thematische Genitive (Genitivus thematicus) lassen sich durch ein
Possessivum ersetzen, knnen auch pronominal realisiert sein und haben eine
Prpositionalgruppe als Genitivquivalent. Zu dieser Genitivgruppe gehren
(Lindauer 210):
a) Genitivus possessivus
b) Genitivus auctoris
c) Genitivus subiectivus
d) Genitivus obiectivus
Lindauer argumentiert, dass sich die aufgezhlten Genitive syntaktisch nicht
voneinander unterscheiden. Der einzige Unterschied knnte darin bestehen,
dass in einem Fall die Theta-Rolle auf ein verbales Theta-Raster zurckzufhren
ist und im anderen auf ein Nomen.
Zu den funktionalen Genitiven, denen keine Theta-Rolle zugewiesen wird,
zhlen:
a) Genitivus partitivus
b) Genitivus explicativus
Dieser Art der Genitivattribute wird keine Theta-Rolle zugewiesen. Deshalb
knnen sie Lindauer zufolge nicht prnominal erscheinen oder durch ein
Possessivpronomen ersetzt werden. Genitivus partitivus und Genitivus
explicativus verhalten sich strukturell gleich. Der Genitivus explicativus lsst

sich allerdings aufgrund seiner Prdikations-bzw. Explikationseigenschaften von
dem Genitivus partitivus unterscheiden.
Einen Sonderfall bei der Lindauers Klassifikation stellt der Genitivus
qualitatis dar. Ihm wird zwar eine Theta-Rolle zugewiesen und er weist daher
hnlichkeit mit der Gruppe der thematischen Genitivattribute auf. Im
Gegensatz zu ihr nimmt er genauso wie Genitivus partitivus und Genitivus
explicativus keine Argumentposition ein.

5. Fazit

Aus den genannten Beispielen und anhand der auf ihrer Grundlage
formulierten Argumentation ist klar geworden, dass der Versuch einer
Klassifizierung der Genitivattribute immer wieder scheitert. Durch die
semantische und morphosyntaktische Klassifikation wird den Genitivattributen
eine Flle von festgelegten Interpretationen zugeschrieben, ohne dass der
jeweilige auersprachliche Kontext sowie das spezielle Kontextwissen
bercksichtigt werden. Das ist insbesondere darauf zurckzufhren, dass durch
die starre Klassifizierung die Variabilitt der alternativen Interpretations-
mglichkeiten der Genitivattribute eingeengt ist. Es bleibt auch, abgesehen von
der nicht immer zuverlssigen Paraphrasenmethode, unklar, auf welche Weise
die jeweils richtige Genitivinterpretation zu ermitteln ist. Auerdem ist es nach
wie vor offen, wie die "gemischten" Lesarten zu interpretieren sind.

Literatur

Ballweg, Joachim."Eine einheitliche Interpretation des attributiven Genitivs.
" Die Kasus im Deutschen. Form und Inhalt. Ed. Marcel Vuillaume. Tbingen:
Stauffenburg, 1998. 153-166.
Bumann, Hadumod. Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft. Stuttgart: Krner, 2002.
Duden. Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Mannheim:
Dudenverlag, 2005.
Eisenberg, Peter. Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik. Band 2: Der Satz.
Stuttgart-Weimer: Metzler, 2004.
Eroms, Hans-Werner. Syntax der deutschen Sprache. Berlin-New York: de
Gruyter, 2000.
Gallmann, Peter. "Die Steuerung der Flexion in der DP."Linguistische Berichte
164 (1996): 283-314.
Helbig, Gerhard und Joachim Buscha. Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fr
den Auslnderunterricht. Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopdie, 1986.

Hentschel, Elke und Harald Weydt. Handbuch der deutschen Grammatik. Berlin-
New York: de Gruyter, 2003.
Lindauer, Thomas. Genitivattribute. Eine morphosyntaktische Untersuchung
zum deutschen DP/NP-System. Tbingen: Niemeyer, 1995.
Zifonun, Gisela et al. Grammatik der deutschen Sprache. Band 3. Berlin/New
York: de Gruyter, 1997.

PROBLEMI KLASIFIKACIJE GENITIVSKIH ATRIBUTA U NEMAKOM JEZIKU

Predmet ovog rada predstavlja prikaz semantikih i morfosintaktikih
specifinosti genitivskih atributa i problema u vezi sa njihovom klasifikacijom.
Opis genitivskih atributa zauzima veoma vano mesto u tradicionalnoj
gramatici, dok su u novijim lingvistikim istraivanjima zapostavljeni. Njima se
pripisuju veoma razliite interpretacije, koje e u okviru ovog rada biti
predstavljene na osnovu mnogobrojnih primera. Cilj rada je da se obrazloi
zato su dosadanji pokuaji klasifikacije genitivskih atributa neuspeli i zato je
kritika postojeih klasifikacija opravdana.

Kljune rei: genitiv, nominalna fraza, genitivski atribut, semantika
klasifikacija, morfosintaktika klasifikacija.


UDK 811.111367.7

Pristupi diskursnim oznakama u jezikoslovnoj
tradiciji engleskoga govornog podruja

Magdalena Nigoevi, Sveuilite u Splitu

Apstrakt: U ovom se radu opisuju pristupi prouavanju diskursnih oznaka u
jezikoslovnoj tradiciji engleskoga govornog podruja. Donosi se presjek dosadanjih
pravaca istraivanja, kao i terminoloki, definicijski i klasifikacijski problemi razliitih
pristupa diskursnim oznakama. Obrauju se pitanja i problemi vezani uz definiranje
diskursnih oznaka autora koji su postavili teorijske okvire za bavljenje diskursnim
oznakama. Posebno se prikazuje Deborah Schiffrin i njezin pristup koji se zasniva na
odnosima koherencije u diskursu, gramatiko-pragmatiki pristup Bruca Frasera, naela
teorije relevantnosti Dana Sperbera i Diedre Wilson, odnosno pristup diskursnim
konektorima na postavkama teorije relevantnosti u radovima Diane Blakemore.

Kljune rijei: diskursne oznake, diskursni pristup, pragmatiki pristup, teorija
relevantnosti

Uvod

U lingvistikoj se literaturi smatra da je osnovna funkcija diskursnih oznaka
upozoravanje na raznovrsnost strukture diskursa i signaliziranje strukturnog
ustrojstva diskursa. Studije nastale na engleskom govornom podruju svakako
su najvanije, najbrojnije i uspostavili su temelje prouavanju tih jezinih
elemenata u drugim jezicima.
Diskursne su oznake relativno nov fenomen svjetske lingvistike misli i ne
iznenauje njihovo pojavljivanje upravo na podruju sociolingvistikih i pragma-
tikih studija amerikih lingvista, a s obzirom na tradiciju prouavanja govornog
jezika te brojna istraivanja jezika antropoloke i socioloke orijentacije, etno-
metodoloke studije i sl. Jedan od prvih spomena ovih jezinih jedinica nala-
zimo kod Labova i Fanshela (156). Prema autorima, engleska diskursna oznaka
well upuuje na temu o kojoj su sugovornici ve razgovarali, a kada se nalazi u
inicijalnom poloaju odnosi se na nenaznaenu temu od zajednikog interesa. U
svom glasovitom djelu Pragmatics (1983), Levinson navodi vanost prouavanja
ovih jezinih elemenata, iako ne ulazi u podrobniju analizu istih i ne predlae
naziv kojim bi ih obuhvatio i oznaio. On smatra da postoje mnoge rijei i izrazi

koji upuuju na odnos izmeu nekog izriaja i prethodnog diskursa i navodi za
primjer rijei poput but, therefore, in conclusion, to the contrary, still, however,
anyway, well, besides, actually, all in all, so, after all i dr. Prema autoru, ove
rijei oznaavaju kako je izriaj u kojemu se one nalaze, odgovor na ili nastavak
nekog dijela prethodnog diskursa. (Levinson 1983, 87-88)
Jezikoslovci razliitih profila pokuavaju objasniti posebnosti diskursnih
oznaka uspostavljanjem definicija, odreenjem funkcionalnog opsega jedinica,
viefunkcionalnih modela, proirenjem teorijskih okvira itd. Unato velikom
interesu koje zadnjih desetljea vlada meu lingvistima diljem svijeta, te veli-
kom broju bibliografskih jedinica kojima su oni predmetom, jo uvijek postoje
znatne razlike u poimanju opsega, podjele, definicije pa ak i naziva diskursnih
oznaka. Brinton (1996, 29) donosi dvadeset dva engleska naziva ovih jezinih
elemenata. Primjera radi, navest emo neke od najee koritenih naziva za
oznaavanje tih jezinih elementa: action markers (Enkvist 1972), collateral
signals (Fox Tree 2006), connectives (Rossari 2006), conjunctive expressions/
conjunctive elements (Halliday i Hasan 1976), contest markers (Zeevat 2006),
cue phrases (Knott i Sanders 1998), discourse connectives (Blakemore 1987),
discourse-deictic items (Levinson 1983), discourse markers (Schiffrin 1987),
discourse operators (Redeker 1991), discourse particles (Hansen 1998,Dedai i
Mikovi-Lukovi 2010), fillers (Fox Tree 2006), gambits (Keller 1979), hedges
(Ziv 1998), linguistic markers (Knott i Sanders 1998), linkers (Hopper i Traugott
2003), modal particles (Waltereit 2001), phatic connectives (Bazzanella 1990),
pragmatic connectives (van Dijk 1979), pragmatic expressions (Overstreet
2005), pragmatic devices (Vandle Kopple 1985), pragmatic markers (Fraser
1990; Brinton 1996), pragmatic particles (stman 1995),pragmatic operators
(Ariel 1994), sentence connectives (Hallidey i Hasan 1976), text relation markers
(Roulet 2006). Ovaj popis sadrava samo one nazive s kojima smo se susretali u
nama dostupnim studijama na engleskom jeziku i zorno ukazuje na sloenost i
razlike u pristupima odreenju i prouavanju ovih jezinih elemenata.
Tek od sredine 80-ih godina prologa stoljea pojavila se potreba za susta-
vnim istraivanjima diskursnih oznaka. Nekolicina autora engleskoga govornog
podruja, svojim su studijama, svatko na svoj nain, uinili veliki napor u pokuaju
definiranja i klasificiranja tih jezinih elementa te uvelike utjecali na sva
istraivanja koja su uslijedila nakon njih. Stoga emo u nastavku detaljnije opisati,
izmeu ostalih, Schiffrinin pristup koji se zasniva na odnosima kohe-rencije u
diskursu, Fraserovu klasifikaciju pragmatikog znaenja, teoriju rele-vantnosti
Sperbera i Wilsonove te Blakemorina semantika ogranienja implikatura.


Funkcionalistiki pristup DeborahSchiffrin

Deborah Schiffrin, profesorica na Sveuilitu Georgetown u Washingtonu,
jedna je od najee citiranih znanstvenika na podruju diskursnih studija. Obja-
vila je veliki broj znanstvenih lanaka i knjiga na podruju lingvistike diskursa i
sociolingvistike, a zajedno s D. Tannen i H. Hamilton priredila je The Handbook
of Discourse Analysis (2001). Autorica je monografije Discourse Markers (1987)
kojom je postavila temelje prouavanju diskursnih oznaka, te uvelike utjecala
na pojavu razliitih teorijsko-metodolokih pristupa u daljnjem istraivanju tih
jezinih jedinica. U svome radu, autorica nastoji objasniti distribuciju i uporabu
diskursnih oznaka u razgovoru sluei se lingvistikim i sociolokim metodama,
u prvom redu varijacijskom analizom i interakcijskom sociolingvistikom. Varija-
cijska analiza poiva na tezi da je varijacija vaan dio uobiajenoga jezinog
ponaanja i da esto pokazuje snanu vezu sa socijalnim varijablama te se
kvantitativnom analizom utvruju jezini i drutveni faktori koji utjeu na varija-
ciju u jezinom ponaanju. Interakcijska sociolingvistika pristupa diskursu kao
drutvenoj interakciji u kojoj su jezik i kontekst meusobno uvjetovani, tj. jezik
sudjeluje u stvaranju konteksta i istovremeno se ostvaruje u kontekstu. U knjizi
Discourse Markers (1987) autorica prouava na koji nain diskursne oznake
pridonose ostvarivanju diskursne koherencije. Analiza diskursnih oznaka temelji
se na empirijskim podacima dobivenim primjenom upitnika meu stanovnicima
Philadelphije. Ispitanici su pripadali istoj drutvenoj i jezinoj zajednici (obitelji,
prijatelji, poznanici) i odabrani su prema unaprijed utvrenim kriterijima (pripa-
dnici nieg i srednjeg graanskog sloja, srednjih godina, idovi i sl.) kako bi se
pokuale objasniti mogue karakteristike jezinog ponaanja s obzirom na po-
jedine sociolingvistike varijable.
Prije same analize diskursnih oznaka, autorica ukazuje na kljunu ulogu into-
nacije u govornom jeziku. Iako se njezina analiza diskursnih oznaka zasniva ugla-
vnom na kvantitativnoj analizi pojedinanih izraza koji se upotrebljavaju u
razgovoru, ona smatra da uloga pojedinog izraza ovisi, prije svega, o nainu na
koji je taj izraz izgovoren. Kao potvrdu navodi primjer engleskog uzvika oh koji
svrstava u diskursne oznake, a koji e izgovoren uzlaznom intonacijom biti pro-
tumaen kao zahtjev za potvrdom,kao u primjeru (a), dok e isti izraz,
izgovoren silaznom intonacijom, biti interpretiran kao zahvala (b):

(a) A: I think the partys called for six oclock.
B: Oh?
(b) A: I think the partys called for six oclock.
B: Oh.


Njezina analiza diskursa slijedi funkcionalistiki pristup koji istie vanost
svrhovitosti jezine djelatnosti, a kljune odrednice takvoga pristupa su
kontekst i komunikacija. Autorica definira diskurs kao jedinicu jezika i kao
proces drutvene interakcije. Polazite autoriina teorijskog pristupa ine etiri
paradigme o jeziku: jezik se uvijek nalazi u kontekstu,jezik je podloan utjeca-
jima konteksta, jezik je uvijek oblik komunikacije i jezik je predvien za komu-
niciranje,zajedno s tri paradigme koje se odnose na svojstva diskursa: diskurs
stvara strukture, diskurs stvara znaenja i diskurs izvrava radnje. Prva dva
svojstva diskursa, diskurs stvara strukture i diskurs stvara znaenja, odnose se
na diskurs shvaen kao proireni slijed manjih jedinica, poput reenica ili iskaza,
dok se tree svojstvo diskurs izvrava radnje odnosi na povezanost diskursa i
jezika, odnosno na openitu uporabu jezika u drutvenoj interakciji. Autorica
predlae model diskursa unutar kojega analizira diskursne oznake, predstavljen u
sljedeih nekolika razina:

struktura razmjene koja se odnosi se na razliite mehanizme koji se
koriste u komunikaciji (primjerice turn-taking);
struktura radnje koja prikazuje redoslijed govornih inova u diskursu;
ideacijska struktura koja prikazuje odnose meu idejama (propozicijama)
u diskursu;
participacijski okvir koji ini govornikov odnos prema diskursu i odnos
izmeu govornika i sugovornika;
informacijska razina koja se odnosi na organizaciju i koritenje znanja
tijekom diskursa.

Autoriin model diskursa obuhvaa nejezine razine, kao to su struktura
razmjene i struktura radnje, i razine izraene jezinim sredstvima, poput ideaci-
jske strukture. Unutar participacijskog okvira, govornik i sugovornik su u meu-
odnosu te u odnosu s iskazom. Njihovo znanje o svijetu i znanje o jeziku
usustavljeno je na informacijskoj razini. Koherencija diskursa je, dakle konani
proizvod zajednikoga napora sudionika da integriraju znanje, znaenje, govo-
renje i radnju. Diskursne oznake svrstavaju iskaz na razliite razine diskursa,
naime svaka oznaka odgovara nekoj od pet razina predloenog modela
diskursa. Ovaj je model doivio mnoge kritike. Prema Fraseru (1990, 385) razine
su preiroko definirane i meusobno se preklapaju. Radeker (1991) smatra da
je ovaj model nedostatan, a da su diskursne oznake odabrane bez jasnog kri-
terija. Hansen (1998) smatra da je model neupotrebljiv, jer ako bi se dosljedno
primjenjivao diskursne se oznake ne bi uope razlikovale budui da se devet, od
ukupno jedanaest oznaka koje Schiffrin u nastavku analizira, mogu promatrati
na svim razinama.

U drugom poglavlju knjige autorica ograniava predmet svojega istraivanja
na skupinu funkcionalno slinih jezinih elemenata koje svrstava u diskursne
oznake: oh, well, and, but, or, so, because, now, then, I mean, yknow. Radno ih
definira kao sekvencijski uvjetovane elemente koji omeuju jedinice govora
(31). Te jezine jedinice postavlja u suodnos s jedinicama govora, a ne s jedi-
nicama poput reenice, propozicije, govornog ina, tonske jedinice i sl., jer
prema autorici, jedinice govora predstavljaju okosnicu govornog jezika. One
ukljuuju i sve one iskaze koji se zbog sintaktike strukture ne mogu definirati
kao reenice. Autorica smatra da nije uputno uzeti reenicu za polaznu toku
istraivanja, ne samo zbog dobro poznatih nedoumica i potekoa pri define-
ranju te jezine jedinice, ve i zbog injenice da je korpusna analiza ukazala na
nemogunost primjene toga principa na govorni jezik. Naime, govorni se inovi
mogu izraziti razliitim reeninim strukturama. Primjerice, zahtjev se moe
izraziti izjavnom reenicom Vrata trebaju biti zatvorena., upitnom reenicom
Hoe li, molim te, zatvoriti vrata? ili usklinom reenicom Zatvori vrata! (32).
Kada bi se diskursne oznake definirale u odnosu na reenicu, mogli bi se sma-
trati ovisnim o sintaktikoj strukturi, to nije sluaj s tim jezinim elementima.
Jedan od prvih autoriinih zakljuaka odnosi se upravo na injenicu da su dis-
kursne oznake potpuno neovisne od reenine strukture. Primjerice, izostavimo
li diskursnu oznaku koja zauzima inicijalni poloaj u reenici, struktura te
reenice nee se promijeniti. Nadalje, razliite diskursne oznake, poput yknow,
I mean, oh, like, nemaju fiksnu poziciju u reenici, mogu biti i u inicijalnom,
medijalnom ili finalnom poloaju pa ih je stoga teko sintaktiki definirati.
Diskursne oznake ne ine jedinstvenu gramatiku kategoriju i mogu pripa-
dati razliitim gramatikim kategorijama rijei, a za neke je diskursne oznake
teko odrediti kojoj gramatikoj kategoriji pripadaju. Bez obzira na formalnu
razliitost, diskursne oznake imaju slinu funkciju pa ih stoga autorica definira s
obzirom na njihovu funkcionalnu ulogu. One istovremeno imaju i kontekstualnu
ulogu jer odreuju iskaz u odnosu na okolinu i u odnosu na (su)govornika.
Primjerice, jezini element oh tradicionalno se smatra uzvikom. Kada se
koristi sam, izvan reenice, oznaava neka emocionalna stanja poput iznena-
enja, straha, boli, odbojnosti i sl., kao u primjeru (c) koji autorica predlae. Oh
moe biti koriten i u inicijalnom poloaju iza kojega esto slijedi kratka pauza
kao u (d), ali i ispred jedne intonacijske jedinice bez pauze kao u (e).

(c) Jack: Was that a serious picture?
Freda: Oh! Gosh yes!
(d) Freda: Oh, well they came when they were a year.
(e) Jack: Does he like opera? Oh maybe hes too young.


Neovisno o njegovu sintaktikom i intonacijskom profilu, oh se pojavljuje
kada govornik mijenja svoj stav u odnosu na iskaz. Tijek komunikacije mijenja se
ne samo u sluaju emotivnog odgovora na ono iskazano, ve i isticanjem iskaza
koji je vie relevantan za nastavak komunikacije te integriranjem novog iskaza u
ve postojea saznanja. U svakom od tih naina procesuiranja iskaza, oh ima
tono odreenu ulogu: oh odabire neki fokus u komunikacijskom slijedu i njime
skree pozornost na (su)govornikovo usmjerenje.
Jednako se tako primjerice uporaba jezinog elementa well ne zasniva na
njegovom semantikom znaenju ili njegovom gramatikom statusu. Ponekad
well pripada kategoriji imenica, ponekad kategoriji priloga, ali njegova uporaba
u inicijalnom poloaju iskaza teko da se moe objasniti pukim morfosintakti-
kim kategorijama. Zbog toga se well esto pokuavao na razliite naine
klasificirati, a u novije se vrijeme imenuje razliitim nazivima poput: popunjiva
(eng. filler), estica (eng. particle), okljeva(kad je rije o osobi onda je oklijeva
(eng. hesitator) ili pokreta (eng. initiator) koji, po autoriinu sudu, nisu do-
statni da objasne osnovnu funkciju tog jezinog elementa. Iz njezina istraivanja
proizlazi da se well koristi kao oznaka koherencije diskursa. Naime, podaci
dobiveni analizom korpusa upuuju na zakljuak da govornik osjea potrebu za
uporabom well u sluajevima kada pretpostavlja da njegov iskaz, na neki nain,
nee zadovoljiti oekivanja sugovornika, a u svrhu uspostave kakve-takve
diskursne koherencije.
Diskursne oznake imaju razliita znaenja, one odabiru znaenjski odnos iz po-
tencijalnih znaenja u govoru i zatim ga prikazuju. Diskursna oznaka oh, recimo,
uglavnom prikazuje informaciju kao novu i neoekivanu. Iako sve oznake imaju
primarnu funkciju (primjerice, primarna funkcija and je u ideacijskoj strukturi, a
well u participacijskom okviru), one su multifunkcionalni izrazi. Osnovne karakte-
ristike diskursnih oznaka, prema autorici, jesu: sintaktika izdvojenost, inicijalni
poloaj, razliita prozodijska svojstva, funkcioniranje na lokalnoj (meu iskazima) i
na globalnoj razini (meu dijelovima diskursa) te multifunkcio-nalnost. One pove-
zuju razliite sadraje i na taj nain doprinose diskursnoj koherenciji.

Gramatiko-pragmatika perspektiva Bruca Frasera

Fraser pristupa diskursnim oznakama u okviru gramatiko-pragmatike per-
spektive. On odvaja semantiko znaenje (eng. content meaning ili propositional
content) od pragmatikog znaenja (eng. pragmatic meaning) u reenici. Se-
mantiko znaenje je propozicijsko, odnosno tie se manje ili vie eksplicitnog
prikaza nekog aspekta svijeta na koji govornik eli usmjeriti sugovornikovu
pozornost doslovnom interpretacijom reenice (Fraser 1990, 385). Pragmatiko
se znaenje odnosi na govornikovu komunikacijsku namjeru koja se ostvaruje

putem razliitih direktnih (za razliku od implicitnih) poruka koje govornik
prenosi izricanjem te reenice (386). Pragmatiko znaenje iskazuje se pragma-
tikim oznakama koje ne utjeu na istinosne uvjete reenice (tj. na poruku koju
nosi propozicijsko znaenje), ve signaliziraju potencijalne komunikacijske
namjere govornika (Fraser 1996, 168). Autor dijeli pragmatike oznake u tri
podvrste:
osnovne pragmatike oznake koje imaju ilokucijsku
11
snagu, naime
pokazuju osnovnu komunikacijsku intenciju govornika pomou razliitih
reeninih struktura (izjavne, uskline, upitne) te putem leksikih oznaka,
poput primjerice please koja upuuje na izraen zahtjev govornika;
pragmatike oznake-komentari koje predstavljaju govornikov komentar
na osnovnu poruku. U ovu skupinu spadaju, primjerice, oznake procjene
poput luckily, oznake posljedice ili rezultata poput in short, oznake
ublaavanja poput if you dont mind i sl.
paralelne pragmatike oznake koje ine vokativi i izrazi kojima govornik
iskazuje svoje nezadovoljstvo ili solidarnost.
Tu podjelu autor oprimjeruje u svojoj studiji iz 1988. godine
12
reenicom
Frankly, Sir, we are lost (Prikaz 1). Semantiko znaenje te reenice jest
injenica da su se oni izgubili, a pragmatika znaenja mogu se iitati pomou
niza pragmatikih oznaka: struktura izjavne reenica iskazuje govornikovo
uvjerenje u sadraj reenice, pragmatika oznaka frankly zapravo je komentar
koji upuuje na injenicu da govornik oekuje od sugovornika neslaganje u vezi
sa sadrajem reenice, dok paralelna pragmatika oznaka Sir ukazuje na
govornikovu namjeru iskazivanja potovanja prema sugovorniku.

Z
n
a
e
n
j
e

r
e
e
n
i
c
e
:

F
r
a
n
k
l
y
,

S
i
r
,

w
e

a
r
e

l
o
s
t

Semantiko
(propozicijsko)
znaenje
we are lost
Pragmatiko
znaenje
osnovna prag.
oznaka
izjavna reenica
prag. oznaka-
komentar
frankly
paralelna prag.
oznaka
Sir
Prikaz 1: Primjer analize znaenja reenice (Fraser 1988, 20-21)

11
Austinov (1965) govorni in sastoji se od tri neodvojiva dijela: lokucijskog, ilokucijskog i
perlokucijskog ina; dok Searl (1972) pak govori o iskazu, propoziciji i ilokuciji. U lingvistikoj se
literaturi najvie koriste nazivi govorni in za oznaavanje minimalne jedinice jezinog
djelovanja, iskaz/lokucija za plan izraza, propozicija za sadraj i ilokucija za plan smisla.
Ilokucija je, zapravo, onaj aspekt govornog ina koji odreuje njegov komunikacijski smisao.
12
Unato godini izdanja, Fraserova studija iz 1988. godine zapravo je recentnija od esto citirane
studije iz 1990. godine i popraena je s puno vie primjera.

U toj studiji, kao i u ranijim autorovim radovima, diskursne oznake ine
sastavni dio kategorije pragmatika oznaka-komentar, dok su u kasnijim
studijima (1996, 1998) one zasebna vrsta pragmatikih oznaka. Diskursne
oznake engleskog jezika autor dijeli u etiri skupine, i to: oznake promjene teme
by the way, speaking of x; kontrastivne oznake anyway, but, on the contrary;
oznake elaboracije above all, in other words, in fact te inferencijalne oznake
after all, of course, so i sl. (1996). Diskursne oznake pojavljuju se uglavnom u
inicijalnom poloaju u reenici i ne ine zasebnu sintaktiku kategoriju. One ne
mogu istovremeno pripadati nekoj od tradicionalnih gramatikih kategorija i biti
diskursne oznake. Naime, kada se odreeni jezini element u reenici pojavljuje
u funkciji diskursne oznake onda je to njegova jedina funkcija (1990, 388-389).
Autor razlikuje oznake karakteristine za pisani diskurs (notwithstanding) od
onih koje se ee koriste u govornom jeziku (ok), a razlika u uporabi diskursnih
oznaka moe se uoiti i u razliitim stilovima, primjerice anyway je karakte-
ristina oznaka za neformalni stil, dok je to begin with stilski neutralna (1990,
389). Istie takoer injenicu da prisutnost ili odsutnost diskursne oznake ne
utjee na diskursne odnose izmeu poruke koje slijede i prethodnog dijela
diskursa. Diskursne oznake iznimno su vane u smislu odreenja/pojanjenja
govornikove komunikacijske namjere, odnosno prema Schiffrin (1987) to znai
da diskursne oznake ne stvaraju odnose u diskursu, ve ih samo prikazuju.
Diskursne se oznake razlikuju od komentara koji nisu sekvencijski zavisni
elementi; od uzvika koji nisu dio reenice, ve su posebne reenice, odnosno
izrazi koji imaju potpuno osnovno znaenje i obino izraavaju neko govorniko-
vo emotivno stanje; te od vokativa koji pripadaju kategoriji paralelnih pragma-
tikih oznaka i obino se nalaze na poetku reenice (Fraser 1990, 391). Osim
znaenja koje upuuje na nain na koji govornik povezuje prethodnu poruku s
nastavkom diskursa, diskursne oznake imaju nepromjenjivo, osnovno/temeljno
pragmatiko znaenje (eng. core pragmatic meaning), znaenje koje nije u vezi
sa semantikim znaenjem (eng. content meaning) homofonog izraza. Kao to
navodi autor (Fraser 1996, 169-170), postoje sluajevi dvosmislenosti koji se
rjeavaju intonacijom u govoru i zarezom u pisanom tekstu, poput uporabe now
u funkciji priloga (Now where are we?) i u funkciji pragmatike oznake
fokusiranja (Now, where are we?), te primjeri kod kojih je jasno vidljiva razlika,
poput truthfully u sljedeim primjerima:

a) Truthfully, you should answer. (pragmatika oznaka)
b) You should answer truthfully. (prilog)
c) Truthfully, you should answer truthfully. (obje uporabe).

Napisao je, u suautorstvu s M. Malamud-Makowski (1996), jednu od prvih,
ako ne i prvu, kontrastivnu studiju diskursnih oznaka u dva razliita jezika.

Studija sadri analizu slinosti i razlika diskursnih oznaka suprotnosti u engle-
skom i panjolskom jeziku. Konano, autor je ponudio moda jednu od najje-
dnostavnijih definicija tih jezinih elemenata (1998, 302):
Diskursni oznaitelji su leksiki izrazi. Premda potjeu iz sintaktikih katego-
rija veznika, priloga, i prijedlonih fraza, u reenici ne igraju ulogu koju sugerira
njihovo podrijetlo, ve su, zapravo, izdvojeni iz propozicijskog sadraja reenice,
a funkcija im je da signaliziraju odnos izmeu segmenta diskursa koji predsta-
vljaju, S2, i prethodeeg segmenta diskursa, S1. Njihovo je znaenje proce-
duralno a ne konceptualno, tako da svaki pojedini diskursni oznaitelj sadrava
informaciju o tome kako treba interpretirati poruku koju prenosi S2 u odnosu
na interpretaciju segmenta S1.
13

Teorija relevantnosti Dana Sperbera i Deirdre Wilson

Temeljno djelo teorije relevantnosti (eng. relevance theory, skraeno RT) ini
monografija francuskog antropologa Dana Sperbera i engleske lingvistice
Deirdre Wilson pod naslovom Relevance (1995[1986])
14
. Autori kreu od Gri-
ceove koncepcije ija je temeljna pretpostavka kooperativnost sudionika disku-
rsa. To je jedna od niza Griceovih konverzacijskih maksima. Herbert Paul Grice
(1975), filozof jezika, smatra da izgovoreno ne sadri sve ono to se eljelo rei.
itava verbalna komunikacija sastoji se od jednog dijela koji je kodiran i drugog
dijela koji je rezultat inferencije, tj. odreenih mentalnih procesa koji pomau
pri razumijevanju poruka. Ono to govornici ine, predstavlja tek stimulus za
pokretanje inferencija. Samo dekodiranje poruke nije dovoljno, jer je ljudska
komunikacija uglavnom inferencijalna komunikacija. Da bi se dogodio infe-
rencijalni proces, neophodan je kontekst. Velik je teoretski problem odluiti
kako iz tog ogromnoga mentalnog konteksta koji svaka osoba posjeduje,
odabrati onaj dio koji omoguuje pokretanje upravo onih inferencija koje su u
tom trenutku potrebne. Grice smatra da se to moe predvidjeti ako govornici
potuju naelo kooperativnosti (eng. cooperative principle) koji se prema
njemu opet dijeli u etiri potkategorije: naelo koliine, iskrenosti, relevantnosti
i naina. To podrazumijeva da govornici u svojim iskazima daju dovoljno potre-
bnih informacija koje su relevantne, istinite i jasno izraene te koje su u skladu s
danim trenutkom, s namjerom i ciljem komunikacije (Grice 1975, 45). S druge
strane, primatelji poruke oekuju da poiljatelji poruke budu kooperativni.

13
Prijevod M. Dedai (2003, 220).
14
Drugo izdanje iz 1995. godine razlikuje se od prvog iz 1986. godine tek po dodatku Postface
(255-298) pa emo se nadalje pozivati samo na drugo, proireno izdanje. Talijanski prijevod ove
knjige je La pertinenza (Milano: Anabasi, 1993), vjerojatno da bi se izbjeglo semantiko
preklapanje s anglicizmom larilevanza u znaenju vanost.

Nadalje, on razlikuje dvije vrste inferencijalnih zakljuaka:

konverzacijske implikature koje se postiu iskljuivo naelom koope-
rativnosti. Primjerice: govornikov iskaz zima mi je uglavnom navodi na
radnju zatvoriti prozor. Ako promijenimo kontekst, zakljuak moe biti
razliit. Recimo da je prozor zatvoren, a hladno je zbog rashladnog
ureaja. U tom emo sluaju pretpostaviti da na sugovornik eli da se
otvori prozor.
konvencionalne implikature koje proizlaze iz samog semantikog
sadraja izriaja. U iskazima blesav je, ali je simpatian i simpatian je
ali je blesav zakljuak izvodimo u odnosu na poloaj ova dva dijela iskaza
u odnosu na veznik ali. Zakljuak koji donosimo u oba sluaja (svia mi
se/ne svia mi se ili zaposlit emo ga/neemo ga zaposliti) je
konvencionalno uvjetovan veznikom ali.

Sperber i Wilson uvelike su modificirali Griceovu teoriju konverzacije, smanjili
su kategorije u samo jednu vrstu odnosa koji su nazvali princip relevantnosti. Za
njih to nije kulturna norma, kao to je to sluaj s Griceovim maksimama, ve
prirodni kognitivni princip koji rukovodi cjelokupnom ljudskom komunikacijom.
Kako jedna od Griceovih podmaksima glasi reci ono to je relevantno, Sperber i
Wilson tvrdili su da se gotovo svaka vana stvar moe objasniti samo tom
maksimom. Griceova konverzacijska maksima relevantnosti, postat e tako
temeljem teorije relevantnosti prema kojoj komunikacija uspijeva ne onda kada
sugovornici prepoznaju jezino znaenje iskaza, nego kada iz njega inferiraju,
odnosno zakljue ono to je govornik htio rei (Sperber i Wilson 23). To je
vidljivo primjerice u situacijama kada govornik ne upotrijebi ispravno neku rije,
ili mu se dogodi lapsus linguae, sugovornik se obino na takve pogreke ne
osvre. Naime, one ukazuju na injenicu da govornik nije potpuno jasno iskazao
svoju namjeru, ali ne utjeu nuno na razumijevanje iskaza, budui da se
govornikova namjera ipak prepoznala i ispravno protumaila.
Njihova teorija relevantnosti dri da tumaenje izjave neminovno ukljuuje i
kontekst, ime se stvara mogua koliina novih obavijesti uz najmanji napor koji
je potreban za njihovu obradbu. Kontekst je uvijek mentalna kategorija i skup je
svih saznanja i vjerovanja pohranjenih u sjeanju sudionika komunikacijskog
procesa, ali je jednako tako zbir svih onih injenica i znanja koje se mogu uoiti
u neposrednoj situaciji, okruju ili jednostavno zakljuiti na osnovi neega to je
ranije reeno (Sperber i Wilson 1995). U veini literature pragmatike proveni-
jencije smatra se, implicitno ili eksplicitno, da kontekst ne moe bit predmetom
odabira, ve je unaprijed zadan i odreen (usp. Levinson 1983, 1.4). Prema
teoriji relevantnosti, kontekst nije unaprijed zadana kategorija, ve je odabir
upravo onoga konteksta, iz skupa moguih konteksta, koji je pri interpretaciji

iskaza odreen organizacijom znanja o svijetu (enciklopedijsko pamenje),
perceptivnim i kognitivnim sposobnostima te mentalnom aktivnou kojom je
pojedinac zaokupljen, a odabir pojedinog konteksta u odreenoj situaciji ovisi o
principu relevantnosti. Inicijalni ili neposredni kontekst ini ona informacija koja
je posljednja obraena pa joj se zato lako pristupa. U razgovoru je to obino
informacija koja se koristila u interpretaciji prethodnog iskaza zajedno s
informacijom koja je na temelju toga izvedena.
Teorija relevantnosti polazi od pretpostavke da je ljudski kognitivni sustav
usmjeren prema maksimalnoj relevantnosti, odnosno postizanju najveega
moguega kognitivnog uinka uz najmanji napor pri obradbi to je prvo ili
kognitivno naelo relevantnosti (Sperber i Wilson 1995, 260). Informacija koja
se prenosi podrazumijeva izvjesno oekivanje relevantnosti: govornik trai
sugovornikovu pozornost (u protivnom komunikacija ne bi uspjela), a sugo-
vornik prima odreene kognitivne uinke vrijedne pozornosti (napor pri
obradbi) to je izraeno drugim ili komunikacijskim naelom relevantnosti
(1995, 260) koje slijedi iz prvog. Kombini-ranje ovih dvaju naela ini kognitivno
ponaanje drugih ljudi dovoljno predvidljivim za uspjeno upravljanje komuni-
kacijom. U sreditu je njihove teorije osjeaj da je kognitivni cilj pojedinca u
danom trenutku uvijek usmjeren opem cilju maksimalnoj relevantnosti
obraene informacije. Relevantnost je ravnotea, razmjena (eng. trade-off) koja
se postie izmeu kontekstualnih (kognitivnih) efekata i napora pri obradbi
(pozornost, pamenje, inferencija), a oekivanje optimalne relevantnosti
automatska je posljedica izgovorenoga iskaza. Optimalna relevantnost svojstvo
je iskaza da pri odreenoj interpretaciji sadri dovoljan broj kontekstualnih
uinaka da zaokupi sugovornikovu pozornost a da pri tom ne namee dodatne
napore za postizanje istih uinaka. Na taj nain princip relevantnosti, prema
kojemu cijeli iskaz kazuje primatelju pretpostavku za njegovu optimalnu
relevantnost, postaje dovoljan za objanjenje svih mentalnih procesa komu-
nikacije. Komunikacija pretpostavlja da i govornik i sluatelj bezrezervno dijele
taj isti princip koji podrazumijeva da je fiziki in izraavanja sam po sebi
relevantan, jer iza samog iskaza uvijek stoji neka namjera. Kontekst je takoer
potreban da bi se razrijeile eventualne znaenjske nedovrenosti i nejasnoe
koje svaka jezina poruka nosi. Kako bi osigurao relevantnost, sluatelj e
odabrati upravo onaj kontekst koji prua najvie relevantnosti uz najmanje
napora. Nadalje, podrazumijeva se da je iskaz odabran u skladu s principom
optimalne relevantnosti. Govornik koji tei optimalnoj relevantnosti, ostavit e
implicitno sve ono to sluatelj moe dokuiti iz konteksta ili iz prethodnog
znanja o svijetu, koristei tako manji napor nego to bi mu to bilo potrebno za
eksplicitni iskaz. Vie neizreenih informacija (implikatura) ukazuje na viu
razinu razumijevanja meu sudionicima komunikacije.

Diskursne oznake svakako doprinose relevantnosti iskaza jer imaju ulogu
signala koji upuuju sluatelja na nain razumijevanja odreenoga iskaza. Stoga,
razliiti autori opisuju diskursne oznake s pozicija teorije relevantnosti poku-
avajui pokazati kako se ponaaju u odnosu na kontekstualni uinak i uloeni
napor.
15
Uglavnom koriste tri osnovna distinktivna obiljeja: razlikovanje istino-
snih i neistinosnih uvjeta iskaza, razlikovanje izmeu konceptualnog i procedu-
ralnog znaenja te razlikovanje eksplicitnog i implicitnog u nekom iskazu. Ove
razlike u odnosu s principom relevantnostiine okvir za prouavanje razliite
uporabe diskursnih oznaka.
Wilson i Sperber razlikuju dvije vrste znaenja: konceptualno i proceduralno
znaenje. Naime, razumijevanje iskaza podrazumijeva stvaranje mentalnih
predodbi iz kojih se izvode inferencijalni zakljuci. Kada iskaz sadri informacije
koje pridonose pojanjenju njegova sadraja, govori se o konceptualnom
znaenju i tradicionalno se takvo znaenje povezuje s uvjetom istinosti iskaza.
Kada iskaz sadri informacije o tome na koji emo nain obraditi i iskoristiti
pojedine dijelove, govorimo o proceduralnom znaenju, koje se tradicionalno
povezuje s uvjetom neistinosti iskaza. Pragmatika Griceove provenijencije po-
vlai znak jednakosti izmeu semantike, tj. jezinog znaenja i ukupnosti
istinosnih uvjeta dok je pragmatika = znaenje minus istinosni uvjeti (Levinson
1983). U teoriji relevantnosti se, naprotiv, razlika izmeu semantike i pragma-
tike odreuje kao razlika izmeu dekodiranja i inferencije, dakle, izmeu dvije
vrste kognitivnih procesa do kojih dolazi u razumijevanju iskaza. Polazite
procesa inferencije ini skup pretpostavki, a cilj mu je niz zakljuaka koji se
logiki nameu s obzirom na dane pretpostavke; proces dekodiranja ima za
polazite jedan znak a cilj mu je rekonstrukcija poruke koja se tim znakom
prenosi (Sperber i Wilson 1995, 12-13). Diskursne bi oznake tako pripadale
kategoriji proceduralnog znaenja, tj. one ne doprinose istinosnim uvjetima
iskaza. One pomau u prepoznavanju znaenja iskaza, odnosno upuuju
sluatelja da iz njega zakljui ono to je govornik htio rei, odnosno, ine skup
metapragmatikih uputa za obradbu nove informacije u odreenom kogniti-
vnom kontekstu. Primjerice, ako pogledamo sljedee dvije reenice:
(1) (a) Toni voli sluati Verdija.
(b) On voli operu.
uoit emo da, uz dodatak razliitih diskursnih oznaka, ovaj iskaz moe biti
interpretiran, barem, na dva naina:
(2) Toni voli sluati Verdija, dakle on voli operu.
(3) Toni voli sluati Verdija, naime on voli operu.

15
Usp. egarac (2006), Murillo (2004), Jucker i Ziv (1998), Carston (2002), Blass (1990) i dr.

U skladu s perspektivom teorije relevantnosti, u iskazu (2) diskursna oznaka
dakle upuuje da je iskaz on voli operu zakljuak izveden iz prethodnog iskaza
Toni voli sluati Verdija,odnosno (1b) proizlazi iz (1a). U primjeru (3), uvoe-
njem druge diskursne oznake, naime, iskaz Toni voli sluati Verdija
interpretira se kao zakljuak. U oba sluaja govornik pretpostavlja da sugo-
vornik posjeduje niz kontekstualnih (kognitivnih) pretpostavki koje nisu iste u
primjeru (2) i u primjeru (3). Naime, govornik oekuje da se iskaz (2) interpretira
na nain:

(2) Ako Toni voli operu onda on voli sluati Verdija.

dok u primjeru (3) oekuje da sugovornik prizove, formira sljedeu
pretpostavku:

(3) Ako Toni voli sluati Verdija onda on voli operu.

Na ovaj nain diskursne oznake dakle i naime utjeu na razliitu obradbu tih
iskaza. One ne doprinose istinosnim uvjetima sadraja iskaza u kojima se
pojavljuju, jer nemaju konceptualno, ve samo proceduralno znaenje.
Osim to ima brojne sljedbenike, teorija relevantnosti doivjela je i razliite
kritike. Prije svega, nije potpuno jasna definicija utroenog napora pri obradbi
iskaza, a ni nain na koji bi se isti procijenio, odnosno izmjerio (Levinson 1989,
742; Hansen 1998, 31). Nadalje, neposrednost kojom se realiziraju inferencije u
komunikaciji potvruje ideju o psiholokom principu koji je neophodan i
neizostavan u procesu inferencije (kojim se relevantnost postie). Pa ipak, kako
nije ba jasno kako funkcionira ljudski mozak uope, nije ni mogue u potpunosti
dokuiti njegovo funkcioniranje tijekom procesa inferencije. U svakom sluaju,
prije e to biti predmetom istraivanja psihologa nego lingvista, i oni e pokuati
dati odgovore na ta pitanja i tako opravdati ovaj dio teorije (Portols 2001).

Diskursni konektori Diane Blakemore

Diane Blakemore, uenica Deirdre Wilson, na postavkama teorije rele-
vantnosti prouava jednu heterogenu skupinu izraza (after all, also, you see, but,
moreover, furthermore i sl.) nazivajui ih diskursnim konektorima (eng. discourse
connectives). Prema autorici, ti se izrazi koriste da bi se oznaila relevantnost
jednog segmenta diskursa u odnosu na drugi. Ona razlikuje dvije skupine
diskursnih konektora: prvu skupinu ine izrazi kojima se oznaava uloga nekog
iskaza u diskursu (anyway, incidentally, by the way, finally), dok se druga skupina
sastoji od izraza koji oznaavaju vrstu kontekstualnog uinka: kontekstualnu

implikaciju (so, therefore), intenzifikaciju (also, after all, furthermore, indeed) i
nijekanje (but, however, nevertheless, still).
Prema autorici jezini izrazi poput pa ipak, dakle i ak imaju znaenje
procesuiranja iskaza u odnosu na kontekst, dok ostali elementi, poput duan,
kupiti ili brzo imaju konceptualno znaenje te kao takvi utjeu na istinosne
uvjete iskaza. Lingvistika distinkcija izmeu istinosno uvjetovanog znaenja i
neistinosno uvjetovanog znaenja trebala bi ustupiti stoga mjesto opreci
izmeu konceptualnog i proceduralnog znaenja, odnosno pragmatikom razli-
kovanju eksplicitnoga i implicitnoga (Blakemore 1995, 451). Polazei od Griceo-
ve razlike izmeu konverzacijskih implikatura i konvencionalnih implikatura,
ona je nastojala objasniti njihovu ulogu u kognitivnoj pragmatici. Autorica
takoer dri da konvencionalne implikature ne doprinose istinosno uvjetova-
nom znaenju iskaza, ali prema njoj one nastaju zbog posebnog znaenja
jezinih elemenata, u ovom sluaju diskursnih konektora. Nadalje, ona dri da
diskursni konektori ne doprinose implikaturama ni konceptualno, ve se koriste
samo kao indikatori pragmatikih inferencija.
Autorica upuuje kritiku pristupima prouavanju diskursnih oznaka temelje-
nim na odnosima koherencije. Prema zagovornicima tih pristupa (Levinson
1983, 87-88; Fraser 1990 i dr.) diskursne oznake oznaavaju, signaliziraju,
upuuju na nain na koji je jedna jedinica diskursa povezana s drugom, odnosno
one su diskursno ljepilo (Fraser 1990, 385). U istu tu skupinu autorica svrstava
i Schiffrin (1987), koja takoer smatra da diskursne oznake imaju vanu ulogu u
stvaranju diskursne koherencije, premda istie da se njezina analiza temelji vie
na funkcionalnom pristupu jeziku pomou kojega pokuava pokazati kako je
uporaba diskursnih oznaka rezultat strukturalnih, semantikih i pragmatikih
faktora. Kod pristupa koji se temelje na koherenciji, diskursne oznake imaju
pragmatiko znaenje na temelju injenice da ne doprinose istinosnim uvjetima
iskaza u kojem se nalaze. Blakemore pak objanjava razliku izmeu istinosno
uvjetovanog i neistinosno uvjetovanog znaenja u okviru kognitivne razlike
izmeu konceptualnog i proceduralnog znaenja. Ona dri da se tekstualna ko-
herencija moe jedino objasniti pomou principa relevantnosti, odnosno naina
na koji relevantnost jednog segmenta ovisi o interpretaciji drugoga. Pretpo-
stavka da je iskaz suvisao, ako je primijenjen princip relevantnosti, zasniva se na
injenici da govornik, ne samo da prenosi odreenu poruku, ve aktivno
pomae sluatelju da je prepozna. Naime, iskazi se interpretiraju u najmanjem i
najdostupnijem kontekstu koji daje dovoljno kontekstualnih uinaka uz
minimalni napor pri obradbi istih. S govornikova stajalita nema uope smisla
proizvesti iskaz ako nema sluatelja, kao to jednako tako nema smisla, sa
sluateljeve toke gledita, obratiti pozornost na taj iskaz ukoliko on ne sadri
informaciju vrijednu njegove pozornosti, tj. ako nije relevantan. Naime: Govornik,

koji producirajui neki iskaz trai sluateljevu pozornost, komunicira pretpostavku
da je njegov iskaz relevantan (Blakemore 2001, 105).
Blakemorina analiza doivjela je i neke kritike. Naime, prema Hansen (1998,
35-36), broj i odabir diskursnih konektora je preuzak da bi mogao prikazati sve
ono to konektori ostvaruju u diskursu, a njihova se podjela zasniva na tzv.
kvazilogikim odnosima meu iskazima. Jasnu razliku izmeu jezinih jedinica
s konceptualnim znaenjem i onih s proceduralnim znaenjem, kako to predlae
Blakemore, prema nekim autorima (Portols 2001, Murillo 2004), treba takoer
uzeti s izvjesnom rezervom. Diskursne oznake imaju proceduralno znaenje, ali
je ono esto u evidentnoj vezi s konceptualnim znaenjem jezinih jedinica od
kojih su nastale. Naime, ponekad rijei koje nose znaenje mogu utjecati na
procesuiranje iskaza, a s druge strane neke diskursne oznake, barem manjim
dijelom, imaju/zadravaju konceptualno znaenje. U prvom sluaju, pogledajmo
primjerice iskaz Marija je uvala sjeanja na taj dan. Iz ovog se iskaza ne moe
zakljuiti jesu li Marijina sjeanja ugodna ili neugodna. Meutim, ako glagol
uvati zamijenimo drugim glagolima, dobit emo drugaiju situaciju:

(a) Marija je zatomila sjeanja na taj dan.
(b) Marija je pohranila sjeanja na taj dan.

Glagol zatomiti u primjeru (a) upuuje na negativne emocije, dok u pri-
mjeru (b) glagol pohraniti ukazuje na ugodna, draga i lijepa sjeanja. Ova dva
glagola tako umanjuju mogunosti zakljuivanja u odnosu na direktni objekt,
to znai da oni takoer utjeu na procesuiranje iskaza. Nadalje, veina je
diskursnih oznaka nastala od jezinih elemenata koji su imali konceptualno
znaenje: talijanska diskursna oznaka. di consequenza ima veze s posljedicom,
dok hrvatska uistinu ima veze s istinom i sl.
I sama autorica u novijim radovima istie da su istraivanja unutar teorije re-
levantnosti ukazala na injenicu da postojanja razlike konceptualno/procedu-
ralno ne uvjetuje nuno i razliku istinosno uvjetovano/neistinosno uvjetovano
znaenje. Naime, postoje diskursni konektori koji, premda ne utjeu na
istinosne uvjete, sadre konceptualno znaenje. Primjerice, apozicijska oznaka
in other words u opreci s izrazima but i well sadri istovremeno neistinosno
uvjetovano znaenje i konceptualno znaenje (Blakemore 2001, 114).

Zakljuak

Pristupi analiziranim jezinim elementima uvelike se razlikuju i esto se pod
nazivom diskursne oznake razumijevaju vrlo razliiti jezini elementi. Nazivi
pragmatike oznake,diskursne oznake,pragmatike estice,diskursne

estice neki autori upotrebljavaju kao sinonime, dok su za druge to priblino
sinonimni ili preklapajui nazivi.
Primjenjujui funkcionalistiki pristup unutar analize diskursa, Schiffrin je
zaokupljena pitanjima strukture govora, tj. nainima govorenja. Diskursni
pristup istie kohezivnu ulogu diskursnih oznaka i naglaava sekvencijsku
uvjetovanost tih elemenata koji anaforiki ili kataforiki povezuju dijelove
diskursa. Gramatiko-pragmatika perspektiva B. Frasera razlikuje sadrajno i
pragmatiko znaenje i naglaava vanost poimanja diskursnih oznaka kao
veznih jedinica. Kako je rije o pristupu pragmalingvistikoga predznaka, diskur-
sne oznake ine tek podgrupu pragmatikih oznaka i signaliziraju odnos izmeu
segmenta diskursa u kojem se nalaze ili koji uvode i prethodnog segmenta
diskursa. Za Frasera su diskursne oznake iskljuivo jezini izrazi (1999, 936), dok
Schiffrin smatra da bi razliite paralingvistiki elementi i neverbalne geste mogli
biti sastavni elementi kategorije diskursnih oznaka (1987, 328).
Teorija relevantnosti (Sperber i Wilson 1995) spoznajna je teorija koja istie
psiholoku stranu komunikacije, zaokupljena je procesima inherentnim ljudskom
umu. Njezin objekt prouavanja uope nije diskurs, definiran u okvirima
strukturalnog ili drutvenog fenomena, ve razumijevanje diskursa, tj. mentalnih
predodbi i procjena koje utjeu na njegovo razumijevanje. Prema postavkama
teorije relevantnosti, diskursne oznake utjeu na poveanje kontekstualnog
uinka i smanjuju uloeni napor pri obradbi i razumijevanju iskaza, te na taj nain
doprinose relevantnosti iskaza. Kritike upuene ovoj teoriji uglavnom se odnose
na njezinu iskljuivu mentalistiku orijentaciju te nedovoljno isticanje komunika-
cijskog procesa kao drutveno uvjetovane kategorije. Na postavkama teorije
relevantnosti, Blakemore analizira diskursne konektore. Njezin je pristup donekle
utemeljio opreku po kojoj konceptualno znaenje povezujemo s eksplicitnom
komunikacijom, dok se proceduralno vezuje uz implikature. Autorica smatra da
pristupima koji se zasnivaju samo na koherenciju nedostaje ope zakonitosti razu-
mijevanja iskaza. Prema teoriji relevantnosti razumijevanje diskursa nije nusproi-
zvod diskursne prihvatljivosti ili koherencije, ve je poimanje koherencije diskursa
posljedica potrage i elje za relevantnosti. Relevantnost nije sastavni dio samog
diskursa ve mentalnih procesa koji dovode do razumijevanja i interpretacije
nekog iskaza. Stoga diskursne oznake, prema autorici, nisu samo izrazi koji
povezuju dijelove diskursa, ve bi ih trebalo promatrati u okviru teorije rele-
vantnosti, na nain da se vie pozornosti posveti kognitivnim procesima koji su u
osnovi razumijevanja diskursa i analizirati ih kao elemente koji utjeu na kon-
tekstualne uinke usmjerene na tijek razumijevanja iskaza.
Unato raznovrsnosti pristupa, naziva, definicija i kategorizacija diskursnih
oznaka kod ovih autora, neke su im dodirne toke neosporne. Svi se slau u
tome da diskursne oznake ine heterogenu skupinu, viefunkcionalnih jezinih
elemenata, te stoga nije mogue nabrojiti sve kriterije prema kojima bi se ta

skupina u potpunosti razlikovala od ostalih slinih jezinih elemenata. Nadalje,
postoje neke karakteristike, formalne i funkcionalne prirode, koje se uobiajeno
povezuju s diskursnim oznakama. Formalne se karakteristike uglavnom odnose
na fonoloku, sintaktiku i semantiku neovisnost diskursnih oznaka od ostatka
iskaza. Meutim, one samo upuuju na njihovo odreenje i same za sebe nisu
dovoljne. Tek osvjetavanje kognitivnih procesa na kojima poiva komunikacija i
specifinosti uporabe diskursnih oznaka, moe doprinijeti boljem razumijevanju
tih elemenata.
Predstavljeni autori, njihovi razliiti pristupi fenomenu diskursnih oznaka u
studijama pisanim na engleskom jeziku, njihovi sljedbenici i kritiari, postavili su
teorijske okvire za bavljenje diskursnim oznakama i uvelike utjecali na sva
budua istraivanja tih jezinih fenomena.

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21.

APPROACHES TO DISCOURSE MARKERS IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING LINGUISTIC TRADITIONS

The approaches to the study of discourse markers in English-speaking
linguistic traditions are described in this paper. A review of current research
directions and terminology, definition and classification issues within different
approaches to discourse markers are presented. Questions and issues related
to discourse marker definitions given by several authors who established a
theoretical framework for studying discourse markers have been analysed.

Particular attention has been given to the work of Deborah Schiffrin and her
approach based on discourse coherence relations, grammatical-pragmatic
approach developed by Bruce Fraser, Relevance Theory principles presented by
Dan Sperber and Diedre Wilson, and Diane Blakemores approach to discourse
connectors based on Relevance Theory.

Key words: discourse markers, discursive approach, pragmatic approach,
Relevance Theory


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UDK 81232

Prikaz teorija o usvajanju jezika i odnosu
izmeu jezika i miljenja

Nataa Jovovi, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: U ovom radu predstaviemo neke od najznaajnijih teorija koje se bave
usvajanjem jezika i odnosom izmeu jezika i miljenja. Cilj nam je da se prui jasan i
saet prikaz teorija iji su predstavnici: Noam omski, Roder Braun, an Pijae i Lav
Vigotski. Naom omski je svojim kljunim djelom Sintaksike strukture izvrio snaan
uticaj na psiholingvistiku koji se moe smatrati pravom revolucijom u njenom daljem
razvoju. Iako njegova teorija nije dala odgovor na mnoga pitanja, ipak je trgnula iz
umalosti uspavanu lingvistiku i psiholingvistiku misao. Aktuelno pitanje se svelo na
prihvatanje ili osporavanje nove nativistike teorije o jeziku. Eksperimenti Rodera
Brauna i njegovih saradnika pokazali su da djeca ne ue izvjesni jezik imitacijom, ime
su osporili do tada uvenu i priznatu bihevioristiku teoriju o uenju jezika putem
imitacije i uslovljavanja. Djeca, u stvari, formuliu pravila a potom ih univerzalno
primjenjuju, esto netano. Teorije an Pijaea i Lava Vigotskog predstavljaju znaajan
doprinos istraivanjima razvojne psiholingvistike, jer ne posmatraju govor djeteta na
osnovu klasifikacije, klasa i kategorija u govoru odraslih, ve u vezi sa razvojem
miljenja.

Kljune rijei: jezik i miljenje, psiholingvistika, Noam omski, Roder Braun, an
Pijae, Lav Vigotski.

Uvod

Proces uenja, usvajanja i razumijevanja jezika je zapanjujui poduhvat. Brzi-
na kojom dijete usvaja pravila maternjeg jezika je zauujua ako imamo na
umu injenicu kako se strani jezik teko usvaja u poodmaklim godinama, koliko
je sloen taj proces koji obuhvata usvajanje rjenika i savlaivanje gramatikih
pravila koja su neophodna za svakodnevnu komunikaciju. To je samo jedno od
sloenih pitanja na koje psiholingvistika pokuava dati odgovor, jer je jezik
dragulj u kruni kognicija (Vasi 146), tj. neto to svako eli da objasni.
U ovom radu predstaviemo samo neke od znaajnijih teorija koje se bave
usvajanjem jezika i odnosom izmeu jezika i miljenja. Cilj nam je da se prui
jasan i saet prikaz teorija iji su predstavnici: Noam omski, Roder Braun, an
Pijae i Lav Vigotski.

Osnove generativno-transformacione gramatike Noama omskog

Noam omski (Noam Chomsky),
16
lingvista, psiholog i matematiar, tvorac je
uvene lingvistike teorije koja se naziva transformacionom, generativnom ili
transformaciono-generativnom gramatikom.
17
Ovom teorijom i djelom Sintaksi-
ke strukture izvrio je snaan uticaj na psiholingvistiku, koji se moe smatrati
pravom revolucijom u njenom daljem razvoju. Iako njegova teorija nije dala
odgovor na mnoga pitanja, ipak je trgnula iz umalosti uspavanu lingvistiku i
psiholingvistiku misao. Aktuelno pitanje se svelo na prihvatanje ili osporavanje
nove nativistike teorije o jeziku.
Sve do omskog vladalo je bihevioristiko miljenje o uenju jezika putem
uslovljavanja, ugledanja i imitacije. Pristalice bihevioristike teorije u jezikom
sistemu ne prepoznaju opte zakonitosti na kojima insistira omski.
Pojam transformaciona podrazumijeva onu gramatiku koja se slui transfor-
macijama, tj. formalnim operacijama u vidu pravila koja neku datu strukturu
preobraaju u neku drugu strukturu (omski 13).
Generativna gramatika ima zadatak da generie, tj. da prema eksplicitnim
uputstvima proizvodi gramatine reenice nekog jezika.
U teoriji N. omskog sintaksa je sredinja komponenta lingvistikog opisa, a
pojam gramatika ima ire znaenje od tradicionalnog, koji pored sintakse i
morfologije ukljuuje i druge nivoe jezike strukture.
Izdvajaju se etiri osnovna obiljeja jezika:
1. jezik je stvaralaki;
2. priroda jezika je apstraktna;
3. temeljna struktura jezika je univerzalna;
4. univerzalnost je posljedica sutinskog ustrojstva ljudskog uma, jer je
jezik ovjeku urzoen.
Bihevioristika teorija jezika nije obraala panju na jeziku kreativnost koja
se ispoljava u procesu njegovog uenja i korienja. Meutim, Smiljka Vasi
naglaava da je kritika ove teorije u pojedinim segmentima bila preotra jer
negovorenje o stvaralakom momentu ne znai negiranje njegovog postojanja

16
Kljuna djela omskog: Sintaksike strukture (Syntactic Structures, 1957), Aktuelni problemi
lingvistike teorije(Current Issues in Linguistics Theory, 1964), Aspekti teorije sintakse (Aspests of
the Theory of Syntax, 1965), Teme iz teorije generativne gramatike (Topics in the Theory og
Generative Grammar, 1966), Kartezijanska lingvistika: jedno poglavlje istorije racionalistike misli
(Cartesian Linguistics: A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought, 1966), Jezik i um (Language
ond Mind, 1968), i sa Morisom Haleom (Morris Halle) Glasovna struktura engleskog jezika (The
Sound Pattern of English, 1968). Pored ovih knjiga, objavio je vei broj strunih i teorijskih
rasprava u lingvistikim, psiholokim i filozofskim asopisima i razliitim interdisciplinarnim
zbornicima.
17
Rije je o primarno najuticajnijoj sintaksikoj teoriji 20. vijeka.

(35). esto korienje testova asocijativne tehnike je jedan od vidova jezike
kreativnosti.
Na drugoj strani, teorija omskog kreativnu, stvaralaku snagu jezika vidi u
ovjekovoj sposobnosti da rijeima izrazi ono to prethodno nikada nije uo i
shvati ono to do tada nikada nije rekao. Jedan od zadataka generativne grama-
tike jeste da otkrije niz gramatikih pravila koja opisuju mogunost graenja
beskonanog broja gramatiki moguih reenica.
Jezik se posmatra kao beskonaan skup reenica koje su odreene ko-
nanom duinom i skupom elemenata. Svi prirodni jezici, dakle, u svom govo-
rnom ili pisanom obliku imaju konaan broj fonema, a svaka reenica moe se
predstaviti kao konana sekvenca ovih fonema, iako je broj moguih reenica
beskonaan.
Lingvistika analiza razdvaja gramatine od negramatinih sekvenci, tj. one
koje pripadaju i koje ne pripadaju datom jeziku. Gramatika jezika (J)
18
je napra-
va koja generie samo gramatine sekvence.
Pojam gramatinosti ne poistovjeuje se sa semantikim aspektom, jer i gra-
matiki ispravna reenica moe biti besmislena, to potvruje i njegov uveni
primjer: Bezbojne zelene ideje spavaju bijesno.
19

omski je bio svjestan da je kroio na opasan teren kada je konstatovao da
sintaksika struktura moe da prui izvjestan uvid u probleme koji se tiu znae-
nja i razumijevanja. Time je otvorio mnoga pitanja i podstakao mnoge rasprave o
tome koliko su semantika obavjetenja potrebna u otkrivanju jedne gramatike.
U poetnim radovima omskog naglasak je bio iskljuivo na sintaksikim, a ne
semantikim strukturama. Meutim, miljenje savremene nauke jeste da se-
mantiki pojmovi u jednoj gramatici ne mogu biti beskorisni jer i oni imaju znaa-
jnu ulogu u stvaranju teorije koja bi pruila uvid u proces razumijevanja reenica.
omski je postavio prvi model matematiki sintaksikih struktura za potrebe
mainskog prevoenja. Po njegovom miljenju, jezik je sistem znakova koji se
koriste po odreenim pravilima. Opta pravila upotrebe jezika su univerzalna za
sve jezike na svijetu. Prema tome, postoje jezike univerzalije koje iniciraju i
postojanje sistema univerzalne gramatike.
Pretpostavka generativne gramatike jeste da je jezik uroeno svojstvo. U
procesu uenja i usvajanja jezika dijete otkriva uroene gramatike zakone. Kao
jedan od dokaza navodi se injenica da se ovjek koji u kasnijim godinama ui
neki strani jezik mora posluiti nekom tradicionalnom gramatikom kako bi tek u
izvjesnom stepenu savladao pravila novog jezika. Meutim, dijete je sposobno

18
Skraenica J predstavlja gramatiku jezika u skladu sa teorijom omskog i prevodom Ranka
Bugarskog; Noam omski, Gramatika i um, Nolit, Beograd, 1979.
19
omski je naveo dva primjera kojima je ilustrovao autonomnost sintakse:
1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
2) Furiouslz sleep ideas green colorless. Isto, str. 88.

da savreno savlada neki jezik i to neuporedivo bre i lake od odraslog. Pri to-
me, nijesu mu potrebne nikakve eksplicitne instrukcije (omski 119). Normal-
nom djetetu je za sticanje govorne sposobnosti potrebna samo izloenost odre-
enom jeziku. Ono, dakle, nije prilagoeno uenju nekog posebnog jezika. U
zajednici koja govori engleski, i ono e nauiti engleski. Ta djetetova sposobnost
otkrivanje uroenih gramatikih zakona ini osnovu nativistikog shvatanja
gramatike.
Znanje nekog jezika pretpostavlja implicitnu mo razumijevanja neodree-
nog broja reenica ije principe transformaciona gramatika nastoji da otkrije.
Ona izgrauje sistem pravila koja se mogu razloiti u tri glavne komponente:
sintaksiku, fonoloku i semantiku.
Sintaksika komponenta gramatike razlikuje dvije strukture u svakoj reenici
dubinsku, koja odreuje njenu semantiku interpretaciju i povrinsku, koja
odreuje fonetsku interpretaciju.
Reenica se sastoji od rijei koje su poreane odreenim redom. Osim toga,
ona ima i odreenu strukturu, tj. rijei su sloene na odreeni nain. Npr.
reenica: Djevojica je slomila nogu, sastoji se od dva glavna dijela djevojica i
je slomola nogu, a drugi dio je takoe sastavljen od djelova je slomila i nogu.
Reenica ima hijerarhijsku strukturu. Ona se moe prikazati pomou crtea
stabla koje se grana, pri emu moemo razlikovati djelove nieg reda, koji
nastaju granjanjem djelova vieg reda. Pored ove povrinske razlikujemo i
drugu, nista manje znaajnu, dubinsku strukturu.
Dubinska struktura reenice podrazumijeva apstraktno znanje, tj. aspekte
reenice koji stoje iza manifestovanog oblika. omski navodi sljedei primjer:
1) Dona je lako zadovoljiti.
2) Don voli da ga zadovolje.
20

Reenice su naizgled sastavljene na isti nain, ali se u osnovi razlikuju. U
prvoj reenici Don je objekt glagola zadovoljiti, a u drugoj je subjekt reenice.
Oni koji poznaju engleski jezik automatski shvataju razliku, mada ona nije uolji-
va uporeivanjem njihovih povrinskih struktura. Ali zato, ove reenice imaju
razliite dubinske strukture.
Uz pomo dubinskih i povrinskih struktura omski je elio da osmisli
principe koji bi ga doveli do modela jezika podesnog za kompjutere. Meutim,
glavnu smetnju predstavljala je osnovna postavka njegove gramatike jezika
kreativnost koja onemoguava iznalaenje takvog modela.
Transformaciona gramatika mora zadovoljiti uslove:
1. Opservacione adekvatnosti koja podrazumijeva dosljednost posmatra-
nja, tj. niz pravila koja omoguavaju da se bilo koja reenica u jeziku moe tano
opisati;

20
U originalnom tekstu: John is easy to please.
John is eager to please. (Isto, str. 120)

2. deskriptivne adekvatnosti koja podrazumijeva dosljednost u opisivanju
preutnog znanja govornika koje obuhvata procjenjivanje semantikih odnosa
unutar reenice;
3. eksplanatorne adekvatnosti koja se tie dosljednosti u objanjavanju i
opisivanju pravila koja omoguavaju najekonominiji opis jezika.
Ova tri nivoa adekvatnosti omski sagledava sa stanovita izgraivanja
apstraktnog sticajnog modela za jezik (SM)
21
koji se moe prikazati u vidu tzv.
kutije:

primarni jeziki podaci GRAMATIKA

Primarni jeziki podaci kojima se dijete slui kada usvaja odgovarajui jezik
ine ulazni materijal. Gramatika, odnosno gramatiki sistem je izlazni materijal.
Po prijemu primarnih jezikih podataka koji se sastoje od onih iskaza koje je
dijete ranije ulo, SM stvara gramatiki sistem koji omoguuje predvianje
buduih opaanja, tj. predvianje o tome koji e iskazi biti gramatike reenice
(Razvoj govora, 63). Da bi se shvatio SM i nain na koji on stvara gramatiku,
potrebno je razumjeti njegovu unutranju strukturu.
D. Meknil (D. Mc Neill) poredi ovaj zadatak sa onima koji se zadaju
studentima elektrotehnike. Oni moraju da zakljue o zbivanjima u crnoj kutiji na
osnovu odnosa izmeu toga to ulazi u sistem i onoga to iz njega izlazi. Dakle,
jedan od zadataka tie se otkrivanja teorije o unutranjoj strukturi.
Problem razumijevanja SM je slian problemu razumijevanja same djece.
Djeca su, kao i SM, izloena govoru. Gramatiku sposobnost, kao i SM, razvijaju
na osnovu tog govora. Moe se pretpostaviti da neka vrsta unutranje struktu-
re, kod djeteta i u SM, preinauje dio govora koji prima u gramatiki sistem. Isti
izlazni i ulazni materijal znai i istu unutranju strukturu. Unutranja struktura
SM odgovara bazinoj ljudskoj sposobnosti za jezik. (Isto, 64). Govorna sposo-
bnost i jeste razlog to djeca tako brzo usvajaju jezik. Da bi dokazali ovu tvrdnju
Roder Braun (Roger Brown),
22
Dejvid Meknil i Dan Slobin (Dan Slobin)
23
su
ispitivali apstraktne gramatike odnose u razvoju ranog govora kod djece.

21
U originalnom tekstu: Language acquisition device LAD, Dejvid Meknil, Stvaranje jezika, u
Razvoj govora kod deteta, priredila Nada Ignjatovi-Savi, Beograd, 1981.
22
Vidi: Roder Braun, Raspoloivi podaci o dejem govoru, u Razvoj govora kod deteta, 4650.
Naslov originala: R. Brown, The First Sentences of Child and Chimpanzee, iz knjige
Psycholinguistics: Selected Papers, edited by R. Brown et al., the Free Press, 1970, str. 208231.
23
Vidi: Dan Slobin, Univerzalije u gramatikom razvoju dece, u Razvoj govora kog deteta, 143
154.Naslov originala: D. I. Slobin, Universals of Gramatical Development in Children, iz knjige
Advances inPsyholinguistics, edited by G. B. Flores D Arcais and W. J. M. Levelt, NorthHolland,
1970.
SM

Braun je ispitivao jezik dvogodinjeg djeaka Adama koji je usvajao engleski
jezik, Meknil je ispitivao dvogodinju djevojicu iz Tokija koja je uila japanski
jezik, dok je Slobin ispitivao dijete koje je bilo izloeno samo ruskom jeziku. Oni
su doli do zakljuka da ogranienost jezikih varijeteta predstavlja dokaz da
djeca ukljuuju apstraktne odnose u svoj najraniji govor. Reenice koje odrasli
esto koriste dijete ne upotrebljava jer one sadre one tranformacije za koje
ono jo nije sposobno. One se tiu odnosa glagol glagol modifikator, (npr.
Doi i pojedi to, koju esto koriste roditelji) u engleskom, odnosa sufiksa va i ga
u japanskom jeziku itd.
24

Djeci je zajednika uroena jezika sposobnost jer zahvaljujui njoj dijete je u
stanju da napravi mnoinu neke imenice kojoj ne zna znaenje, ili da gradi vre-
mena od glagola koje nikada nije upotrijebilo. Proces graenja reenica
obuhvata dvije faze, prva je dubinska, a druga povrinska do koje se dolazi
transformacionim postupcima. Izuzev napomene da se taj proces zasniva na
fonolokim, semantikim i sintaksikim procesima, omski ne daje nikakvo
objanjenje kako se on zapravo odigrava.
U jeziku nije najvanije znati veliki broj rijei, ve je potrebno njihovo
pravilno korienje i kombinovanje u smisaone reenice. To znai da dijete ne
savlauje beskonano veliki broj moguih varijanti za izraavanje odreene
misli. Ono u poetku ovladava dubinskim strukturama koje karakteriu relativno
malobrojna pravila graenja.
Aleksandar R. Lurija primjeuje da su dubinske gramatike strukture jezika
spojne karike, kako za pretvaranje misli u govor, tako i za obrnut proces za
prelaz oformljenog govora u misao, tj. proces razumijevanja iskaza (1983, 23).
Iako se dubinske strukture iskaza grade na osnovu nevelikog broja pravila one
se ne pokazuju uvijek u povrinskim strukturama. Tako dolazimo do zakljuka
da gramatiki identine reenice mogu imati razliita znaenja, kao u primjeru:

Dejan je otiao kod Vesne s Ivanom;

u kojem razlikujemo dvije znaenjske varijante:
1. Dejan je doao kod Vesne (zajedno s Ivanom);
2. Dejan je doao kod Vesne (koja ivi s Ivanom).

24
Za razliku od engleskog, japanski jezik je jezik sufiksa. Meu sufiksima koji nemaju ekvivalent u
engleskom jeziku postoje dva, va i ga, koji naznauju gramatiki subjekt reenice (Razvoj govora,
6667). Meknil je ispitivao govor djeteta koje se nalazilo u najranijoj fazi govornog razvoja, i koje
je koristilo sufiks ga ispravno, ali ne i va, iako je on postojao u govoru njegovih roditelja. Na
osnovu dobijenih podataka reklo bi se da razvoj imenovanja i razvoj gramatike nemaju nieg
zajednikog. U japanskom jeziku svi sluajevi imenovanja zahtijevaju sufiks va. To pokazuje da i
djeca izloena engleskom, i djeca izloena japanskom ukljuuju apstraktne gramatike odnose u
svoj rani govor.

Ova pravila, na osnovu kojih se grade dubinske strukture, prisutna su u svim
jezicima i predstavljaju jezike univerzalije pa njihovo razumijevanje predstavlja
znaajan korak u procesu otkrivanja zakonitosti pomou kojih ovjek savladava
jezik.
omski je opisao pravila na osnovu kojih jedne strukture prelaze u druge,
tanije gramatike strukture mogu generirati u druge gramatike strukture iste
po sadraju, ali razliite po strukturi, ili obratno. (Lurija, 25).
Npr. reenica: Dejan je sa Vesnom otiao na ljetovanje, moe da se pretvori
u odrinu, upitnu, djelimino odrinu reenicu, primjenom malobrojnih pravila:
a) Dejan je sa Vesnom otiao na ljetovanje.
b) Da li je Dejan sa Vesnom otiao na ljetovanje?
c) Dejan je otiao na ljetovanje, ali ne sa Vesnom.
d) Dejan je otiao sa Vesnom, ali ne na ljetovanje.
Opisivanje pravila pomou kojih se grade dubinske i povrinske strukture, i
na osnovu kojih jedne strukture prelaze u druge, ini temelj transformacione
gramatike. Ova teorija je izazvala mnoge otre polemike to je dovelo do pojave
brojnih radova iz oblasti lingvistike i psihologije. Predstavnici ovih disciplina su
prihvatanjem ili odbacivanjem njenih ideja otvarali nove puteve u istraivanju
zagonetnog odnosa koji se tie prelaza sa misli na artikulisani govor.
Sa gledita savremenog naunog saznanja, teorija omskog veoma je
znaajna bez obzira na njene ranjive strane koje se tiu izvjesno zanemarivanja
semantikog nivoa, u poetnim radovima. Zapaanjem da je jezika mo u
najtjenjoj vezi sa moi uma (omski, 310) on je otvorio nove puteve razvoju
lingvistike nauke s nativistikim gledanjem na prouavanje razvoja govora i
procesa saznanja.

Studija Prvi jezik Rodera Brauna

U istoriji razvojne psiholingvistike znaajno mjesto pripada Roderu Braunu
(Roger Brown) profesoru psihologije koji je autor jednog od najuticajnijih djela
o razvoju jezika kod djece. Napisavi Prvi jezik(1973) dao je model za
mnogobrojne studije koje su uslijedile nakon njega.
Braun je u saradnji sa svojim studentima, u intervalu od nekoliko godina
snimao govor troje djece (Adama, Eve i Sare). U toku istraivakog projekta
organizovao je seminare otvorenog tipa kojima su prisustvovali svi zainte-
resovani za razvoj jezika. Smatra se da je na taj nain podigao itavu generaciju
naunika za oblast razvoja jezika (Vasi 146).
Dugogodinje istraivanje je pokazalo da kod djece postoje razlike u tempu
usvajanja i razvoja govorne sposobnosti. Veina djece prvu rije izgovara u
periodu do prve godine. Meutim, aktivniji jeziki razvoj kod neke djece moe

se odloiti do tree godine. Ranija ili kasnija pojava govora nije povezana sa
inteligencijom ili mentalnim sposobnostima.
Telegrafski govor je termin kojim se oznaava govorna faza koju karakteriu
najee dvolani ili trolani iskazi (mama, kupi, tata, doe, keka plae) u
kojima su isputene zamjenice, predlozi, veznici i drugi reenini djelovi, to
ipak ne umanjuje njihovo semantiko bogatstvo. Dijete jasno pokazuje elju da
mu se kupi odreeni predmet; svjesno je da e se njegov otac uskoro pojaviti
jer je ulo zvuk automobila; razumije da su negativna osjeanja uslovila pla
tetke, iako jo uvijek ne umije u potpunosti da rijeima izrazi svoje misli i
osjeanja.
Djeca ne ue govor imitirajui odrasle. To potvruju i tzv. sistemske greke
koje su Brauna i navele da objavi studiju o Adamu, Evi i Sari; postojanje
sistematinosti te vrste upuuje na psiholoke procese koji njima upravljaju.
Pokuaj roditelja da isprave greke u govoru djece je bezuspjean u
odreenoj fazi razvoja. Braun navodi primjer (Vasi 146150) sa djetetom koje
je reklo Nobody dont like me. Kada su roditelji pokuali da mu ukau na
pravilan oblik koji glasi Nobody likes me, ono je ustanovilo novi pravilni oblik
Nobody dont likes me.
Primjeri ovog tipa postoje i u naem jeziku. Na pitanje da li se umorilo, moe
li da nastavi sa etnjom, dijete je odgovorilo: Mozem, primjenjujui pravilo o
nastavku m u prvom licu jednine prezenta univerzalno za sve glagole.
Eksperimenti Brauna i njegovih saradnika su pokazali da djeca ne ue izvjesni
jezik imitacijom, ime su osporili do tada uvenu i priznatu bihevioristiku teo-riju
o uenju jezika putem imitacije i uslovljavanja. Djeca, u stvari, formuliu pravila a
potom ih univerzalno primjenjuju, esto netano. Njegova studija je pokazala da
su odreene greke karakteristine za svu djecu koja ue engleski jezik.
Najbolji pokazatelj gramatikog razvoja, do uzrasta od oko tri godine, jeste
prosjena duina djejeg iskaza tj. PDI
25
. Kada dijete poinje da govori svi
njegovi iskazi su sastavljeni od jedne rijei, tako da PDI ima vrijednost 1,0. Iskazi
postaju sloeniji, dvolani, trolani i sl. Kako se govor razvija i uslonjava
vrijednost PDI raste. Porast vrijednosti PDI uoava se naroito u periodu od 18
do 24 mjeseca. Unaprijed postavljena pretpostavka o postojanju istog redosli-
jeda u procesu usvajanja jezika kod djece koja ue ameriki engleski podrazu-
mijeva da e kod djece koja imaju istu vrijednost za PDI biti isti i gramatiki de-
talji njihovog govora. Meutim, ista vrijednost za PDI ne znai i isti kalendarski
uzrast, jer se djeca razlikuju u pogledu brzine napredovanja u gramatici, stoga
kalendarski uzrast nije dobar pokazatelj stadijuma jezikog razvoja.

25
U originalnom tekstu: Mean Lenght of utterance, MLU. (Razvoj govora, 4060). Rije je o
jednom od najee korienih mjerila gramatikog razvoja male djece. R. Braun je za odreivanje
PDI koristiio morfeme.

Porodice Adama, Eve i Sare su bile razliitog drutveno-ekonomskog porije-
kla, ali djeca su ipak pokazala nesumnjivu slinost u procesu usvajanja jezika.
Ova injenica istovremeno je i osporavanje Berntajnove (Bernstein) teorije o
socio-ekonomskom statusu roditelja koji uslovljava postojanje odreenih jezi-
kih kodova.
26
Mada su se djeca razlikovala u brzini napredovanja, ipak su istim
redoslijedom usvajala izvjesne oblike jezika.
Braun je pokuao da objasni ovu pojavu kroz mogunost da su odreeni obli-
ci koje djeca najprije naue i najei u govoru roditelja, ali je tokom istraivanja
odbacio takvu pretrpostavku. Npr. lanovi a i the koji se najee koriste kod
odraslih su bili na Braunovoj skali tek sedmi po redoslijedu usvajanja.
Redoslijedom usvajanja upravlja tzv. kumulativna kompleksnost (Vasi 151)
koja podrazumijeva semantiku i gramatiku komponentu, tj. pitanje koliko
znaenja ima neka rije i koliko pravila odreuje formiranje rijei. Da bi djeca
razumjela mnoinu ona moraju da shvate pojam broja i jednine, ili pak, za
razumijevanje prolog vremena neophodno je usvajanje pojma rano.
U studiji Prvi jezik Braun se koncentrisao na sintaksu i semantiku. Nije elio
da umanji znaaj drutvenog konteksta na razvoj govora, ali je smatrao da je to
pitanje socijalne psihologije, a ne psiholingvistike.
27
Imao je namjeru da objavi
studiju koja bi obuhvatila i kasnije faze (III, IV i V) ali njihova analiza nije dala
nikakve jake generalizacije poredive sa ranim fazama, stoga planirani drugi tom
Prvog jezika nikada nije napisan.
Neuspjeh u konstituisanju nove studije, tj. Kasnijih faza nikako ne umanjuje
njegov znaaj koji se tie objavljivanja prvog autoritativnog djela ove discipline i
usmjeravanja veine vodeih istraivaa koji su najbolje ocijenili njegova dosti-
gnua: On ostaje glavna snaga u psiholingvistici i usvajanju jezika i dao je
doprinose koji traju i do sada i idu u budunost. Njegov pristup je dubok i
originalan i ima trajan uticaj. (Vasi, 152). Onamo gdje je Roder Braun zastao
nastavili su njegovi uenici.

26
Vidi: Bazil Berntajn, Jezik i drutvene klase, BIGZ, Beograd, 1979. B. Berntajn je ispitivao razvoj
govora kroz odnos jezika i odreenih drutvenih klasa. Ustanovio je da postoje govorne i jezike
razlike izmeu djece koje su uslovljene razlikama porodinih sredina, tj. razlikama u socio-
ekonomskom statusu njihovoh porodica. On razlikuje dva lingvistika obrasca: ogranieni i
razraeni jeziki kod. Prvi je svojstven komunikaciji roditelja iz nie klase, dok je drugi
karakteristian u komunikaciji roditelja iz srednje klase.
27
Napomena: Tom aspektu on je posvetio panju u knjizi Socijalna psihologija (R. Brown, Social
psychology the second edition, New York, Free Press).

Teorije . Pijaea (egocentrini govor) i L. Vigotskog (unutranji govor)

Tokom 50-ih i 60-ih godina XX vijeka, vajcarski psiholog an Pijae (Jean Pia-
get) razradio je teoriju kognitivnog razvoja koja dovodi u vezu pojavu govora sa
razvojem saznanja. Prema ovoj teoriji, beba se raa bez ikakvih znanja, a zatim,
posmatrajui svijet oko sebe postepeno uobliava koherentno razumijevanje
tog svijeta.
Pijae predstavlja psihiki razvoj kao postupno uravnoteavanje, neprekidno
prelaenje iz stanja manje ravnotee u stanje vee ravnotee (Pijae, Inhelder
7). Psihiki razvoj moe se uporediti sa rastenjem organizma, jer kao to se
tijelo razvija do relativno stabilnog nivoa, tako se i mentalni ivot shvata kao
kretanje u pravcu zavrnog oblika ravnotee razuma odraslog ovjeka.
Razlikuju se etiri faze u saznajnom razvoju:
1. senzo-motorna (do 2. godine);
2. preoperacionalna (27 godine);
3. faza konkretnih operacija (711 godine);
4. faza formalnih operacija (od 11. do zrelosti).
Senzo-motorni period traje od roenja do pojave govora, obiljeen je senzo-
motornom inteligencijom koju karakteriu dostignua koja se tiu organizacije
prostornih odnosa, objekata i spoznaje njihove postojanosti, organizovanja
uzronih odnosa, itd.
U drugom periodu, preoperacionalnom miljenju dijete je u stanju da koristi
reprezentacije u miljenju, zahvaljujui simbolikoj funkciji.
Glavni period poinje oko 78 godine i obiljeen je zametanjem operacija.
One ostaju konkretne sve do 1112 godine. Priblino na tom uzrastu poinje
etvrti period koji obiljeavaju formalne ili propozicionalne operacije. Tada dije-
te poinje da koristi apstraktne hipoteze. Sve do ovog perioda znaenje rijei
najee je nestabilno, tj. nekonstituisano u pravom smislu rijei. Dijete prela-
zi sa opaajno-konkretnog miljenja na apstraktno, verbalno miljenje (Marja-
novi, Agi 81).
Mentalni razvoj mogue je uporediti sa podizanjem visoke zgrade koja, posle
dogradnje svakog novog sprata, postaje sve stabilnija. Na njegovom poetku ne
postoji nikakvo razlikovanje izmeu ja (djetetove linosti) i spoljanjeg svijeta.
Doivljeni i opaeni utisci ne vezuju se ni za linu svijest, niti za objekte u spolja-
njem svijetu (Pijae, Inhelder 13). Oni ine nerazdvojivu cjelinu. Tek sa pojavom
govora, tj. periodom ranog djetinjstva (27 godine) dolazi do temeljnih promje-
na kada dijete postaje svjesno sebe i svojih postupaka.
Pijaeu se zamjeralo to je itav period do sedme godine smatrao fazom
egocentrinog govora, govora za sebe. Tada preovlauje subjektivno gledite
jer dijete sebe stavlja u centar, a to ini potpuno nesvjesno. Postojanje okoline
ono shvata samo kroz svoje elje i potrebe. Cjelokupna stvarnost nosi peat

njegove subjektivnosti. Ovaj period se naziva i animistikim jer su sve pojave u
stvarnosti sagledane u vezi sa njegovim doivljajima.
Djeca predkolskog uzrasta ne govore jedno sa drugim, ne provjeravaju da li
ih drugi sluaju ili razumiju. Dijete nije svjesno primarnog uslova komuni-
kacijskog ina koji zahtijeva prilagoavanje tuoj taki gledita. Tek poto
stekne dovoljno iskustva sa vrnjacima njegov govor postaje socijalizovan.
Egocentrizam poinje da opada oko este ili sedme godine i tada se razvija
objektivni smisao za stvari. Miljenje postaje objektivno tek u procesu socija-
lizacije. Objektivnost je rezultat injenice da dete u onima koji ga okruuju ne
prepoznaje vie samo osobe koje su potinjene njegovoj egzistenciji, ve i osobe
sline njemu samom, meu kojima treba nai svoje mesto (Ivi, Havelka 11).
Margaret Donaldson (29) istie da sposobnost predkolske djece da se
decentriraju ili sagledaju tue stanovite nije ni izbliza toliko ograniena kao to
je Pijae godinama tvrdio. Takav zakljuak izvodi na osnovu istraivanja koje je
sproveo Piter Lojd koristei mecu koji govori. On je djeci predstavljen kao neko
ko ne zna ba dobro da govori pa e mu biti potrebna njihova pomo u toku
komunikacije. Glas mece je proizvodila skrivena odrasla osoba. Djeca su u ovom
eksperimentu ispoljila veliko razumijevanje za mecinu nesposobnost.
Pijae je odbacio tvrenje da je dijete ovjek u malom kao i mogunost da
je jezik odgovoran za nastanak logikih struktura koje odlikuju stadijum
operacionalnog miljenja (22). Kao dokaz navodi injenicu da su i gluva djeca u
stanju da operacionalno misle kao i djeca koja uju.
Njegova teorija uslovno se moe svesti na tvrenje da na svim stadijumima
miljenja saznanje utie na jezik, a ne obratno (Razvoj govora 73104). Tako
dolazi do zakljuka da omski grijei, jer jezgro uma na kome je izgraena
gramatika jezika nije uroeno, ve je konstruisano pomou djetetovih akcija.
Usvajanje pojmova kod djece predstavlja sloen proces iji se razvoj moe
pratiti na razliitim uzrastima, pri emu se uoavaju odreene faze u procesu
njihovog razumijevanja. U knjizi Suenje i rasuivanje kod djece Pijae istie da
djeca u najranijem stadijumu, do sedme godine, relacione pojmove brat, dje-
ak, sestra i djevojica shvataju kao sinonime.
Petogodinja djevojica na pitanje ta je to sestra? odgovara Sestra je dje-
vojica, a na pitanje Jesu li sve djevojice sestre? daje odgovor Da, i svi djeaci
su braa.
Razgovor sa sedmogodinjim djeacima, prema istraivanju Pijaea
(157197), tekao je na sljedei nain:

IPitanje: ta je to brat?
O
28
dgovor: Djeak.

28
U daljem tekstu skraenica O oznaavae odgovor.

P
29
: Jesu li svi djeaci braa?
O: Jesu.
P: Da li je tvoj otac brat?
O: Ne, zato to je on ovjek.
IIP: Da li je tvoj otac brat?
O: Bio je kad je bio mali.
P: Zbog ega je tvoj otac bio brat?
O: Zato to je bio djeak.

Dobijeni odgovori pokazuju da djeca iskljuuju kategoriju odraslih u znaenju
pojmova brat i sestra.
Tek na drugom stadijumu dijete odvaja znaenje rijei brat od pojma djeak,
prihvatajui da i odrasli mogu biti braa. Meutim, ono jo uvijek misli da samo
jedan od dva djeaka u porodici jeste brat. Na posljednjem stadijumu dijete
shvata da pojam brat pored pola i vie od jednog djeteta, odreuje i reci-
pronost odnosa.
Pijae je ovaj proces opisao kao razvoj pojma brat dok ga Eva Klark posmatra
kao postepeno dodavanje odreenih semantikih crta znaenju rijei brat. Na
taj nain, dijete sa poetne take u kojoj su djeak i brat sinonimi izgrauje
saznanje koje prolazi kroz nekoliko faza, sve dok razumijevanje ne bude
kompletno u semantikom pogledu. (Isto 192195).
Lav Vigotski u kljunom djelu Miljenje i govor (1934)izlae teoriju o unutra-
njem govoru pokuavajui da se razrauna sa Pijaeovom teorijom o ego-
centricnom govoru i teorijom Votsona, osnivaa biheviorizma, koji na miljenje
gleda kao na inhibirani govor.
U okviru Votsonove teorije iznosi se zapaanje da dijete u poetku govori
samo glasno, ne inhibira govor to znai da ne umije da apue. ak i na starijim
uzrastima, kada je nauilo da govori i apatom, u problematinim situacijama
vraa se glasnom govoru. Votson istie da se apat razvija u neujni govor ije je
postojanje pokuao eksperimentalno da dokae uz pomo aparata koji mjere
pokrete laringsa. On tvrdi da postoji samo govor, a ono to obino nazivamo
miljenjem nije nita drugo do govor, bez obzira na to da li je on ujan ili ne.
Vigotski smatra da je ova bihevioristika teorija previe zaokupljena dimenzi-
jom ulnosti, stoga ona zapostavlja funkcije govora i strukturu govornih iskaza.
Pijae, na drugoj strani, prouava funkcije govora ali zapostavlja socijalnu
interakciju koja ima vanu ulogu u procesu formiranja glasnog govora.
Vigotski, opisujui oglede na djeci koja su bila zaokupljena nekom aktivnou
(npr. crtanjem), dolazi do zakljuka da jezik slui za planiranje radnji, on otkriva
djetetove namjere. Ako eksperimentator uvede neku prepreku (npr. sakrije

29
U daljem tekstu skraenica P oznaavae pitanje.

boju) dijete zapoinje iskaz otkrivanjem problematine situacije: Gdje je bojica?
Treba mi plava boja. Nema veze, obojiu crvenom pau je razrediti vodom, pa
u dobiti plavu (Vigotski 16). Govor se u socijalnoj sredini vie verbalizije, to
znai da prisustvo drugih podstie govornu aktivnost djeteta.
Kada je u pitanju specifina struktura iskaza, Vigotski istie da je govor jo
uvijek sinpraksian, to znai da se moe razumjeti samo na osnovu konteksta
aktivnosti u kojoj se javlja (mit 149). Karakterie ga: skraivanje, nedovrene
reenice, rije sa semantikom vrijednou itave reenice, izostavljen subjekt, i
sl. Da bi osoba razumjela iskaz koji joj je upuen mora poznavati kontekst
situacije.
Sinpraksini govor je karakteristian za rane etape razvoja jer dijete jo
uvijek nije u stanju da artikulie svoja iskustva pomou gramatiki ispravnih i
sloenih reenica.
Struktura iskaza se mijenja sa razvojem jezike sposobnosti,
30
ili jezike
moi. U komunikaciji dijete govori jasnijim reenicama. Glasni govor koji nastaje
u toku planiranja, procjenjivanja i organizovanja aktivnosti postaje sve
skraeniji i rjee se javlja. To je pojava prelaska spoljanjeg govora u unutranji
govor (Vigotski 1920).
Unutranji govor o kojem govori Vigotski ne treba vezivati za Votsonov
inhibirani govor. Naime, Vigotski istie sintaksike kriterijume koji ine jeziku
formulaciju, a ne dimenziju ujnosti i aktivnosti govornih organa. Prema tome,
on jasno pravi razliku izmeu jezika i miljenja, dok Votson smatra da je milje-
nje inhibirani govor. Meutim, unutranji govor nije miljenje, on je konstituent
procesa miljenja (mit 150).
Govor se javlja i kao regulator ponaanja. Kada dijete pone da koristi rijece
da i ne ono je ve u stanju da shvati sloene odnose znaenja koje iznova stvara
u procesu njihove upotrebe i u sve irem kontekstu postojeeg iskustva. U po-
etku samo odmahuje glavom ukoliko neto odbija, a potom prelazi na izgova-
ranje rijei, ime jasno ukazuje na svoje elje i htjenja. Oponaajui odrasle pri-
jeti prstom i izgovara ne, ne obraajui se predmetima koje ne smije da
dohvati. Korienjem ovih rijei ono odobrava/spreava odreenje aktivnosti.
Ono regulie svoju aktivnost u skladu sa nainom na koji su odrasli regulisali
njegovo ponaanje. Tokom aktivnosti ovog tipa govor stie svojstva miljenja.
Vigotski smatra da se specifino ljudsko miljenje raa iz regulacije djeijeg
ponaanja jezika od strane odraslih pa su socijalne ili komunikativne i misaone
ili saznajne funkcije jezika u poetku nerazdvojne.

30
Tj. sa razvojem djetetove izraavalake upotrebe jezika prema terminologiji koju koristi
Aleksandra Marjanovi: ,,Kad kaem izraavalaka upotreba jezika, onda mislim na mogunost
da dete svoje lino iskustvo sveta, koje stie na razliite naine i u dodiru sa drugim ljudima,
dopre do implikacije toga svoga iskustva, a isto tako da to svoje iskustvo moe, onda, da uini
shvatljivijim za druge (Marjanovi 103).

Teorije Pijaea i Vigotskog predstavljaju znaajan doprinos istraivanjima ra-
zvojne psiholingvistike jer ne posmatraju govor djeteta na osnovu klasifikacije,
klasa i kategorija u govoru odraslih, ve u vezi sa razvojem miljenja.

Zakljuak

Polazei od etiri osnovna obiljeja jezika stvaralakog karaktera, apstraktne
prirode, univerzalne strukture, koja je posljedica ustrojstva ljudskog uma, N.
omski je negirao do tada uvenu bihevioristiku teoriju, koja je zanemarila
pitanje jezike kreativnosti. Temeljne studije R. Brauna, D. Meknila i D. Slobina
takoe pruaju dokaze o uroenoj jezikoj sposobnosti i daju znaajan doprinos
polju razvojne psiholingvistike. Meutim, sa teorijama kognitivnog razvoja koje su
podstakli . Pijae i L. Vigotski, vie panje posveuje se pitanju razvoja govora i
fazama/stadijumima kroz koje djeca prolaze, otkrivajui zakonitosti najsloenije i
najzagonetnije ovjekove sposobnosti. Stoga je potrebno, i pored brojnih iscrpnih
savremenih studija koje se bave ovim problemom, imati na umu vanost i znaaj
prvih teorija koje su 50-ih i 60-ih godina prolog vijeka trgnule do tada uspavanu
lingvistiku misao i pokazale da je upravo interdisciplinarna saradnja budunost
uvijek aktuelne nauke o jeziku.

Literatura

Agi, M. i Marjanovi, A. "Razvoj znaenja rei."Predkolsko dete, broj 12,
Savez pedagokih drutava Jugoslavije, Beograd, 1985.
Berntajn, B. Jezik i drutvene klase. BIGZ, 1979.
Brown, R. A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1973.
Cuevas, J. Ne, ona ih je drala labavo. Izabrani radovi u knjizi Smiljke Vasi,
Psiholingvistika. Institut za pedagoka istraivanja, Novi Sad, 1994.
omski, N. Gramatika i um. Prevod Ranko Bugarski.Beograd: Nolit, 1979.
Donaldson, M. Um deteta. Savremena psiholoka saznanja o debetu.Beograd:
Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 1988.
Ivi, I., Havelka, N. Proces socijalizacije kod dece. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i
nastavna sredstva,1986.
Kromer, R. "Razvoj jezika i saznanja, kognitivistika teza". Razvoj govora kod de-
teta. Pr. N. I. Savi. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 1981.
Marjanovi, A. "Deje jezike igre."Predkolsko dete 17 (14). Beograd: Savez
pedagokih drutava Jugoslavije, 1987.
Meknil, D. "Stvaranje jezika."Razvoj govora kod deteta. Pr. Nada Ignjatovi-
Savi. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 1981.

Lurija, A. Osnovi neurolingvistike. Prevod Milica Glumac-Radnovi. Beograd:
Nolit, 1982.
Pijae, ., Inhelder, B. "Intelektualni razvoj deteta."Savremena psiholoka
saznanja o detetu.Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 1986.
Piaget, J. Judgement and reasoning in the child. London: Rout-ledge & Kegan,
1928.
Slobin, D. Univerzalije u gramatikom razvoju dece.Razvoj govora kog deteta.Pr.
N. I. Savi. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 1981.
mit, V.H.O. Razvoj deteta. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva,
1999.
Vasi, S. Psiholingvistika.Novi Sad: Institut za pedagoka istraivanja, 1994.
Vigotski, L. Miljenje i govor. Beograd: Nolit, 1977.

LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT

In this paper we present some of the major theories dealing with the
emergence of language faculty and the relationship between language and
thought. Our goal is to provide clear and concise review of the features of
theories which represent Noam Chomsky, Roger Brown, Jean Piaget and Lev
Vygotsky. Noam Chomsky had, with his major work Syntactic structures, a
powerful influence on psycholinguistics, which can be considered a real
revolution in its further development. Although his theory did not give an
answer to many questions, it startled dormant linguistic and psycholinguistic
thought from lethargy. Current issue came down to the acceptance or denial of
a nativist theory of language.The experiments of Roger Brown and his
colleagues demonstrated that children do not learn a certain language by
imitation, which contested the by then famous and recognized behavioristic
theory of language learning through imitation, and conditioning. Children, in
fact, formulate rules and then apply them universally, often inaccurately.
Theories of Jean Piaget and Leo Vygotsky have contributed greatly to the
research of developmental psycholinguistics, because they do not watch the
speech of a child based on the classification, classes and categories in the
speech of adults, but in connection with the development of thought.

Key words: language and thought, psycholinguistics, Noam Chomsky, Roger
Brown, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky.


UDK 811.18282.4(497.7)

Tosk and Geg in the Spoken Albanian of Struga

Ajten Qamili, University of Tirana

Abstract: It is very surprising that from all the places inhabited by Albanians, it is only
in Struga that both Gegs and Tosks live divided by the River Drini i Zi. Struga is situated
in the southwest part of Macedonia. It is situated by the Lake Ohrid coast and the River
Drini i Zi coast. Based on the dialectology map, the Albanian spoken language in Struga
is something between Centre Gegerisht and North Toskerisht. The object of this paper is
to present just some more characteristic distinctions between the Tosk and Geg spoken
languages, functioning side by side in the same town. Generally, this shortened
dialectical reflection encompasses some phonetical, morphological and lexical segments
of the spoken languages of Struga.
Some of the distinctive phonetic features of both dialects are tightly connected with the
spoken language, and some other features (many of them), do not touch the structure and
the functioning of the phonemes at all, but are connected with simple phonetic versions
of the phonemes or with the grammatical forms with an affix version.
Even in the grammatical system, especially in the morphological system, the two dialects
of Struga differ in some features, which are not many in number. The general
distinguishing features for the grammatical structure of the dialects are those that can be
linked with the presence and absence of certain grammatical categories.
In the lexical field there are very few distinctive features.
All these distinctive features and phenomena, accompanied with examples, will be
presented in this paper.

Key words: features, lexicology, morphology, phonetics, spoken Geg, spoken Tosk.

Introduction

It is a very pleasant feeling to research and study your own language,
especially the spoken language.
All those that have not had the chance to do this do not have the same
opinion. Even I could not have reached such a conclusion had I not had that
opportunity.
The lack of studies of dialectology in the Struga region (my birthplace)
motivated me to do this study. It is impossible or very difficult to research the
spoken language in the town because the town is a mixture of different

nationalities and also because there live people who come from different villages
and their spoken language differs from one village to another.
My curiosity encouraged me to research the Struga spoken language in the
town and also around the Albanian villages, such as: Veleshta, Dollogozhda,
Koroshishta, Frengova, Tateshi, Ladorishti, Mislodezhda, Poumi, Kalishti, etc.
The target groups of this study are:
- Elder women, daughters and city brides;
- Elder women from a certain village;
- Primary school pupils and secondary school students (their slang);
- Senior citizens and young people with evolutionary changes, the result
of mixed marriages.
The methods I used for conducting my study were:
- Interviews;
- Surveys (I prepared the questions myself, but I followed Spiro Floqis
questionnaire format);
- Recording conversations on a Dictaphone and taking notes;
- Organizing the collected material in two chapters and analyzing it.

I would like to thank the inhabitants of Struga for their help and hospitality,
especially those that I surveyed.
It is very surprising that from all the places inhabited by Albanians, it is only
in Struga that both Gegs and Tosks live divided by the River Drini i Zi.
Based on the dialectology map, the Albanian spoken language in Struga is
something between Centre Gegerisht and North Toskerisht, but the city spoken
language is a transitive language between two dialects.
Struga is situated in the southwest part of Macedonia. It is situated by the
Lake Ohrid coast and the River Drini i Zi coast.
Drini i Zi divides Struga into two equal parts. The town is surrounded by the
mountains Galicica, Jablanica, and Mokra.


Lake Ohrid is an ancient lake 2-3 million years old, it is about 695 m above
sea level, with a surface of 358.2 km
2
.
The lake is 31 km long and 14.8 km wide
and 286 m deep.
31

The Struga population consists of different ethnic groups, such as:
Albanians, Macedonians, Turks, Muslims, Egyptians and Vlachs. The total
population of the region is 65 000 people, and 25 000 of them live in the town.
There are 40 villages in Struga, more than 20 of which are inhabited by
Albanians.
The Albanian villages belong to 3 municipalities: Veleshta, Dollogozhda and
Ladorishta.
The villages of the municipalities of Ladorishta, in fact, the Tosk villages, are
situated on the left side of the Drini i Zi, or on the southwest side of the town
Struga.
The two other municipalities, or the Geg villages, are situated on the right
side of the River Drini i Zi, or on the northeast side of Struga.
The Struga Albanians religion is Islam.

The Distinct Features of the Phonetic Field

Some of the distinctive phonetic features of both dialects are tightly
connected with the spoken language, and some other features (many of them),
do not touch the structure and the functioning of the phonemes at all, but are
connected with simple phonetic versions of the phonemes or with the
grammatical forms with an affix version.
The distinguishing features on a phonetic level are many, besides those of a
grammatical and lexical one.

31
Struga- Republika Makedonija, Opstina Struga, 2001

The Tosk spoken language does not have a mechanical arrangement of
stress, in comparison with the Geg spoken language, which does.
32

Ex. In the Geg spoken language can be found:
bba, tenqe, bakllv

and in the Tosk spoken language the same words are stressed, such as:

bab, teneq, bakllav.

In the Geg villages, in comparison with the whole spoken Geg, in only very
few cases are there long and short serial vocals, but in the Tosk variant there
are only short serial vowels.

Ex. plak (old man) pla:k (old woman) in the Geg spoken language.

The spoken language of Ladorishta and Frengova keep the stressed vowel
[], and the Geg spoken languages have an [o] instead, which is long and
stressed.

Ex. dhmbi dho:mi (tooth)
sht o:sht (is)
kmba- ko:ma (leg)

A special characteristic of the Geg spoken language and especially the
spoken language of Misllodezhda, Koroshishta, Livadhia, Dollogozhda and
Poum, is the diphthongisation of the vowels [i] and [y] in [i] and [u] in [ou].
33

Ex. shi shi (rain); sy si (eye); thik thik (knife); mir mir (good).
And: larush laroush (colored), nuse nouse (bride), kungull koungull
(pumpkin).

The vowel group [ua] of the Albanian standard language in the Tosk Struga
spoken language appears as [u] and in the spoken Geg as [u:].

Ex: msur (Tosk) and msu: or msoumun (Geg) for msuar (in the town)
punur (Tosk) and punu: or punoumun (Geg) for punuar (in the town)
but: grua (Tosk) and grue (Geg and the town) for grua

32
Jorgji Gjinari & Gjovalin Shkurtaj, Dialektologjia, Tiran: Libri Univarsitar, 1997.
33
Ajten Hajdari-Qamili, Toskrishtja dhe gegrishtja n t folmen e Strugs, seminar paper
unpublished, Shkup: Philological Faculty, 2001.

mua (Tosk and the town) and mouve (Geg) for mua.

In the Geg spoken language of Struga, in comparison with the whole spoken
Geg, there are no nasal vowels, but only oral ones.
Another distinguishing feature between these two dialects is the group [va]
in the spoken Tosk, in fact [vo] in the spoken Geg.

Ex: vaj (Tosk and town) voj (Geg)- oil,
varr (Tosk and town)- vorr (Geg)- grave,
vatr (Tosk and town)- votr (Geg)- fire, etc.

The consonant groups [mb], [nd] and [ng] are kept in both dialects of Struga.
However, only in the spoken language of Koroshishta, Misllodezhda and in the
old spoken language of Tateshi are they shortened to [m] and [n].

Ex: mbreti mreti (king), shndosh shnosh (healthy), humbi u:mi
(forget), ndize -nize (make fire).

A very interesting phenomenon for this region is also the alteration of the
groups [pl], [bl] and [fl] in the Geg spoken language. Only the Tosk spoken
language, the ancient spoken language of Koroshishta and Tateshi and the
spoken language of the town retain these groups.
In the Geg spoken language we have:

pl q (plumb qum, plak qak)=plumb or bullet; old woman
bl gj (bleta gj
i
eta, bleva gj
i
eva)=bee; buy
fl fj (flutur fjutur, flak fja:k)=butterfly; flame

In the Geg spoken language there is the phenomenon of palatalisation of
the groups [tj] and [pj] in [q] and [dj] and [g] in [gj].

Ex: tjetr q
i
etr (another)
pjek q
i
ek (bake)
djem gj
i
em (boys)
gur gjur (stone)

The phenomenon of muting the final consonants is a characteristic of the
Struga Tosk spoken language, but not for the native speakers of Struga.

Ex: zs, zh sh, x c, dh th, g k, gj q, v f, xh

(mzms, garazh garash, xix xi:c, shelg shelk, zogj zoq, borxh
bor), etc.

Sonorism (the process of changing the consonants from noisy to voiced) is a
characteristic of the Tosk spoken language of Struga, but it is not accepted, in
the Geg spoken language, with some exceptions.

Ex: sbhet zboet, t buta dbuta, krkoj grkoj, shiko zhgo (just in
the Tosk dialect), etc.

Rotatism is one of the main distinguishing features between the Geg and
Tosk dialects and a very ancient phenomenon.
34

In the Tosk spoken language and the spoken language of the people of town
of Struga the [n] intervocalic sound is alternated to [r] and in the Geg spoken
language the [n] is retained.

Ex: rona > rra, lakn > lakr, breshn > breshr, dashuni > dashuri,
dimn > dimr, etc.

The phenomena: protez, epentez, epitez (the increase of sound in the
beginning of a word, in the centre of a word and at the end of a word), aferez,
sinkopa, apokopa (the falling of sound in the beginning of a word, in the centre
of a word and at the end of a word), metathesis (change of sounds within the
word), elision (the missing of vocal [] of short forms of personal pronouns)
even though they can be found in the Struga spoken language, we cannot call
them distinguishing dialect features because they can be found in a mixed form
in different villages in both dialects.

The Distinct Features of the Morphology Field

Even in the grammatical system, especially in the morphological system, the
two dialects of Struga differ in some features, which are not many in number.
The general distinguishing features for the grammatical structure of the dialects
are those that can be linked with the presence and absence of certain
grammatical categories. Thus, in Strugas Geg spoken language there are
reflexive pronouns, which on the other hand, are missing in the Tosk spoken
language, but not in the citys spoken language.

34
Jorgji Gjinari, Dialektologjia shqiptare, Tiran, 1998.

Ex. djalin e vet Geg the same in the city
t birin Tosk

The plural of masculine nouns in the Geg spoken language is made using the
final vowel (-a), and in the Tosk and the towns spoken language with (-e), (-nj),
(-), etc.
Adjectives formed from the partitives either in the Tosk spoken language or
/ and the Geg spoken language differ from the inflections that they have in the
feminine gender in Geg spoken language. So, adjectives in masculine and
feminine gender differ not only from their determiners in both genders, but
also from the inflections to the adjective of the feminine. However, the
adjectives in the Tosk spoken language are not inflected in the feminine gender.

Ex: I lart- e lart ~ I la:mun e lame
I shpur e shpur ~ I shpoumun e shpoume

The imperfect tense of the indicative mood in the Geg spoken language is
sigmatic (with -[s] from Greek), in comparison to those of Tosk and the town,
which are asigmatic (without [s]).

Ex: punonjim punoshim, lanjim-lashim, mbanjim-mbashim, etc.

In the admirative mood, the distinction between these two dialects is more
at a phonetic level.

Ex: in Tosk: in Geg:
ay msuaka ai mso:ka
ashtu thnke ashtou thuke
paska th:n paska thonun
qnkam vra:r quokom vramun

It is very interesting to note that the future tense of admirative mood does
not exist in any Albanian spoken languages, not in the standard language, it is
only in Struga spoken language.

Ex: in Tosk: in Geg:
do knaqeshkam d knaqekom
do rnka shi nesr d ronka shi nesr
do qnka ftoft d qoka ftoft
do shkokam ande d shkokom andi


The participle in the town (and Geg) spoken language is reductive, and in the
Tosk one it is non-reductive.
Ex: punur (Tosk) punu (town) punu and punoumun (Geg)
lar (Tosk)- la (town) la and lamun (Geg)
kndur (Tosk) kndu (town) knou and kndoumun (Geg)
par (Tosk) pa: (town) pa: and pamun(Geg)
dalur (Tosk) dal (town) dal and dalun (Geg)

The Distinct Features of the Lexical Field

Among the work on the ground and from my experience in this region, I
have not come across many interdialectal changes in the lexical field.
In continuation I will provide some examples that are more typical:
Ex: Tosk town Geg
Qur kasoll a:r (shed)
un dja:l voc (boy)
Plira llome llome (garbage)
Kurriz shpi:n shp in (back)
Ape hape ile (open)
Shur r:r ron (sand)
Fshes fshes netull (broom)
Qumsh qumsht tombl (milk)
Turp turp mbarre (shame)
Unaz unaz mi ir (ring)
Gju: lla:p llap (tongue)
Shqerr qingj kinxh (lamb)
Fmi fmi: coull (child)
Vek vez voe (egg)
Prance ska gj nanish (no problem)
Shpet shpejt frik (quick, fast)
Barku barku moulla (stomach)

Conclusion

The way and style in which I have shown and presented things is simplified and
summarized.
It is necessary to point out that the version of this work in English is a shortened
and sublimated version of the summary of my doctoral dissertation: T folmet

shqipe t rrethit t Strugs (n kontekst ballkanik) [The Albanian spoken language
of the Struga region (in a Balkan context)]
In the end of this paper we see that the spoken languages of the Struga region
cannot be mentioned separately, but are generalized according to the dialect that
they belong to because their distinguishing features are not as big as they appear,
sometimes they do not even exist.
From this whole text we see that the Struga spoken languages do not have as
many distinguishing features between them, even though they belong to two
Albanian dialects: North Toskerisht and Centre Gegerisht. Also, the Tosk spoken
language and the town one, (which is a transitive spoken language) do not have
many differences from todays contemporary language.
This article is of interest because it shows the existence of two distinct dialects
of the same language functioning side by side. The differences between them lie
mainly in phonetics and morphology, with very few differences in lexicology.

Bibliography

Ajten, Hajdari-Qamili.Toskrishtja dhe gegrishtja n t folmen e Strugs,
seminar paper unpublished, Shkup: Philological Faculty, 2001.
Ajten, Qamili.T folmet shqipe t rrethit t Strugs (n kontekst ballkanik),
doctoral dissertation unpublished. Shkup, 2011.
Akademia e Shkencave e RPSSh, Udhzues pr mbledhjen e fjalve dhe
shprehjeve t gjuhs shqipe. Tiran, 1989.
Akademia e Shkencave e RSh, Instituti i Gjuhsis dhe i Letrsis, Pyetsori
(fonetik, morfologji, sintaks, leksik). Tiran, 1993.
Akademia e Shkencave e Shqipris, Instituti i Gjuhsis dhe i Letrsis, Atlasi
Dialektologjik i Gjuhs Shqipe, vll. I, Universit degli Studi di Napoli
LOrientale, 2007, vll. II, 2008.
Asllan Hamiti, E folmja e shqiptarve t Karadakut t Shkupit (doctoral
dissertation in Skopje, 1999) unpublished.
Bahri Beci, T folmet qendrore t gegrishtes. Dialektologjia shqiptare V, Tiran,
1987.
Bahri Beci, Vendi i t folmeve shqipe t Maqedonis n strukturn dialektore t
shqipes, Jehona 1-2. Shkup, 1994. 45 55.
Eqrem abej, Pr historin e strukturs dialektore t shqipes. Dialektologjia
shqiptare II, Tiran, 1974. 429 441.
Esat Hoxha, E folmja e rrethit t Strugs. Prishtin, 1980.
Fadil Raka.E folmja e qytezs s Kaanikut, Studime gjuhsore I (Dialektologji),
Prishtin, 1978. 503 544.
Fadil Sylejmani, Dukurit fonetike n t folmen e Malsis s Sharrit t Tetovs,
Dituria 1, Prishtin, 1983.
Feim Reani, E folmja e rrethit t Gostivarit (dorshkrim), Prishtin, 1977.

Haki Ymeri, E folmja shqipe e Karshiaks. Shkup, 1997.
Jorgji Gjinari & Gjovalin Shkurtaj, Dialektologjia, Tiran: Libri Univarsitar, 1997.
Jorgji Gjinari, Dialektologjia shqiptare. Tiran, 1998.
Mahir Domi Gjovalin Shkurtaj, Pyetsor pr mbledhjen e toponimis shqiptare,
Tiran, 1983.
Remzi Nesimi, E folmja e Dervenit (doctoral dissertation in Prishtina 1988),
Tetov, 2008.
Spiro Floqi, Pyetsor pr mbledhjen e materialit dialektor t gjuhs shqipe,
Dialektologjia shqiptare I, Tiran, 1971. 371- 447.
Struga- Republika Makedonija, Opstina Struga, 2001.
Shaban Demiraj. Fonologjia historike e gjuhs shqipe. Tiran, 1996.
Zihni Osmani. E folmja shqipe e Presps. Shkup, 1996.

TOSKRISHTJA DHE GEGRISHTJA E T FOLMES S QARKUT T STRUGS

uditrisht nga t gjitha trojet e banuara me shqiptar, vetm Struga sht
e populluar, edhe me shqiptar q e flasin dialektin tosk edhe me shqiptar q
e flasin dialektin geg, t cilt i ndan lumi Drini i Zi.
Struga ndodhet n pjesn jugperndimore t Republiks s Maqedonis,
shtrihet n brigjet e Liqenit t Ohrit dhe prreth lumit Drini i Zi.
T folmet e qarkut t Strugs, n Atlasin Dialektologjik t Gjuhs Shqipe jan
prfshir n gegrishten qendrore dhe n toskrishten veriore.
Qllimi i ktij artikulli sht pasqyrimi vetm i disa prej tipareve dalluese
m karakteristike ndrmjet t folmeve gege dhe toske, t cilat bashkjetojn n
po t njjtin qytet.
Marr n prgjithsi, ky punim i shkurtuar dialektor prfshin disa nga
tiparet dalluese fonetike, morfologjike dhe leksikore t t folmes s rrethit t
Strugs.
Disa nga tiparet dalluese fonetike t t dy dialekteve plotsisht prputhen
me gjuhn standarde, kurse nj numr i konsiderueshm i tipareve dalluese
nuk prekin aspak strukturn dhe funksionin e fonemave, por ndrlidhen me
variante t thjeshta fonetike t fonemave ose me forma gramatikore me
variante t ngulitura.
Gjithashtu, edhe n sistemin gramatikor, sidomos n fush t morfologjis,
dy t folmet (dialektet) e Strugs dallohen nga disa tipare, t cilat nuk jan t
shumta. Tiparet dalluese kryesore t dialekteve n struktur gramatikore jan
ato q lidhen me pranin ose mungesn e kategorive t caktuara gramatikore.
N fushn leksikore ka shum pak tipare dalluese.
T gjitha kto tipare dalluese dhe dukuri, t shoqruara me shembuj, do t
trajtohen n kt artikull.
Fjalt els: tipar dallues, fonetik, morfologji, leksikologji, e folmja gege, e
folmja toske.

UDK 130.2:001

Facing the Data Soliloquies Crossing the
Boundaries of Quantum Gravity Hermeneutics

Milo D. uri, University of Belgrade

Abstract: In this paper we criticise the so-called Sokals cultural revolution and the
so-called science Wars, inspired by the paper entitled Transgressing the Boundaries:
Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity, written by Alan Sokal.
We have shown that it is scientifically dishonest and unfair to cut and paste vastly
different and divergent entries from several interdisciplinary fields and present the
resulting pastiche as some sort of scientific research.
In his paper, Sokal examines the implications of taking into consideration quantum
gravity while analysing certain phenomena in the domain of humanities. Our aim is to
show, by way of illustration, that the entire undertaking of Sokal, starting from the
methodology of his study to the misleading way in which this author treated certain
fields pertaining primarily (though not exclusively) to humanities (e.g. Feminist Theory,
Postmodernism, to name just a few) was unstraightforward, deceitful, misconceived and
dishonest. Additionally, we show that the validity of the authors aims may also be
challenged. Furthermore, we have assessed the weaknesses of his undertaking. In order
to lend credence to our empirical analysis we have enumerated different types of errors
we encountered in the course of the analysis of Sokals paper.

Key Words: Cultural Revolution, science Wars, Quantum Gravity, Postmodernism,
Feminist Theory.

Introduction: Transgressing the Boundaries of Quantum Gravity

Generally speaking, it is an undeniable and self-evident truth that everybody
makes mistakes. Even experts are entitled to mistakes, which is the main reason
why very frequently the vast majority of factual assertions ought to be verified.
However, it is scientifically unfair when a researcher tries to cut and paste
different entries and then pass the resulting pastiche off as a scientific paper
allegedly dealing with interdisciplinarity, or more precisely, the interdisciplinary
accounts allegedly describing quantum gravity and its cultural, philosophical and
political implications. We argue that the paper written by Alan Sokal is far from
being scientifically based. Moreover, it represents pseudointellectualisation
mocking Postmodernism and Feminist Theory in particular. It is not complicated
to assess the authors weaknesses taking into account that the author does not

possess a formal knowledge of philology, linguistics, and other fields pertaining to
humanities. However, it is surprising that the author of the disputed paper
displays the lack of the basic knowledge of mathematics and physics.
In this paper we analyse Alan Sokals essay entitled: Transgressing the
Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity,
published in Social Text in 1996. Generally speaking, (and strictly speaking, for
that matter), as a work of research from which conclusions might be drawn,
Sokals study is without value. However, considering the fact that Alan Sokal
tried to criticise both Postmodernism and Feminist Theory, it is necessary to
enumerate the serious errors which undermine his study. In this way, the lack
of validity of Sokals research may be better understood.

The Analysis: Is Quantum Mechanics Composed of: Uncertainty,
Complementarity, Discontinuity and Interconnectedness?, or Liberatory
Science Re-Visited

The title of Sokals paper, although quite intriguing, is hardly accounted for
in the text of his paper. In addition to this, the aims of the research are much
too general, and as the author progresses through the text, the potential
reader finds it quite a problem to follow the explication and elaboration of the
proclaimed aims.
There is practically no research data provided by Alan Sokal, and no
concrete findings are presented in the text. More precisely, Sokal makes
impressionistic comments on the previous interdisciplinary research, without
making explicit reference to the research (e.g. stanley Aronowitz has
convincingly traced this worldview to the crisis of liberal hegemony in Central
Europe in the years prior and subsequent to World War I; or, At the same
time, feminist thinkers have pointed out the need for an adequate analysis of
fluidity, in particular turbulent fluidity; or even This foreshadowing of
postmodernist epistemology is by no means coincidental).
The subtitles in Sokals paper are inappropriate, such as: Transgressing the
Boundaries: Towards a Liberatory Science, where the reader unfortunately
does not get any information about the proclaimed liberatory science, except
in the title.
Apart from the notorious lack of the serious analysis of the pertinent
literature on the subject, several important aspects remain underexplored in
Sokals investigation. For example, instead of presenting the results of his
research, the author dedicates by far too much space to impressionistic
reflections on plausible interdisciplinary fusion (most of which can be found in

the relevant literature on the subject), and this further invalidates the authors
research.
His treatment of quantum gravity within the broader context of Post-
Moderni phenomena is completely empty, or, at best, vague and fuzzy, whilst
simultaneously revealing Sokals inappropriate hit-or-miss approach. Against
this background, making even tentative comparisons between the overall
process of quantisation and quantum gravity seems to be quite far-fetched and
highly dubious. In addition to this, we have to point out that Sokal is ill-
equipped to analyse the problems of humanities theories and quantum gravity.
In terms of academic rigour, the author violates some basic rules of academic
writing, such as: explicitness and coherence. More precisely, Sokals paper lacks
both explicitness and coherence. We have discovered a pattern of sloppiness and
carelessness in Sokals work, as well as indifference to basic scholarly standards.
His paper also manifests a wealth of flagrant errors so numerous that they
completely invalidated the results of his investigation, which is at best arbitrary
and inconsistent. We have noticed that Sokal implements careless scientific
approach which renders his paper null and void. To sum up, his carelessness
undermines the entire investigation and weakens any possibility of seriously
accepting such an account as a genuine empirical research.
The validity of the authors aims may also be challenged, especially in the
domain of relevance of his paper in the interdisciplinary field comprising
Quantum Theory, Feminist Theory and Postmodernism. In other words, Sokals
research implies that science and mathematics must be purged of their
authoritarian and elitist characteristics, and the content of these subjects
enriched by incorporating the insights of the feminist, queer, multiculturalist and
ecological critiques. Yet, at the same time, quantum gravity, which is supposed to
be in the focus of the authors research, is mentioned but in the title, so any
intended relevance of Sokals paper can only be speculated about. In what
follows we give a summary description of some major errors in his paper.
Anybody who has read Sokals essay with even a modicum of care will
immediately notice a discrepancy between the headline of the essay and the
data presented in the essay. Sokals paper, entitled Transgressing the
Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity,
states the following as its focus:

my aim is to carry these deep analyses one step farther, by taking
account of recent developments in quantum gravity: the emerging
branch of physics in which Heisenbergs quantum mechanics and
Einsteins general relativity are at once synthesized and superseded. In
quantum gravity, as we shall see, the space-time manifold ceases to exist
as an objective physical reality; geometry becomes relational and

contextual; and the foundational conceptual categories of prior science
among them, existence itself become problematized and relativized.
This conceptual revolution, I will argue, has profound implications for the
content of a future postmodern and liberatory science.

However, the data buried deep in the body of Sokals paper assert precisely
the opposite. He fails to provide any concrete results which would support his
claims related to geometry becoming relational and contextual. Thus, the
potential reader is left to speculate on the assertions put forward by this
author. Rather than provide hard evidence for what he quotes he manipulates
his readers by using leger de main.
In the first part of his paper, Sokal claims that

there are many natural scientists, and especially physicists, who continue
to reject the notion that the disciplines concerned with social and
cultural criticism can have anything to contribute, except perhaps
peripherally, to their research. Still less are they receptive to the idea
that the very foundations of their worldview must be revised or rebuilt in
the light of such criticism. Rather, they cling to the dogma imposed by
the long post-Enlightenment hegemony over the Western intellectual
outlook, which can be summarized briefly as follows: that there exists an
external world, whose properties are independent of any individual
human being and indeed of humanity as a whole; that these properties
are encoded in eternal physical laws; and that human beings can
obtain reliable, albeit imperfect and tentative, knowledge of these laws
by hewing to the objective procedures and epistemological strictures
prescribed by the (so-called) scientific method.

However, the author does not offerany clue as to the findings he collected.
In addition to this, the author disregards and probably overlooks tats initiaux
et tats stationnaires (cf. Piatelli-Palmarini 167-168), obviously having
forgotten that la thorie trs explicite qui rend la formulation dune proprit
beaucoup plus complexe que la formulation dune autre est dans la nature de
lesprit (Chomsky 177).
According to Sokal, the aim of his paper is, rather, to draw the attention of
readers to these important developments in physical science, and to sketch as
best [he] can their philosophical and political implications. Unfortunately, we
cannot trace any attempts at sketching either philosophical or political
implications.
In addition to this, we identified a multitude of serious flaws. As the heading
of the Section 2 shows (Quantum Mechanics: Uncertainty, Complementarity,

Discontinuity and Interconnectedness), the paper touches upon a broad range
of theoretical issues, and the author states that

it is not my intention to enter here into the extensive debate on the
conceptual foundations of quantum mechanics. [] anyone who has
seriously studied the equations of quantum mechanics will assent to
Heisenbergs measured [] summary of his celebrated uncertainty
principle.

However, the section dealing with the actual analysis of these phenomena
fails to provide sufficient and adequate treatment of interdisciplinary data with
respect to the numerous theoretical issues raised (e.g. postmodern science
provides a powerful refutation of the authoritarianism and elitism inherent in
traditional science, as well as an empirical basis for a democratic approach to
scientific work; In such a situation, how can a self-perpetuating secular
priesthood of credentialed scientists purport to maintain a monopoly on the
production of scientific knowledge?; The content and methodology of
postmodern science thus provide powerful intellectual support for the
progressive political project, understood in its broadest sense: the transgressing
of boundaries, the breaking down of barriers, the radical democratization of all
aspects of social, economic, political and cultural life. Conversely, one part of this
project must involve the construction of a new and truly progressive science that
can serve the needs of such a democratized society-to-be). Furthermore, Sokals
statements are impressionistic, and they reflect only his point of view, without
even taking into account the treatment of the raised issues at least in the
representative literature.
This mismatch of the assumed broad theoretical perspective and the choice
and treatment of the particular interdisciplinary phenomena under investigation
undermines the theoretical and methodological coherence of Sokals paper and
results in his conclusions which are much too general (e.g. the content of any
science is profoundly constrained by the language within which its discourses are
formulated; feminist thinkers have repeatedly pointed out, in the present
culture this contamination is overwhelmingly capitalist, patriarchal and
militaristic: mathematics is portrayed as a woman whose nature desires to be the
conquered Other; a liberatory science cannot be complete without a profound
revision of the canon of mathematics. As yet no such emancipatory mathematics
exists, and we can only speculate upon its eventual content. We can see hints of
it in the multidimensional and nonlinear logic of fuzzy systems theory; but this
approach is still heavily marked by its origins in the crisis of late-capitalist
production relations).

While analysing quantum gravity as archetypal postmodernist science, Sokal
seems to have forgotten to specify these archetypal conditions. Quite simply,
[i]n order to avoid any ambiguity, we must first specify the conditions under
which the definition of truth will be considered adequate from the material
point of view (Tarski 48). In addition to this, Sokal failed to observe the notion
of truth in the specific contexts he analysed unsuccessfully. While pointing out
that criteria, admirable as they are, are insufficient for a liberatory post-
modern science: they liberate human beings from the tyranny of absolute
truth and objective reality,Sokal seems to have misinterpreted the
possibility that not all truths are meaning-relevant (Marconi 46). Also, Sokal
observes that quantities or objects which are in principle unobservable such
as space-time points, exact particle positions, or quarks and gluons ought not
to be introduced into the theory without providing the reader with the
plausible explanation in terms of scientific rigour.
We have also noticed that Sokals paper has many shortcomings of a
fundamental kind. For example, he points out that geometry becomes
relational and contextual, which is a bit surprising given the fact that he, as a
representative of natural sciences, should be at least acquainted with some
fundamentals of geometry. Not only does he fail to understand the idea of
Modern Feminism and Postmodernism but he also misapprehends and
misconstrues Niels Bohrs foreshadowing of postmodernist epistemology. It
seems to us that he unfortunately takes every assertion of Postmodernist and
Feminist Theory authors at face value.
Also, Alan Sokal seems to have misunderstood the exegeses of gender
encoding in fluid mechanics http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/transgress_-
v2-transgress_v2_singlefile.html 62 as well as the critique of the gender
ideology underlying the natural sciences in general and physics in particular.
However, this omission of Sokals is hardly surprising considering the fact that
this author obviously does not succeed in drawing a proper distinction between
gender encoding and gender decoding. Additionally, he obscures the picture by
not including a theory of meaning which, according to some leading scholars,
is an empirical theory, and its ambition is to account for the workings of a
natural language (Davidson 83).
Sokals findings are either too general (e.g. deep conceptual shifts within
twentieth-century science have undermined this Cartesian-Newtonian
metaphysics; revisionist studies in the history and philosophy of science have
cast further doubt on its credibility; and, most recently, feminist and
poststructuralist critiques have demystified the substantive content of
mainstream Western scientific practice) or extremely vague and fuzzy (e.g. It
has thus become increasingly apparent that physical reality, no less than social
reality, is at bottom a social and linguistic construct; that scientific

knowledge, far from being objective, reflects and encodes the dominant
ideologies and power relations of the culture that produced it; that the truth
claims of science are inherently theory-laden and self-referential; and
consequently, that the discourse of the scientific community, for all its
undeniable value, cannot assert a privileged epistemological status with respect
to counter-hegemonic narratives emanating from dissident or marginalized
communities). Unfortunately, Sokal seems to have forgotten that

lesprit scientifique moderne ralise un juste dosage de prudence et
daudace; il est sans cesse anim par une sorte de dialectique de
linvention et de la rflexion. [] Il semble que le savoir scientifique
acquis soit toujours essay, toujours control, toujours critiqu.
(Bachelard 123)

When highlighting the dynamic web of relationships, particularly Newtonian
particles, it seems to us that Sokal completely disregards the relevant fact that
reference, direct or indirect, to belief-expression is inseparable from the
analysis of saying something true (or false) (Strawson 101). Sokal, however,
leaves almost all the questions open, when he concludes that

homologous features arise in numerous seemingly disparate areas of
science, from quantum gravity to chaos theory to the biophysics of self-
organizing systems. In this way, the postmodern sciences appear to be
converging on a new epistemological paradigm, one that may be
termed an ecological perspective.

However, this assumption is not correct. Subsequently, Sokal misinterprets
Aronowitz without providing any evidence for his confusing and misleading
interpretation of Aronowitzs own words.
The account of Sokals paper is additionally obscured by the fact that the
formulation and the aims and the scope of the investigation vary and lack
consistence (e.g. In the Newtonian mechanistic worldview, space and time are
distinct and absolute. In Einsteins special theory of relativity (1905), the
distinction between space and time dissolves: there is only a new unity, four-
dimensional space-time, and the observers perception of space and time
depends on her state of motion; General relativity is so weird that some of its
consequences deduced by impeccable mathematics, and increasingly
confirmed by astrophysical observation read like science fiction; In addition
to redefining the content of science, it is imperative to restructure and redefine
the institutional loci in which scientific labor takes place universities,
government labs, and corporations and reframe the reward system that

pushes scientists to become, often against their own better instincts, the hired
guns of capitalists and the military; the fundamental goal of any emancipatory
movement must be to demystify and democratize the production of scientific
knowledge, to break down the artificial barriers that separate scientists from
the public. Realistically, this task must start with the younger generation,
through a profound reform of the educational system), which makes it difficult
for the potential reader to understand what exactly has been done and why.
While referring to humanities theories (e.g. Feminist Theory, Post-
modernism) Sokal apparently did little fact checking of his own. As a
consequence, Sokal has possibly attributed to the (mis)quoted authors in the
field of humanities certain inaccuracies that are, in fact, nothing of the kind.

Concluding Remarks

Unfortunately, we may conclude that almost everything about the Sokals
investigation, from certain multidisciplinary criteria for identifying similarities
and dissimilarities between humanities (or more precisely, critique of
Postmodernism, Feminist Theory) and natural sciences to the inconsistency of his
line of argument and discrepancy between the text of his paper and its broadly
conceived headline was dishonest, wrong, misleading and deceitful. It seems to
us that the weak points and drawbacks within the Sokals study go beyond
occasional errors. Moreover, while mocking Feminist Theory, Post-modernism,
Alan Sokal actually reveals his lack of knowledge in the multi-disciplinary fields he
tried to fuse and analyse (even the lack of knowledge pertaining to natural
sciences whose proponent and representative he predictably is).
Strictly speaking, our overall assessment and evaluation show that Sokals
paper does not have formal merits, as it does not provide a model-theoretic
framework for the interdisciplinary study he invoked. The organisation of his
paper is opaque, inconsistent, whilst the authors conclusions are ill-constructed.
The sections within the paper do not flow smoothly, nor is the layout given in the
introductory part of his paper. On top of that, Sokals paper does not have
methodological merits, since it does not provide a coherent and explicit fusion of
different interdisciplinary undertakings he tried to merge. As a consequence, a
potential reader is not made aware of what has been accomplished in a given
section in relation to the authors stated goal and why. Ultimately, Sokals paper
does not have empirical merits, given the fact that his findings are neither tested
nor validated under diverse experimental conditions. Not only are the arbitrarily
chosen terms inadequately explained when introduced, but the paper manifests
a wealth of fuzzy and opaque terms used in intentionally ambiguous contexts.
To sum up, the title of Alan Sokals paper, although quite intriguing, is hardly

accounted for in the text of his paper. Quantum gravity, which is supposed to be
in the focus of the authors research, is mentioned but in the title, so any
intended relevance of Sokals paper can only be speculated about. In addition to
this, there is practically no research data and no concrete findings are presented
in the text. Moreover, Sokal makes impressionistic comments on the previous
research, without making explicit reference to it. In terms of academic rigour, the
author violates some basic rules of academic writing, such as: explicitness and
coherence (more precisely, Sokals paper lacks both explicitness and coherence).
This mismatch of the assumed broad theoretical perspective and the choice and
treatment of the particular interdisciplinary phenomena under investigation
undermines the theoretical and methodological coherence of Sokals paper and
results in his conclusions which are much too general.
Taking all the above said into consideration, we cannot but notice that
Sokals investigation has been so poorly carried out and his findings are
extremely freighted with inconsistencies and discrepancies as well as being
error-laden, which makes the overall value of his paper mediocre, low-grade
and very poor. In other words, Sokals investigation is without merit.
Unmistakably, the entire undertaking in the form of pseudo-investigation was
misconceived and is, so to speak, without any scientific value.
However, we may see how this paper and similar papers may generate data
soliloquies, i.e. data which speak for themselves, and whose existence is
meaningless. Therefore, meaningless data soliloquies may contribute to better
understanding general trends in both natural sciences and humanities. In other
words, sometimes facing the Other implies facing the meaninglessness and
nothingness.

Bibliography

Bachelard, Gaston. Le Matrialisme rationel. Paris: Presses Universitaires de
France, 1953.
Chomsky, Noam. "L"approche linguistique."Thories du langage, Thories de
l"apprentissage Le dbut entre Jean Piaget et Noam Chomsky. Ed.
Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini. Paris: ditions du Seuil, 1979, 169-177.
Davidson, Donald. "Truth and Meaning."The Philosophy of Language. Second
Edition. Ed. Aloysius P. Martinich. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1990, 79-90.
Marconi, Diego. Lexical Competence. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT, 1997.
Levinson, Stephen C. Pragmatics. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Piatelli-Palmarini, Massimo (ed.).Thories du langage, Thories de
lapprentissage Le dbut entre Jean Piaget et Noam Chomsky. Paris:
ditions du Seuil, 1979.

Sokal, Alan D. "Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative
Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity."Social Text 46/47 (1996): 217-252.
Strawson, P. F. "Meaning and Truth."The Philosophy of Language. Second
Edition. Ed. Aloysius P. Martinich. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1990, 91-102.
Tarski, Alfred. 1990. "The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of
Semantics."The Philosophy of Language. Second Edition. Ed. Aloysius P.
Martinich. New York and Oxford: OUP, 1990, 48-71.
Teorije jezika, teorije uenja Debata izmeu ana Pijaea i Noama omskog.
Prevela sa engleskog i francuskog Vesna Polovina. Sremski Karlovci:
Izdavaka knjiarnica Zorana Stojanovia, 1990 [Theories of Language,
Theories of Learning The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky.
Translated from English and French by Vesna Polovina]

SUOAVANJE SA MONOLOZIMA PODATAKA, PRELAENJE GRANICA HERMENEUTIKE KVANTNE
GRAVITACIJE

U radu kritikujemo takozvanu kulturnu revoluciju i takozvana ratovanja
nauk, kojima je kao inspiracija navodno posluio esej Alana Sokala iz 1996. U
svom radu pokazujemo da Sokalov pokuaj da diskredituje humanistike nauke
(prevashodno feministiku teoriju i postmodernizam uopte) nije uspeo.
Zapravo, ovaj autor kopira i kompilira radove postmodernizma i pravi paralele
sa kvantnom gravitacijom pseudonaunom metodom bez ikakve podloge u
realnosti. Takoe, pokazali smo da se validnost Sokalovih ciljeva moe dovesti u
pitanje, a sve ovo ilustrujemo nabrajanjem i objanjavanjem razliitih greaka
na koje smo nailazili prilikom analize Sokalovog eseja, a kojima se on slui da
diskredituje, pre svega, drutvene nauke. Zanimljivo je da smo, prilikom analize,
otkrili ak i Sokalov nedostatak poznavanja izvesnih aspekata prirodnih nauka
(matematike i fizike).

Kljune rei: kulturna revolucija, ratovanja nauk, kvantna gravitacija,
postmodernizam, feministika teorija.

Nauka o knjievnosti / Literary Studies


UDK 821.163.41.09-31

Usmenost kao maska autorskog statusa
(Bakonja fra-Brne Sima Matavulja)

Ljiljana Pajovi Dujovi, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: Usmenost je u romanu Bakonja fra-Brne (1892) Sima Matavulja koritena
kao maska autorskog statusa. Varijantnost koja u usmenim tvorevinama karakterie
znanje kolektiva, u pisanom tekstu se pripisuje razliitim glasovima. Za potrebe
ovog rada pojam glasa uzima se kao figurativno imenovanje usmeno prenoenog
pripovjednog znanja. Razlikama i slinostima u odnosu na prethodnu ili potonju
varijantu uspostavlja se pripovjedna tenzija. Zaplet se pojavljuje na mikronivou radnje
kao variranje istoga. Fra-Brnina bolest se doivljava kao zaplet na nivou jedne krupnije
epizode. Novi siejni tokovi se uspostavljaju brojnim i raznolikim tumaenjima (jedni
dre da je u pitanju ludilo, drugi zavjet, trei ispatanje, a etvrti priprema za in
zadubine).
Objektivni pripovjeda ne nalazi za potrebno da tumai razlike u doivljajima fra-Brnine
umiljenosti. Pozivajui se na rasprostranjenost glasova koje fratri nisu negirali, to
osta kao istina. Matavulj umnoava take gledita, uvodi njihovo distanciranje i
meusobno komentarisanje. Njegov pripovjedni tekst pokazuje interes ne samo za
postizanje iluzije vjerovatnog, objektivne slike stvarnosti ve i za one aspekte
varijantosti, kienja, poetike glasa koja je jedna zasebna vrsta stvarnosti stvarnost
prianja.

Kljune rijei: novelistiki roman Bakonja fra-Brne Sima Matavulja, usmenost, poetika
,,glasa, folklorno-literarni motivi, umiljeni bolesnik, lani grenik, hvalisavi prialac

Simo Matavulj je u novosadskom asopisu Strailovo tokom 1888. godine
objavljivao obimniju pripovijetku Kako je Pjevalica izlijeio fra-Brnu sa simpto-
matinim podnaslovom Pria Simo Matavulj. Naslovom je sugerisano da je ovaj
obimniji tekst komponovan na anegdotskom materijalu, to direktno ukazuje na
postojanje dogaaja o kojem se pria. Ve je prva redakcija romana najavila
niz vrsto sraslih elemenata karakteristinih za realistiku prozu: anegdota
dogaaj prianje.Neka anegdota mora da poslui kao osnova, a anegdote
nema ako nema dogaaja, niti moe biti dogaaja ako nema prianja
(Kora262). Koraevo pojednostavljeno izvoenje teza najprije se odnosi na
folklorno-anegdotski sloj Matavuljeva romana, koji je od fundamentalnog
znaaja i u drugoj redakciji, objavljenoj 1892. godine pod naslovom Bakonja fra-
Brne: njegovo akovanje i postrig. Roman je sastavljen iz zaokruenih jedinica

koje imaju svoje naslove, zatim radnju od kojih svaka za sebe ima neku vrstu
preo-kreta karakteristinog za novelu. Na osnovu ovoga se moe govoriti o
jednom lancu radnji koje su oblikovane novelistiki. Novelistiki roman Bakonja
fra-Brne istovremeno je i roman lika, roman vaspitanja i roman drutva. Mata-
vulj objanjava dvije intencije kojima se rukovodio piui ga jedna da prikae
cio ivot dalmatinski (opis seoske, manastirske, gradske sredine, pravosla-
vaca, katolika), druga da prikae kako vaspitanje i prilike utiu na harakter.
Hronikalno naelo kompozicije i radnje omoguuje da se fabula ralanjuje
prema znatnim dogaajima koji nisu u uzrono-posljedinim odnosima. Ra-
suta radnja i tehnika folklornog pripovijedanja meusobno se uslovljavaju.
Pripovjedaka folklorna podloga je zbog aljivo-anegdotskih jedinica po strani
ostavila psiholoke ili standardne realistike motive (erotski izazov, brani trou-
gao, novac), ali ih nije sasvim zanemarila. Kompozicija romana bi po miljenju
Duana Ivania mogla da se opie kao lanac folklornih, narativnih i govornih
anrova, koji se, preko anegdota, slika, scena, komentara, uobliuju kao epizode
oko krupnijih dogaaja (Ivani230). Knjievni tekst romana Bakonja fra-Brne
ponaa se prema normama koje su blie usmenom tipu komunikacije, na to je
u mnogome uticala predaja usmene prie kao najdubljeg izvorita pripovjedne
proze Sima Matavulja.
Na samom poetku romana prepoznaje se onaj nezadrivi parodini duh
sniavanja to ga je u sloenom procesu oblikovala narodna kultura. Matavulj
je fra-Brne Navara gradio kao sloen knjievni lik. Iz prvog susreta sa njim
izdvaja se crta tjelesnosti koja trenutno obesveuje njegovo duhovnitvo. U
prvoj verziji romana tjelesna karikatura na konju pojaana je jednim detaljem iz
svijeta duha, jer se odmah napominje da je fra Navar (tako zvahu kriom
slavnoga pjesnika) pjesnik koji pie soinenija. Ta pojedinost se dalje konkre-
tizuje u ruganje asopisu Zora Dalmatinska to njeguje takve poetske
tradicije.
Iskustva duha i tijela u razliitim pojavnim oblicima i knjievnim junacima,
Matavuljev pripovjeda je pratio cijelim siejnim tokom romana. Na humo-
ristiki nain e izukrtati i time relativizovati zakone katolikog reda svodei ih
na plan suprotnog na ulnost, esto i skarednost. Fra-Brne ivi ivot u svom
tijelu leu razrovanom bolestima, iji se istorijat iitava od poetka romana.
Drob u kojem ka da kupus vri je izvorite i utoite svih Brninih duevnih
tegoba: Kad god bi vidio to nemilo hoae ga zaboljeti u kulji (Matavulj
1953:67). Analizirajui osnovna zbivanja u ivotu grotesknog tijela, na primjeru
Rableovih slika i njihovih izvora, Mihail Bahtin eksplicitno dokazuje da se

inovi telesne drame jedenje, pijenje, vrenje nude (i ostala izlui-
vanja: znojenje, useknjivanje, kijanje), sparivanje, trudnoa, poroaj,
rastenje, starost, bolesti, smrt, [...] vre na granicama tela i sveta [...];

u svim ovim zbivanjima telesne drame poetak i kraj ivota su meu-
sobno neraskidivo povezani. (Bahtin334)

Muna stanja narastaju do strane metastaze u psihi koja boluje od nesani-
ce. Jedini zvuk ivota u Brninim besanim noima jeste kucanje sata: Ako se
nou koji (asovnik Lj. P. D.) ustavi, onda bi se vra odmah probudio; ako se
dva sloe u kucanju, onda bi se docnije probudio (Matavulj 1953:60). Na
simbolikom planu otkucaji asovnika doivljavaju se kao opomena i odbroja-
vanje iznutra ugaslog ivota. Svoju funkciju ima jo samo tjelesna ljutura, oklop
ija se grotesknost pocrtava ritualom ekanja, kojim je Bakonja kao dijak bio
poastvovan. U fratrovoj ljestvici ulnih uivanja koja pripremaju duh,
ekanje tijela je bilo najvee uivanje poslije kucanja asovnika: to ga njekako
spremae da uzmogne s nasladom itati najdublja bogoslovska djela i pisati
stihove (Matavulj1953:60).
Mrtvu stvarnost u kojoj se nita ne deava Matavulj je oivio posve osobe-
nim uglom i nainom gledanja. Dogaaje predstavlja iz pozicije nepristrasnog
posmatraa jednog munog rituala kakav je Bakonjino dvorenje umiljenog
bolesnika fra-Brna. Tu nepodnoljivu situaciju Matavulj razara ironijom, sjedi-
njujui fiziko uivanje nieg reda (ekoliti po listovima, po leima i biskati po
glavi) sa tobonjim fratrovim duhovnim tenjama (poe traiti samou).
Tjelesno i duhovno su se nali u neobinom jedinstvu meusobnog sniavanja
koje rezultira paradoksalnom situacijom njihovog mirenja. Dva bitna naela
nejednake snage duhovno i svjetovno, kao dvije ivotne sfere i dva niza
ljudskog iskustva uzajamno ive, stapaju se i mire. Samo je nesretni pjesnik Brne
razapet stalnim iskuenjima tijela pod prismotrom duha.
Bakonja otkriva da mu je stric pjesnik, nevjet u pravljenju stihova, ali
sujetan po pitanju njihovog umjetnikog kvaliteta, to je jo jedna pokora koju
mladi dijak mora da podnese sluajui ili kazujui strieve versi. Bakonja
vremenom saznaje da je duevni duhovnik i zelena koji se s dunicima sudi
bez milosti i oprotaja. Postupkom retrospekcije otkrivaju se i erotske slabosti iz
Brnine mladosti. Tu vrstu opiranja tijela i duha oitovae i sinovac Bakonja, i to
u istoj porodici krmarice Mae.
Motiv ivota i poezije Matavulj je u nekoliko navrata vezao za lik fra-Brna
Navara, koji je na izvjestan nain potisnuo i glavnog junaka romana. Fra-Brne
je sainio stihove o pohari manastira u maniru pobone zahvalnice: Zafalna pi-
sma Gospodinu, koji nas je izbavija od velikoga zla, kad je bija poaran manastir.
Pjesma slijedi strogu kompozicionu shemu, a iznevjerava stvarno zbivanje.
Stihovi su uzvieni i patetini, posve neusaglaene forme i sadraja, lani jer
zahvaljuju bogu tek poto je njegova pokora uzdrmala manastir, a bezoni
Bukar odnio vrijedne relikvije. Rugalaki je intoniran kritiki komentar slualaca
povodom Brnine pjesme zahvalnice koja je spjevana poslije pohare, kad ve

zafali nema mjesta: Pa kako nas je oslobodija, kad je sve pokradeno i umra
fra Vice? ree Duvalo (Matavulj 1953:151).
Ilustrativan je Brnin tragini nesporazum sa sredinom koji on iskajava u
usamljenitvu. Motiv poezije i ivota ovdje je iskorien realistiki, s ciljem da se
pokae da ivot ne udovoljava tekstovnim konvencijama, da on probija anro-
vske obrasce koji mu se nameu. U drugom planu ovom motivu je data uloga
parodiranja pobono-narodske knjievnosti koja se odrala do duboko u 19.
vijek. Prvi stupanj fra-Brnine izolovanosti predstavlja njegov ivot u manastiru
koji se nalazi na ostrvu, fizikom granicom odvojenom od okoline, od drugih.
Unutar manastirskih zidina on takoe ivi ivot dobrovoljnog usamljenika,
distanciranog u nadi da e izbjei nered koji vlada van granica njegovog fizikog
oblija. Neusaglaeni otkucaji na asovnicima ivota, istorijskog i vremena svaki-
danjeg (kraa konja, pohara manastira, pojava vampira, skrnavljenje crkve), u
njemu odjekuju damarima straha koji paralie. Fra- Brnin strah se multiplicira,
prenosi se na odnose sa ljudima, sa njihovom bukom i bijesom i konano
kulminira nesposobnou suoavanja sa drugima. Zatvaranje u odaje je njegovo
konano priznanje nemoi da se prihvati ivi ivot sa svim svojim arolikostima.
U toj taki je najdublje njegovo razilaenje sa manastirskom bratijom, fratrima
koji ne pruaju otpor slastima ivota, ve mu se objeruke predaju.
Jezikom vanredne slikovitosti i neposrednosti Matavulj je izrazio mrtvilo
poslije pohare doarano najpotpunije u epizodi fra-Brnine bolesti i pokuaja
izljeenja. Matavuljev stvaralaki postupak je polivalentan: on ne otkriva samo
nalije, niti insistira na iskljuivostima ve pokazuje razumijevanje za ljudske
slabosti. Humor kojim je Matavulj uveo motiv uobraenog bolesnika doivljava
se kao blagonakloni smijeak prema nesavrenostima ljudske prirode. Tradicio-
nalni folklorno-literarni motiv uobraenog bolesnika u liku fra-Brna dobija svoju
vanrednu izvedbu.Fra-Brne je rtva izmiljene bolesti, uobraenja da e prsnuti
ukoliko izae na vazduh. Njegova hipohondrija dobija neoekivane razmjere, u
vrtloge straha uvlai i bojazan od ljudi i od zvukova. Traginost njegove pozicije
izaziva blagonaklonost brae mu po zavjetu, njihovu rijeenost da mu pomognu
i pomire ga sa ustrojstvom ivota i svijeta.
Komika u gradnji fabule i likova kod Matavulja nalazi ravnoteu u ivotnim
sjenkama koje prate Bakonjino odrastanje, ali i opadanje fra-Brninih ivotnih
moi. Njegova udna bolest biva povod iskrenim pokuajima bratije da ga
izlijee varkom. Uloga lanog grenika, takoe folklorno-literarnog motiva, biva
dodijeljena narodnom ljekaru Pjevalici. On treba da odigra ulogu velikog
grinika i da skine s Brne mrane ini. U tome mu pomae narodna mudrost
oliena u poslovici na ljutu ranu ljutu travu. Fra- Brnin strah od velike arije
biva nadvladan strahom za goli ivot. Matavulj nijansira psiholoku igru izmeu
narodnog ljekara i uobrazilje bolesnika. Scene posveena Brninom izljeenju
otkrivaju visoko uee ive rijei u dijalokoj formi.

Narodno vidanje odvija se u dosljednom ritmu gradacije kao umjetnikog
postupka kojim se nijansiraju osjeanja i raspoloenja. U krugu brojnih epskih
pjesama s motivom o velikom greniku, njegova ispovijest predstavlja sredinji
dio (Miloevi-orevi60). Pjevaliino nizanje grijehova prati izrazita drama-
tinost pokreta: krgutanje zubima, hvatanje za jatagan, protezavica i pri-
znanje da mu je najslae zaklati. Fra-Brne je poraen prevelikom dozom stra-
ha koji je do temelja uzdrmao njegov ivot izoptenika. Brne izlazi iz kamare
osloboen, ali nesvjestan i lien snage da se brani i da razumije.

... ta je... t'! dreknu Brne klisivi sa stolice, jer Pivalica silno
krgutnu zubma i izvrati oima, a ruka mu poe k jataganu. Dokle se
Pivalica okrenuo, Brne je ve bio na trijemu. (Matavulj 1953: 171)

Brnin portret je knjievna studija straha kojom je Matavulj pokazao virtuo-
znost u opisima iracionalnog u ovjeku. Time je motiv umiljenog bolesnika,
blizak i folklornoj i literarnoj tradiciji, dodirnuo granice psiholoke fantastike.
Analizirajui umiljenu bolest kao specifino stanje psihe, Matavulj je statian
tematsko-motivski kompleks obogatio elementima tradicionalnog repertoara, u
vidu odjeka u javnosti iskazanog razliitim glasovima. U savremenim teo-
rijskim izuavanjima pripovijedanja, pojam glasa ima iroko polje upotrebe.
Tu prevashodno mislim na istraivanja erara eneta (Genette 1988), po kojem
je glas ona sfera pripovijedanja koja se tie pripovjedaa i pitanja ko pripovi-
jeda, ko govori i u kom se stepenu neposrednosti taj govor odvija (direktan
govor, indirektan govor, slobodni direktni govor, autorsko pripovijedanje itd.).
Za potrebe ovog rada pojam glasa uzima se kao figurativno imenovanje usmeno
prenoenog pripovjednog znanja blisko antikom poimanju fame (Ivani83).
Folklorni model pripovijedanja se rekonstruie i prenosi u literaturu koja je
autorska po postanku. Pojam je preuzet iz poetike usmene knjievnosti i podra-
zumijeva prihvatanje i predaju umotvorina od jednog sluaoca-kazivaa do dru-
gog. Jedni priaju, drugi su to uli i prepriavaju, takoe slobodno dodajui
svoje pretpostavke i domiljanja. Fra-Brninu nastranost vjernici razglaavaju kao
ludilo: razglasi se [...] da je gvardijan Jerkovi izludio... Tako se govorilo. Taj
glas zaprepasti Kumelja (Matavulj1953:156).
Dijak Maak prirodu gvardijanove bolesti tumai kao zavjet blizak onome
koji se velia u itijnoj literarnoj tradiciji. Varijacija istoga tumaenja iskazuje se
kao pokuaj fra-Brninog okajanja nekog velikog grijeha (Ko ti zna kakav gri oe
da otkaje!) i pripreme za in zadubinara (ja mislim da e uiniti niku zadu-
binu). Varijantnost koja u usmenim tvorevinama karakterie znanje kolektiva,
u pisanom tekstu se pripisuje razliitim glasovima. Razlikama i slinostima u
odnosu na prethodnu ili potonju varijantu uspostavlja se pripovjedna tenzija.
Zaplet se pojavljuje na mikronivou radnje kao variranje istoga. Fra-Brnina bolest

doivljava se kao zaplet na nivou jedne krupnije epizode. Novi siejni plat
pridaje mu se brojnou tumaenja (jedni dre da je u pitanju ludilo, drugi
zavjet, trei ispatanje, a etvrti priprema za in zadubine).
Usmenost je u romanu Bakonja fra-Brne koritena kao maska autorskog sta-
tusa. Objektivni pripovjeda ne nalazi za potrebno da tumai razlike u doivlja-
jima fra-Brnine umiljenosti. Pozivajui se na rasprostranjenost glasova koje
fratri nisu negirali, to osta kao istina. Pripovjeda se zaklanja iza obrasca po-
tvrivanja istinitosti nekoga dogaaja koji je oblikovan u duhu poetike usmene
knjievnosti. Ironinu distancu pripovjeda uspostavlja komentarom zasnova-
nim na motivu fra-Brnine halapljivosti: Dodue, Balegan bi, u podne i uvee,
odvajajui obilate obroke za fra-Brnu, malko posumnjao u istinitost te pokore
(Matavulj1953:159). Krugu ala oko ispovijesti pripada i motiv ispovijesti velikog
grenika pred podvinikom, sa aljivim ishodom kao posljedicom podvale koju
je bratija smislila da fra-Brna izvue iz elije. Taj dogaaj, meutim, u pastvi
odjekuje kao njeko udo, to predstavlja jo jednu transformaciju unutar ovog
motivskog kompleksa: A rije ode od usta do usta [...] kakvo je udo bog uinio
sa vra-Brnom, kad je ispovida jednoga velikog grinika (Matavulj1953:173).
Veliki broj elemenata koji obiljeavaju strukturu itijnog teksta (motivi zavjeta,
okajavanja grijeha, podizanja zadubine, ispovijesti grenika, uda kao potvrda
svetosti) naao se ovdje u humoristiko-parodinoj perspektivi novoga vre-
mena.
Uz tradicionalne folklorno-literarne motive uobraenog bolesnika, lanog
grenika, hvalisavog priaoca i druge u romanu Bakonja fra-Brne figuriraju i
moderne teme realistikog tipa, kakve su teme odrastanja i sazrijevanja, nesre-
ne ljubavi i sticanja novca. Novina koju Matavuljeva proza nosi i koja ga smje-
ta u sam vrh proze pisane na srpskom jeziku jeste odsustvo kliea. On jeste
pisac realistike orijentacije, ali najbolje njegove proze su one u kojima preva-
zilazi konvencionalna rjeenja i opredjeljuje se za poliperspektivnost. Uvodi
nove pripovjedne tehnike i konstruktivna naela koji se oslanjaju na folklornu
podlogu, ali se izvode i variraju nizom razliitih postupaka. Matavulj umnoava
take gledita, uvodi njihovo distanciranje i meusobno komentarisanje. Njegov
pripovjedni tekst pokazuje interes ne samo za postizanje iluzije vjerovatnog,
objektivne slike stvarnosti ve i za one aspekte varijantosti, kienja, poetike
glasa koja je jedna zasebna vrsta stvarnosti stvarnost prianja.

Literatura

Bahtin, Mihail. Stvaralatvo Fransoa Rablea i narodna kultura srednjega veka i
renesanse. Prevod Ivan op i Tihomir Vukovi. Beograd: Nolit, 1978.
Biti, Vladimir.Pojmovnik suvremene knjievne teorije. Zagreb:Matica hrvatska.
1997.

Genette, Grard. Narrative Discourse Revisited. Transl. Jane E. Lewin Ithaca:
Cornell UP, 1988.
Ivani, Duan. Modeli knjievnoga govora.Beograd: Nolit, 1990.
Ivani, Duan. "Poetika 'glasova' (Od glasa do prie)."Knjievna istorija. Beograd
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Srbije, 2006.

ORALITY AS A MASK OF AUTHORIAL STATUS (SIMO MATAVULJS BAKONJA FRA-BRNE)

In Simo Matavuljs Bakonja fra-Brne (1892), orality is used as a mask of the
authorial status. Alternativity that in the oral entities characterizes the
collective knowledge, in the written text is attributed to different voices. In
this paper the notion of voice is taken as a figurative nomination of the orally
transposed narrative knowledge. Differences and simmilarities in relation to the
previous or ultimate variety help reconstruct the narrative tension. Plot
appears on the microlevel of action as a variety of the same. Fra-Brnes illness is
perceived as a plot on the level of more important episode. New sujet flows are
being reconstructed by numerous and various interpretations (some think that
it is the case of madness, other that it is the vow, atonement, or preparation for
the act of endowment).
The objective narrator does not find it necessary to interpret the differences
in perceptions of fra-Brnes vapour. By alluding to the spreading of voices
that were not negated by the friars, that remained the whole truth. Matavulj
implies the points of view, introduces their distancing and inter-commenting.
His narrative text demonstrates interest not only as the acquirement for the
resumption of the illusion of the possible, objective image of reality and for

those aspects of variety, decorating, poetics of voice that is the only separate
type of reality the reality of narration.

Key Words: Simo Matavuljs novelistic novel Bakonja fra-Brne, orality,
poetics of voice, folk literature motifs, false patient, false sinner,
magniloquent talker


UDK 82.09-343

Zaboravljeno putovanje tragovi utisnuti u
bajkama (II deo)

Dragana Krenkovi Brkovi, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: Moderne bajke nastale tokom XIX i XX veka svoje ishodite nalaze u
tradicionalnim bajkama. Ova dva oblika, oslanjajui se na ono to je narod upamtio, tako
postaju jezgro najdubljeg iskustva ljudi i klju za otkrivanje istine o njihovom postojanju
od praiskoni do danas.
Moderne bajke istovremeno nastavljaju i ukidaju odreene osobine tradicionalnih bajki.
Ova studija istrauje te procese. U prvom delu ona analizira njihove zajednike osobine.
Ona istie da se bajke javljaju kao pozitivna vrednost kolektivnog iskustva iprojekcija
ovekovih nesvesnih vizija i skrivenih elja. Uz to, ona ukazuje da bajke ostvaruju vezu
sa najdubljim slojem u oveku, da kroz stolea prenose duhovni sadraj starih oblika
verovanja, da usvajaju drevnu ideju o veitom vraanju, kao i da donose relativnu
negaciju izmeu prolosti, sadanjosti i budunosti.
U drugom delu ovaj rad istrauje nepodudaranja izmeu tradicionalne i moderne bajke
on razmatra njihove razliite odnose premasvetu koji opisuju, prema realistikom nainu
oblikovanja prie, potom, prema natprirodnom, vremenu, prostoru i liku oveka to, na
kraju, rezultira i njihovim razliitim pogledima na svet.
Ova studija je zasnovana na uporednoj analizi tradicionalnih (Pepeljuga, Sneana i
sedam patuljaka, Crvenkapa, Ivica i Marica, Uspavana lepotica, Maak u izmama i
Bajke iz 1001 noi) i modernih bajki nastalih u XIX i XX veku (Mali Princ, Alisa u
zemlji uda, Pinokio, Mala sirena, arobnjak iz Oza, Sreni Princ, Petar Pan, Narnijske
kronike, Hobit, Silmarilion i Gospodar prstenova).

Kljune rei: bajka, tradicionalna, moderna, slinosti, razlike, mitsko naslee, arhetipski
sklop, jezgro iskustva, sublimacija stvarnosti.

Razlike izmeu tradicionalne i moderne bajke

Moderna bajka, oslanjajui se na prastare prie, istovremeno se oslanja i na
mitsko naslee tradicionalne bajke. Meutim, to ne znai da su one potpuno
identine i jedinstvene.

Paljiva analiza otkriva da se moderna bajka nastala u poslednja dva veka ne
zadovoljava dramaturkim okvirom tradicionalne bajke i da ga je u mnogim
elementima napustila. Dramsko, poetsko ili romansijersko tkivo novih bajki uka-
zuje na nove prostore u koje su zakoraili tvorci modernih bajki.

Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema svetu o kome pripoveda

Ve pitanje odnosa tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema svetu o kome pri-
poveda donosi znaajnu razliku meu njima.
U tradicionalnoj bajci priaje zasnovana na elementima sveta koji prepo-
znajemo kao stvaran i realan. Tako jedna bajka opisuje blistavi dvor sa kra-
ljevskom i skromni dom sa graanskom porodicom (Pepeljuga), druga ubogu
umarevu porodicu koja ivi u kolibi na ivici ume (Ivica i Marica), trea devo-
jicu koja svojoj voljenoj baki esto nosi poklone (Crvenkapa), sledea bogati
istonjaki grad sa raskonim palatama, siromanim etvrtima i ulicama koje su
ispunjene vrevom i guvom (Aladin i njegova arobna lampa), i tako redom...
Slikajui takav, svima dobro poznat ambijent, tradicionalna bajka nudi sliku
racionalno pojmljivih zbivanja. Brojni detalji daju priama dah autentinosti i
verodostojnosti a relativna pouzdanost pripovedanja ini da se prie lako mogu
pratiti. Predmetni svet tradicionalne bajke prihvata se kao neto blisko i
poznato i svaki italac/itateljka brzo se moe identifikovati sa njim.
Moderna bajka zadrava ove elemente, aliistovremeno kreedalje, slikajui
potpuno nove predele. U jednoj bajci junakinja se kree kroz prostor nalik
snovienju (Alisa u zemlji uda); u drugoj junaci ive u svetu koji je postojao pre
ovog naeg, istorijskog, vremena (Srednja zemlja u Hobitu, Silmarilionu i Gospo-
daruprstenova); u treoj junakinja ivi u svetu ispod povrine mora (Mala sire-
na); u etvrtoj snani uragan odnosi junakinju u nepoznatu zemlju Oz (aro-
bnjak iz Oza); u petoj junak sa udaljenog asteroida stie na Zemlju (Mali Princ);
u estoj junaci iz naeg sveta pronalaze put do Narnije, zemlje na obali Velikog
Istonog okeana, koja postoji kao paralelni univezum (Narnijske hronike), itd.
Ovi imaginarni predeli, koji se upadljivo razlikuju od postojeeg sveta, proi-
rili su okvir u kome je smetena radnja bajke. Oni su implicirali ideju da stvar-
nost nema samo jedno lice, niti da se moe sagledati samo na jedan nain. Naa
zbilja je, poruuju autori modernih bajki, nalik viestranoj prizmi i zato joj se
mora prii sa raznih strana kako bi se mogla razumeti. to, dalje, znai da svet
koji nas okruuje nema jedno, ve mnogo znaenja koja treba otkriti i razumeti.
Ovakav prilaz obogatio je svet bajki na nain koji ranija vremena nisu poznavala.


Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema realistikom nainu
oblikovanja pria

Iako su u tradicionalnim bajkama prisutni brojni detalji koji ovim priama
daju dah autentinosti, one ne zadovoljavaju realistiki modus u predstavljanju
stvarnosti.
Ako su osnovne odlike realistikog proznog dela vrsta fabula, psiholoka
analiza karaktera, uzrono-posledini odnosi i relativna pouzdanost pripove-
danja (Peni 8 39), moemo rei da bajka samo delimino zadovoljava ove
elemente.
Sem relativne pouzdanosti pripovedanja, svi ostali elementi nisu prisutni u
tradicionalnoj bajci: nema vrste i logino razvijene fabule; nema ni motiva-
cionog sistema zasnovanog na uzrono-posledinim zbivanjima; nije primenjena
ni metodologija u graenju likova svojstvena realizmu likovi nemaju vrstu
liniju samorazvoja, niti je njihovo kretanje odreeno u tano psiholoki motivi-
sanom smeru. Dakle, iako je zasnovana na elementima sveta kojiprihvatamo
kao objektivan, tradicionalnu bajku ne karakterie realistiki nain oblikovanja
grae.
I moderna bajka do odreene mere ispunjava uslove realistikog pripo-
vedanja, ali u njoj sreemo i nove elemente kojih nije bilo u tradicionalnoj bajci.
U modernoj bajci XIX i XX veka mogu se pronai elementi naune fantastike
(Mali Princ), starih evropskih mitologija (Tolkinovi romani, Petar Pan, Narnijske
hronike, arobnjak iz Oza), usmene poezije (Hobit, Silmarilion, Gospodarprste-
nova), komedije del arte (Pinokio), potom elementi filozofskih (Mali princ) i
teolokih (Mala sirena, Narnijske hronike) teza, itd.
Kontakt oveka i bia iz svemira jedan je od najstarijih motiva naune Fanta-
stike.
35
I osnovna tema romana Antoana Egziperija je upravo takav susret.
Meutim, za razliku od veine knjiga SF anra, u Malom princu bie koje je
stiglo na Zemlju nije neki zastraujui vanzemaljac, ve je to deak sa udaljenog
asteroida na kome je sve tako malo da se idui pravo ispred sebe ne stie
ba daleko (Egziperi 22).
Uvoenjem u priu bia koje ima drugaija shvatanja od ljudi i njihovog poi-
manja vrednosti, autor sebi daje ansu da o oveku i postojeem poretku na
Zemlji progovori iz novog ugla. Pripovedajui priu s take gledita jednog
usamljenog deaka, koji shvata da neko ljudsko bie sa planete Zemlje ne moe
biti sreno ukoliko samo rauna i ponavlja: Ja sam ozbiljan ovek!, ve da e

35
Pored kontakta ljudi i vanzemaljaca, najee teme u delima naune fantastike su katastrofa
[drutvo je pogoeno prirodnom katastrofom, nuklearnim ratom, epidemijom ili nekom drugom
nesreom velikih razmera], vanzemaljska invazija [Zemlja ili ljudska civilizacija je u ratu sa
vanzemaljcima ili su je vanzemaljci osvojili], istraivanje [nepoznatog, kako svemira tako i drugih
mesta, civilizacija, pojava i tehnologija[, roboti i vetaka inteligencija, itd.

postati sreno ukoliko je sposobno da zavoli tek jedan cvet koji postoji samo
na jednoj meu milionima i milionima zvezda (42-44), Egziperi preispituje
osnovne vrednosti nae, u osnovi materijalistike, civilizacije koja je posedo-
vanje, mo i vlast proglasila za svoje najvie vrednosti.
Tako radoznali i neobini Mali princ itaocu otkriva koliko su odrasli zbilja
vrlo udni (66) kad veruju u stvari koje su nevane on zapaa da je jedan kralj
u zabludi kad je duboko uveren da vlada nad svim
36
(60), jer taj kralj ne
poseduje mo da nareuje zvezdama i Suncu; Mali princ uoava i da neko, ma
koliko da je bogat, nije koristan zvezdama, niti ih moe kupiti jer one ne pripa-
daju nikome
37
(76); da je potreba pojedinih ljudi da im se dive jako smena
38

(69); da su razlozi koji teraju pojedine ljude na odreeno ponaanje esto nelo-
gini i besmisleni
39
(70-71). U svetu Malog princa briga o jednoj rui ili dokono
posmatranje zvezda
40
(142) daleko su vanije stvari od enje ljudi za vlau i
bogatstvom.
Upliv starih evropskih mitologija vidljiv je u mnogim bajkama nastalim to-
kom XIX i XX veka. Tako su na Tolkinove romane snaan uticaj imale nordijska,
keltska i germanska mitologija. Tolkinov panteon bogova u velikoj meri se
oslanja na nordijski. Njegovi vilenjaci i patuljci temelje se na predanjima
nordijske i keltske mitologije, a u jednom od svojih pisama iz 1946. godine
istakao je da je lik Gandalfa stvorio prema slici vrhovnog boga Odina, koju su
narodi sa severa Evrope vekovima negovali [u toj predstavi, Odin je zamiljan
kao starac lutalica sa dugom belom bradom, eirom sa irokim obodom i
tapom u ruci] (The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, no. 325 i 107).
Vidljiv je uticaj i grkog ritualno-mitskog naslea na pisce modernih bajki. U
ovoj mitologiji Dejms Bari pronalazi ime za svog junaka Petra Pana (Petar u
imenu Petar Pan potie od Petra Dejvisa, usvojenog Barijevog sina, a Pan od
istoimenog grkog boga pastira, stada, njiva i uma, zatitnika prirode, velikog

36
Uzdranim pokretom kralj pokaza na svoju planetu, kao i na druge planete i zvezde. /Nad svim
tim? upita mali princ./ Nad svim tim... odgovori kralj.
37
Poslovni ovek kae: Kad nae dijamant koji nije niiji, on je tvoj [...] Kad ti neto prvom
padne na pamet, ti svoju misao patentira: ona je tvoja. A ja, ja sam prisvojio zvezde, zato to
nikada nikom pre mene nije palo na pamet da ih prisvoji. / To je istina, ree mali princ. I ta radi
s njima? / Upravljam. Brojim ih i prebrojavam, ree poslovni ovek.
38
Mali princ upita: ta znai diviti se? / Diviti se znai priznati da sam ja najlepi, najbolje
odeven, najbogatiji i najpametniji ovek na ovoj planeti. / Ali ti si sam na svojoj planeti! / Uini mi
to zadovoljstvo! Ipak mi se divi!/ Divim ti se, ree mali princ, sleui ramenima, ali, zato ti je to
tako vano?
39
Zato pije? upita ga mali princ. / Da zaboravim, odgovori pijanac. / ta da zaboravi?
Raspitivao se mali princ koji ga je ve alio. / Da zaboravim da se stidim [...] to pijem.
40
Bie lepo, zna. I ja u gledati zvezde. Sve zvezde e biti bunari sa zaralim ekrkom. Sve e mi
zvezde sipati da pijem. / Ja sam utao. / To e biti veoma zabavno! Ti e imati pet stotina miliona
zvonia, a ja u imati pet stotina miliona izvora.

ljubitelja muzike i najboljeg plesaa meu bogovima) a Klajv Luis likove za
Narnijsku hroniku (faune, kentaure, minotaure, umske vile).
Pored grke, na Luisa je znaajno uticala nordijska (patuljci i dinovi) i engle-
ska mitologija (Boini Otac
41
). I sama Narnija, kraljevstvo sa venom zimom,
podsea na Veliku zimu u nordijskoj mitologiji, poznatu kao Fimbulvetr
42
, koja
prethodi periodu zvanom Ragnarok.
43

Baumova knjiga arobnjak iz Oza takoe se oslanja na bogato evropsko
mitoloko naslee. Frenk Baum preuzima poznate prastare predstave o vilama,
patuljcima, sirenama, nimfama i drugim mitolokim biima i prenosi ih na stra-
nice svog romana. Svet Oza je nastanjen enskim duhovima prirode, koji ive na
raznobojnom luku duge i u mutnim, gustim maglama, potom, patuljcima koji i-
ve pod zemljom, sirenama koje se brinu o svim ivim biima u dubinama okeana
i nimfama koje u umama paze na biljke a cvee boje najnenijim bojama.
Snana inspiracija za moderne bajke su bili i mnogi epovi, pre svih
anglosaksonski junaki ep iz VIII veka Beowulf
44
sa preko 3000 stihova, stara
nordijska Vlsunga saga nastala u XIII veku, finski ep Kalevala, kolekcija staro-
nordijskih poema Poetic Edda i, u okviru nje, poema Vliusp
45
.
Tolkin je u jednom svom pismu istakao kako je poema Beowulf bila njegov
najvredniji izvor pri pisanju Hobita(31).Tako su centralni elementi radnje
romana, kraa pehara iz zmajevog gnezda i sam lik zmaja Smuga, nazvanog
Seivo poznatih, nadahnuti upeatljivim likovima iz ovog speva.

41
Father Christmas simbolina figura vezana za Boi. Ovo ime se obino koristi u zemljama
engleskog govornog podruja. Slina linost postoji i u drugim jezicima: Pre Nol u Francuskoj,
Pap Noel u paniji, il-Krismis Fader na Malti, itd. Boini Otac je simbolisao duh dobrog
raspoloenja za vreme Boia, ali niti je donosio poklone, niti je bio dovoen u vezu sa decom.
Ovaj lik je najvie uticao na formiranje lika Deda Mraza, s tim to je donoenje poklona preuzeto
iz lika sv. Nikole.
42
U nordijskoj mitologiji, Fimbulvetr [ili Velika zima] predstavlja period od tri uzastopne zime
kada e sneg padati iz svih pravaca, bez letnjih perioda. Tokom tog perioda vodie se brojni
ratovi, braa e se ubijati, vuk e pojesti sunce, zvezde i planine e nestati a drvee e biti
iupano iz korenja.
43
Ragnark se u nordijskoj mitologiji opisuje kao poslednja bitka bogova protiv zla posle koje
dolazi novi poredak i kraj naeg sveta.
44
Beowulf je pria koja govori o ovekovoj borbi protiv sila mraka i zla, udovita u liku trola
Grendela, Gredelove majke i zmaja koji bljuje vatru. Vlsunga saga, Velika pria sa Severa, za
nordijske narode je imala isti znaaj kao za Grke pria o Troji. Kalevala je spev koji je sauvao,
pored istorijskih i mitolokih dogaaja, i celokupno bogatstvo finskog folklora.
(Izvori: Beowulf, Classical Literature, http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/beowulf/bl-
beowulf-all.htm; The Story of the Volsungs, The Online Medieval & Classical Library,
http://omacl.org/Volsunga; Kalevala: The Epic Peom of Finland, Internet Sacred Text Archive,
http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/kveng/)
45Vliusp (ProrotvoVlva) [vlva glasnik maginog tapa, na staronordijskom jeziku]. Prva i
najpoznatija poema iz kolekcije Poetika Eda (Poetic Edda) /ova kolekcija je uglavnom sauvana u
Codex regius, srednjovekovnom rukopisu iz XIII veka/. ProrotvoVlva opisuje nastanak sveta i
njegov kraj, koji je Odin preko svog arobnog tapa poslao ljudima.

U poemi Vliusp i u drugim poemama u zbirci Poetika Eda Tolkin je naao
imena za patuljke iz Hobita.
I Kalevala je posluila Tolkinu kao znaajan izvor prilikom pisanja njegovih
knjiga, naroito Silmariliona. Tako u Silmarilionu sreemo priu
46
koja je inspi-
risana sudbinom Kulerva
47
, jednog od likova u Kalevali. Uticaj ovog uvenog
finskog epa na Tolkina moe se prepoznati i prilikom stvaranja mnogih imena u
bogatoj galeriji likova Gospodara prstenova.
Uoljiva je i slinost izmeu Tolkinove prie o Jednom Prstenu u Gospodaru
prstenova i prie o prstenu kao simbolu i sredstvu vlasti nad svetom u
Nibelukom prstenu Vagnerovom ciklusu od 4 opere
48
zasnovanom na raznim
germanskim i vikinkim sagama i epovima.
49
(Tolkin je ne jednom izjavio da se ta
slinost zavrava na injenici da su oba prstena okrugla, odbijajui da prizna
postojanje bilo kakvih daljih zajednikih crta i podudarnosti.)
Karlo Kolodi
50
je inspiraciju za glavni lik svog romana Pinokio dobio iz
razvijene tradicije italijanskog pozorita kako lutkarskog, tako i komedije del
arte [u okviru komedije del arte na njega je naroito uticao jedan od njenih
Zani
51
likova, Buratino
52
].
Prevodei 1875. godine sa francuskog Peroove bajke, Kolodi je poeleo da i
on sam napie bajku. Za glavni lik je uzeo jednog dobroudnog i vragolastog
lutka.
53
Pet godina kasnije poeo da pie prie pod nazivom Marionetina pria

46
To je pria o Turinu Turambaru, imaginarnom liku u Tolkinovim delima. Prvi put se pojavljuje u
Silmarilionu, a glavni je lik u knjizi Deca Hurinova.
47
Kulervo [Kullerwoinen], kobni i zlosreni sin kralja Kalerva, u detinjstvu je pokazivao veliki
potencijal. Ali, kako je loe podizan, izrastao je u nemoralnog i osvetoljubivog oveka. uvena je
poema o njegovoj smrti u kojoj on, poput Magbeta, ispituje svoj ma. Za razliku od ekspirove
drame gde bode ne govori, ma odgovara Kulervu i kae mu da e mu biti drago da prospe
njegovu krv kao to je rado uestvovao i u drugim gadnim Kulervovim delima. (Priao o Kulervu se
u Kalevali nalazi u runama [poglavljima] 31 36) <http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/kveng/>)
48
Rajnsko zlato, Valkira, Zigfrid i Sumrak bogova
49
Dela iz kojih je Vagner preuzeo radnju su vikinka Edda i Vlsunga saga, kao i srednjovekovna
nemaka poema Pesma o Nibelunzima. Vagnerove opere se bave temama ljubavi i potrage za
moi.
50
Carlo Collodi je knjievno ime. Pravo ime ovog pisca je Carlo Lorenzini.
51
Zanni prototip za lik sluge u komedijama del arte (commedia dellArte). Zani karakter je bio
stariji, siromani sluga koji je obino sluio kod bogatog Pantalonea (Pantalone). Nosio je crnu
masku slinu onoj koju je nosio njegov popularniji naslednik Arlekino (Arlecchino). Njegovo
ponaanje je komina verzija siromanih slojeva u Bergamu. Glavni cilj mu je bio da brzo zadovolji
svoje elje.
52
Burrattino, takoe i Burattino ili Burratino. Ime potie od italijanskog burattino, to znai
drvena lutka. On je varijanta karaktera po imenu Pedrolino. Ima izuzetno dobru prirodu, estit je,
pouzdan i poverljiv. Iako je Buratino bio manje popularan na sceni komedije del arte, on je od
XVII veka u Italiji naao svoje mesto na sceni marionetskog pozorita.
53
Kolodijev drveni lutak Pinokio samo je jedna od brojnih varijacija drevnih, alegorijskih likova
koji potiu iz dubina pretklasnog folklora. Mihail Bahtin, govorei o nekim od tih alegorijskih
likova pre svega o likovima lude, komedijaa i lakrdijaa pie: Samo postojanje tih likova

(Storia di un barattino), nazvane jo i Pinokijeve avanture (Le avventure di
Pinocchio)
54
.
Pored snanog uticaja lutkarskog pozorita, pre svega marioneta koje su bile
negovane na jugu Italije i sicilijanki sa Sicilije, u romanu se pojavljuju i dva
tradicionalna lika komedije del arte, Arlekin i Pulinela, kao i lik iz evropskog
mitolokog naslea jedna vila, kojoj Kolodi daje ime Vila sa tirkiznom kosom.
Na modernu bajku nastalu tokom XIX i XX veka vidljiv uticaj su imala i
razliita filozofska i teoloka uenja.
Svet Malog princa obojen je snanim tonovima egzistencijalistike filozofije.
Osnovna pitanja ovog uenja, kao to su: Zato ljudi ne mogu da ive sreni?
ili Kakav je smisao ovekovog trajanja?, jesu i pitanja kojima je zaokupljen
glavni junak ovog romana.
Na tom tragu je i autorov izbor mesta na kome je smetena radnja Malog
princa. Nepregledna prazna pustinja nameran je izbor Egziperija, koji slikovito
reflektuje kako njegovo oseanje ivota i pesimistiku viziju sveta (ovaj roman je
natopljen dubokim nespokojstvom i oseanjem usamljenosti i straha, koji, po
Egziperiju, truju ivot svakog pojedinca, osuujui ga na trajanje ispunjeno
patnjom i bolom, kao i na besmisleno kretanje po ogranienom ivotnom
krugu), tako i osnovna pitanja egzistencijalitikog uenja.
Hans Andersenunosi u svoju Malu sirenu brojne elemente hrianske misli i
uenja. Oni se mogu prepoznati u enji glavne junakinje za gornjim svetom
[svet smeten gore, iznad povrine vode i vodenog carstva u kome ivi juna-
kinja, nastanjen je ljudima; iznad njega ezistira jo jedan svet, nastanjen keri-
ma vazduha, koji asocira na stanite anela]; potom, u udnji glavne junakinje da
stekne veni ivot [Andersen u Maloj sireni istie da je svet sirena takoe smrtan],
kao i u slikanju puta kojim se moe stei besmrtnost [analogno hrianskom
uenju, i keri vazduha mogu postati besmrtne ukoliko pomau drugima i ine

[obeenjak, luda i lakrdija podvukla D. K. B.] nema direktno, ve prenosno znaenje. [Njih] ne
treba shvatiti bukvalno, nisu ono to predstavljaju [...] Lakrdija i luda 'nisu od ovog sveta' i zato
imaju posebna prava i privilegije. Ti likovi se i sami smeju, i njima se rugaju [...] Naen je oblik
postojanja oveka ravnoduan uesnik u ivotu, njegov veni posmatra i slikar i naeni su
specifini oblici njegovog odraavanja-objavljivanja [...] njegova spoljanja alegorinost [...] Jer,
radi se o alegorijskom postojanju celokupnog oveka zakljuno s njegovim pogledom na svet, koje
se nikako ne podudara sa glumevom igrom uloge (Bahtin 275-85). Upijajui snane arhetipske
strune kojim zrae likovi pristigli sa pozorine scene iz daleke prolosti, i Pinokio poput svih
ostalih karaktera na sceni lutkarskog pozorita dobija mitoloko ruho. Time se upotpunjuje
njegova dvostruka priroda u predmetnom svetu on jeste drveni lutak koji prolazi kroz razne
avanture, a u prenesenom znaenju on postaje arhetipski model koji je na tragu irih,
metaforikih impulsa.
54
Prva polovina pria tampana je u prvom italijanskom asopisu za decu pod nazivom Il Giornale
dei Bambini izmeu 1880 -1883. Kolodi ih je kasnije kompletirao i kao roman objavio u februaru
1883.

dobra dela]. (Pri kraju prie Andersenova bajka
55
u mnogim detaljima bitno se
razlikuje od poznatih skraenih verzija jedna od keri vazduha kae Maloj
sireni: Ti, jadna Mala sireno, itavim svojim biem si pokuavala da ini ono
to mi radimo; patila si, trpela i svojim dobrim delima uzdigla si sebe do sveta
duha; sada, ukoliko bude ila istim putem za tri stotine godina stei e
besmrtnost
56
[The Little Mermaid].)
I siejna struktura Male sirene snano asocira na hriansku sliku verti-
kalnog modela sveta, posebno znaajnu za mitsku misao. U ovom modelu za-
miljena osa spaja tri regije: podzemnu, zemnu i nebesku [kosmiku]. Hrian-
stvo u podzemnu regiju smeta Pakao, u nebesku Raj a u zemnu regiju, tom
svojevrsnom preseku donje i gornje sfere, svet u kome ive ljudi.
Andersen na isti nain deli svet Male sirene, samo to vertikalni kosmiki
model sada ine nove oblasti on u podzemni region smeta carstvo ispod
povrine vode, nastanjeno sirenama, a u nebeski vazduna bia koje naziva
kerima vazduha.
I Narnijske hronike Klajva Luisa su proete elementima hrianskog uenja.
U svih sedam knjiga provlai se lik lava Aslana Isus se u Bibliji naziva lav iz
plemena Judina [Luis ovaj karakter nije zamislio kao Hrista, ve mu je samo dao
neke osobine Hristove linosti]. U knjizi Lav, vetica i orman Aslan se rtvuje,
umire i uskrsava po uzoru na Hrista. Glavna tema knjige Princ Kaspijan je veni
ivot do koga se dolazi putem prolivanja krvi za drugog, to je jedno od osnovnih
naela hrianskog uenja. U knjigama arobnjakov neak i Posljednja bitka
teme su stvaranje i kraj sveta, a u knjizi Srebrna stolica uenitvo, po uzora na
apostole u hrianstvu.

Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema natprirodnom

U tradicionalnoj bajcinatprirodno se javlja tek povremeno, presecajui ra-
cionalni tok zbivanja. Time pria, sastavljena od niza spoljnih realnih detalja, do-
bija jedan specifian, veoma osoben elemenat magino i udesno najednom
iskrsne u junakovoj realnosti, oboji, usmeri ili, ak, iz temelja promeni uslove u
kojima junak ivi i potom nestane.

55
Kompletna verzija Andersenove bajke Mala sirena dostupna je na internet izvoru: Hans
Christian Andersen: Fairy Tales and Stories. English Translation: H. P. Paull (1872)
<http://hca.gilead.org.il/li_merma.html >.
56
You, poor little mermaid, have tried with your whole heart to do as we are doing; you have
suffered and endured and raised yourself to the spirit-world by your good deeds; and now, by
striving for three hundred years in the same way, you may obtain an immortal soul (prevela D.
Krenkovi Brkovi).

Magino ostavlja vidan trag na junaku, ali u siejnoj strukturi tradicionalne
bajke nema dominantnu ulogu. U Pepeljuzi vila se pojavi u momentu kada je
potrebna junakinji. Ona, bludei u visini, sa lakoom koja je svojstvena tim
biima, jednim potezom ruke stvori prelepu haljinu i koiju, omogui nesrenoj
devojci da ode na bal i nestane. U bajci Ivica i Marica naputena deca sreu zlu
veticu, koja je svojim posebnim moima sagradila kuu od okolade ne bi li
njome privukla lakoverne, ali vetica tokom prie ne koristi svoje arobne sile. U
Uspavanoj lepotici vile se pojavlju na poetku bajke, meutim, dejstvo kobi koju
je Zla vila bacila na tek roenu princezu poinje mnogo godina kasnije, u
trenutku kada se ona ubode na vreteno. U Sneani i sedam patuljaka natpri-
rodno sreemo u sceni maehinog razgovora sa ogledalom i u arobnom dej-
stvu prinevog poljupca, u Maku u izmamau pojavi dina koji ume da se
transformie u bilo koje stvorenje a u Crvenkapi u udesnom Crvenkapinom i
bakinom spaavanju iz utrobe vuka na kraju prie...
Svi ovi primeri potvruju da u okviru realistike narativne situacije tradicio-
nalne bajke, koja neposredno podrava ljudski ivot, udesno i fantastino
je prisutno samo u odreenim trenucima. Nosioci natprirodnih moi svojim
pozitivnim (vile, arobnjaci) i negativnim (zmajevi, dinovi, vetice, trolovi, zli
patuljci) delovanjem menjaju ivote ljudi. Oni ih dovode u ili ih oslobaaju od
tekih, bolnih, esto nereivih ivotnih tekoa, ali to njihovo dejstvo ne uspeva
da natkrili ukupnu grau prie.
Tradicionalna bajka natprirodnom daje samo epizodnu ulogu ta epizoda
jeste vana, nekada i presudna, ali u ukupnoj grai prie ona ostaje izdvojena.
Treba pomenuti i jedan zanimljiv podatak u pojedinim tradicionalnim bajka-
ma elemenat natprirodnogdobija naroitu ulogu. On se, poput Deus ex machina,
pojavljuje u trenutku kada je potrebno da se razrei odreena, esto bezizlazna
situacija u kojoj se nalazi junak prie, i to na nain koji se kosi sa principima logike
i zdravog razuma (Pepeljuga).
Nasuprot ovome, u siejnoj strukturi moderne bajke magini svet natpriro-
dnih bia ukljuen je u priu od samog njenog poetka.
U Narnijskim hronikama glavni likovi, dva brata i dve sestre, igrajui se igre
skrivanja, pronau stari ormar, zakorae kroz njega i nau se u svetu Narnije,
posle ega kree njihova velika avantura. U Hobitu i Gospodaru prstenova ve
sa prvim reenicama ulazimo u jedan fantastian svet u kome ive natprirodna
bia hobiti, arobnjaci, patuljci i zmajevi. I u Malom princu i Pinokiju autori
uvode junake neobino bie pristiglo iz dubine svemira, odn. malenog drve-
nog lutka koji najednom oivi na prvim stranicama svojih romana. Luis Kerol
57

zapoinje svoj roman Alisa u zemlji uda prizorom kada Alisa, koja se dosauje
na obali reke, ugleda zagonetnog belog zeca, potri za njim, propadne kroz

57
Luis Kerol [Lewis Caroll] je pseudonim engleskog pisca i matematiara arlsa Latvida Dodsona
[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson].

stablo i upadne u iaeni svet u kome ne moe da se snae. U arobnjaku iz
Oza Kanzas i gradi u kome ivi Doroti na poetku prie zahvati uragan koji
odnese ovu devojicu u nestvarnu zemlju Oz. I u Petru Panu dva bia sa natpri-
rodnim moima, vila Zvonica i deak koji ume da leti, pojavljuju se na samom
poetku romana oni kroz prozor ulete u sobu porodice Darling, arobnim pra-
hom omogue Vendi, Donu i Majklu da polete i povedu ih sa sobom u Nedo-
iju, zemlju koja se sree samo u mati.
Ovakav odnos moderne bajke prema natprirodnom proirio je dramaturki i
anrovski okvir tradicionalne bajke. Moderna bajka sada dobija atribute
fantastine prie
58
, epske fantastike
59
ili knjievnosti nonsensa i apsurda.
Pomeranjem ovih okvira, bajka XIX i XX veka otvorila je sebi prostor da na
nov nain izrazi sva ona dublja i jedinstvena znaenja koja su prisutna u
unutranjem, nevidljivom delu njene poetske strukture.

Odnos junaka tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema natprirodnom

U tradicionalnoj bajcijunak nije zapanjen maginim dogaajima, niti susret
safantastinim biima i njihovim udesnim moima izaziva kod njega neko
iznenaenje. Junak tradicionalne bajke sa nesvakidanjom lakoom prihvata
neverovatne prizore, tako da izgleda kao da on natprirodne inioce smatra
prirodnim i loginim produetkom ivota koji ga okruuje.
Kad se u Pepeljuzi pojavi vila, junakinja ne pokazuje da je zauena nestvar-
nom vizijom u vazduhu, niti njenom moi da jednim pokretom ruke stvori bal-
sku haljinu i koiju sa upregnutim konjima. U Uspavanoj lepotici kraljevski par
prihvata vile i njihove zadivljujue darove za tek roenu princezu [mudrost,
lepotu i muziki talenat] kao to bi prihvatio poklone bilo kog smrtnika na svetu.
U Sneani i sedam patuljaka maeha razgovara sa ogledalom a Sneana pristaje
da ivi sa patuljcima kao da su to najprirodnije stvari. Ni mlinarev sin u Maku u
izmama nije iznenaen to njegov maak govori, traei torbu i par izama.
Slino reaguju Ali Baba i Aladin u bajkama Ali Baba i 40 razbojnika i Aladin i
njegova arobna lampa Ali Baba je vie obradovan otkriem nemerljivog
blaga, nego to je zapanjen injenicom da na Zemlji postoji stena koja moe da
se pokrene kada se izgovore odreene magine rei, ba kao to Aladin sa
radou i neuobiajenom lakoom prihvata postojanje duha koji ima mo da
ispuni svaku njegovu elju.

58
Dananja fantastina pria se u svetskoj knjievnosti zaela kao gotska pripovetka a razvila se
krajem XVIII i poetkom XIX veka kao pria strave i neoekivanog obrta.
59
Epska fantastika kao pravac (anr) u knjievnosti koristi magiju i druge natprirodne oblike kao
primarne elemente u zapletu, temi ili postavci. Od naune fantastike i horora se obino razlikuje
po temi, mada meu njima ima i znaajnih preklapanja.

Nasuprot tome, u modernoj bajci junak je svestan prisustva natprirodne
moi i njenih nosilaca.On to izraava na mnogo naina:

A. Junak je zauen poput Alise u Alisi u zemlji uda i Doroti u
arobnjaku iz Oza
B. Junak jeuplaen poput hobita Bilba Baginsa i patuljka Torina Hrasto-
tita u Hobitu ili mnogih likova u Gospodaru prstenova i Narnijskim
hronikama
C. Junak oboava tu natprirodnu mo poput Goluma u Gospodaru
prstenova.

Dakle, prizori udesnih svetova, fantastinih bia i njihovih maginih moi
izazivaju u junacima modernih bajki njihovu reakciju. Oni pred pojavom nepo-
znatog vidljivo i na razliite naine iskazuju svoje iznenaenje, zateenost, u-
enje, uznemirenost,zabrinutost, bojazan, strah ili naroitu vezanost, potova-
nje, zadivljenost, strastvenu odanost i ljubav.

Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema vremenu

Tradicionalna bajka odreuje svoj odnos prema vremenutako to negira
njegovo postojanje. Najpoznatiji primer je bajka Uspavana lepotica u kojoj se
junakinja, osloboena ini, budi iz svog stogodinjeg sna onako mlada i lepa kao
to je bila u momentu kada je zaspala. Sto godina, koje je proteklo od momenta
kada je zaspala, nije ostavilo nikakvog traga ni na njoj, ni na dvorskoj sviti.
U ovoj vanoj osobini tradicionalna bajka prati navike ljudi. I mi postajemo
svesni proticanja vremena samo u odreenim trenucima (poslednjeg dana u
godini, pri doeku Nove godine, i sl.) Tokom naeg ivota mi obino ne razmi-
ljamo o tome kako vreme nezaustavljivo protie, niti smo u svakom momentu
svesni svog procesa starenja. Tradicionalna bajka se ponaa na isti nain i deo
moi koju ona ima nad itaocem potie upravo iz oseanja pobede nad vre-
menom i prolaznou.
Moderna bajka ne ponitava vreme, ve iskazuje svest o njegovom postoj-
anju.
U Maloj sireni junakinja sanja o venom ivotu, iako sirene u ovoj bajci ive
tri stotine godina. U Petru Panu glavni junak ivi u Nedoiji i odbija da odraste.
U Gospodaru prstenova Bilbo Bagins, zahvaljujui prstenu koji je pronaao,
izgleda mnogo mlae nego to njegovi sunarodnici sa sto i vie godina izgledaju.
Tema knjige Princ Kaspijan iz serijala Narnijske hronike je dosezanje venog
ivota, a u Malom Princu jedan od likova, ozbiljni i trezveni geograf, zauenom
Malom princu naglaava kako u svojim knjigama ne belei nita to je prolazno i

podlono osipanju (zato je za njega cvee nezanimljivo), ve samo ono to je
veno, kakve su planine (Egziperi 90).
60

U narativnoj strukturi tradicionalne i moderne bajke vreme ima jednu
posebnu karakteristiku ono se iskazuje kao apstraktno. Ova apstraktnost
dosledno je sprovedena.
Svaka tradicionalna bajka pripoveda dogaaj koji se zbio nekad, u nekom
trenutku, i ta mutna neodreenost prua ovoj bajci ansu da, dok pria o odre-
enom, konkretnom dogaaju, istovremeno prati i trajne odrednice u ljudskom
ponaanju.
Moderna bajka prihvata ovakav odnos tradicionalne bajke prema vremenu.
Ukoliko se desi da autor pomene neki poseban vremenski period (Tolkinovo
Srednje doba u Hobitu i Gospodaru prstenova), vremenska udaljenost izmeu
naeg i tog trenutka je tolika da dobijaja odlike apstraktnosti.

Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema prostoru

Apstraktan oblik vremena tradicionalne bajke odreuje apstraktan oblik
njenog prostora. Nepoznati autor smeta svoje likove u kraj koji nema jasne
obrise tako da italac/slualac stie utisak da mesto deavanja odreene bajke
moe biti bilo koja taka na zemljinoj kugli. Ovom svojom osobinom prostor
tradicionalne bajke gubi osobine realistikog prosedea i postaje znak u kome se
vidljivo i konkretno stapa sa optim i neodreenim.
Isto se deava i sa onim tradicionalnim bajkama koje pominju ime mesta u
kome je smetena radnja (Bagdad, Damask, Samarkand). I njihov svet je pred-
stavljen tek u naznakama, bez nekih izdvojenih detalja, tako da sve ostaje nagla-
eno mutno. Mi vidimo da junaci ive u mestima koja prepoznajemo kao realni
geografski prostor, ali za te konkretne lokacije ove bajke ne pruaju dalja
obeleja. Takvi konfuzni i neprecizni opisi vode ka prevoenju realnog ambi-
jenta ovih bajki u simbol i ka njihovom konanom oblikovanju kao jednog
neodreenog nedefinisanog apstraktnog prostora.
I modernu bajku nastalu tokom XIX i XX veka odlikuje apstraktan prostor, ali
taj prostor sada nosi drugaija obeleja. To su nova ambijentalnost i detalji-
zacija.
Autor modernih bajki smeta svoje junakeuambijente kakve tradicionalna
bajka ne poznaje, od onirikog sveta Alise u zemlji uda, preko kosmosa i
pustinje u Malom princu, do nepoznatih zemalja Oz
61
, Nedoija
62
i Narnija
63

60
Na pitanje Malog Princa: ta znai 'Prolazno'?, geograf odgovara: To znai ono to e ubrzo
nestati.
61
Zemlja Oz je Baumov fantastian svet. Ima kvadratni oblik koji je izdeljen na etiri zemlje sa
Ozom, odn. Smaragdnim gradom u centru. Svaka zemlja ima svoju boju plava za istonu

(arobnjak iz Oza, Petar Pan i Narnijske kronike) i izmiljenog velikog kontinenta
po imenu Srednja Zemlja
64
(Hobit, Silmarilion i Gospodar prstenova). Pojedini
knjievnici, poput Tolkina, ak izmiljaju i itavu genealogiju ovih zemalja.
65

I pri opisu pejzaa pisac modernih bajki naputa uobiajenu svedenost
tradicionalne bajke pa poinje da unosi mnogo vei broj pojedinosti i zanimljivih
detalja. Time dogaaj o kome pripoveda postaje iscrpniji a slika predela boga-
tija za niz karakteristinih osobina, crta, odlika ili neoekivanih podataka.
U svojoj potrebi za detaljizacijom neki autori ak idu dalje i stvaraju naroite
mape predela kroz koja prolaze njihovi junaci (poznata je Tolkinova mapa u Ho-
bitu). Tako se stie utisak da prostor tog dela, prepun jasnih i preciznih poda-
taka, poinje da nosi obeleja realistikog prosedea.
Meutim, ovaj utisak vara. I pored prisustva obilja imena reka, planina, sela,
oblasti i irih regija, kao i toponima visoravni, uma, lugova, padina ili puteva,
prostor u ovim delima se i dalje ne moe lako locirati. Brojni detalji koji bi trebalo
da nas uvere u istinitost celokupnog sadraja su tu, ali oni ne dovode do blieg
odreenja prostornih odnosa u samom delu, niti do prepoznavanja prostora.
Ovim priguivanjem realnog okvira, autor modernih bajki utapa konkretno
mesto u kome se kreu njegovi likovi u mnogo iri ambijent. Time se analogno
procesima u tradicionalnoj bajci prostor iz poetnog, materijalnog, znaka
transformie u simbol, odn. on se iz konkretnog pretae u apstraktan prostor.
Jedna od posebnih karakteristika prostora tradicionalne i moderne bajkena
koji treba ukazati jeste i njegova binarna opozicija. U osnovi mitskog sagleda-
vanja sveta tradicionalnih drutava lei zamiljena osa sveta. Ta mitska pred-

[Munchkin], uta za zapadnu [Winkie], crvena za junu [Quadlings], ljubiasta za severnu
[Gillikins] i zelena za sredinji Oz-Smaragdni grad [Emerald]. Oz je okruen pustinjom koja titi
graane od spoljnih invazija.
62
Po Bariju, Nedoija je pronaena u glavama dece i zato se razlikuje od deteta do deteta.
Zapravo, mapa uma deteta podsea na mapu Nedoije, pre svega po tome to ne poznaje bilo
kakve granice. Nedoiju nastanjuju vile, sirene, Izgubljeni deaci pleme siroadi koja su doletela
u Nedoiju na vilinskoj praini, potom pirati, Indijanci i razne ivotinje.
63
Narnija je svet koji je kreirao pisac Klajv S. Luis. Po Luisu, Narniju je stvorio veliki lav Aslan.
Nastanjena je ivotinjama koje umeju da govore, kao i raznim mitskim biima. Na jugu dominiraju
visoravni a na severu ume i movare. Narnija na istoku izlazi na Istoni okean a na zapadu je
opasana velikim planinskim lancima.
64
Srednja Zemlja je Tolkinov imaginarni svet, koji oznaava bojno polje na kome se sukobljavaju
sile dobra i zla. To je mesto izmeu raja i pakla, neba i podzemlja, dakle Zemlja. Na drevnom
vilenjakom jeziku kvenija [quenya], koji je Tolkin takoe izmislio, Srednja Zemlja se zvala Endor
[Endr]. Poznato je da je Tolkin stvorio ak petnaest jezika, od kojih su najpoznatija dva
vilovnjaka iz Gospodara prstenova kvenija i sindarin /sindarin/. Kasnije je kreirao itavu istoriju
Srednje zemlje i nove rase koji su je nastanjivali, koristei ove jezike.
65
Na istonoj strani Srednje Zemlje Tolkin smeta drugi veliki kontinent, poznat i kao Aman ili
Neumirue Zemlje. Ova dva kontinenta razdvajalo je more Belegair. Tokom vremena i posle
mnogih promena od Srednje Zemlje su se razvile Evropa, Azija i Afrika.

stava zasniva se na binarnoj opoziciji, koja sa sobom nosi vrednosti sa su-
protnim predznakom.
Identifikacija na jednoj ravni, svet neba i kosmosa, ima svoju suprotnost u
podzemnom carstvu. Pratei njihove krakateristeike, moe se uoiti da su sve
osobine ovih regija vezane za brojne dualizme: gore-dole, svetlo-tama, belo-
crno, dobro-ravo, srea-nesrea, dobra sudbina zla sudbina, Beli bog Crni
bog. I dalje, svoje-tue, unutranje-spoljanje, centar-periferija, itd.
Moderna bajka se oslanja na ovo mitsko naslee.
Glavni junak Malog Princa dolee odozgo, iz vasione [gornja sfera] i pada
dole, na Zemlju [donja sfera]
66
. Mali Princ na Zemlji sree odnose koji ga plae
svojom okrutnou, sebinou i ravnodunou i on ezne da se vrati nazad,
gore, u vasionu odakle je stigao.
I u Alisi u zemlji uda sreemo binarnu opoziciju gore-dole. Letei kroz sta-
blo, Alisa padne dole, u svet pomerenih odnosa i izokrenutih vrednosti a tokom
itavog romana ona tei da nae put napolje, to u Alisinom sluaju podra-
zumeva put ka gore.
Binarna opozicija je vidljiva i u arobnjaku iz Oza. Dobra vila i zla vetica su
na suprotnim stranama Oza, tako da je jedna arobnica Junog, a druga
Severnog kraljevstva. (Juno je ovde isto to i dobro, svetlo, gore, a severno je
sinonim za zlo, tamu, dole.)
Sa ovim drevnim dualistikim odreenjima koja poivaju na mitskom zaleu,
moderna bajka je otvorila prostor za sva ona onostrana, metafizika, znaenja
koja lee sa druge strane vidljivog toka deavanja. Time je ona sebi dala ansu
da predstavi i iznese duboku slojevitost mnogostrukih manifestacija ivota, ali i
da kroi na iskonsku, univerzalnu matricu trajanja.

Odnos tradicionalne i moderne bajke prema liku oveka

U uslovima gde seapstraktan prostor i apstraktno vreme uzajamno proi-
maju, kao to je to sluaj u tradicionalnoj i modernojbajci, ovekov lik se
iskazuje u naroitom svetlu.
Prilikom slikanja oveka tradicionalna bajka vie tei ka psiholokom i dru-
tvenom uoptavanju i tipizaciji, nego za snanom psiholokom, drutvenom i
jezikom individualizacijom likova.
U knjievnosti tip je lik ija su karakterna svojstva toliko opta da nam se on
ni ne predstavlja kao konkretna ljudska linost odreena vlastitom psihologijom
i drutvenim ambijentom, nego kao neka opta kategorija (Renik knjievnih

66
Kod Egziperija, donja regija je identifikovana sa naim, realnim svetom u kome ivimo.

termina 814) a samo postojanje tipa ukazuje na karakteristine naine mani-
festovanja opteg u pojedinanom (814).
Tradicionalna bajka najee za svoje junake uzima princeze (Uspavana
lepotica), prineve (Pepeljuga, Uspavana lepotica, Sneana i sedam patuljaka),
maehe (Sneana i sedam patuljaka, Ivica i Marica), vladare (kralj u Uspavanoj
lepotici i Pepeljuzi, ah u 1001 noi), vile (Pepeljuga, Uspavana lepotica), vetice
(Ivici i Marici), dinove (Maak u izmama), patuljke (Sneana i sedam
patuljaka), itd. Svi ovi likovi imaju neto zajedniko njih ne krase pojedinana
obeleja, ve opte osobine koje karakteriu neku grupu ljudi, sredinu ili ljudski
rod uopte (813).
Moderna bajka XIX i XX veka u velikoj meri zadrava ove osobine tradicio-
nalne bajke (odreeni likovi u arobnjaku iz Oza
67
,Pinokiju
68
, Petru Panu
69
,
Hobitu i Gospodaru prstenova,
70
Narnijskim kronikama,
71
itd.), ali ona poinje da
koristi i naglaenu individualizaciju i karakterizaciju likova (Narnijske kronike,
Hobit, Silmarilion,Gospodar prstenova, glavni lik u Malom Princu). Kroz te
procese lik oveka u modernoj bajci poinje da gubi svoja tipska obeleja i
postaje individua, linost, neko koga odlikuju odreena psihofizika stanja i
postupci.
U modernim bajkama linost je predstavljena plastino i svestrano. Ona se
iskazuje kao glavna ili sporedna, kontemplativna ili sklona delanju, komina ili
tragina, u skladu ili u stalnom sukobu sa sobom i drugima. Takoe, ona je i
jedinstvena i neobina ili ekscentrina i oprena, slaba i kolebljiva ili vrsta i
postojana, i mnogo toga jo.
Sam proces sagledavanja i prikazivanja svih ovih osobina pojedinih likova,
dakle njihova karakterizacija, razlikuje se od autora do autora. Pojedini pisci
modernih bajki koriste akciju i svoje likove uobliavaju kroz njihove postupke,
drugi se slue kontemplacijom tako da linosti vie iznose svoja razmiljanja
nego to delaju, a trei koriste kombinovani postupak.
U predstavljanju lika oveka mogu se uoiti jo neke razlike izmeu
tradicionalne i moderne bajke.
A. Tradicionalna bajka smeta svoje junake u podreene i siromane (Pepe-
ljuga, Ivica i Marica,Mlinarev sin, Aladin) ili u najvie drutvene slojeve (kraljevi i
sultani, princeze, prinevi).
Moderna bajka naputa ovaj, u osnovi duboko podeljeni, svet prisutan u
tradicionalnoj bajci i donosiitavu galeriju novih likova. Tu su: bie iz svemira

67
Vetice, arobnjaci, kepeci
68
Arlekin, Pulinela, vila
69
Vila, sirene, Indijanci, gusari
70
Vilenjaci, patuljci, trolovi, zmajevi
71
Prinevi, vetice, kentauri, minotauri, nimfe, zmajevi, patuljci, fauni, satiri, dinovi, trolovi,
jednorozi

koje ivi na malom asteroidu, ozbiljni crveni uobraenko koji po ceo dan rauna,
uobraenko koji eli da mu se svi dive, pijanica koji pije da bi zaboravio da se
stidi to pije, poslovni ovek koji rauna i stie, fenjerdija koji na malenoj
planeti iz minute u minut pali i gasi fenjer, racionalni geograf koji belei zapa-
anja drugih, ali sam ne istrauje (Mali princ); Karte /vojnici, Kraljica/ i Maak sa
osmehom koji ostaje u vazduhu (Alisa u zemlji uda); drveni lutak
(Pinokio);Strailo i Limeni ovek (arobnjak iz Oza);Statua ukraena zlatom,
safirima i rubinima (Sreni Princ); deak koji ume da leti i odbija da odraste
72
,
Izgubljeni deaci ili pleme siroadi
73
(Petar Pan); Hobiti
74
, Istari
75
, Nazguli
76
,
Balrog
77
, Golum
78
, Enti
79
(Hobit, Gospodar prstenova), i tako redom
80
(Krenkovi
Brkovi 89-111; 117-50; 9-42).
B. Tradicionalna bajka voli snane kontraste zastraujue kazne i divne
nagrade, dinove i kepece, zlatnu kosu princeza i elave glave divova, dobro i
zlo, lepotu i runou, crno i belo.
Moderna bajka, zadravajui ovu osobinu, poinje da neguje i nijansiranost u
pripovedanju.

72
Petar Pan je karakter koji je kreirao kotski prozni i dramski pisac Dejms Metju Bari. To je
vragolasti deak koji ivi u izmiljenoj zemlji Nedoiji.
73
Izgubljeni deaci su Barijevi izmiljeni likovi. To su oni deaci koje su dadilje izgubile na mestima
kao to je, na primer, Kensingtonska bata u Londonu. Ukoliko bi nestali a niko ih ne bi traio
sedam dana, nali bi se u Nedoiji gde bi nastavili da ive sa Petrom Panom.
74
Hobiti su rasa koju je Tolkin izmislio. Malog su rasta i ive u velikim i istim rupama u zemlji.
Nikada ne nose cipele jer imaju dlakave tabane i ogromna stopala.
75
Istari, Tolkinovi izmatani likovi, su arobnjaci koji su doli iz Valinora da spree Saurona da
pokori Srednju Zemlju. Imaju oblik oveka, ali poseduju daleko vee moi od ljudi.
76
Nazguli su bili devet kraljeva iz Tolkinove trilogije, koji su roeni u Drugom dobu sunca. Oni su
od Saurona dobili devet ljudskih prstenova moi, ali ih je on prevario i pretvorio u utvare.
Vremenom su postali Sauronovi robovi.
77
Barlog je izmiljeni Tolkinov lik. Na sindarinu, izmiljenom Tolkinovom jeziku, Barlog znai
Demon moi. Tolkin ga opisuje kao visoko, pretee bie u obliku oveka, koje kontrolie vatru i
senku. Od oruja koristi zapaljeni ma i bi. Izaziva veliki strah u neprijatelju jer se moe obaviti
senkom i tamom.
78
Golum je jo jedan Tolkinov izmatani lik. Pripadao je narodu koji je slian hobitima. Kada je
njegov prijatelj upecao Jedinstveni Prsten, ubio ga je, uzeo prsten i pobegao u planine. Prsten mu
je podario ivot od 500 godina.
79
Enti su izmiljeni narod iz Tolkinove trilogije. To su visoka stabla [uvari uma] starija ak i od
vilenjaka. Izali su iz misli Javane, kraljice Zemlje. Enti spolja izgledaju kao drvee, snani su i
vrsti. Obino su mirni, razmiljaju vrlo polako i smireno, ali kada se naljute u stanju su da unite
itavu vojsku Orka i Trolova. Bili su besmrtni poput vilenjaka, ali su vremenom upali u neki
aroban san pa su postali slini drveu koje uvaju.
80
U bajci Neobina pria ili Nevolje jednog malog zareza junaci su maleni Zarez, Slova, estar i
likovi iz stripa (Klementina, Maskirani Jaha i erif). U udesnoj zvezdi sreemo zvezde na
nebeskom svodu (Zvezdica, Najstarija Zvezda), senke (Maskirani I i II), brau blizance (Kralj I i II) i
podanike u obliku knjige, sata, ajnika, svenjaka i gusenice. U Tajni plavog kristala, izmeu
ostalih likova, tu su i misteriozni uvar plavog kristala, aveti (Spodoba I, II i III) i Zmija.

C. Tradicionalna bajka iskazuje naglaenu tenju za izbegavanjem detaljnih
opisa emotivnih stanja likova. Ova vana osobina daje toj bajci preciznost i
jasnou.
Moderna bajka zanemaruje tu crtu tradicionalne forme. Ona, pored opisa
spoljanjeg, prikazuje i moralno-psihiki lik svojih junaka uz isticanje nekog
gesta koji ga odreuje. Uz to, moderna bajka opisuje i usamljenost svojih likova,
potom, njihovu stalnu izloenost stradanju, tekim iskuenjima i trpljenju, kao i
njihovu egzistencijalnu strepnju, patnju i bol.
Sve to dovodi do uobliavanja novog lika junaka u modernoj bajci XIX i XX
veka ovek je neko ko je izolovan i povuen u svojoj samoi, ali istovremeno i
bie koje je sposobno da uspostavi univerzalne odnose.

Razliiti pogledi na svet tradicionalne i moderne bajke

Sve ove pomenute osobine tradicionalnih i modernih bajki vode do stvaranja
njihovih potpuno razliitih pogleda na svet.
Tradicionalna bajka kreirajedan harmonian i neunitiv svet.Sve slui tom
cilju njeni likovi, njihove akcije i oseanja, ak i natprirodna bia. Dok ita ovu
bajku italac ulazi u svet koji je stabilan, vrsto struktuiran i sa jasno odreenim
optevaeim etikim normama. U istom trenuku, taj svet je i sveden tako da
tradicionalna bajka uobliava pojednostavljen model stvarnosti.
Koristei prerueni i uproeni prikaz realnosti, tradicionalna bajka kao da
poruuje da iza svih roenja i smrti egzistira stvarnost koja je, istina duboko
podeljena i nepomirljivo razdvojena, ali u svojoj osnovi protkana lepotom, skla-
dom, blistavou i izobiljem. Svet koji je stvorila tradicionalna bajka jedinstvena
je pozornica koja svojom velianstvenou izaziva divljenje.
Takva poruka prua mnogostruka zadovoljstva itaocu: s jedne strane, ona
mu nudi dragoceno oseanje postojanosti, sigurnosti i bezbednosti, a sa druge
veru i nadu da je uprkos postojeih tekoa, munih pritisaka i bolnih stra-
danja kojima je izloen u ivotu ipak sve otvoreno, dostupno i mogue.
Nasuprot tome, moderna bajka stvara sliku jednog nepostojanog sveta. U
tom svetu ovek nema odreenu taku uporita. Ne postoji ni neko isho-dite
koje bi mu garantovalo sigurnost ili stabilnost. Podloan stalnim menama, ovaj
svet utie na ovekovu osnovnu egzistencijalnu situaciju i podstie u njemu
raanje optereujuih oseanja strepnje, slutnje, straha i nespokojstva.
Imaginarni svetovi bajki nastali tokom XIX i XX veka slikaju ivot u kome su
njihovi junaci stalno zapitani gde se to nalaze i u kakvom svetu to oni ive. Ovo
neodreeno, ali intenzivno oseanje izgubljenosti produbljuje u pojednicu tego-
bno stanje nelagodnosti. Stie se utisak kako su likovi zapravo uhvaeni i za-

robljeni u neto to podsea na nevidljivu zamku iz ijeg okvira oni teko
nalaze izlaz.
Takvo predstavljanje ivota dovodi do slikanja oveka kao usamljenog i
neprilagoenog bia to boji ove bajke naroitom atmosferom. Mi, dok itamo
ozapanjenosti Malog Princa, Dorotinoj preneraenosti ili Alisinoj zbunjenosti,
otkrivamo u ovim priama odnose i stanja koja asociraju na nemir, zebnju i
uznemirenost prisutnu, recimo, na slikama Edvarda Munka ili u romanima
Franca Kafke.
Tim, u odnosu na tradicionalnu bajku drugaijim, pristupom stvarnosti mo-
derna bajka uspeva da na nov nain sublimie skrivene tokove na kojima poiva
na ivot. Ukazujui na tajne sile koje pokreu zbilju, ona na povrinu iznosi i
egzistencijalnu dramu oveka koja se sada, transformisana i natkriljena optim,
prepoznaje kao trajni ovekov usud i sudbina.

Zakljuak

Davno je zakljueno da su bajke prava istorijaoveanstva
81
(Andri 25).
Iitavajui ih, italac moe da uoi kako one u svom najirem odreenju
osvetljavaju stazu kojom je ljudski rod proao, sublimiui njegova najdublja
iskustva i saznanja. D.R.R.Tolkin u svojoj studiji O bajkama
82
istie: Istorija
bajki je verovatno sloenija od fizike istorije ljudske rase, a isto toliko je
sloena kao i istorija ljudskog jezika
83
(On Fairy-Stories 7).
Bajka, kako ona tradicionalna, tako i moderna, predstavlja najdublji nivo
ovekovog iskustva. U njoj se svet koji nas okruuje prepoznaje kao realan, ali u
isto vreme on se iskazuje i kao mesto koje je prepuno tajni, nedokuivih
zagonetki i mistinih predanja. Nastala iz izvorne ovekove potrebe da se prema
stvarnosti i njenim zakonima odreuje stvaranjem nove kreacije, bajka otkriva
smisao ovekovog puta i trajanja.
Sagledavajui pojedinani predmet, pojavu ili zakonitost u sklopu vie
optosti, tradicionalne i moderne bajke bude utisak da mi preko njihovog
poetskog tkiva i slojevite slike ovekove prirode i njegove sudbine zapravo
zavirujemo u samo sredite ivota i tajanstvenog poretka prirode. Uz to, one
svojom osobenom strukturom podravaju i veliaju tajnu prirode (tu tajnu

81
U bajkama je prava istorija oveanstva, iz njih se da naslutiti, ako ne i potpuno otkriti, njen
smisao.
82
Studiju O bajkama [On Fairy-Stories] Tolkin je napisao 1939. i izloio na predavanju na
najstarijem univerzitetu u kotskoj St. Endrjusu [St. Andrews]. Objavljena 1947. u knjizi Essays
Presented to Charles Williams [izdava-Grand Rapids: Wm. B Eerdmans; urednik- C. S. Lewis].
83
The history of fairy-stories is probably more complex than the physical history of the human
race, and as complex as the history of human language (prevela D. Krenkovi Brkovi).

karakterie osobeno dvojstvo to je tajna pojedinanog rasta, spoznaje i borbe
neke individue, ali i tajna nadindividualnih duevnih zbivanja jednog kolektiva i,
ire, ivota ljudske zajednice), omoguavajui nam da oslukujemo blo
ljudskog roda, da zavirujemo u stare civilizacije ili da neosetno zakoraimo na
stazu kojom ovek hoda od praiskoni.
Tradicionalnu i modernu bajku karakterie jo jedna vana osobina zna-
ajni dogaaji i izraenije crte ljudskog ponaanja koje bajka opisuje zapravo
upuuju na ono to je prethodilo. Zbog toga moemo rei da se u bajkama
Postojee i Sadanje ogleda u onom to je bilo pa nestalo a da je Prolo
inkarnacija Buduih dogaaja.
Sve ovo upuuje na zakljuak da bajka u sebi nosi trag jednog zaboravljenog
putovanja, onog koji je jednom davno ljude vodio i iza granice naeg, nama
jedino poznatog, sveta. Na tom putu ljudi su imali ansu da proniknu u Veliku
Tajnu koju svet od svog postanka sa sobom nosi. Vremenom ljudi su zaboravali
kako na taj put, tako i na odgovore do kojih su doli. Zato treba itati bajke i pri
tom paljivo oslukivati bajka u sebi i danas krije klju kojim se ova Tajna
moe odgonetnuti.

Literatura
Izvori

Andersen, Hans Kristijan.Najlepe bajke. Beograd: Prosveta, 2002.
_________. The Little Mermaid. Hans Christian Andersen: Fairy Tales and
Stories. Transl. H. P. Paull (1872). HCA.Gilead.org.il, 2007. 3 July 2010
<http://hca.gilead.org.il/li_merma.html>.
Bajke 1001 no. Knj. 1 i 2. Novi Sad: Matica srpska, 1982.
Baum, Lajman Frank.arobnjak iz Oza.Beograd Kraljevo: Anturium SC
Komerc Doroteus, 2000.
Egziperi, Antoan de Sent.Mali princ. Beograd: P.P.Vesmark Emka, 1998.
Kerol, Luis. Alisa u zemlji uda. Alisa u svetu ogledala. Pisma deci. Novi Sad:
Matica srpska, 1998.
Kolodi, Karlo.Pinokio. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1984.
Krenkovi Brkovi, Dragana.Tajna plavog kristala. Podgorica: Zavod za
udbenike i nastavna sredstva, 2010.
_________.Duh Manitog jezera. Podgorica: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna
sredstva, 2010.
Luis, Klajv Stepls.Lav, vjetica i ormar. Zagreb: Golden marketing, 2002.
Tolkin, Don Ronald Rejel.Hobit ili tamo i natrag. Novi Sad: Solaris, 2001.
_________.Gospodar prstenova. Knj. 1 3. Beograd: Esotheria, 1996, 2002.
Vajld, Oskar.Sreni kraljevi i druge bajke. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1988.

Osnovna literatura

Abraham, Karl. "Clinical Papers and Essays on Psycho-Analysis." Part III: Essays.
Dreams and Myths: A Study in Folk-Psychology. 1909. Instituto Portugus de
Psicoterapia Integrativa Psychotherapy Resources Page. 5 July 2010
<http://www.psicoterapiaintegrativa.com/therapists/htms/Karl_Abraham.h
tm>.
Andri, Ivo. "Razgovor sa Gojom. "Istorija i legenda. Sabrana dela Ive Andria.
Knj. 12. Beograd: Udrueni izdavai, 1981.
Bahtin, Mihail Mihajlovi.O romanu.Beograd: Nolit, 1989.
Baluhati, Sergej. "Problemi dramske analize."Moderne teorije drame. Ur.
Mirjana Mioinovi. Beograd: Nolit, 1981.
Bettelheim, Bruno.The Uses of Enchantment. New York: Vintage Books A
Division of Random House, 1977.
_________. Znaenje bajki. Beograd: Jugoslavija, 1979.
Biblija ili Sveto pismo Staroga i Novoga Zavjeta. Beograd: Biblijsko drutvo,
1981.
Biti, Vladimir. Bajka i predaja. Zagreb: Povijest i pripovijedanje, 1981.
Bokovi Stuli, Maja.Usmena knjievnost kao umjetnost rijei. Zagreb: Mladost,
1975.
Bottigheimer, Ruth B.Fairy Tales: A New History. Albany, New York: State
University of New York Press, 2009. 27 July 2010
<http://books.google.com/books?id=ZL3OR2BuinAC&printsec=frontcover&d
q=Fairy+Tales:+A+New+History&source=bl&ots=X_XMViX0AW&sig=r4q7M9
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Cott, Johnathan.Beyond the Looking Glass. New York: Stonehill Publishing
Company, 1973.
Jandri, Ljubo.Sa Ivom Andriem: 1968 1975.Beograd: Srpska knjievna
zadruga, 1977.
Jolles, Andre.Jednostavni oblici. Zagreb: Studenski centar Sveuilita, 1978.
Jung, Karl Gustav."Struktura due."Dinamika nesvesnog. Odabrana dela K. G.
Junga. Knji. I.Novi Sad: Matica srpska, 1977.
Duh bajke. Beograd:Panpublik,1973.
Elijade, Mira.Sveto i profano. Novi Sad: Knjievna zajednica Novog Sada, 1986.
_________.Mitovi i istorija. Beograd: Delo, 1972.
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Luthi, Max. Once Upon a Time On the Nature of Fairy Tales. London: Indiana
UP, Bloomington, 1976.

_________.Prouavanje bajki. Modernik, 1986, br. 7/, str.25-42.
Meletinski, Jeleazar. Poetika mita. Beograd: Nolit, 1976.
Dadi, Petar. O prokletoj avliji. Beograd: Prosveta, 1975.
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Peni, Sava.Realizam.Cetinje: Obod, 1967.
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________.The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. Ed. Humphrey Carpenter. Mariner
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________.Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien.Ed.Humphrey Carpenterwith the assistance
of Christopher Tolkien. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981.
Tatar, Maria.The Hard Facts of the Grimms Fairy Tales. Princeton: Princeton
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Rabkin, Eric S. Fantastic Worlds Myths, Tales and Stories. Oxford: Oxford UP,
1979.
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q=The+Medieval+Latin+Past+of+Wonderful+Lies&source=bl&ots=mTPKrFRB
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Zipes, Jack David.Fairy Tales and the Art of Subversion. Classical Genre for
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_________.Fairy tale as myth, myth as fairy tale.Lexington, Kentucky: The
University Press of Kentucky, 1994. 12. Aug. 2010
<http://books.google.com/books?id=Ld5i71RKaw4C&pg=PA2&lpg=PA2&dq
=Litterature+orale+eliade&source=bl&ots=KDIUaYk_t5&sig=_EAUvsKp0_uzZ
c7fPMpVjzMYUuI&hl=en&ei=ODCaS_zMKNaJ_Ab93OiCAg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CB4Q6AEwBjgK#v=onepage&q=&f=false>


FORGOTTEN JOURNEY THE TRACES IMPRINTED IN FAIRY TALES
PART II

The origination of contemporary fairy tales that have emerged during 19
th

and 20
th
century is in traditional ones. These two forms leaning against the
peoples remembrance have become the core of the deepest Mans experience
and the key to discovering the truth about his walk from the dawn of mankind
through today.
It is considered a direct correlation between common features of traditional
and contemporary fairy tales in this study, precisely the question of positive
values of collective expirience and of projection of Mans unconsiousness
visions and hidden desires. Also, this work pays attention to a connection with
the deepest layer of the Man, passing on spiritual contents of the old outline of
belief, the adoptation of the ancient idea of eternal return, as well as bringing
relative negation between past, present, and future.
Exploring discrepancies, this text evaluates different approach of classical
and contemporay fairy tales towards world they describe about, realistic way of
shaping a story, supernatural, time, place and character of Man, resulting in
their different views of the world.
This study is based on comparative analyze of classical fairy tales (Cinderella,
Snow White, Little Red Riding Hood, Hansel and Gretel, Sleeping Beauty, Beauty
and Beast, Puss in Boots, and 1001 Arabian Nights) and modern ones written in
the 19
th
and 20
th
century (The LittlePrince, Alice in Wonderland, Pinocchio, The
Little Mermaid, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, The HappyPrince, Hobbit, and The
Lord of the Rings).

Key Words:fairy tale, clasical, contemporary, similarities, differences,
mythical heritage, archetypal framework, core experience, sublimation of
reality


UDK 821.111.09-1

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Oft to the Wanderer, weary of exile,
Cometh Gods pity, compassionate love... (The Wanderer)

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Wondrous is this wall-stead, wasted by fate.
Battlements broken, giants work shattered.
Roofs are in ruin, towers destroyed,
Broken the barred gate, rime on the plaster,

walls gape, torn up, destroyed,
consumed by age.(The Ruin)

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Homeless and helpless he fled from Fate
Thus saith the Wanderer mindful of misery,
Grievous disasters, and death of kin(The Wanderer)

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Oft when the day broke off, oft at the dawning,
Lonely and wretched I wailed at my woe.
No man is living, no comrade left,
To whom I dare fully unlock my heart.()

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Fettered my feelings, far from my kin,
Homeless and hapless, since days of old,
When the dark earth covered my dear lords face,
And I sailed away with sorrowful heart,
Over wintry seas, seeking a gold-lord,
If far or near lived one to befriend me
With gift in the mead-hall and comfort for grief.()

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Who bears it, knows what a bitter companion,
Shoulder to shoulder, sorrow can be,
When friends are no more. His fortune is exile,
Not gifts of fine gold; a heart that is frozen,
Earths winsome dead.()

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When I reflect on the fates of men --
How one by one proud warriors vanish
From the halls that knew them, and day by day
All this earth ages and droops unto death.
[...]
When all this worlds wealth shall be scattered and waste --
As now, over all, through the regions of earth,
Walls stand rime-covered and swept by the winds.
The battlements crumble, the wine-halls decay;
Joyless and silent the heroes are sleeping
Where the proud host fell by the wall they defended.

Some battle launched on their long, last journey;
One a bird bore oer the billowing sea;
One the gray wolf slew; one a grieving earl
Sadly gave to the graves embrace.()

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Storms now batter these ramparts of stone;
Blowing snow and the blast of winter
Enfold the earth; night-shadows fall
Darkly lowering, from the north driving
Raging hail in wrath upon men.
Wretchedness fills the realm of earth,
And Fates decrees transform the world.
Here wealth is fleeting, friends are fleeting,
Man is fleeting, maid is fleeting;
All the foundation of earth shall fail!()

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And Fates decrees transform the world Fate
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It sates itself on the life-blood
of fated men,
paints red the powers homes
with crimson gore.
Black become the suns beams
in the summers that follow,
weathers all treacherous.
Do you still seek to know? And what?(Dronke 18)

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Where now is the warrior? Where the war-horse?
Bestowal of treasure, and sharing of feast?
Bestowal of treasure andsharing of feast?
Alas! the bright ale-cup,the bryny-clad warrior,
The prince in his splendor --those days are long sped
In the night of the past,as if they never had been! (The Wanderer)

Ubi sunt -
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mago: Hwr cwm mearh,
hwr cwm mago? (Where is the horse gone, where the young rider?) (Tolkien
2006: 239).
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Bitterer then is the bane of his wretchedness,
The longing for love done: his grief is renewed.
The forms of his kinsmen take shaped in the silence;
In rapture he greets them; in gladness he scans
Old comrades remembered. But they melt into air
With no word of greeting to gladden his heart.(The Wanderer)

, Quest
Myth in Medieval English Literature:

The ubi sunt passage in the second part of the poem, invoking the glories
of the past irretrievably lost, does not refer to his personal misery only: it
is a general comment on the evanescence of all that is desirable. The
future therefore holds no promise that the quest for security and
permanence will ever be fulfilled. Indeed the image of the future
conjured at the close of the poem is that of universal ruin, winter and
darkness [...] The prediction in the last line that all the foundation of
earth shall fall foresees a time when there will be no after-speakers to
remember the great deeds of the dead heroes. With the denial of this
ultimate comfort, survival through fame, the victory of wyrd is complete.
(72-73)

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(: 7). His fortune is exile.

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The relation of the Christian and heathen thought and diction in Beowulf has
often been misconceived. So far from being a man so simple or so confused that
he muddled Christianity with Germanic paganism, the author probably drew or
attempted to draw distinctions, and to represent moods and attitudes of
characters conceived dramatically as living in a noble but heathen past. [...] The
strongest argument that the actual language of the poem is not in general the
product either of stupidity or accident is to be found in the fact that we can
observe differentiation, We can, that is, in this matter of philosophy and religious
sentiment distinguish, for instance: (a) the poet as narrator and commentator; (b)
Beowulf; and (c) Hrothgar. Such differentiation would not be achieved by a man
himself confused in mind, and still less by later random editing. (39-40)
,
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, :

Despite its late date and the Christian framework within which it is set,
The Wanderer is not a Christian poem. The reference to Gods pity and
compassionate love at its beginning and end, even if it is not an addition
by another author, comes as an afterthought and does not affect the
poets secular vision. Unlike Augustines City of God, The Wanderer does
not look forward and upward to any happy resolution in heaven. Rather
than the Anglo-Saxon conversion into Christianity, the poem reflects a
crisis in the pagan world view that preceded the conversion and made it
on the whole easy and rapid. (73)

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The Warden of men hath wasted this world,
Till the sound of music and revel is stilled.(The Wanderer)

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Men eager for honor
Bury their sorrow deep in the breast(The Wanderer)

84
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No man may know wisdom till many a winter
Has been his portion. A wise man is patient,
Not swift to anger, nor hasty of speech,
Neither too weak, nor to reckless, in war,
Neither fearful nor fain, nor too wishful of wealth,
Nor too eager in vowere he know the event.
A brave man must bide when he speaketh his boast
Until surely the goal of his spirit.()

,
.
:

In Norse, at any rate, the gods are within Time, doomed with their allies
to death. Their battle is with the monsters and the outer darkness. They
gather heroes for the last defence. Already before euhemerism saved
them by embalming them, and they dwindled in antiquarian fancy to the
mighty ancestors of northern kings (English and Scandinavian), they had
become in their very being the enlarged shadows of great men and
warriors upon the walls of the world. When Baldr is slain and goes to Hel
he cannot escape thence any more than mortal man. [...] It is the
strength of the northern mythological imagination that it faced this
problem, put the monsters in the centre, gave them Victory but no
honour, and found a potent but terrible solution in naked will and
courage. As a working theory absolutely impregnable. So potent is it,
that while the older southern imagination has faded for ever into literary
ornament, the northern has power, as it were, to revive its spirit even in
our own times. It can work, even as it did work with the golauss viking,
without gods: martial heroism as its own end. But we may remember
that the poet of Beowulf saw clearly: the wages of heroism is death.
(Tolkien, 2006: 25-26)

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Good man is he who guardeth his faith.
He must never too quickly unburden his breast
of its sorrow, but eagerly strive for redress;
And happy the man who seeketh for mercy
From his heavenly Father, our Fortress and Strength.(The Wanderer)

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And happy the man who seeketh for mercy
From his heavenly Father, our Fortress and Strength. ()

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, 1989.
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: -. : , 2009.
Dronke, Ursula. The Poetic Edda: Volume II: Mythological Poems. Oxford: OUP,
1997.
, o. . : . :
Orpheus; : , 2007.
, . Quest Myth in Medieval English Literature. :
, 1999.
The Ruin, :
<http://faculty.arts.ubc.ca/sechard/oeruin.htm.>23. 2011
The Wanderer, :
<http://www.harding.edu/english/wanderer.htm.>23. 2011
Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel. The Monsters and the Critics and Other Essays.
London: HarperCollins, 2006.

TWO TYPES OF WANDERING IN ANGLO-SAXON ELEGY THE WANDERER

This paper examines problems of exile and wandering, as seen through two
different perspectives: the wanderer as a motif in mythology and literature, and
wandering of the text between two cultural matrices which defined the age when
it was created pagan and Chritian. The peculiarity of the Anglo-Saxon wanderer
is noted in contrast to wanderers from both Old German mythology (in which
Anglo-Saxon literature has its roots), but also in contrast to the famed wanderer

from the Old Greek world, Odysseus. The peculiarity of the text of The Wanderer
is also examined, together with its indeterminedness on the teleological plane.

Key words: exile, wandering, Anglo-Saxon, Old German, Christian, text,
teleology.


UDK 821.111.09-21
The Aesthetic Response: The Reader in
Macbeth

Ismail Salami, University of Malaya

Abstract: This article seeks to explore the different strategies the Bard uses in order to
evoke sympathy in the reader for Macbeth who is so persistent in the path of evil. What
strategy does Shakespeare use in order to provoke such a deep emotional response from
his readers? By using paradoxes in the play, the Bard creates a world of illusion, fear and
wild imagination. The paradoxical world in Macbeth startles us into marvel and fear,
challenges our commonly held opinions, and reshapes our thought in the process (Platt
8). As the text involves the reader in the formation of illusion and the simultaneous
formation of the means whereby the illusion is punctured, reading reflects the process
by which we gain experience. Once the reader is entangled, his own preconceptions are
continually overtaken so that the text becomes his present while his own ideas fade into
the past. As soon as it happens, he is open to the immediate experience of the text (Iser,
The Implied Reader 290). Mesmerised by Macbeths powerful imagination and poetic
language, the reader engages in a dialogical interaction with the play and eventually
finds light in the murky world of the text. Regardless of Macbeths diabolical world, the
reader ventures into it, shares it with him and ultimately wakes up from its dizzying
stupor. In reading Macbeth, the reader leaves behind the familiar world of his experience
in order to participate in the adventure the text offers him. The edifying effect of the
tragedy in the end is the reward the reader reaps after eventually waking up from the
nightmarish dream of the text.

Key Words:Iser, reader, Macbeth, Shakespeare, evil, paradox

Fear and Desire in Macbeth

Basically, there are two responses to Macbeth. Some readers may see him
as a murderer, butcher and tyrant while there are some others who clearly see
him as the personification of devil. Macbeth constantly vacillates between fear
and desire. What he fears is what he desires and what he desires alarms him
tremendously. It seems that part of him draws him to good and part of him
pulls him with all force to evil. The soul of Macbeth in a word becomes an arena
for the battle between the good and evil with the latter getting the better of
him. He is an advocate of evil but he is perennially self-tortured. This quality in
Macbeth makes the reader identify with him as a human being with all his

imperfections. This Bellonas Bride who strikes fear into the hearts of
enemies and smites them with no mercy becomes the personification of fear in
the face of evil. Lady Macbeth berates him for being too full o the milk of
human kindness (1.5.15) which is dramatically ironic. In reality, Macbeth is
too full of a lofty awareness of his own humanity (Elliott 17). Fear manifests
itself in Macbeth in his encounter with the weird sisters when he learns that he
will be the Thane of Cawdor and the King hereafter. The things that do sound
so fair (1.3.50) strike fear in the heart of Macbeth. Banquo is as surprised as
the reader when he expresses his amazement at Macbeths horror at the news:

Good sir, why do you start; and seem to fear
Things that do sound so fair? I the name of truth,
Are ye fantastical, or that indeed
Which outwardly ye show? (1.3.51-54)

Macbeths reaction to the news should be one of joy as it heralds his kingship
in future. Instead, he is seized with such great fear that he starts to shiver. There
are two assumptions here as offered by Bradley: Either this thought was not
new to him, or he had cherished at least some vaguer dishonourable dream, the
instantaneous recurrence of which, at the moment of his hearing the prophecy,
revealed to him an inward and terrifying guilt (344). Although Macbeth is
overcome with fear, Banquo shows no psychological disturbance and demands
the witches speak about him:

To me you speak not.
If you can look into the seeds of time,
And say which grain will grow and which will not,
Speak then to me, who neither beg nor fear
Your favours nor your hate. (1.3.55-59)

There is no logical reason for Macbeths fear unless we assume with Bradley
that his psychological disturbance at the news stems largely from an
aforethought which he had long entertained for murdering the king and taking
his place. In a similar vein, Coleridge states:
The questions of Banquo are those of natural curiosity such as a girl would
make after she had heard a gypsy tell her schoolfellows fortune all perfectly
general or rather planless. Macbeth, lost in thought, raises himself to speech
only by their being about to depart: Stay, you imperfect speakers! and all that
follows is his reasoning on a problem already discussed in his mind, on a hope
which he welcomes and the doubts concerning its attainment he wishes to
have cleared up (qtd. in Wain 78).

The witches choose to meet with Macbeth because he is fertile soil for the
seed of evil. The prophecy of the weird sisters only serves to give an impetus to
an idea long articulated and nurtured by Macbeths mind. An active reader may
even visualize that Macbeth had already discussed the murder of Duncan with
Lady Macbeth on a number of occasions. However, Dover Wilson argues that the
murder of Duncan comes too quickly, indeed abnormally quickly. Empson argues
that

the whole point about Macbeth is that he is hurried into an ill-considered
action, or that he refuses to consider it himself: Let not light see the
eye wink at the hand which must be acted ere they may be scanned.
The play is crowded with such phrases and its prevailing darkness is a
symbol of his refusal to see the consequences of his actions. (140)

As the play proceeds, we realize that he initially lacks the will to put this idea
into practical shape on account of moral considerations. Macbeth is torn
between evil as a necessary act for attaining his goals and a bitter consciousness
of evil, which he knows, will catapult him onto the path of eternal damnation. In
a Faustian way, he dallies with evil until he succumbs entirely to the
overpowering temptations of the devil. From a religious perspective, he sells his
soul to the devil when he stabs the gracious Duncan to death. Immediately
after the murder, he expresses regret not because he has sold his soul but
because he has sold it so cheaply Lings 59):

For Banquos issue have I filed my mind;
For them the gracious Duncan have I murderd;
Put rancours in the vessel of my peace
Only for them; and mine eternal jewel
Given to the common enemy of man,
To make them kings, the seed of Banquo kings! (3.1.64-69)

To the reader, these lines indicate that Macbeth is bitterly conscious that he
has traded his eternal jewel (his soul) for something not valuable with the
devil. This can be taken as a clear confession to the fall of his soul. Macbeth
creates a hell within and a hell without: a hell within himself and a hell for
others. In the hell he creates within him, he burns in the murk and nightmare
torment of a conscious hell (Knight 140). Once man treads on the path of evil,
he cannot easily get out of it. For Macbeth, evil comes with consciousness,
remorse, fear and gradual realization of nihilism.
Fear manifests itself both verbally and emotionally. As a feeling it grips his
soul from the beginning and as a word, it keeps appearing in virtually every

speech he utters after he has murdered Duncan. In other words, fear finds an
entity, which becomes a perennial part of Macbeths speech. The bipartite form
of fear takes hold of Macbeth to the point where it becomes impossible for him
to cast it out. The sense of fear is also conveyed to the reader and the play
turns into a uniquely horrifying one among Shakespearean tragedies. The
reader is made to feel fear from the beginning of the play with the appearance
of the weird sisters and the feeling is intensified in him after Macbeth murders
Duncan.
L. C. Knights calls the play a statement of evil and says that Macbeth
defines a particular kind of evil the evil which results form a lust for power
(39). This kind of approach to Shakespeare limits the imaginative scope of the
play. Macbeths mind shows the stunning workings of an imagination hitherto
unknown to any Shakespearean hero. In fact, he has Shakespeares own
imagination. Macbeth imagines things beyond the realm of the material world;
his imaginings then turn into fear and he translates his fear into action by
killing. He sees everything in its infinity. As Firkins says:

There is a grip, a clutch, an insistence, a tenacity, in his mental
processes, which suggests the idea of possession. An image conquers,
masters, enslaves, engrosses him; he is in its leash; he obeys and
cringes. Sight has for him the power of touch: the crown sears his
eyeballs; the bloody hands pluck out his eyes. He cannot rid himself of
a visual image; the imaginary dagger side by side with the real one
which he has drawn to disprove its existence retains its actuality. If the
murderer had merely told him that Banquo was dead, Macbeth would
have seen no ghost at the supper. (418)

The beauty of the play does not lie in the nature of evil but in how
Shakespeare shows mans conscious subordination to it.
The weird sisters, I believe, forebode evil more than they can embody evil as
some critics suggest. Evil in Macbeth is so overpowering that it alarms the
reader. Macbeth symbolizes the human being with all his imperfections and the
reader feels compelled to identify with him in order to know him and his
motivations better. I am not suggesting that every reader can be Macbeth but
that evil, when unleashed, can dehumanize every human being and turn him
into a beast of a man. The experience of reading Macbeth can be very horrifying
and edifying at the same time; horrifying in the sense that the reader may doubt
the very force of evil within him and edifying in the sense that evil can be self-
destructive and devastating. That is why Shakespeare provides necessary
ambience for self-identification with Macbeth. In view of this assumption,

Macbeth comes very close to the Aristotelian definition of tragedy that it creates
a cathartic effect in the reader/audience by arousing fear and pity.
Despite all his valour in the face of danger and his great victories against the
enemies, Macbeth loses to the common enemy of man, the devil. The devil,
Shakespeare hypothesizes, is not an external force (e. g. the weird sisters) but
an internal one. Allusions to the fallen angel are galore in Macbeth. The Porter
mentions Belzebub to convey to the reader an idea of the diabolical qualities
which lurk in Macbeths soul. Elsewhere, Malcolm says that Angels are bright
still, though the brightest fell (4.3.22). The opening scenes begin with a
description of two swimmers that do cling together and depict Macbeth as a
hero and a future traitor.

As two spent swimmers, that do cling together
And choke their art. The merciless Macdonwald
Worthy to be a rebel, for to that
The multiplying villanies of nature
Do swarm upon himfrom the Western Isles
Of kerns and gallowglasses is supplied;
And Fortune, on his damned quarrel smiling,
Showd like a rebels whore. But alls too weak;
For brave Macbethwell he deserves that name
Disdaining Fortune, with his brandishd steel,
Which smoked with bloody execution,
Like valours minion carved out his passage
Till he faced the slave;
Which neer shook hands, nor bade farewell to him,
Till he unseamd him from the nave to the chops,
And fixd his head upon our battlements. (1.2.8-23)

The language of this opening scene portrays Macbeth as a man of exceptional
bravery. From the beginning of the play, the reader is introduced to a man who
disdains fortune and is capable of journeying into the unknown. These opening
scenes are partly responsible for the readers sympathy for Macbeth. The fast
pace of the dramatic action, the darkness, war, blood and the weird sisters all
contribute to the creation of a sense of sin and evil in such a way that the hero
becomes somehow immune to the readers hatred and subsequently susceptible
to his sympathy. Indeed, the opening scenes are so arranged that we never
know quite enough about the heros guilt, and he captures our sympathetic
attention as it were under cover of darkness (Honigmann 128).
Yet, the play is replete with references to devilish Macbeth (4.3.117). He is a
hell-kite (4.3.217), and a hellhound (5.8.3).

Not in the legions
Of horrid hell can come a devil more damnd
In evils to top Macbeth. (IV.iii)

In the first scene where the weird sisters meet to discuss their rendezvous
with Macbeth, Shakespeare creates an atmosphere of horror by depicting a
scene charged with fear, uncertainty and ambiguity. Textual ambiguities
function like a puzzle that the reader has to solve for himself. Ambiguities
stimulate the reader into

trying to balance all the more intensively the contradictions that we
have produced. Just as the reciprocal disturbance of the gestalten
brings about the dimension of the event, in which illusion-building and
illusion-breaking are integrated, here too we have a need for
integration. (Iser 1980: 129)

In Macbeth, fear is created in the reader even before he gets to know
Macbeth. There is thunder and lightening. There is darkness and a desert scene.
All these images function to create a prevailing sense of fear, anxiety and
ambiguity. As for the weird sisters, they represent a world of dire evil and
disorder, of dubiety and incessant sudden questioning (Elliott 35). Although
they represent evil, they do not have any influencing power over Macbeth.
They are vested with the power of prophecy. Every prophecy they make comes
true. They foresee that Macbeth will be the Thane of Cawdor, and he is. They
also foresee that Macbeth will become king and he does; that he should
beware of Macduff and he should; that none of woman born shall harm
Macbeth, and he murdered by Macduff who was from his mothers womb
untimely ripped (5.8.16). They predict that Macbeth shall never vanquished
be until Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill shall come against him
(4.1.91-92), and in the final, terrifying scenes of the play, Birnam Wood does
indeed come against him. Finally they predict that Banquo will be father to a
line of kings: Lesser than Macbeth, and greater (1.3.63), Thou shalt get kings,
though thou be none (1.3.65).
That the witches can foresee the future, however, does not mean they
control that future. As mentioned earlier, they have only the power of
prophecy; they do not even try to seduce or tempt Macbeth into murder. The
innate evil in Macbeth, which has been somehow curbed by the power of
morality in him gradually goes unleashed and gets the better of him. It has
been suggested by some critics that the weird sisters symbolize the devil while
an active reader hardly finds any evidence suggesting that they are devils. As
Professor Bradley rightly says:

Speaking strictly we must affirm that he (Macbeth) was tempted only
by himself. He speaks indeed of their supernatural soliciting; but in
fact they did not solicit. They merely announced events: they hailed
him as Thane of Glamis, Thane of Cawdor, and King hereafter. No
connection of these announcements with any action of his was even
hinted by them. For all that appears, the natural death of an old man
might have fulfilled the prophecy any day. In any case, the idea of
fulfilling it by murder was entirely his own. (344)

Their limited power to harm is suggested to the reader in the first scene
when one of the witches expresses her anger at a sailors wife for refusing to
share her chestnuts with her. She is clearly seen to lack any power over the
sailors wife but to cast a spell over her husbands ship only with the help of
other witches. She can prophesy, torment the man, or tempt him, but his bark
cannot be lost. She cannot kill him. They only hail Macbeth as Thane of Glamis,
Thane of Cawdor, and king hereafter.

First Witch All hail, Macbeth! hail to thee, thane of Glamis!
Second Witch All hail, Macbeth, hail to thee, thane of Cawdor!
Third Witch All hail, Macbeth, thou shalt be king hereafter! (1.3.48-50)

Immediately in the second scene, the reader learns about the bravery of
Macbeth in war and how he split Macdonwald the rebel from gut to jaws and
perched his head on the camp wall. In the next scene, the reader is given a
clearer image of the weird sisters:

First Witch Where hast thou been, sister?
Second Witch Killing swine.
Third Witch Sister, where thou?
First Witch A sailors wife had chestnuts in her lap
And munched, and munched, and munched. Give me, quoth I.
Aroint thee, witch,the rump-fed runnion cries.
Her husbands to Aleppo gone, master othTiger:
But in a sieve Ill thither sail,
And like a rat without a tail,
Ill do, Ill do, and Ill do. (1.3.1-9)

One of the witches has been killing swine and the other one who is angry
with a sailors wife for withholding her chestnuts is going to hex the sailors ship
as revenge. Therefore, the reader realizes that they are indeed only capable of
petty mischief. Soon, he realises that they can see into the future. Macbeths

desire to ascend to the throne and take the place of the gracious Duncan is
strengthened by his wife who helps dispel fear in Macbeth. His letter to his
wife, if read carefully, casts light on his unconscious desire to kill the king. His
intention in writing the letter to his wife is only to find an accomplice in his
murderous reflections. To an ingenious reader, the letter misses a few
important facts about Macbeths encounter with the weird sisters.

They met me in the day of success: and I have
learned by the perfectest report, they have more in
them than mortal knowledge. When I burned in desire
to question them further, they made themselves air,
into which they vanished. Whiles I stood rapt in
the wonder of it, came missives from the king, who
all-hailed me Thane of Cawdor; by which title,
before, these weird sisters saluted me, and referred
me to the coming on of time, with Hail, king that
shalt be! This have I thought good to deliver
thee, my dearest partner of greatness, that thou
mightst not lose the dues of rejoicing, by being
ignorant of what greatness is promised thee. Lay it
to thy heart, and farewell. (1.5.1-14)

His letter clearly shows a limited narrative of the events. Macbeth says how
the witches met me in the day of success, how I burned in desire to question
them further, how I stood rapt in the wonder of it, how came the missives
from the king, who all-hailed me Thane of Cawdor, and how the weird
sisters saluted me and referred me to the coming on of time, with Hail, king
that shalt be! Macbeth does not make any mention of Banquo and refuses to
reveal that the weird sisters had made any prophecy about Banquo. The letter
tells the truth but it does not tell everything. In fact, Macbeth proves to be an
imperfect speaker. What more does Macbeth wish to hear from the witches
when he demands: stay you imperfect speaker!? There are two assumptions
here: either he seeks to know the means for becoming a king or he thinks that
the witches are privy to his secret intentions and that he wants them to
approve of them. In view of the content of the letter, the second assumption
sounds more plausible. The reader is aware that Macbeth knows more than
what he reveals in the letter to his wife. The letter leaves many gaps in the
mind of the reader. The blanks designate a

vacancy in the overall system of the text, the filling of which brings
about an interaction of textual patterns. In other words, the need for

completion is replaced here by the need for combination. It is only
when the schemata of the text are related to one another that the
imaginary object can begin to be formed, and it is the blanks that get
this connecting operation under way. (Iser 1980:183)

What the letter lacks shows a mind loath to reveal the whole truth. Besides,
the letter contains words such as burned in desire, rapt, and rejoicing,
which indicate great desire in the writer. Therefore, temptation has crept into
his soul even before he talks to Lady Macbeth. The letter is but meant to tempt
the reader (Lady Macbeth) to goad Macbeth into choosing a path he does not
desire to tread on alone. Therefore, Lady Macbeths response to the letter is
one of temptation and murderous thoughts:

Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be
What thou art promised: yet do I fear thy nature;
It is too full o the milk of human kindness
To catch the nearest way. (1.5.15-18)

She immediately broods on the nearest way but she is afraid of Macbeth
being too full o the milk of human kindness. However, in the play the reader
does not see any milk of human kindness in Macbeth. Be it as it may, Lady
Macbeth cannot be seen as the embodiment of evil for she proves weak on the
path and kills herself out of complete despair for what she has become. To see
her thus in league with evil is only to shift the blame from Macbeth to her.
Taking a radical view in this regard, Honigmann says, Lady Macbeth appears to
be somehow in league with evil and Macbeth its victim, a fly in the spiders web
who struggles mightily but cannot escape (Honigmann 131). After all, the
choice to kill Duncan comes from Macbeth who takes up the action consciously
and resolutely:

I am settled, and bend up
Each corporal agent to this terrible feat. (1.7.79-80)

Oblivious to the effects the murder will have on his mind, he translates his
desire into action and kills Duncan and his servants in cold blood. Man is free to
choose between good and evil and he will have to bear the consequences of his
own actions. Macbeth chooses the path of evil consciously and becomes
increasingly aware of his own existence and true self. This horrible awareness
which he achieves as a result of his own deeds terrifies him to the point of
despair: To know my deed, twere best not know myself (2.2.70). This is the
point, I believe, where the reader starts sympathizing with Macbeth as a man

who brings about his own downfall. The reader gradually sees in Macbeth the
fall of a man who could have achieved great success in view of his valor and
merit if he had not chosen evil as his company. In killing Duncan, he does
murder sleep, the innocent sleep, Balm of hurt minds. (2.2.36). His agony
starts to isolate and alienate him from his surroundings. The great degree of his
agonized fear echoes in the sounds he hears: Methought I heard a voice cry:
Sleep no more! (2.2.32). By making his hero refer to himself by his three titles,
Shakespeare shows a sense of dispersed identity in him (Honnigmann 128):

Glamis hath murderd sleep, and therefore Cawdor
Shall sleep no more; Macbeth shall sleep no more. (2.2.39-40)

From the beginning, he is depicted as a warrior who does memorise
another Golgotha in the battlefield. It is true that warriors are warriors and
they kill without mercy. However, apart from that, he is not presented
throughout the play with any mercy for anyone. Strangely enough, McAlingdon
suggests that the

Tragedy of Macbeth is that of a kind man who degenerates into a
butchering tyrant; but since a tyrant is almost by definition a man who
lives in dread of those whom he terrifies, his tragedy is also that of a
courageous soldier who becomes cowed by fear. (133)

There is no obvious reason for McAlingdon to say that Macbeth is a kind
man as we are barely given the chance to see him in the light of human
compassion or kindness and that no such thing has been ever suggested or
evinced throughout the play.
Of great importance in the character of Macbeth, which makes the reader
sympathize with him, is his consciousness of the evil act he has committed. In
fact, readers respond to and sympathise with Macbeth because he is torn like
any human being between evil and desire and creates an internal hell by
consciously choosing evil and losing his very human essence. He makes
deliberate choices and determines his life. According to the existential view, the
human agent is endowed with rational potencies and determines his existence
by deliberate choice (Guignon 53).
In Macbeth, Shakespeare deviates from the normal morality play by
depicting a hero who begins evil doing with complete understanding of the
course he is laying out for himself and with complete willingness to sacrifice his
soul in the next world in exchange for the gifts of the world (Farnham 79).
Shakespeare also breaks away from the Elizabethan view that man is part of the
divine order and that any political, social or religious violation of this order will

be punished. This view does not apply to Macbeth. The reader is shocked to
learn about Macbeths full understanding of the nature of the crime he is about
to commit. His apocalyptic vision of his crime becomes manifest in his
reflections before the crime:
this Duncan
Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been
So clear in his great office, that his virtues
Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against
The deep damnation of his taking-off;
And pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast, or heavens cherubim, horsed
Upon the sightless couriers of the air,
Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye,
That tears shall drown the wind. (1.7.16-25)
In his projection of the deed, Duncan

becomes the Christ-like victim, and Macbeth the Judas-like traitor and
Herod-like judge who will himself be judged. With its winds, weeping,
pleading, and trumpet-tongued angels, the imagined scene conflates
features of several typologically related cycle plays, notably those of
the Crucifixion and Last Judgement. (Felperin 130)

His biblical allusions are an indication of his inward battle between good and
evil. What happens in the mind of Macbeth is more than temptations. When
one is temped into evil, he becomes oblivious to its consequences but he can
imagine horrible imaginings afterwards. The reader is constantly shocked and
even appalled by Macbeths dedication to evil which comes from his
unquenchable thirst to know the limits of his soul. Also suggestive of the horrid
deed he is about to commit is the objectification of his evil thought in the form
of a dagger:
Is this a dagger which I see before me,
The handle toward my hand? Come, let me clutch thee.
I have thee not, and yet I see thee still.
Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible
To feeling as to sight? or art thou but
A dagger of the mind, a false creation,
Proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?
I see thee yet, in form as palpable
As this which now I draw. (2.1.33-41)


The dagger he sees in his fatal vision seems to him as palpable as the dagger
he soon draws. What he desires, he imagines, what he imagines he objectifies
and what he objectifies he translates into action.
In his excellent book, The Meaning of Shakespeare, Goddard makes a fine
analogy between Macbeth and Crime and Punishment:

Macbeth, like Crime and Punishment, is a study of evil through a study of
murder. Each is its authors most rapid, concentrated, terrific, and
possibly sublime work. Each is a prolonged nightmare lifted into the
realm of art. King Lear and The Brothers Karamazov are also studies of
evil; but if they sound no lower depths, they do climb to greater heights
than Macbeth and Crime and Punishment. All four fight through again
the old war between light and darkness. But in Macbeth and Crime and
Punishment we have nights predominance, as Shakespeare phrases it,
and the light is that of a star or two in the blackness, while in King Lear
and The Brothers Karamazov the stars are morning stars and there is
dawn on the horizon. I know how preposterous this will sound to those
who consider King Lear the pessimistic masterpiece of the ages. (108)

To sympathise with someone who ignorantly falls on evil is not difficult but to
sympathise with one who has complete understanding of his evil actions is
difficult. In Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov, an impoverished student kills a
hated, unscrupulous pawnbroker for her money in order to solve his financial
problems and rid the world, as he argues, of an evil, worthless parasite. However,
he is later seized with pangs of conscience and remorse although he keeps
justifying his action. The reader can easily sympathise with Raskolnikov for two
apparent reasons: 1. He is seized with great remorse after the murder. 2. He does
not persevere in evil. Dostoyevsky wrings sympathy from the reader on the
strength of the fact that Raskolnikov kills because he is miserable and not
because he is evil and since he is miserable, the reader sympathises with him. In
Macbeth, however, the hero deliberately takes evil to be his good and
consciously sinks deeper into evil by committing crime after crime. How can such
a character create any sympathy in the reader? It may be objected, however, that
Macbeth alone of Shakespeares great tragic figures is fully aware of the evil of
the act by which he sets in motion the train of events leading to his ruin. His
consciousness of crime seriously weakens the sympathy of many.
Macbeth is endowed with an exceptional poetic gift, which suffices to
arouse the interest of the reader in this character. Although Duncan is said to
be a goodly king, the reader knows no particular details about him. So the
interest of the reader is reserved for Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Wayne Booth
argues that everything necessary for a complete response is given to the

reader. A highly individualised noble person, he says, is sent to complete moral,
intellectual and physical destruction.
In order to maintain our sympathy for Macbeth, Shakespeare tries to keep
two contradictory dynamic streams moving simultaneously: the stream of
events showing Macbeths growing wickedness and the stream of
circumstances producing and maintain our sympathy for him (Booth 28-29).
The first instance is Shakespeares treatment of Duncans murder. He takes
great care in avoiding any representation of the murder itself. It is not even
narrated. The reader only hears details of how the guards reacted to the
murder. We see nothing. We hear nothing. What appals the reader is not the
murder itself but Macbeths later response:

Me thought I heard a voice cry sleep no more!
Macbeth doth Murder sleepthe innocent sleep,
Sleep that knits up the ravelld sleeve of care,
The death of each days life, sore labours bath,
Balm of hurt minds, great natures second course,
Chief nourisher in lifes feast (2.2.46-51)

From this onwards, Macbeth knows that repose will be denied him and a self-
conscious hell is created within him. This feeling of self-conscious hell makes the
reader sympathise with Macbeth. A second precaution is Shakespeares
treatment of Duncan before the murder. Duncan is known as a good king and
that is all we hear about him. The reader never sees him do any noble thing and
he is compelled in a sense to take Shakespeares words for granted that Duncan
is indeed a good king. So the reader never really finds any chance to become
emotionally or intellectually attached to Duncan. Therefore, there is little
personal interest for him at the time of his death (Lyndon Shanley 30).
Desire is generally accompanied by a feeling of fear. Macbeths critical
moment comes when he says that he has almost forgot the taste of
fears(V.v.9). In other words, he is left with no more desires and his being is
consequently pervaded by a bitter realization of absurdism which finds painful
echoes in his Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow speech upon the
news of Lady Macbeths death:

Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
To the last syllable of recorded time,
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death.
Out, out, brief candle.

Lifes but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing. (V.v.1927)

The reader may wish to dissociate himself from this view of life and say that
life may be meaningless to Macbeth because he has brought meaninglessness
to it. As Bloom aptly says in this regard:

In his isolation Macbeth feels like an actor without an audience. The idea
touched on in earlier plays, that we see ourselves only in the eyes of
others, is taken deeper here. The actor exists only in the perception of
the audience, and when there is no audience to hear him there is nothing
of him left. At the personal level, Macbeths speeches (and therefore
Macbeth) have been meaningless without Lady Macbeth to hear and
reply. Finally, he is not even an actor, with the freedom and the initiative
an actor has to conduct his own performance. Everyone is a character in
a story, with no existence outside the voice of the narrator; the storys
language is meaningless noise, and the narrator is an idiot. But if life is a
tale told by an idiot, who is the idiot? Iago mischievously imagined God
as a peeping Tom; Macbeths blasphemy cuts far deeper. With Lady
Macbeth he took part in a dialogue, a drama, in which each had a voice.
Now there is only one voice, neither hers nor his, but the voice of a
cosmic idiot telling a story that means nothing. (382)

What is left for Macbeth is a deep sense of isolation and emptiness. For him,
the meaning of life is that there is no meaning. Macbeths fear of becoming
insensitive to suffering and transgression is fully realized here. Once again, the
existential signicance of moral vocabulary is deepened (Mousley 105). Thus
he becomes emotionally dead even to the news of the one he used to love. His
sense of absurdity deepens even more a few lines later when a messenger
arrives and tells him that while guarding on the hilltop, he had seen the Birnam
wood moving. Upon hearing these words, he begins to doubt the equivocation
of the fiend/That lies like truth (V.v.43-44). And he expresses his utmost desire
for the sun to stop shining and for the world to come to standstill:

I gin to be aweary of the sun,
And wish the estate o the world were now undone. (V.v.49-50)


By showing a character who traverses the realm of fear and desire by
treading onto the path of evil, Shakespeare ingeniously effects a catharsis in the
audience/reader. Macbeths doubts and fears turn into certitude and spiritual
submission when he identifies himself with evil:

I have suppd full with horrors;
Direness, familiar to my slaughterous thoughts
Cannot once start me. (V.v.13-15)

Now he knows that he is the devil himself and establishes an honest relation
with his surroundings. That is the limit from which he cannot go any further. As
Wilson Knight comments:

He has won through by excessive crime to an harmonious and honest
relation with his surroundings. He has successfully symbolised the
disorder of his lonely guilt-stricken soul by creating disorder in the
world and thus restores balance and harmonious contact. This mighty
principle of good planted in the nature of things then asserts itself,
condemns him openly, brings him peace. (156)

In the end, Macbeth proves a poor player who has done a lot of strutting
and fretting on the stage of the world but is heard no more on account of his
deplorably poor performance as a human person.
With the death of Macbeth, the hero and the reader are liberated from the
feeling of dread that haunts and startles them from the beginning.

Bibliography

Booth, Wayne C. The Essential Wayne Booth. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006.
Elliott, George Roy. Dramatic Providence in Macbeth. Princeton: Princeton UP,
1958.
Farnham, Willard. Shakespeares Tragic Frontier. Princeton: Uof Ca/Princeton,
1963.
Felperin, Howard. Shakespearean Representation: Mimesis and Modernity in
Elizabethan Tragedy. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1978.
Guignon, Charles. The Existentialists: Critical Essays on Kierkegaard, Nietzsche,
Heidegger, and Sartre (Critical Essays on the Classics). Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2003.
Honigmann, E. A. J. Shakespeare: Seven Tragedies Revisited. New York:
Palgrave, 2002.

Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. New Ed ed.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1980.
Iser, Wolfgang. The Implied Reader: Patterns of Communication in Prose Fiction
from Bunyan to Beckett. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1978.
Knight, G. Wilson. The Wheel of Fire (Routledge Classics) (Routledge Classics). 2
ed. New York: Routledge, 2001. Print.
Low, Lisa. "Ridding Ourselves of Macbeth." The Massachusetts Review 24.4
(1956): 826-837. Print.
Lyndon Shanley, J. "Macbeth: The Tragedy of Evil." College English 22.5 (1961):
305-311.
McAlindon, T. Shakespeares Tragic Cosmos. New York: CUP, 1996.
Mousley, Andy. Re-Humanising Shakespeare: Literary Humanism, Wisdom and
Modernity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2007.
Platt, Peter G.. Shakespeare and the Culture of Paradox (Studies in Performance
and Early Modern Drama). Oxford: Ashgate, 2009.
Wain, John. Shakespeare-Macbeth: A Selection of Critical Essays--Casebook
Series. New York: Macmillan, 1969.


UDK 821.163.3.09-32

Intertekstualne varijante u savremenoj
makedonskoj prii: vakantna citatnost

Marija Gjorgjieva Dimova, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University,
Skopje,

Apstrakt: Predmet interesa ovog teksta je vakantna citatnost u savremenoj makedonskoj
prii. Konkretan predmet analize je pria - makedonskog autora
Vlade Uroevia. Interpretacijom dominantnih postupaka ovog citatnog modela
(pseudocitatnost, deduktivna naracija, mistifikacija, paradoks), potenciraju se i njegove
metatekstualne funkcije: funkcija implicitnog komentara intertekstualnosti, ali i
komentara koji se odnosi na prouavanju fenomena intertekstualnosti. U tom smislu,
Uroevi sugerie stanje epistemolokog skepticizma u nauci i stanje ontolokog
relativizma literature, ali i u literaturi.

Kljune rei: intertekstualnost, vakantna citatnost, metatekstualnost, epistemoloki
skepticizam, ontoloki relativizam.

Naturalmente, un manoscritto.
Umberto Eco

Preliminarije

Interes za intertekstualne varijante u savremenoj makedonskoj prii konte-
kstualizuje na interpretativni fokus u dvostruki okvir:
1. citatnost, kao osobito frekventna intertekstualna praksa, koja u
tipologiji erara eneta predstavlja tipian primer restriktivno shvaene
intertekstualnosti kao efektivnog postojanja jednoga teksta u drugome (8);
2. vakantna citatnost, kao jedna od citatnih podvrsta.
Teorijski ram, relevantan za daljnje tumaenje, vezuje se za teoriju citatno-
sti, afirmisanu u hrvatskoj intertekstualnoj paradigmi od strane Dubravke Orai-
Toli. U njenoj teoriji, knjievna citatnost, kao deo ire kulturne citatnosti,
oznaava citatnu relaciju kao dominantu jednoga teksta, autorskog idiolekta,
umetnikog anra, stila ili kulture u okviru kojih se postavlja kao ontoloki i
semiotiki princip (Orai 5). Vakantna citatnost, koja tipoloki spada u grupu

citata na osnovu podudaranja izmeu prototeksta i citata, odlikuje se odsu-
stvom citatne ekvivalencije, bilo da se radi o fingiranju citatnog kontakta
izmeu postojeeg prototeksta i citata (pseudocitatnost), bilo da se radi o
potpunom odsustvu realnog prototeksta i citata (paracitatnost) (Orai 18).
Istraivanje u okviru korpusa makedonske prie dovelo nas je do tri tekstua-
lne paradigme s aspekta osnovnih modela vakantne citatnosti: -
- Vlade Uroevia (, 1983); Ermi-sa
Lafazanovskog (,1992) i kratka proza Bla-
eta Koneskog (posthumno objavljena u asopisu , 1993, 2-3).
Ako je tekst Koneskog reprezentativan u odnosu na mistifikacije, s obzirom
na to to koristi postupak mimikriranog predstavljanja sopstvenog teksta kao
tueg (to je indicirano naslovom i navoenjem autora-potpisnika), mada je
paralelno prisutan i proces demistifikacije, onda je pria Lafazanovskog egzem-
plarna u odnosu na paracitatnu vakantnost: u odsustvu realnog prototeksta na-
vedeni su fragmenti iz nepostojee knjige nepostojeeg autora i citiraju se de-
lovi pseudonaunih tekstova, tako da ilustruju ono sto enet imenuje kao pseu-
dorezimee borhesovskog tipa. S obzirom na to da pria Uroevia dolazi prva u
hronolokom nizu, upravo emo kroz njenu analizu ilustrovati neke aspekte i
funkcije vakantne citatnosti.

Pseudocitatnost

Pria -konstruisana je uz pomo tehnike pronae-
nog rukopisa, to je osobito eksploatisan topos u savremenoj prozi (Horhe
L.Borhes, Umberto Eko, Venko Andonovski). U ovom sluaju, radi se o pseudo-
citatnoj varijanti vakantnosti, realizovanoj kroz dvostruki intekst: postoji realan
prototekst, koji je u okviru prie posredovan putem metonimijskog principa
pars pro toto. Jo na prvoj stranici narator saoptava: Tekst zapisa na perga-
mentu bio je, zapravo, citat rukopisa arapskoga alhemiara, princa dinastije
Omeida, Kalid ibn Jazida, mali deo knjige poznate pod imenom Razgovori kralja
Kalida sa fiziarem Merienom (Uroevi 155).
85

Verodostojnost izvornika podlee tekstualnoj verifikaciji: rukopis-citat mo-
emo pronai u knjizi Histoire de Lalchemie,
86
gde je preuzet iz teksta pod
naslovom Lentretien du roi Calid et du philosophe Morien.
Drugi prototekst su putopisne beleke Demoni, dervii i sveci Anatola de
Mejboma (1956)
87
. Autor, koji je doktorirao filozofiju na Prakom univerzitetu,

85
, . -. . : ,
1983.
86
Hutin, Serge. Histoire de Lalchemie. Mrabout Universite, 1971.

opisuje svoj boravak u Makedoniji krajem tridesetih godina dvadesetog veka.
Intertekstualne seobe su vidljive i na nivou motiva kroz lik naunika, prakog
doktoranta, i na nivou postupaka kroz konfuzno preplitanje faktikog i
fikcionalnog.
Meutim, pria Vlade Uroevia koncentrie se na neobino putovanje
arhainog rukopisa. To putovanje iskorieno je kao povod za praenje ogoljene
citatne relacije, kao i da bi se potencirala potentnost tekstualne ekvivalencije i
njene mogunosti da generie novi tekst (priu Uroevia), koji dobija meta-
knjievni i metapoetiki status.

Deduktivna naracija

Upravo u razotkrivanju citatnog podudaranja lei majstorstvo autora. U tom
smislu indikativan je redosled iznoenja fakata, kao i veto i taktino doziranje
informacija, ali i problematizovanje njihove verodostojnosti: neobino i neoe-
kivano, citatni izvor otkriven je jo na samom poetku, na to se nadovezuje i
predistorija rukopisa, potkrepljena faktografski; u nastavku se prosleuje sudbi-
na koju je rukopis imao poto je mehaniki podeljen, to se dovodi u vezu s
jednim istorijskim dogaajem poarom u Skoplju iz 1689. godine i krug se
zatvara integralnim navodenjem citata.
Pria, konstruisana oko putovanja rukopisa, svodi se na dedukovanje i de-
tektovanje postojeih verzija o tom putovanju. U tom smislu, opravdana je i de-
duktivna naracija, koja omoguuje da se pria derivira kroz interakciju i
koordinaciju razliitih izvora i pri, koje imaju status svedoanstava o sudbini
rukopisa, a koje u intertekstualnoj prirodi teksta uestvuju kao lani ili istiniti
prototekstovi. S obzirom na to, deduktivno prianje prerasta u ispitivanje unu-
tranjih principa prie/pri (Jerkov 169). U retroaktivnom objanjenju postu-
paka primenjenih u romanu Ime rue Umberto Eko uvodi pojam vetaki dijalo-
gizam, kao metanarativni postupak koji koristi izvesni rukopis kao predmet
razmiljanja narativnog glasa i kao predmet tumaenja u trenutku dok se razvija
prianje (198). U sluaju makedonskog autora ovaj postupak je motivisan
koncentrisanjem na sudbinu rukopisa, to je indirektno motivisano postupkom
naunog istraivanja citatne relacije izmeu prototeksta i citata. Ono to je pri
tom simptomatino i problematino upravo je istraivacki proces koji poprima
dimenzije mistifikacije.

87
O ovom neobinom putovanju Mejboma Uroevi govori u svom tekstu ,
(
).. :, 2000, 362-368.

Mistifikacija

Hrvatski teoretiar Pavao Pavlii posmatra mistifikaciju kao jednu od
intertekstualnih, tj. citatnih formi. Kod Uroevia ta forma je nagovetena kroz
saznanje o lakom prisvajanju delova tueg teksta i o jo lakem legitimisanju
autorstva nad tuim tekstovima. U prilog tome ide i mehanizam multiplikacije,
prisutan na svim nivoima prie: udvajanje rukopisa, ija integralna forma je
razbijena na dva dela; udvajanje njegove desne polovine, tako da u jednom
momentu svi metani prodaju istrazivau identinu i autentinu, kompleme-
ntarnu polovinu rukopisa (multiplikacije i pronalazaa, tj. uslovnih ili lanih au-
tora); dalje, multipliciraju se i fakti o sudbini rukopisa i o njegovim istraivaima,
a verzije su ponuene iz etiri razliite perspektive, koje su i tekstualno-grafiki
signalizovane u prii kao A, B, V, G varijante, ija eksplikativnost oscilira izmeu
suprotstavljenih podruja fantastinoga, udnoga, neverovatnoga, s jedne
strane, i policijsko- detektivske izvetajnosti i argumentovanosti, s druge strane.
Ovakvo postavljanje izmeu verodostojnoga i neverodostojnoga, izmeu
pouzdanoga i nepouzdanoga, izmeu fakcije i fikcije dovodi budueg doktora
nauka do stanja totalne anksiozne neizvesnosti i do apsolutne epistemoloke
nesigurnosti (Mekhejl 30), i pri tom njegovo sumnjanje izaziva i dopunske
ontoloke konsekvence: i istraiva Isak ben Saruk i njegov predmet interesa
rukopis, tj. njegovi delovi postoje ili ne postoje u svetu fakata, u zavisnosti od
toga koju verziju i pretpostavku odaberemo, u zavisnosti od toga koja pria nam
se ini verovatnijom.
Margaret Rouz smatra da pseudo-forme, kao vrsta knjievne prevare (koje
najee imaju parodijski predznak), najeksplicitnije ilustruju mistifikacijsku
konverziju: preobraavajui ono to ve postoji, dovodi se pod sumnju, i ono to
je oito (70-71). Vakantna pseudocitatnost obezbeuje taj efekat i u tekstu Uro-
evia: situacija u kojoj bilo koji tekstovni fragment moe da popuni prazno mesto
u originalnom rukopisu i da participira u ponovnom uspostavljanju njegovog
integriteta, govori o mogunosti da citatno podudaranje afirmie alternativnu
egzistenciju nemogueg i nepostojeeg (bilo da se radi o tekstu ili o njegovim
fragmentima, bilo da se radi o njegovim autorima ili o njegovim pronalazaima).
Ovo kolebanje izmeu hipoteza i njihovih argumenata dovodi do niza
kontradikcija i paradoksa.

Kontradikcije/paradoksi

Na ovom nivou citatna intertekstualnost postaje jedan od metafikcionalnih
postupaka, koji u klasifikaciji Patrie Vo spadaju u grupi kontradikcija. Njihovo
postojanje u prii - manifestuje se kroz simultanosti,

kroz mnotvo alternativnih pria, koje su ponuene kao jedna pria, kroz
alternativne zavretke prie i kroz isto logike kontradikcije izazvane odnosima
meu njima.
Renate Lahman posmatra paradoks kao oblik kontradikcije, koji, izmeu
ostalog, obuhvata i specifinu preradu i proizvodnju znanja, pri emu se dovodi
u pitanje postojee znanje, razotkrivaju se odreene aporije kroz proces
radikalizovanja ili se razotkriva konana neutemeljenost pretpostavki ime se, u
krajnoj liniji, dokazuje nesigurnost bespogovorno ponuenog/prihvaenog
znanja (116). U svakom sluaju, paradoksi i kontradikcije podjednako stvaraju
konfuziju i kod istrazivaa u prii kao i kod itatelja prie, tako da se obojica
dovode do istog stanja nesigurnosti i skepse u odnosu na ono to je zateeno
kao utvreni korpus znanja i fakata.

Funkcije vakantne citatnosti

Na ovom nivou aktiviraju se metatekstualne funkcije vakantne citatnosti.
Citatnost, kao i svaka intertekstualna vrsta, zapravo, predstavlja oblik tekstua-
lnog transvetizma: in u okviru kojeg se tekstualne tkanine tkaju jedna preko
druge, jedna u drugu, jedna kroz drugu, jedna iza druge Pria demonstrira slu-
aj kad tekst problematizuje sopstveni identitet, egzistirajui kroz svoje dve po-
lovine, koje se zatim umnoavaju do beskonanosti, tako da je proces maski-
ranja prosleen kroz faze komplementarnosti, identinosti i uzajamne konverti-
bilnosti tekstovnih segmenata. Dilema je sledea: da li su te situacije izraz se-
miotikog oajanja, ili je to jedna od strategija kojom se knjievnost, samo-
svesno i dovitljivo, posredstvom intertekstualnosti, brani, a i nadmudruje se sa
apokaliptinim i pesimistinim prognozama u vezi s njenim statusom neto
to je zagovarao Don Bart upotrebljavajui sintagmu knjievnost iscrplje-
nosti.
U tom kontekstu vakantna citatnost ima dvostruku refleksiju:
1. Potvruje neminovnost intertekstualnosti i interteksta, i relevantnost
odnosa knjievnost knjievnost, kao imperativ aktuelne situacije hiperci-
tatnosti, u vezi s kojom, kao to konstatuje Orai, vie ne itamo, ve jedno-
stavno citiramo. To je, svakako, i potvrda radikalne Bartovske intertekstualne
koncepcije da je intertekst/intertekstualnost preduslov teksta/tekstualnosti,
tako da tekst, u isto vreme, ima nuno dvostruku poziciju: prototekstovnu i
metatekstovnu. Pria Uroevia ilustruje ovu neminovnost, sugeriui uza-
ludnost potrage za izvorom citata, uzaludnost potrage za drugom polovinom
rukopisa i, uopte, potrage za savrenom kompaktnom, te u naunom smislu
opisivoj literaturi: ona je apriori intertekstualna, a vakantna citatnost je samo
jedna varijanta intertekstualne oiglednosti.

2. Problematizuje postojeu relaciju knjievnost nauka: u prii Uroevia
pronaeni rukopis je opserviran kao predmet naunog interesa (tema dokto-
rske disertacije). Ta injenica uslovljava sledeu kauzalnost: ako je tekst kao
predmet naunog interesa podloan neobjanjivoj multiplikaciji i konverziji,
onda to ima reperkusije i u odnosu na nauni pohod i u odnosu na njegove
parametre verodostojnosti, istinitosti, objektivnosti, konanosti. Osvedoivi
zamke, apsurde i iluzije u koje zapada beskrajno detektiranje eksplicitnih
/implicitnih tekstova, pria Uroevia otvara i pitanje pseudoscientizma, ute-
meljenog na slobodi menjanja injenica ili poigravanja sa njima. U tom smislu,
mogua je i etika dilema: da li da se prizna poraz i nemo, kao sto je to uinio
Isak svojim tajanstvenim odlaskom, ili da se ustraje po svaku cenu, makar se
moralo pribei i pseudo/kvazi naunim konstrukcijama?!
Pria - potvruje svoju paradigmatinost time to
ilustruje sluaj kad u okvirima jednog istog teksta postoji paralelno afirmisanje
jednog intertekstualnog modela (vakantne citatnosti), primenjenog u smislu
konstruktivnog principa, ali i njegovog ironijskog problematizovanja: moda je
kompletna knjievnost u znaku citata, koji su u beskrajnoj (inter)tekstualnoj
transmisiji izgubili znake navoda, ali uzalud je tragati za dokazivanjem nekakve
njihove izvornosti i autentinosti.
Mada pria koristi oblik restriktivne intertekstualnosti, tj. ekspicitne inter-
tekstualnosti, tipa tekst u tekstu, ipak ona podjednako tangira i radikalne inter-
tekstualne koncepcije samim tim to ironizira i intertekstualna prouavanja,
uopte. S obzirom na to, pria funkcionie kao dvostruki metatekst:
1. Komentar intertekstualnost: Nemogunost da se locira i da se verifikuje ci-
tatni izvor esto ima svoj alibi u udnome i u neobjanjivome, a lakom umnoa-
vanju prototekstova parira i zamagljivanje i relativisanje granica original-kopija:

Mada do tada nije sumnjao u njihovu originalnost, sada poeo je da pri-
meuje niz greaka, male neloginosti, ak i tragove veto sakrivenih
prevara. Shvatio je, oajan, da su neki od onih primeraka koje su mu nu-
dili po mranim okovima arije mnogo blii originalu, nego to su to
ovi listii, i da je original beskrajno daleko, nedostian i van mogu-nosti
provere. (Uroevi 163)

2. Komentar prouavanju intertekstualnosti:Odlazak i odustajanje Isaka bena
Saruka, koji kapitulira pred neloginim multipliciranjem i zamenjivanjem delova
rukopisa, predstavlja izraz nemoi naune detekcije koja vie nije u stanju ni da
prati rukopis, ni da identifikuje njegovo poreklo, a jo manje da ga fokusira kroz
naunu prizmu: udno je, razume se, to to jedan rukopis, iju sudbinu
moemo pratiti tokom vie vekova, u naim danima ima toliko neitljiv trag
(Uroevi 163).

U tom kontekstu napravljena je i ironina konstatacija naratora kojom
zavrava pria: Strunjajci nikada nisu saznali da se radi o citatu iz jedne stare
alhemiarske knjige, ali i da su saznali, ko zna da li bi to pomoglo njihovom
istraivanju (Uroevi 166). Nesumnjivo, intertekstualnost podjednako izaziva i
zavodi i knjievnost/pisca i nauku/naunika. I mada ta provokacija uzbuuje i u
stvaralakom, i u istrazivakom smislu, ipak, biti zaveden ne znai uvek
trijumfovati, ve i biti potinjen onome koji zavodi! U saglasnosti s ovim, episte-
moloka nesigurnost, koju producira vakantna citatnost u prii, ima i dodatne,
ontoloke implikacije:
1. implicira ugroenost ontolokog statusa knjievnosti, time to vakantna
citatnost upuuje na stanje kad se knjievnost vie ne odnosi neposredno na
stvarnost kao to je referentni svet, ve do nje dolazi posredovano, kroz tue
tekstove/citate, sugeriui neizbenost predloaka u svakom knjievnom inu;
2. implicira ontoloki relativizam, time to potvruje laku transgresivnost u
svim pravcima (knjievnost knjievnost; knjievnost stvarnost, fikcija
fakcija), to, svakako, govori o dubljoj ontolokoj nestabilnosti.
Paradoks koji proizilazi iz neizbenosti intertekstualnosti i iz zaludnosti nje-
nog prouavanja promovie jedinu moguu izvesnost, onu koja se tie teksta,
koji slobodno plovi u svim pravcima. Nasuprot epistemolokoj nesigurnosti (u
domenu nauke) i ontolokom relativizmu (u domenu knjievnosti) stoji Tekst, bez
obzira na to da li e on biti prototekst ili metatekst, da li e da bude leva ili desna
polovina arhainog rukopisa, da li e da bude predmet doktorske disertacije ili
eksponat u brijanici. Sloboda teksta (predstavljena kroz neobino putovanje
rukopisa) i nemo njegovog naunog fiksiranja (predstavljena kroz odlazak Isaka
bena Saruka), tj. vakantna citatnost, koja lei u osnovi ovih dvaju postupaka,
potvruje jedinstvenu relevantnost tekstovnih relacija: otkrivanje relacija znai
popunjavanje praznih mesta izmeu tekstova, znai situiranje (inter)teksta meu
najmanje dva druga teksta. Zagovarajui prazninu (bilo kao prazno mesto proto-
teksta, bilo kao praznu relaciju izmeu prototeksta i citata), knjievna vakantnost
manifestuje se kao intertekstualna varijanta, iji cilj je (intertekstualno) popunja-
vanje i upisivanje u okviru meu-tekstovnosti. Ono to je nesigurno, neizvesno,
prazno moe se popuniti jedino kroz ono to je verovatno, a verovatno i mogue
su, u Aristotelovskom smislu, privilegija knjievnosti.
Pria - mogla bi se itati kao potvrda stava Brajana
Mekhejla o narativnom preokretu i o sveprisutnosti prie: naime, -
- pria nam i prepriava ve konstruisane prie povezane s ru-
kopisom i s njegovim istrazivaima. Priajui nam i prepriavajui nam ve
konstruisane prie, i Uroevieva pria konstruie se kao mirijada pria o prii, i
prie u prii i prie iza prie i prie kroz prie! I narativni princip dobija legiti-
mitet i u knjievnom i u naunom kontekstu: i pisac i naunik su homo fabulans
(i naratori i tumai), i to je jedina mogua pozicija u stvaranju i u tumaenju

knjievnosti, tj. njenih tekstovnih reprezenata. ak i ono to je u odreenom
trenutku imalo status fakta, ve u drugom momentu demistifikuje se kao jedna
(narativna) konstrukcija, pa se apodiktinost razvodnjava i relativizuje, svodei
se na samo jednu od moguih pria.

Zapravo, u nameri da objasne brojne varijante prie, neki kau da su u
tom trenutku u Skoplju bila dva oveka koji su se zvali istim imenom
Isak ben Saruk. I vie od toga, da su i noili u istom hotelu. A neki kau
preterujui, razume se da su bila etvorica. Ako bi se prihvatila ova
neverovatna pretpostavka koja jo uvek krui meu starijim stano-
vnicima ovoga grada i koja, zapravo, predstavlja, udvojenu priu o kla-
sinom dvojniku onda bi svaka od iznesenih varijanata mogla biti
tana. (Uroevi 164)

Irelevantni su i objektivnost i verodostojnost, nasuprot potrebi da pria bude
interesantna za publiku, ali da bude i strateki korisna (Mekhejl 25). Korisna
u smislu intrigiranja i, ukoliko je jo uvek mogue, zbunjivanja publike, iji je
ukus, u uslovima intenzivnog intetekstualnog treninga, nesumnjivo prefinjen; ali
korisna i za samu knjievnost, koja strue sopstveni palimpsest i popunjava tako
nainjene beline i praznine, stavljajui akcenat na postupak i vraajui se na
sam in, na fakt da se neto (jo uvek) ini umetniki, tj. na umetniki nain
(Pavlii 43).

Literatura

Eco, Umberto. O knjievnosti. Prev. Milana Pileti. Beograd: Narodna knjiga, 2002.
Genette, Grard. Palimpsestes. La littrature au second degr. Paris: Seuil, 1982.
Jerkov, Aleksandar. Od modernizma do postmoderne. Pritina: Jedinstvo/Gornji
Milanovac:Deje novine, 1991.
Lachmann, Renate. Phantasia, Memoria, Rhetorica. Prevod: Davor Beganovi.
Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, 2002.
McHale, Brian. Constructing Postmodernism. London and New York: Routledge,
1992.
Orai-Toli, Dubravka.Teorija citatnosti. Zagreb:GZH, 1990.
Pavlii, Pavao. "Moderna i postmoderna intertekstualnost."Umjetnost rijei 2-3
(1989): 33-50.
Rose, Margaret A. Parody: ancient, modern, and post-modern. Cambridge&New
York: CUP, 1993.
Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction.Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction.
London and New York: Routledge, 1990.

INTERTEXTUAL VARIANTS IN THE RECENT MACEDONIAN SHORT STORY:VACANT
QUOTATION

The aim of this text is to examine the vacant quotation as one of the
intertextual variants in the recent Macedonian short story. The subject of
analysis is the short story Rakopisot od Kitab-an by Vlada Urosevik. The analysis
shows the main characteristics and procedures of this model of quotation
(pseudoquotation, deductive narration, mistification, paradoxes) as well as
shows his metatextual functions: this short story contains implicit comment on
the intertextuality and comment on studies of intertextuality. Accordingly,
Urosevik shows the epistemological uncertainity and ontological relativism of
the literature and in the literature.

Key words: intertextuality, vacant quotation, metatextuality, epistemological
scepticism, ontological relativism.


UDK 821.411.21.09-1

Engaging the Cities of Exile in Modern
Arabic/Palestinian Poetry

Saddik M. Gohar, United Arab Emirates University

Abstract: The city as a literary image plays a tremendously vital role in the area of
literature and cultural studies. Nevertheless, the city as a symbol in literature can be
traced back to the Bible, but it is in the late nineteenth century that the literary city
achieves a new level of significance. The face of the real-world city changed completely
during this period, its pitch and intensity reached a new level and the city became fertile
ground for poetic expression. However, the literary city acquired a new role in the early
years of the twentieth century. While the city continued to act in its original role as a
representative symbol or metonym or as a backdrop to add urban color, the twentieth-
century poet tried to write the very fabric of the city in his text, to reveal its underlying
significance in the life of the poet and of city dwellers. In this cultural/historical context,
this paper investigates the city/exile dialectics in Arabic literature underlining the
attitudes of Arab/Palestinian poets toward the Diaspora motif integral to their traumatic
experience in the cities of exile. The paper also explores major city narratives of great
significance to the contemporary socio-political scene in the Arab world. Viewing the
city as an inferno and labyrinth emblematic of contemporary exilic experiences, the Arab
poets identify the city with backwardness and local political corruption.

Key Words: exile, diaspora, Palestinian, alienation, Jewish, displacement

Introduction

In Metropolis: The City as Text, James Donald discusses the nature of the
city in western culture. He argues:

The city does not just refer to a set of buildings in a particular place. To
put it polemically, there is no such thing as a city. Rather, the city
designates the space produced by the intersection of historically and
geographically specific institutions, social relations of production and
reproduction, practices of government, forms and media of
communication and so forth. The city, then, is above all a representation.
I would argue that the city constitutes an imagined environment. (422)


Historically, anthropologists trace the role of cities from places of social
gathering for food distribution to fortresses to repel attacks as in the case of
medieval cities of Europe. Later the city became an industrial center, a focal
point for the buying and selling and the shipping of goods. Farmers began to
become increasingly dependent on industrialization for the production and
distribution of products. In modern times industrialization made it possible for
fewer farmers to produce enough food for larger portions of population. In the
United States, particularly, industrialization forced many small farmers out of
business and compelled them to seek other jobs in the central city. To
anthropologists, cities are a fact of life for man. Men did not consciously form
cities ; cities grew out of mens need for sharing food and other necessities and
the need for communication and recreation. Cities were formed to serve those
needs and in turn the cities molded men and women to serve their needs.
Moreover, general developments in science and the arts also contributed to
this paradoxical situation, as Burton Pike has suggested:

During the nineteenth century, two conflicting trends develop: In the
arts and in psychology, the world becomes internalized and the focus is
on the individual; in science, in the development of empirical
knowledge, and the technological developments of the industrial age,
the world looks outward and becomes less personal. (71)

This conflict certainly gave fuel to the separation between the individual and
the city. The city, as it grew more industrialized, became the embodiment of
the forces of technology. The individual/the poet would have felt with greater
intensity these centrifugal forces that were being applied more and more
broadly in the ever-growing cities. The depersonalization imposed by scientific
advancement was the final breakdown of the community from which the
medieval city had grown. Frederic Jameson sees the modern view of the city as
a complete reversal from the idea of the city in the Middle Ages:

The modern anxiety-fantasy about urban concentration represents a
profound structural reversal of the older bourgeois concept of the
freedom of the city which developed during the revitalization of city
life in the high and late Middle Ages; from this perspective, the city was
the place where you went to shake off the constraints of village life, or,
even more fundamentally, those of serfdom and the feudal order. (89)

The modern city dweller, according to Jameson, had lost this sense of
freedom. Jameson argues that the image of the modern city is built on an
inherent contradiction similar to the one described above by Pike. The city is

viewed simultaneously as the ideal community an image based on the
Heavenly City of Christian doctrine and as the city of individual freedoms, an
ideal that is antithetical to community (Jameson90).
Moreover, the loss of individuality caused by the rapid growth of late
nineteenth-century and twentieth century cities actually creates a double
opposition. On the one hand, we find a tension between the individual and the
community within the city, and on the other hand a tension between the
utopian ideal be it of moral, Christian or futuristic origin and the real life city
that cannot attain this ideal fusion of I and they. Ideally, the modern city
should allow its inhabitant to enjoy and express his individuality while also
enjoying a sense of community. In reality, however, the city dweller is
swallowed up by the masses of people, which turn out to be very unlike a
community; he remains anonymous, having lost both individuality and
community. The truly ideal community, where all would be separate yet joined,
individual yet equal, conflicts with this reality as a whole. That is, the reality of
the city marked by the conflict between the individual and the masses
opposes the ideal fusion of the one and the many precisely because this
opposition is irreconcilable.
Due to the rapid growth of the modern city caused by science and
technology, the city was no longer being controlled by man, but was controlling
man. Literature, written at the end of the nineteenth century, therefore, begins
to show the strong paradoxes that characterize the twentieth century
ambivalence about the city. In the early twentieth century, writers of the city
began to feel that a new approach to the city in literature was necessary to
capture its inherent contradictory nature. The modern writer feels he cannot
hope to understand life in traditional, representational, sequential-casual
terms. For the modern writer, order was no longer a fruitful approach for
literature. One may rightly connect the traditional forms of life and literature
with a social structure that no longer provides a viable option for the city
dweller. According to Pike "the literary city of modernism is the city of the
streets and the flneur, and flneurs become readers of the haphazardly
juxtaposed signs whose chain makes up the modern metropolis (171).
Likewise, the lyric I in twentieth century poetry must roam the streets in
search of the place where he will belong. The poet wears the cap of the flneur
and becomes a journalist who records the signs of the city (Pike 171).
The city, in essence, is the juxtaposition of opposing forces, not only those
within reality profound versus trivial, evil versus pure, order versus chaos, but
also those that emphasize, the real against the ideal, the contemporary against
the past, or the specific-personal against the universal. For the Modernist, it
has been noted, viewpoint is everything, [and even] the city can be poetic
given the right point of view (Hyde 339). In the twentieth century view of the

city, the tensions between conflicting realities and the unachievable ideal exist
in a sort of equilibrium. Man is unable to reconcile these tensions or has no
desire to do so. The modern city mind or urban mind-set is characterized by
the loss of an integrated world vision. The continuous awareness of the
multiple conflicts and paradoxes in the image of the city leads to the
modernists view the city is not a static object fixed in space, but a
fragmented and subjective entity, constantly shifting in time (Pike 8). The
Modernist struggles with the inherent contradiction in the conception of the
city, yet is the first to acknowledge the disjunction (Jameson 90).
By the twentieth century, the city has become a cultural artifact that must
be seen both in space and in time. Burton Pike states that the twentieth-
century city is too large for any one person to know. Its limits cannot be taken
in a glance, even from an elevated spot in the city; its inhabitants cannot hope
to know everyone in the city, and often cannot know everyone in their
neighborhood, and the abundance of stimuli to the senses which we can take
as semiotic signs has become so great that the city cannot hope to take them
all in at a glance (Pike 65). The mode of experiencing the city, therefore, is not
simply a visual/spatial one; experiencing the city becomes strongly complicated
process as reflected in contemporary poetry.
In twentieth-century American poetry, for example, the city is described
either as a kind of hell characterized by darkness, ugliness, ennui and misery as
in the poetry of Eliot and Pound or a machine that crushes people in some
poems by the Chicago poets or a metallic paradise where art is
indistinguishable from artifice and music from the howl of the machine as in
the poetry of H. Crane and Ginsberg. The challenge to the modern poets
mytho-poeic mind, as Crane perceived it, was two-fold: he should invoke myths
such as those of Faustus and Helen embodying classic experience for bridging
mutually opposed and distanced realms and he should relate such myths to the
icons of twentieth century culture. The city or modern poets myth is not simply
myth borrowed but myth appropriated. Mythopoeia would therefore imply not
merely the creative use of myth but its making: by adaptation, translation and
even by tracking down an identical myth in the popular culture of technological
age. Nevertheless, Cranes modern city is full of contraries: it is a refugee and a
death-trap.
Apparently, the city, like the sea, is a locale where helpless city folks are
sucked into its tumultuous streams. Unlike the metallic paradise of Cranes
poetry, the city in Arabic poetry is rooted in another tradition. Tracing the
history of ancient cities in the Arab world particularly in countries that
possessed civilizations like Egypt and Iraq, it became obvious that there was no
hostility toward cities in this region. Historically, poetry and poets, (even in
Europe), have not taken a hostile attitude toward the city except when the city

itself became hostile to humanity with the emergence of the era of
industrialization. Unlike Eliot who condemns the modern city and its inhabitants,
W. Whitman reveals a deep interest in the city glorifying its chimneys, factories,
brothels, taverns, alleys, crowds, salesmen, tired sailors and expresses
sympathy for its prostitutes.
Like their European and American counterparts, the Arab poets, and due to
the enormous changes that swept the Arab world in the post WWII era, were
forced to come to term with the modern city. In their treatment of the city, the
post-war Arab poets did not approach it as a paradise or a Utopia like their
Romantic predecessors in the beginning of the 20
th
century. Further, they did
not reveal antagonism toward the city in the same way their Euro-American
counterparts did in their poetry. Most of the Arab poets satirized the city for
personal, social, political or any other reasons, however, their satire/criticism
does not constitute a philosophical or cultural framework that could be taken
as a basis for a collective vision which condemns the Arab metropolis. The Arab
poet builds his hostility toward the city, in general, on personal reasons or
ideological commitments. Some Arab poets, however, approach the Arab city
the same way Baudelaire deals with Paris or Eliot with London or Ginsberg with
New York or Sandburg with Chicago in spite of the wide differences between
the complicated reality of Euro-American metropolis and the pre-industrial
condition of all Arab cities. It may be argued that in some conditions the Arab
poets hostility toward the city is not fully convincing because it lacks a solid
philosophical and cultural basis which would justify it.

Cities of Exile in Arabic Poetry

Discussing the exile motif, Ian Buruma, in an article entitled, Real Wounds,
Unreal Wounds: The Romance of Exile, argues:

Exile as a metaphor did not begin with the Jewish Diaspora. The first
story of exile in our tradition is the story of Adam and Eve. No matter
how we interpret the story of their expulsion from the Garden of Eden
original sin or not we may be certain of one thing: There is no way
back to paradise. After that fatal bite of the apple, the return to pure
innocence was cut off forever. The exile of Adam and Eve is the mark of
maturity, the consequence of growing up. An adult can only recall the
state of childlike innocence in his imagination; and from this kind of
exile a great deal of literature has emerged. (3)


Like Jewish literature, contemporary Arabic/Palestinian poetry is
characterized by an intensive feeling of exile. Caught in the limbo world of the
modern city, dominated by feelings of exile and alienation, the Palestinian
poetess, Fadwa Tuqan attempts to capture this disappointing experience as a
stranger in the unreal city of London. In her poem In the Aging City, she
describes the city of London while recalling, through a flash back device, some
scenes from her birthplace city, Nablus, which fell to the Israeli forces in June
1967 war: Bats flash across memory / a tank passes as I crossed in the Nablus
marketplace. Then, the poet comes back to where she lives now. She talks
about London city: London keeps but with the toll of Big Ben / A London lady
passes, complaining to her dog of arthritis and a pinched sciatic nerve (Jayyusi
457). The poem concludes with a reference to feelings of loneliness and
alienation in the cities of exile:

I remove his arm from my shoulder/ I am besieged by loneliness/ we
are all play along with life alone/ suffer alone, and die by ourselves/
you will remain alone here even if a hundred women embrace you.
(Jayyusi 457)

The cities of exile/diaspora motif is also integral to the poetic and fictional
works of the Palestinian writer, Mureed al-Barghouthi. In his poetry, the word
city is mentioned more than thirty times in addition to the names of cities
such as Acre, Jerusalem, Ledda, Gaza, Galilee, Nazareth, Rome, Grenada and
others. Al-Barghouthi, like other Palestinian poets, in Diaspora, could not be
categorized as a city poet, however, the city has constituted a central part of
the poets exilic memory of suffering and pain simply because he spent most of
his life in exile in Amman, Cairo and East European cities longing for return to
his birthplace city of Ramalla. Unfortunately when the poet returned to his city
after thirty years in exile as reflected in his autobiographical novelI Saw
Ramallahhe discovered that the others are still masters of the place. They
give you permit. They check your papers. They start files on you (Al-Barghouthi
38).
In his own city, he gets the feeling that he is a stranger:

Is there something new for strangers? Or do they go around the world
with baskets full of the stains of the past? The stains fall but the hand
does not drop the basket. I wondered if the people I passed on the
street saw me as a stranger? Do their hurried eyes note the basket in
my hand? (Al-Barghouthi 51)


As a displaced and dispossessed poet, Al-Barghouthi comes back to his
native city after thirty years in exile but due to the enormous changes in the
city, he feels that his visit to Ramallah is an extension of his experience in other
cities of Diaspora: It is enough for a person to go through the first experience
of uprooting, to become uprooted forever.
The image of the Palestinian as an exile/a wandering Jew moving from one
city to another, from one refugee camp to another and from one massacre to
another, to quote Mahmud Darwish, is a basic motif in the Palestinian poetry
written after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon resulting into the Palestinian
exodus from the city of Beirut. According to Salma Jayyusi, the Palestinian
refugees, in the post 1980s poetry of Palestinian poets are delineated as

crowds waiting in airports, looking in vain for a small place to
consummate a marriage, traveling endlessly in caravans with their
children and bundles of clothes, dying without seeing loved ones,
suffering the loneliness, desolation and torturing heat to carve out a
living in some country of exile (Jayyusi 48)

or in an Arab or non-Arab exilic city.
All the cities of exile have inflicted pain on the Palestinian refugees and
other political activists in the Arab world. In addition to exile, the Palestinian
refugees were the fuel of what is called the Black September events
88
(1970)
and the victims of the Lebanese civil war where their poor camps were the
targets of conflicting militias and factions. In Resignation from the Death
Insurance Company Samih al-Qasim expresses his desire to be evacuated from
the city of death, the city of marble: I submit my resignation to you / To you I
submit my resignation from the Death Insurance Company (Boullata 101). In
The Diary of the EpidemicYear, the Palestinian poet, Jabra Ibrahim Jabra
describes his city of exile, a city which spits hate to its lovers / for love in it
does not fall on the road / like seeds in a ploughed earth / Love is a passion of a
hater/ erotic in the moonlight. Moreover, Jabra, in Deserts of Exile, from his
anthology Tammuz Fi Al-Madinah / Tammuz in The City, evokes his homeland
saying: remember us wandering / among the thorns of deserts / wandering in
rocky mountains / remember us now / in tumultuous cities across the deserts
and oceans
89
(63). In the cities of exile, Jabra suffers from feelings of loss and

88
In September 1970 and due to strategic differences between King Hussein of Jordan and the
PLO leadership, the Jordanian army swept the Palestinian refugee camps in Amman and a great
number of refugees were killed during the military confrontations between the PLO and the
Jordanian army.
89
The poem is translated by Sulaiman, Khaled in Palestine and Modern Arabic Poetry. London:
Zed Books, 1984.

loneliness. The city of exile is depicted as a city without love: its lovers are its
mourners / its mourners mourn / while its naked come to it like black birds. He
concludes: Ten years of travel/ while my pocket is emptily screaming to God
(Boullata 109). In The Secrets of Exile, Jabra describes the endless journey of
suffering and pain of the Palestinian refugee across the cities of exile and
Diaspora. He expresses his longing for his homeland and his nostalgia for a
country, ravaged by the Zionists who are supported by the Western forces of
evil: Oh Land of ours where our childhood passed / like dreams in the shade of
the orange-grave / Remember us now wandering / in the tumult of cities
beyond deserts and seas
90
(1982: 63).
Further, Samih al-Qasim, in You Pretend to Die, a poem written in memory
of the Palestinian poet, Mueen Bseiso, laments that Arab cities particularly
Cairo are closed in the face of Palestinian revolutionaries while opening their
gates to the enemies of the Arab nation. Al-Qasim was not allowed to visit his
friend in Cairo even in his death-bed because the gates of the biggest Arab city
was sealed by the star of David:

I tried to reach you / when your heart burst in the bed / of that hotel / I
tried to reach you, to hold your grieving head / but a poor poet finds
the fare expensive / the region of death expensive / I tried to reach
you, to apologize to your death for my life / How could I reach you
when Cairos gates / are sealed by the star of David? (Jayyusi 259)

Izz Al-Din al-Manasra is a Palestinian poet living in exile too. In a poem
entitled Exit Visa, (from his anthology Exit from the Dead Sea), he reveals his
anguish in the cities of exile:

To the city of pain; /pain, and sometimes love /I will leave you
tomorrow, so listen to me and listen /to my last words./Dont you see
my pain /Dont you see my sorrow?/For six years now I have
lamented./I am from before Noahs flood; I roam /Your deserts, I ask
about/An oasis, or an island./I will leave you tomorrow, so listen to me
and to my/Last words:/In your green gardens I have palm trees and
grapes for wine,/ I have kinfolk in your houses /and forgotten trysts./on
your stone benches./I have taken leave of young girls eyes;/long ago I
deserted your nights,/abandoned the treacherous times./I have friends
in your coffee shops when drunk /They are lords, and when sober
/they recall their glory in the prisons./In you I blasphemed, hungered
and knew /my country./I longed for the vineyard and the vine./While I

90
Cited in Sulaiman, Khaled. Palestine and Modern Arabic Poetry.

thought I had triumphed, I was defeated./I saw the green moss eat
your high walls. (Asfour 211)

Like all Palestinians living in exile, the poet finds it difficult to be assimilated
into the Diaspora cities:

I hate your silence, your speech,/and the eyes of your sleepers;/I hate
your foolish lovesick drivers!/I will leave you tomorrow, so listen to me
and listen /to my last words:/for six years now I have lamented./I am
from before Noahs flood;/I roam your deserts,/I ask about an oasis
or/an island (Asfour 212)

In a related context, Mahmud Darwish, in Premieres from the Storm,
speaks about the city of Damascus which harbors thousands of the Palestinian
refugees since the storm has blown in my country. In the city of exile, the
street frowns at my face but I shall sing of joy because you protect me from
the shadow and grudging looks. For those reasons I have to be proud of you /
O wound of the city (Boullata 99). After speaking about the sadness of the
mother of the boy of Galilee in his poem We Travel like other People,
Mahmud Darwish recalls the image of Damascus who used to be the capital of
the Muslim world during the Umayyad era. However, now Damascus is a city of
exile for Palestinian refugees. Damascus, like other cities, is personified as a
woman: Damascus, woman, can I leave and stay alive? / The flute cried. If I
could I would walk to Damascus like an echo (Boullata 141).

Conclusion

Tracing the history of ancient cities in the Arab world particularly in
countries that possessed civilizations like Egypt and Iraq, it becomes obvious
that there was no hostility toward cities in this region. Apparently, poetry and
poets, (even in Europe), have not taken a hostile attitude toward the city
except when the city itself became hostile to humanity with the emergence of
the era of industrialization. Historically, the city represents a great tradition in
Arabic literature. In A Thousand Nights and One Night, Sinbad visited many
cities and islands including the apes city, the city of Shimon and other fictional
cities. However, the cities in A Thousand Nights and One Nightcan be divided
into five categories: Islamic cities, Christian cities, Jewish cities, cities of infidels,
cannibals and fire worshippers, and magic cities populated by the Jinnis which
are subdivided into two groups: The cities of the Jinnis who believe in the
teachings of prophet Solomon and the cities of the infidel Jinnis who revolt

against prophet Solomon. Recently, modernist and postmodernist Arabic
writers are still preoccupied with the city motif. For example, Abdul-Rahman
Munif, a Saudi novelist, born in Jordan, acquired global reputation with the
publication of his fictional sequence Cities of Salt. The events of the novels
are partly located in the city of Harran which the Americans created out of
nowhere after the exploration of oil in the Arabian Peninsula. Harran is divided
into American Harran and Arab Harran emphasizing cultural and religious
differences and the way the Americans looked at the Arabs.
Unlike the fictional city of Harran which Munif attacks because it lacks
originality, the realistic city of Jizan is depicted as a paradise in the poetry of the
modern Saudi poet Omar Saabi: O Jizan / you are the suns of my youth, my
dream and the shining letters of my look
91
. In the poetry of Jilani Tribshan, a
modern Bedouin poet from Libya, the city is associated with repulsive images
and illusions. The poet who dreams of going to the city is astounded by its
cruelty and indifference. Jilanis city is identified with the fear of the poor, the
shattered dreams of the orphans and the tears of defeated soldiers.
Therefore, he prefers to disappear among the camels of the Bedouins
92
and
build his tent under the deserts wind. Furthermore, the Arab city in
modernist Arabic poetry is usually associated with sadness, poverty and
frustration. It is the city of defeat and oppressive Arab rulers. The Emarati poet
Arif Al-Khaja describes the modern Arab city as a prison where the Arab citizens
attempt to escape from the museum of one Arabic prison to another
93
. The
Arab city is represented in Al-Khajas poetry through the images of the hammer
and the holocaust. To Habib Sayigh, another Emarati poet the Arab city is
dominated by cheap materialistic values and human beings have no place in a
city governed by economic mafias: Auction, Auction / Advertisements / the
city is haunted by ghosts / Fear lives in the streets of the city
94
.
Moreover, the Iraqi poet, Abdul-Wahhab al-Bayati in Poems to My Son Ali,
depicts the cities of exile as he moves from one city to another after being
dismissed out of his country due to his political ideology:

Dawn-less towns asleep: / In their streets I called your name, and
darkness was the answer / Dawn less towns shrouded in ice: / the
sparrows of spring have left their churches / And we from exile to exile

91
Citations from Arabic prose and poetry are translated by the author of the paper unless names
of other translators are mentioned in the text of the paper.
92
See Saddik Gohar, The Map of Modern Arabic Poetry And Western Influence, Second Edition:
Oyun Press, 2008.
93
Ibid.
94
See Ibid.

and door to door / winter like the lily in the dust / Beggars we O
moon, we die / our train missed for all eternity (Khouri and Algar 111)

Moreover, in The Village Market, al-Bayati attacks the city severely
describing it as a brute: And those who return from the city / O what a blind
beast/ whose victims are our dead/ the bodies of women/ the good-natured
dreamers (Khouri and Algar 117). Al-Bayatis city is a modern sodom,
dominated by sin, vice and debauchery. The allusion to Sodom evokes the
Biblical story of the burnt city which is famous for sexual deviation and sin.
In Traveler without Baggage, the Iraqi poet Badr Shaker al-Sayyab describes
his journey across the cities of exile and Diaspora. From nowhere / with no face
/ no history, from nowhere / Beneath the sky and in the moaning of the wind,
the poet roams the wilderness of exile where the light and the tumult of the city
strike me from afar. Escaping from tyranny in his country, Iraq, the poet,
however, is not able to fulfill his dreams in the cities of exile: The same life / A
new boredom stronger than stubborn death repaves its road / thousands of
years and nothing waiting for the travelers / save his sad present. When the
poet confronts the city of exile, he feels that he is still chained by memories of his
past: The walls of the city appear but for what gain shall I hope / from a world
which still lives with a hateful past / Without a sound of protest (Khouri and
Algar 1974: 119). The poets painful memories in his homeland are chasing him in
the cities of exile: sad past/ Mud and clay/ Thousands of years/ And the eyes of
thousands of locusts (Khouri and Algar 119).

Bibliography

Asfour, John, ed. and trans. When the Words Burn: An Anthology of Modern
Arabic Poetry (1945-1987). Ontario: Cormorant Books, 1988.
Barghouthi, Mureed. I Saw Ramallah. Trans. Ahdaf Soueif. Cairo: The American
UP, 1997.
Boullata, Issa, ed. and trans. Modern Arab Poets. London: Heinemann, 1976.
Buruma, Ian. "Real Wounds, Unreal Wounds: The Romance of Exile."New
Republic 224 (2001): 1-10.
Donald, Hall. Remembering Poets: Reminiscences and Opinions: Dylan Thomas,
Robert Frost, T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound. Oxford:OUP, 1983.
Gohar, Saddik. The Map of Modern Arabic Poetry And Western Influence. Cairo:
Oyun, 2008.
Hyde, G.M. 1976. "The Poetry of the City."Modernism 1890-1930. Ed. Malcolm
Bradbury and James McFarlane. London: Penguin, 1976. 318-346.

Jabra, Jabra I. Tammuz Fi Al-Madinah / Tammuz In the City. Beirut: Al-Muasasah
Alarabiyyah, 1982.
Jameson, Frederick. The Ideologies of Theory: Essays 1971-1986. Vol. 2: The
Syntax of History. London: Routledge, 1988.
Jayyusi, Salma. An Anthology of Modern Arabic Poetry. New York: Columbia UP,
1987.
Khouri, Mounah and Algar Hamid, trans. An Anthology of Modern Arabic
Poetry. Berkeley: U California P, 1974.
Pike, Burton. The Image of the City in Modern Literature. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton UP, 1981.
Sulaiman, Khaled. Palestine and Modern Arabic Poetry. London: Zed, 1984.

STDTE DES EXILS IN MODERNER ARABISCHER/PALSTINENSISCHER LYRIK

Die Stadt as Metapher ist von unumstlicher Bedeutung in den Literatur-
und Kulturwissenschaften. Die Stadt als literarisches Symbol reicht zurck sogar
bis zur Bibel, wird aber wirklich prominent erst im spten neunzehnten
Jahrhundert. Whrend dieser Zeit wuchsen Grostdte und entwickelten sich
zum beliebten Schauplatz poetischen Schaffens. Im frhen zwanzigsten
Jahrhundert wurde der literarischen Stadt jedoch eine neue Rolle zugeteilt. Die
literarische Stadt diente nun einerseits weiterhin dem Zweck, Texten ein
kosmopolitisches Flair zu verleihen, oder eine Metonymie des dem
Provinziellen entgegengesetzten zu vermitteln. Sie wurde andererseits aber
zunehmend zum unentbehrlichen Lebensraum des Dichters und der Dichterin.
In diesem kulturhistorischen Zusammenhang hinterfragt der vorliegende Artikel
die Stadt/Exil Dialektik in arabischer Literatur. Dabei wird besonders die
Bedeutung des Diaspora Motifs fr die traumatische Erfahrung
arabischer/palstinensischer Dichter in den Stdten des Exils hervorgehoben.
Die literarische Prsenz der erzhlten Stadt wird mit den derzeitigen
Umwlzungen in der arabischen Welt in Verbindung gebracht. Dadurch, da die
Stadt als Inferno oder Labyrinth der derzeitigen Exilexistenz erscheint,
identifizieren arabische Dichter die Metropole mit Rckstndigkeit und
politischer Korruption.

Schlagwrter: Exil, Diaspora, palstinisch, Entfremdung, jdisch,
Verlagerung


UDK 821.42/.45:141.72

Failed Heroines: The Paradox of Female
Liberation in John Nkemngong Nkengasongs
The Widows Might and Alobwedepies The
Lady with a Beard

Adamu Pangmeshi, The University of Maroua-Cameroon

Abstract: Taking cognizance of the moves that women have consciously made in their
journey of liberation from culture and patriarchy and considering the fact that their
misrepresentation in arts has constituted a major focus in their struggle, their continuous
quest for freedom remains a figment of the imagination due in part to culture, patriarchal
norms and societal discourses. Our authors under study have simply taken side with the
custom and tradition to continue to subjugate their female characters. Initially, the
women are raised and given powers that make us belief that the authors are a catalyst in
the deconstruction of cultural paradigms that has helped to silence women since time
immemorial. But the female protagonists have been apparently empowered only to be
led down within a very short while. As soon as they start to enjoy their freedom, liberty
and equality which they have long been aspiring for, they are not only humiliated but
they are reduced to nothing. Both authors come from a gender sensitive area of
Cameroon. We are tempted to rush to the hasty conclusion or question whether they
misogynists. Their female characters have been entrapped, maltreated and made to have
no voices of theirs to express themselves. These authors are therefore out to assert their
cultural values. We therefore think that, there are still some societies which are resistant
to change. Read against the backdrop of new historicism, this paper demonstrates that in
spite of the efforts of the heroines in our selected texts to improve/change their
conditions, they have still been stifled by patriarchy on the one hand and tradition on the
other which holds that a womans urine cannot cross a beam meaning that this is in
partnership with our authors who are misogynistic and consequently legitimizing
patriarchy. Moreover, it is realized that though women make a conscious attempt to
empower themselves, their subaltern status and quest for liberation are stagnated by the
stifling cultural and patriarchal norms and values that inhibit their potentials. We tend
therefore to interrogate the attachment to cultural phenomenon and natural response to
cultural progress.

Key Words: feminism, patriarchy, misrepresentation, paradox, failed heroines,
liberation, culture, misogyny, subaltern, empowerment


Introduction

Literary criticism, like history and the social sciences, has traditionally asked
questions that exclude womens accomplishments. Feminist scholarship
undertakes the dual task of deconstructing predominantly cultural paradigms
and reconstructing a female perspective and experience in an effort to change
the tradition that has silenced and marginalized us (Gayle Greene and Coppelia
Kahn 1). To uphold this view, Elizabeth Goodman notes that feminism is a
politics: a recognition of the historical and cultural subordination of women the
only world-wide majority to be treated as minority, and to resolve to do
something about it(x). But what is intriguing is that as some feminists try to do
something about it others do not. As is the case with most African writings,
most Cameroon Anglophone writers are generally phallic. Ambanasom
Shadrach underlines that:

A literary fact about Cameroonian imaginative writing of English
expression is that it is generally phallic. For instance a feminist reading
of the Anglophone Cameroonian novels will reveal that nearly all of
them by male writers embody embedded biases that betray their social
determination in patriarchy. (264)

We realize therefore that women all through history have always been
objectified as powerless and voiceless victims of oppressive and unchanging
cultural norms especially within the texts understudy. This paper seeks to
demonstrate that although Alobwed `Epie and Nkemngong Nkengasong
undertake to deconstruct the social construction of gender and the cultural
paradigms that support it, they do so with some misogynistic tendencies. There
is a paradox in the way they present their female heroines. They elevate their
heroines and make them to be highly respected women who command power,
only to be watered down shortly after. They are not only bias in their
presentation but also cynical. The heroines in their novels are perceived as
courageous, resourceful, determined and optimistic but sooner they are shown
as victims of stereotypes imposed by their societies. The failure of their
heroines could therefore be attributed to stereotypical reasons.

Nkemngon Nkengasong and the Devaluation of Feminist Ideology

In Nkengasong`s novel The Widows Might, Akwenoh the heroine, is initially
projected as a strong, courageous and resourceful woman who takes her
husbands death with heart. She faces and conceals the truth about her

husbands shameful death with a lot of courage. She carries the burden of her
husbands death with no one to relieve her. She does not allow herself to be
insulted and harassed by her sister in-law Ma Eseke. She will not succumb to
the desires of Chief Ekwe and torture from the old village women in the name
of widowhood rites. Despite the truth about her husbands shameful past and
his debts, she does not despair. She conceals the truth from her friend in order
to avoid humiliation, scandal and slander. She wants to give her husband a
befitting burial. She single handedly makes arrangements for her husbands
funeral as her in-laws abandon everything because she will not share her
husbands supposed wealth with them. These are the virtues and power that
Nkengasong metes on Akwenoh the protagonist in the WidowsMight. She is an
empowered heroine. Akwenoh has proven the might of a widow but our worry
is whether she will put on this fight to the end. This is where Nkengasong`s
empowerment becomes problematic and enigmatic. Akwenoh as an optimistic
and courageous heroine believes in herself, will not accept to be traumatized
and tossed around by Ma Eseke with her accusations and widowhood rites,
what is wrong with sitting on a mattress? Please leave me alone. Its my
husband who is dead and not yours (23). This is in response to Ma Eseke`s
view that she should heap her buttocks on the floor as a woman who has truly
lost her husband. Moreover, Akwenoh will not succumb to Chief Ekwe`s
demands. He wants to inherit her as his wife as tradition demands. She
vehemently protests, As far as that tradition is concerned, I shall not be part of
it Ive told you I shall not accept (31).
Akwenoh is further projected as a proud and determined woman who
always succeeds in having things done her way. This confirms Gayle`s opinion
that the larger efforts of feminism is to liberate women, the structures that
have marginalised them, and as such it seeks not only to reinterpret, but to
change the world (2). This falls inline with Simeone de Beauvoirs idea that
one is not born a woman (12). It is rather the society that attributes
degrading roles to her. Bauvoir further notes that women are defined wholly in
terms of their deficiency to men and therefore represent what is base,
frivolous, and contingent to human experience (3). This is the narrow minded
idea that women around the globe want to radically change. This is part of
Akwenoh`s idea. But this will only be short lived. The relationship between her
and her husband is not cordial until he becomes a member of parliament. She
often quarrels with him and questions his ability and authority as a man. Her
husband could not stop her from doing what she wanted. She told him once to
nurse his poverty rather than try to nose in her activities. She wasnt going to
starve or move in rags because she wanted to be faithful to her husband (39).
She often blamed her husband for not taking good care of her. It is due to this
constant reproaches and naggings that her husband is forced into politics.

Through politics, she is elevated to the position of a proud and prestigious wife
of a member of parliament. As such she is respected by all the women in their
milieu. She is even a member of the Global Ladies Association. This is a group of
women who have an elevated status in their society because their husbands
are rich and have high post of responsibilities. They somehow exert authority
over the ordinary women of their society.
Akwenoh is seen here as the almighty widow. Like I said earlier, She
succeeds in making arrangements for her husbands funeral all alone. This is
against Chief Ekwe`s and her mothers advice. She successfully goes on with her
husbands funeral programme with the help of Emade and other friends. Chief
Ekwe becomes angry and concludes thatA corpse is a collective burden my
wife, but you have decided to carry it alone, you have the might to carry it
alone (114). This is another instance in which Akwenoh triumphs. She now has
the power over her mother and the in-laws.
Akwenoh is so confident of herself. She tells Chief Ekwe that the burial
programme has been done already and made public and nothing would change
it. It is therefore certain that her husband would be buried in town through her
instructions. This further demonstrates how Nkengasong raises Akwenoh
paradoxically to a superior level.
As we raise our hopes to see how things will change for the good of women,
Nkengasong turns over a new leaf. He does not only devalue women but
reduces them to nothing within the confines of this novel. We turn to question
whether he is a misogynist. Akwenoh who all along has been elevated to a
certain social class and empowered to debate and fight against men and
tradition has been brought down to nothing.
The pride and arrogance that she has been struggling to maintain all her life
has been brought down. This is because her late husband whom she thought
was very rich dies living behind nothing for her to take care of herself and the
children. Her in-laws instead of consoling her, consider her a witch who does
not want to share the wealth of their father, son and brother with them. She
has therefore been living in delusion. We are told that the pride she had
struggled to maintain all her life was gone, dragged into mud by her husband.
Was it of any use having a husband if it came to this? (102). This is what
surprises this lady. There is no need to have a husband who cannot be sincere
to you. This further traumatises Akwenoh.
It could be said that this is a stab at womens back. Akwenoh and her three
children have been left francless and homeless at the mercy of sympathisers. In
a conversation, she tells her friend Emade that my husbands death has ruined
me forever, I dont know how I shall be able to live after my husbands death
(103). Being seriously fragmented and traumatised, Akwenoh has stooped low
by borrowing money to bury her husband. This is to her disbelief but there is

nothing she can do. Akwenoh thinks that her husband has been so wicked to
them (herself and the children). She underscores why did you throw away the
pride that you had built up in me, my husband? You showed me paradise and
took it away again. Papa Makata? Shame! Shame! Shame! On you (128). This
summarises the deception and dehumanization that Akwenoh has received
from the husband.
To further fragment her, Akwenoh after the burial of her husband in the
village grove, is made to sit on the bare floor at a corner of the room. Later, her
head is shaved and she is bathed and rubbed with Manyanga(palm oil). She is
also given a blue gown to wear as her mourning gown for one year. This is a
sign to all men that she is a widow thus, is not supposed to meet with any man
within one year (151). Akwenoh sat in one corner, unconditionally accepting all
what the women would ask her to do. This could be termed widow
victimization. All her ambitions having been turned away, she has been brought
down to a houseless widow of a member of parliament (127). This is the
point at which one is made to underline the fact that female liberation is with
strings attached to it. Female empowerment here is so paradoxical in spite of
the heroine qualities that Akwenoh embodies, she still fails. Nkengasong has
demonstrated that the human societies are different and each has its own
norms and values that have to be seriously respected. When you find yourself
in a community, you need to keep to the norms and values of that community if
you want to be fully integrated. The moment one defiles them, they hunt and
haunt him or her all through his or her life even when he or she tranlocates.
However one still thinks that Nkengasong is misogynistic in his presentation.
AlobwedEpie like Nkengasong in The Lady with A Beard, seems to be faced
with the methodological challenge of excavating women from layers of
distortion and obscurity, of getting beyond and behind the formal roles
conventional history has accorded them and in the process, perhaps, even
transforming the discipline of history (Mair 51). What we are underlining here is
that Alobwede is not different from Nkengasong. They have not changed from
the archetypal image in which women have been presented so far in history. As
we nod our heads to think that Epie wants to make things better for the
women, given that they have always been objectified and silenced all through
history, he cuts them down.

AlobwedEpie and the Devaluation of Feminist Ideology

Paradoxically AlobwedEpie starts off his novel by presenting a heroine who
is determined, resourceful, self-reliant and powerful so as to break the myth
that only the men can take the lead in any human activity. The heroine is

initially elevated to a very high social status. Consequently, the reader is made
to believe that AlobwedEpie is about to break the myth that man is the more
important figure; woman is born to serve him, love him, be protected by him
and assist in reproducing him(Karl Menninger 41). One is tempted to contend
that AlobwedEpie is about:

Replacing that culture of domination with a world of participatory
economics, grounded in communism and social democracy, a world
without discrimination based on race or gender, a world where
recognition of mutuality and interdependence would be dominant
ethos, a global ecological vision of how the planet can have access to
peace and well. (hooks110)

But our hopes are rather dashed, when AlobwedEpie suddenly changes his
line of thought. First and foremost, he retraces the story of an extraordinary
woman Emade. She is presented as a woman who thinks that she can challenge
men. She is presented as head strong, determined, boisterous and generally
known as a male woman who wages a perpetual oral and physical struggle
against the idea that men are the authorized voices in the society. She
demonstrates her charisma through the idea of defeating the wizards of the
village. Emade underscores I shall defeat the wizards of this village. I
Emadakwa, slaughterer of slaves, lion of the unbroken tradition, widow of the
upstream-python (12). One would say that Alobwedes intention to change
economic discrimination based on gender so that they could have equality with
men of privileged classes (hooks110).
Her expressions are full of zeal, demonstrating that he has endowed our
heroine with much power. She is so self-confident and resourceful. This
explains why she is courageous enough to confront the hegemony of
patriarchy. When her hut is on fire, Emade refuses that other women should
call for the assistance of men. She even orders them to stop shouting (12). She
courageously dashes into the hut as a man, gets a gourd of water and bashes it
into the fire. White smoke and wood ash billowed from the hut and Emade
jumped out coughing (13). This shows a determined and courageous lady who
has transgressed gender barriers.
Emade goes ahead to defy the women of Atieg, her husbands village and is
considered a tiger by these women because they think she has out-matched
the level of the men and women. When Ntube falls and breaks the age-old
polished bowls of Emades late husband that she had jealously preserved,
Emade is seriously hurt. We are told that when she sees the pieces of the
broken bowls,


The shock was too much for her. Her past, present and seemed to have
converged on the bowls and like them broken into bits. She yelled
twice, and as her shrill voice echoed in the surrounding hills, she
seemed to be passing through a void. The noise of the onlookers grew
faint and she gradually buckled and passed out. The village women
fanned her until she recovered. When she got up, she asked of the
where about of Ntube. (11)

This is evidence that Emade was really fragmented by that incident. But to
show their solidarity as they have always demonstrated, the women of Atieg
team up to come and sympathise with Ntube. They are rather humiliated
because Emade is not happy with their presence. She declares to them that I
shall not allow anybody sit down in my hut. I wonder why they make much fuss
over a childs fall. Children fall everyday and break water vessels but everybody
takes Ntubes fall as breaking news (14). As such, she underlines to the Atieg
women that though they have come to sympathise with her, they should not
expect her if the like happens to their children. She thinks that:

She who organises a hunting expedition, and she who actually kills, are
equally responsible for the death of the animal. If what happened was
the work of wizards, then all of you who are magnifying it are witches.
As you leave my compound, tell other women who want to come and
sympathise with me not to come. (17)

Emades response rather makes the women to gasp in surprise. They are
astonished. They consider this a challenge which should not be dismissed.
These women think that a meeting should be convened to discuss Emades
impudence. As these women put their heads together to think of what they
should do, Eduke one of them rather cautions them. She discloses that Nye
Emade is not an empty woman. She is full to the brim. As I am here before boy,
I am as empty as a broken jar. She who wants to fight a tiger must have claws
and fangs (17). This further demonstrates that Epie has projected Emade as a
heroine who is self reliant and determined to do things her own way.
She has the pride to remind people that when her husband died, the men
tried to use the position of the compound in the village as a way by which they
would put her down but she told them no and her no stood (26). Throughout
the novel, AlobwedEpie has empowered Emade, who has taken upon herself
to debunk time-honoured ideas of male chauvinism. She undertakes the
activities of men and consequently thinks that she is able to do what men can
do and even better. This explains why she gets two drums and teaches her
peers how to play the accompanying parts. We are told that she herself took

the drum and started playing the mens dance (59) Thereafter she entertains
them and cautions them never to reveal her identity.
Besides, when her sister (Mechane) dies, she does not need to make an
appeal to the men. At her level, she thinks that she is equal to the men. Against
tradition, Emade went to Mechanes late husbands dilapidating house and got
the drum that was covered with some thatches. She put it out and played (34).
Her intention is to inform the entire community. But as tradition holds, it is only
a male who can play the drum to announce the death in the Bakossi tradition.
This is to the surprise of Ahone, her elder sister. But Emade who thinks that
what a man can do, a woman can also do, underlines that all the people of this
village are gone to the bush. How do we get to them if we rely only on men
playing the drum? Emade asked in defiance (35).Although this is in total
defilement of tradition, it does not mean anything to Emade. Rather as her
sister Ahone continues to plead with the old man to assume responsibility for
playing the drum so that Emade should be protected, she goes ahead and
breaks another vow. She thinks that the Muabag men should not be consulted
for anything concerning the death of Mechane because they refused to attend
to her when she was sick. She notes that they should defile tradition and do
what is necessary. Consequently, Emade pegged out the grave in the middle of
the courtyard and started digging (44). Though she does it to the consternation
of the men, she however does it with great craftsmanship. This is another level
at which AlobwedEpie has elevated Emade but it goes without saying that the
African societal norms and values in general and those of the Bakossi people in
particular do not accept that a woman plays a drum and worst of all dig a grave.
These are tasks that are done by men. Moreover, she supports the funeral
ceremony with a big pig to defend herself as a powerful woman. After the
ceremony, she decides to stay back in her sisters compound for one month.
She darkens the grave and builds it. So her decision to blacken the grave of her
sister had endeared her greatly to most people (93). This is what makes women
to take her for a heroine. As such, when she returns to Atieg, she is given a
heroines welcome. For two days, they feasted with her (93). This
notwithstanding, Emade further shocks the women at the naming ceremony of
her nephews child when she comes up with a male song. This is supposed to
be done by the men.
As tradition demands, after the death and burial of a person, the links with
those who are still alive are cut off by throwing the keys into the bush. But
Emade as usual strongly stands against it by rather throwing the key at the
door. This is done to the astonishment of the women around. They even
remark that what Emade has done can cause the wrath of the spirits and ask
her to pick it up and throw it far into the bush (91). She rather violently replies
stop saying rubbish, this family is not extinct [] do you think death will skip

this family and attack yours? (91). Emade hereby violates all the traditional
values and norms of Muabag people. Emade like Akwenoh has been elevated to
a very high position. But what we realize here is that the liberation of women
here is very paradoxical. Epie is rather misogynistic in his presentation of his
heroine. She has been endowed with all the qualities that should make her live
a happy life all through but we suddenly find her depressed and dejected
because A womans urine can never cross a beam (104). These people are so
closely tied to their custom and tradition. Much power and respect is bestowed
on the men. No woman can defile their tradition and go free.
Despite her courage, determination, self-reliance and resistance to
traditional values and male chauvinism, Emade like Akwenoh capitulates and
succumbs to tradition. When her only daughter Ntube falls into the Brook-of-
the-serpent, she publicly acknowledges that she will pay a fine. For once,
Emade notes that she is at the mouth of the grave. Ahone has always told her
that the urine of a woman, especially that of a widow, can never cross a
beam(100). And so Ahone and Emade think that the wizards of their village
have seized this opportunity to hit hard on Emade. She succumbs to the
dictates of tradition. She has to do a sacrifice to cleanse her only daughter. She
recognizes that sometimes, the road becomes more slippery for some feet than
for others but let us not forget, people on hilltops should avoid wetting the
road (101). This decision makes Ahone feel happy because her sister has never
taken any advice from her. Emade has lived to see her brilliance and all she did
crumble like a mud statue in rain (104). But the question is, why nickname
her the lady with a beard? She has begun crumbling like a poorly baked clay pot
(104). This makes us think that AlobwedEpie like Nkengasong is misogynistic in
the presentation of his heroine. Initially, one would consider these novelists as
visionary feminists as they started off by creating strategies to change the lot of
all women and enhance their personal power. This confirms the view that
gender roles are not given by birth but are socially are socially constructed.
In spite of the traumatising and fragmentary situation in which Emade finds
herself, she still goes to the mission to bring back the daughter of-the
upstream python. If it is death, let my mother come and die here with me
(101). This is what finally leads to her demise. She discloses that she will take all
precautions because she wants to fortify herself and her daughter. This
becomes ridiculous because she wants to protect herself through the tradition
that she had earlier defiled.
This continues to reduce her more and more to nothing. During the naming
ceremony, Etame makes the female child understand that we put you on the
eaves of a hut to show that you are a woman and belongs to the kitchen. Dont
ever claim to be a man (78). This is reminiscent of the fact that women should
never think of toppling tradition and the men especially within the Bakossi

tradition. This further shows that gender is shaped by the culture of a particular
society and that the culture of a people determines maleness and femaleness.
In an introductory essay titled gender and Culture, Carole Wade and Carole
Tavris, provide an overview of some of the many ways in which the lives of
women and men in one culture differ from another. They underscore thus The
anatomy of sex is universal, but the behaviours, rights and responsibilities
considered appropriate for males and females are social inventions that vary
enormously around the globe(5-6).The situation in which some women find
themselves for the most part is an expression of the cultural realities. To
complete her fragmentation,

Emade decides to go and bring back Ntube from the mission. She
declares if it is death, let my mother come and die with me. I cannot be
unmasked. I shall fortify, and fortify the daughter of the upstream
python. Nyango Madiba will fortify us in the shrine. She believes very
much in herself and hastily concludes that the tradi-practitioner is the
toughest traditional medicine women in all the land. This self
confidence is part of what will continue to her demise. On her way, she
stubs her toes and pain slashed through her heart. (105)

Consequently, she lurks backward to her hurt. Before now, we know that
this lady initially does not believe in the custom and tradition of their people.
She asks many questions. For instance, Was it a premonitory sign that Ntubes
stay in the mission would be ill-fated, or that her return to Atieg would be ill-
fated (105). As a result, she decides to consult a soothsayer who will unravel
the mystery. She tells us

No since I did not know the significance of the sign, I decided to consult
renowned sages before I ventured to do so. I moved up and down for
almost two years trying to see renowned male soothsayers, but where I
go, I dont meet them at home. (108)

The lady who looked down on such beliefs is now opting for a soothsayer.
Neither a male soothsayer nor a female soothsayer accepts to divine her. She
goes round for three years only to be told that her divination has been done by
a palm wine taper. Consequently she moves away in humiliation (117). I think
that this is a deliberate act by AlobwedEpie to humiliate EMade. She has come
to self realization. This has made her to think that her:

Village people have put me on their horns. The men and women dont
want me to sleep. Wherever they see me put my foot, they set a trap.

For years now, I have foiled their attempts to destroy me. But this time,
it seems to me they are catching up with me. (108)

The treatment that AlobwedEpie gives Emade is inhuman. In doing this,
Epie has somehow devalued feminism. One can therefore say that Epies
misogynistic tendencies are with the objectives of showcasing the limitation of
women in spite of their burning ambition to rise.
AlobwedEpie and Nkemngong like Chinua Achebe, Carol Boyce Davies,
Margaret Afuh, Mbella Sone Dipoko and others have all in their novels charted
the argument that women in the African context do not have any voice on their
own. They depend on the man for their well being and survival. This explains
why they have all through history been relegated to the background. Bill
Aschroft et al (2003), quoting Spivak concurs that:

Women in many societies have been relegated to the position of
other, marginalized and, in a metaphorical sense, colonized, forced
to pursue guerrilla warfare against imperial domination from positions
deeply imbedded in, yet fundamentally alienated from, that imperium.
(172)

Consequently they are continuously presented in a biased manner in their
literary productions. Andrea Powell inProblematizing Polygyny in the Historical
Novels of Chinua Achebe: The Role of Western Feminist Scholar further
contends that:

As feminist critics have long noted, though, Achebes novels, especially
his early novels, reveal real blind spots when it comes to important
gender issues that continue to plague many postcolonial African
countries. In his two historical novels, in fact Achebe consistently side-
lines the place of the postcolonial woman in order to focus on
postcolonial manhood. Womens lives often serve as little more than
fodder for the exploration of masculinity. (167)

We realize that the position of the woman has since time immemorial been
relegated to the background especially within the African context.

Conclusion

In this paper, I have demonstrated that despite time-honoured quest by
women for their liberation, it remains a figment of the imagination at least
within the confines of these texts. At some points, when the liberation

seemingly comes, it is with strings attached to it. It is realized that though
women make a conscious attempt to empower themselves, their subaltern
status and quest for liberation are stagnated by the stifling cultural and
patriarchal norms and values that inhibit their potentials. We tend to
interrogate the attachment to cultural phenomenon and natural response to
cultural progress. This is the case in this study. Both Nkengasong and
AlobwedEpie have purportedly raised their heroines who are both widows to
higher positions only to led them fail in all their endeavours. This could be
termed widow victimization but what I think is that, this has been done with
the objective of legitimising patriarchy. Like Achebe in his two historical novels,
Nkengasong and AlobwedEpie, consistently side-line the place of postcolonial
womanhood for the postcolonial manhood. This legitimization of patriarchy
and cultural norms only go to devalue the women. This repression and
oppression of the women in collaboration with patriarchy devalues the women
and makes them lose their self pride, dignity, independence and control in the
face of the men. Given that no writer writes in a vacuum, both writers under
study must have been influenced by their cultural norms. This falls in line with
the tenets of new historicism. It could also be said that this holds true for
Forrest Robinson insists that Literature is at once socially productive, always
existing within a particular socio-economic context (105). One will not hesitate
to take side with Robinson as earlier indicated that these writers have been
influenced by their cultural norms, which upholds the superiority of men over
women. AlobwedEpie points out in The Lady with A Beard that a womans
urine can never cross a beam (104). This implies that a woman can never be
more than a man. We should understand that the failure of women in the
novels under study is not something natural but an issue that is purported by
the male writers because they believe very much in patriarchal socialization.
Men, I think simply consider women as household chattles. From this point
therefore, one can underline that the situation in which women find
themselves in these novels is as a result of culture which rather gives much
power and voice to the men and marginalizes the women. When they try to
rebel and emancipate, they still fail because they have been entrapped by their
patriarchal tradition. This explains why Akwenoh only has to accept her position
at the end of The Widows Might. This takes us to the conclusion that they are
misogynistic writers who are definitely out to protect their cultural pride. In as
much as this is encouraged, I suggest that womens lives should not be
appropriated. They should rather be allowed to have some freedom at least as
human beings. Women within this context have been portrayed as victims of
patriarchal and cultural norms. Sometimes they are held for their fate or what
befalls them. But I think this is only occasional for men should be held
responsible for what usually orchestrates the failure of women. Consequently,

the failure of the heroines as portrayed in the various texts studied could be
attributed to the partnership that the men and the traditional society have
established to pull them down. As such, self consciousness that women are in
quest for is only synonymous to self trauma. Their efforts to make their voices
heard only leads them to fragmentation. This explains why the initial liberation
of Akwenoh and Emade by NKemngong and Epie is only a paradox.
WORKS CITED
Bibliography

AlobwedEpie. The Lady with a Beard. Yaound Edition Cl, 2005.
Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann, 1958.
Ambanasom, Shadrack A. "A Woman Writes Back; A Commentary on Margaret
Afuhs Born Before Her Time." The Post 21 Mar. 2005, 9.
Aschroft, Bill et al. The Empire Writes Back. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.
Cudjoe, Selwyn R. Caribbean Women Writes: Essays from the International
Conference. Massachusetts: Cala loux, 1990.
Davies, Carole Boyce and Anne Adams Graves (eds.).Ngambika: Studies of Women
in African Literature. Trenton, NJ: Africa World, 1986.
Dipoko, Mbella Sone. Because of Women. London: Heineman, 1968.
Fonchingon, C. Charles. "Unbending Gender Narratives in African Literature."
Journal of Internal Womens Studies. 2006, Vol. 8. Nr. 1.
Gayle, Letherby. Feminist Research in Theory and Practice. Buckingham: Open UP,
2003.
Goodman Elizabeth (ed.) Literature and Gender. London and New York: Routedge,
2003.
Cudjoe, Selwyn R. ed. Caribbean Women Writers; Essays from the International
Conference. Massachusetts: Cal loux, 1990.
Greene, Gayle and Coppelia Kahn (eds). Making a Difference: Feminist Literary
Criticism. New York: Methuen, 1985.
Hooks, Bell. Feminism Is for Everybody: Passionate Politics. Cambridge; South End,
2000.
Mbangwana, Paul Et al. (eds.). Language, Literature and Identity. Gttingen:
Cuvillier Verlag, 2006.
Nkengasong, Nkemngong John. The Widows Might. Yaound Edition CLE, 2006.
Oliver, Kelly(eds). French Feminism Reader: Featuring essays by Simone De
Beauvoir Michele Le Doeuefe Christine Delphy Colette Guillaumine Monique
Witting Julia Kristeva Luce Irigaray Helene Cixous. New York: Rowman and Little
Field, 2000.
Wade, Carole and Carole Tavris. "Gender and Culture". Gender, Culture and
Ethnicity:Current Research About Women and Men. Peplau; Letitia Anne et al.
Los Angeles: U of California, (1999): 5-6.

LES HRONES DCHUES: LE PARADOXE DE LIBERATION FMININE DANS L'OEUVRE DE
JOHN NKEMNGONG NKENGASONG THE WIDOWS MIGHT ET ALOBWEDEPIE THE LADY
WITH A BEARD

Prenant acte de la mouvance consciemment suivie par les femmes sur la
voie de leur libration de la culture et du systme patrimonial, et compte tenu
du fait que la mprise de leur place dans lart constitue lessentiel de leur lutte,
leur qute effrne de la libert demeure un fruit de limagination, due en
partie aux normes patriarcales et aux positions sociales. Les auteurs soumis
notre tude prennent clairement position en faveur de la culture et de la
tradition afin de continuer subjuguer leurs personnages fminins. Les femmes
sont dabord rehausses et revtus dattributs de pouvoirs ; ce qui fait croire
de prime abord que nos auteurs sont des catalyseurs de la dconstruction du
paradigme grce auquel les femmes ont depuis des temps immmoriaux
confins au silence. Elles semblent avoir revtu ces attributs pour un temps
bref. Aussitt quelles commencent se dlecter de leur libert et galit, elles
sont non seulement humilies, mais rduites au nant. Les deux auteurs se
positionnent comme tant enclins au genre. Il ne serait donc pas htif de se
poser la question de savoir sils sont misogynes. Leurs personnages fminins se
trouvent pigs, maltraits et dlestes de toute voix dexpression. Lobjectif
de ces auteurs serait donc laffirmation de leurs valeurs traditionnelles. Il existe
encore des socits qui rsistent au changement. Prenant appuis sur la thorie
de la Nouvelle Historicit, le prsent article a pour but de dmontrer quen
dpit des vains efforts des hrones des textes choisis en vue
damliorer/changer leurs conditions, elles demeurent limites par le systme
patriarcal dune part et dautre part par la tradition qui soutient quune femme
ne pourrait aller au-del des limites que lui fixe la nature ; ce qui les placent en
concordance avec nos deux auteurs misogynes en lgitimant par voie de
consquence le systme patriarcal. En plus, on trouve que malgre leffort fait
par les femmes pour amliorer leur statut subalterne et leur qute pour la
liberation restent stagnes par la culture et les normes patriarcale ainsi que les
valeurs qui inhibent leur potentiels. Nous nous attendons de ce fait a interroger
le phnomne dattachement culturel et la raction naturelle au progrs
culturel.

Motscls: Fminisme, Systme patriarcal, mprise, paradoxe, fausses
hrones, libration, deformation, subaltene,empowerment, mysogynie,
culture


UDK 821.134.2.09-31
791.4(82)

Narrating Trauma: Reflections on Argentine
Dirty War Novels and Films

Shonu Nangia, Louisiana State University at Alexandria, USA

Abstract: The years between 1976 and 1983 constitute a painful era in the history of
Argentina. The events that took place in this period constitute what is now commonly
known as la guerra sucia, or the "dirty war." Systematic violence, persecution,
repression, forced abductions, censorship, and exile are key elements in descriptions of
the guerra sucia. While scholars note that "the repression and subsequent search for
justice would leave a deep scar on Argentine society," the "dirty war" also led to an
atmosphere of denunciation and fear which found echo in Argentine narrative
productions. Gabriel Garca Marquez, the celebrated Columbian author, has said that in
Latin America it is the men and women of letters who write about the truth, not the
historians. It is therefore no surprise that the exposition of the truth, the denunciation
of the abuses, and the representation of the conditions at the time became the
preoccupation of many writers and film-makers of the period. My paper looks at some
of the literary and filmic narratives from Argentina that make the dark and somewhat
obscure era of the dirty war their subject, highlighting specific aspects of these
discourses that address, more or less implicitly, the socio-political realities of the period
and the politico-cultural experience of this part of the Southern Cone in relation to
violence, repression and exile. My emphasis is on the phenomenon of forgetfulness
that prevails in these narratives and how it is tied to the idea of censorship at multiple
levels. I also draw attention to the affinity that these narratives share with French
postmodern theory. Argentine writers and movie makers seem to reflect ideas
paralleling those found in French critical theory as they tell their stories of the "dirty
war."

Key Words: Argentine literature and film; guerra sucia; dirty war; censorship; exile;
violence; trauma; amnesia; French critical theory.

The years between 1976 and 1983 constitute a very painful era in the
history (and memory) of Argentina. The events that took place in this period
constitute what is now commonly known as the guerra sucia, or the dirty
war. This period of Argentine history is marked by the vicious repression and
brutal intimidation of the opponents and of the subversives at the hands of

the military government. The state authorities, confronted with the political
resistance of the Marxist-Leninist guerillas, unleashed a campaign of terror
against the citizenry with impunity, a campaign which saw the capture, torture,
disappearance and death of thousands of people. Most of those subjected to
the military regimes terror tactics were innocent victims. In the face of
widespread state sponsored torture and repression, self-censorship and exile--
both inner and outer was the price that many people, especially the
intellectuals, paid for survival, since the least hint of opposition could result in
disappearance(Skidmore 99). Discourses on the guerra sucia multiplied
especially after the end of the dirty war. Violence, repression, torture, rape,
abduction, disappearance, self-censorship, and exile are some of the key words
that are associated with the guerra sucia.
The events of the guerra sucia and its aftermath were cloaked in an
atmosphere of denunciation and fear which left a profound impact on society.
Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith write that the repression and subsequent
search for justice would leave a deep scar on Argentine society (102-103).
While the guerra sucia and its aftermath saw the emergence of an atmosphere
of denunciation and fear, the events have also influenced the nations culture
as part of their legacy as evinced by some of Argentinas post dirty war cultural
production. The influence is especially tangible in the field of literature and
cinema. Gabriel Garca Marquez, the celebrated Columbian author, is known to
have said that in Latin America it is the men and women of letters who write
the truth, not the historians. It is therefore no surprise that the exposition of
the truth, the denunciation of the abuses, and the representation of the
conditions of that period became the preoccupation of many writers and
filmmakers in the years following (and even during) the guerra sucia.
In this paper, I examine some of the literary and filmic narratives from
Argentina that make the dark and somewhat obscure, terror filled era of the
dirty war their subject. My objective is to highlight and clarify certain elements
and features of these discourses that, more often than not, implicitly and
indirectly evoke the trauma of the period and address the sociopolitical
experience of this part of the Southern Cone in relation to violence, repression
and exile. I first discuss the phenomenon of forgetfulness that prevails in these
narratives and the manner it is tied to the idea of censorship. In the second part
of this paper, I draw attention to the affinity that these narratives share with
French postmodern theory. Argentine writers and movie makers seem to
reflect ideas paralleling those found in French critical theory as they tell their
stories of the dirty war.


Amnesia and Silence

One of the films that takes up the theme of disappearance is La historia
oficial (The Official Story) which won the Oscar in 1984 for the best foreign
film. Set in the final years of the military dictatorship, it depicts a well-off
history professor from the bourgeois class who, although a sterile woman, is
the mother of an adopted girl thanks to her husband who has ties with the
military. Alicia, the protagonist, begins to gain cognizance of the truth when she
begins to have suspicions about her husbands dark deeds when she stumbles
upon what is possibly a torture session. Another turning point is when she
meets a grandmother searching for her little missing granddaughter just like all
the older women in search of their missing loved ones that congregate in the
Plaza de Mayo. Circumstances, her investigations, and her quest for the
biological mother of her daughter make her reconsider the official story and
she learns what has really happened in her country.
95
A student in her class
declares that history is written by assassins who hide the truth. As Damien
Cannon points out, it is her students who are routinely disbelieving of written
records, and contest the history written by assassins (the military) while to the
bourgeois and protected Alicia these actions are incomprehensible
(webpage). While she awakens to the truth ultimately, it is ironic that she is
depicted as a history professor who has no memory/knowledge of the recent
past. These kinds of contextual elements are significant because what is implied
is that history is nothing more than memory and that memory is very important
for a society because if there is no memory then there is no real history.
Memory, or rather its binary opposite, oblivion, is a key thematic element in
this film which reminds us that society needs to remember and keep its
memories alive for the sake of truth.
In La historia oficial, individual oblivion (Alicias) perhaps serves as a symbolic
substitute for the amnesia of the elite social class. Such a sociological
interpretation makes all the more sense if one considers Skidmores assertion
that the anti-guerrilla campaign had the tacit and often explicit support of the
influential middle class (99). Similarly, in Soy paciente, a novel by Ana Mara Shua,
whose ambiguous title may be translated as I am Patient or alternatively as I
am a Patient, we encounter more instances of the loss of individual and
collective memory. A nameless patient stays in a hospital without knowing why
he is there. He is told by the doctors that they do not know what his illness is. In

95
Thomas Blommers writes: Marguerite Feitlowitz in her exhaustive study of the period of the
Dirty War, A Lexicon of Terror, notes that most pregnant detainees were killed after giving birth
and their babies were sold to the families of the military or police. She states that, The babys
biological ties and family identity had to be erased, lest it fulfill its genetic destiny and become a
guerrilla (67).

the beginning, the patient wishes to go away and thinks about characters like
James Bond who have the ability to escape from any situation but eventually
becomes resigned to his fate. He realizes he may never escape and surrenders to
the doctors.
96
This novel was written during the era of the military dictatorship
and is interpreted as an allegory with the metaphor of a sick society that is
ministered to by an authoritarian government.
The text represents oblivion as a survival strategy. At the time of the
narrators interview with the director and his secretary, they enquire why he
wants to leave the hospital and ask him to enumerate three reasons. But the
poor narrator who is also the ingenuous and innocent protagonist has already
undergone a slow process of degradation by then and cannot recall a single
reason. He finds his head to be empty (132). The text does not make it
definitive whether his memory failure stems from self-imposed censorship and
the inner exile to which he has taken recourse in order to survive or whether it
stems from an external censorship exercised by his persecutors. What is clear is
that it is dangerous for him to speak. He senses danger and is aware that he
feels he is under threat. Moreover, the question of who is going to listen
compounds the situation. Forgetfulness for the narrator-protagonist in Soy
paciente occurs in a repressive setting and as a victim there is no exit for him.
He finds himself in a Kafkaesque situation and his loss of memory serves as the
only available expedient for survival.
Guerra sucia narratives depict yet another manifestation of self-censorship
in the form of desire for the loss of memory which occurs expost facto when
the characters want to forget the past as in Julio Cortzars short story titled La
escuela de noche, The Night School. At the very outset we see the
traumatized narrator who is haunted by his memories begin his story by
declaring the following: De Nito ya no s nada ni quiero saber. Han pasado
tantos aos y cosas, a lo mejor todava est all o se muri o anda afuera. Ms
vale no pensar en l. (Of Nito I dont know anything any more and neither
do I want to know. So many years have passed and so many things have
happened. Maybe he is still there or maybe he died or maybe he is roaming
somewhere outside. Its better not to think about him...). This kind of self-
censorship is thematically further developed in the film Un Muro de silencio, A
Wall of Silence, which has historic reconstruction as its theme. The film
portrays the character of Sylvia whose husband has disappeared during the
dictatorship. An Englishwoman, in other words a foreigner, arrives in Buenos
Aires to make a film on the historic period. Since the protagonist of this film is
to be based on Sylvia, the English director begins to delve into Sylvias past.
Sylvia now has a new husband. Everyone wants to forget the past but is forced

96
I have adapted the condensed synopsis from the following online source:
http://es.shvoong.com/books/novel/1617866-soy-paciente/

to remember due to the nature of the project: a film based on past events. The
foreign director asks troubling questions and everyone has to help her put the
pieces together. Bruno, Sylvias new husband accuses the English moviemaker
in the end that his wife was happy earlier but isnt anymore because the painful
memories have come back. She had lost her first husband but had erased the
memories and the pain. Everyone had forgotten the traumatic past and had
voluntarily abandoned memory. In this film, the silence of all the characters
represents their loss of memory. It is interesting that the reconstruction of
history takes place with the intervention of a foreigner because of the total
collective loss of memory that of Sylvia and her entourage (Argentine
society). It is the presence and the curiosity of someone from outside the
gaze of the foreigner that resuscitate memory and the truth despite the
reluctance of the Argentines to do so for themselves.
The examples included in this discussion indicate the prevalence of an
overarching thematic constant in Argentine guerra sucia narratives, namely the
loss of memory. Oblivion comes across in these texts as the apotheosis of self-
censorship, a coping mechanism in the face of trauma. Anthropologist Antonius
Robben writes:

There is a common assumption that individuals and societies alike need
to repress traumatic events for extended periods before they are able
to confront and mourn them. Psychoanalysis states that people resort
to repression or dissociation to protect themselves from memories too
painful and destabilizing to admit to consciousness (Brett 1993; Freud
1920, 1218; Mitchell and Black 1995, 11822). Similar ideas have been
expressed about genocides, massacres, and especially the Holocaust.
The traumatic event is repressed or denied and registers only
belatedly (nachtrglich) after the passage of a period of latency. This
effect of belatedness has of course been a manifest aspect of the
Holocaust. (123)

Studies such as those conducted by Robben on accounts of terror and
violence in Argentina show that there is a similarity with contemporary
accounts of the Jewish holocaust (76). He also asserts that the problem with
accounts of violence is that traumatic experiences can only reach us through
the distortion of words (75). In other words, they are difficult to convey
directly. However, while for the victims and survivors of the Holocaust,
memory, remembrance, and the desire to tell and make known the experience
were of capital importance as Elie Wiesel indicates in The Holocaust as Literary
Inspiration, the Argentine victim, as depicted in the Argentine novel and film,
does not exhibit this trait but rather finds refuge in silence that is voluntary. We

thus find the guerra sucia text displaying a curious paradoxical characteristic: at
the narrative level at the level of the characters silence, oblivion, and
amnesia stand out as dominant elements although that is not the case at the
level of the author, who, through the silence, oblivion, and amnesia of the
characters, is denouncing the dirty war and its ravages as a witness.
Invariably, the authors and cineastes who have dealt with the theme of the
dirty war are committed intellectuals with a cause. Their objective is the
representation of truth: the trauma of the dirty war. Their works are their
reaction to the brutality of state repression. The author-intellectual is not silent
or forgetful.

Embedded Theories

In this part of my paper, I draw attention to another interesting aspect of
guerra sucia narratives.A closer look at these novels and films reveals that
these narratives share a certain affinity with French postmodern theory. Flora
Schiminovich argues that

unas de las tendencias de nuestra poca es la de valorar las obras
literarias por la mayor o menor cantidad de planteamientos tericos
implicados en la lectura de esas obras. A su vez, la teora se nutre de la
literatura para poder manifestarse (one of the tendencies of our
present era is to value literary works to the degree that theory may be
deployed in the reading of those works. Theory, in turn, derives
sustenance from literature in order to manifest itself; 136).

While these Argentine works exhibit a close rapport with French critical
thought, my aim is not necessarily to prove the influence of French postmodern
theory on Argentine cultural production but rather to reveal how it can enrich
our understanding of the methods used by Argentine writers and filmmakers to
represent the atrocities of the dirty war.
As a first example, I wish to draw attention to the correspondence between
the ideas propounded by Michel Foucault and Eliseo Subielas film, a so-called
science fiction thriller entitled Hombre mirando al sudeste (Man Facing
Southeast) in which a patient in a mental hospital claims to be an
extraterrestrial. The film is really a commentary on three categories of illness:
mental, social and statal. The mental hospital that is the setting of the film is
charged with symbolic value. The mental asylum serves to reflect the state of
the country. The madness of Rants, the protagonist, is a form of subversion
because it threatens the order desired by the psychiatric establishment as

exemplified in the climactic scene of the concert in the park where the codes
and protocol are subverted as Rants, suddenly infected by human feelings,
takes over the orchestra and conducts Beethoven's Ode to Joy as the audience
and hospital patients break into a Dionysian dance (Schumann). In fact, it is
nothing but his difference, his divergence from the norm that constitutes his
madness--a norm established by and belonging to the authorities. While Rants
is a patient, a lunatic for the authorities of the establishment, the spectator
finds that Rants does not have the characteristics of a deranged person but in
fact incarnates Christ-like compassion. In an environment filled with repression
and psychological violence, he is the only one who has compassion, feelings
and understanding for others. He is the only one who has insight into the
insanity of normal society and into the terrifying reality of the human
condition. His madness is depicted in terms of positive qualities. In the film
we see Rants helping others, giving food to the hungry, offering his own coat
to a fellow inmate, etc. His madness represents his denunciation of a society
wherein human stupidity reigns supreme. As he says, the mental hospital is
the best place for him to tell the truth because outside, nobody is likely to
believe him. He also tells Julio, the doctor treating him and giving him his
medications that the patients are the sane ones because they do not subscribe
to the blatant stupidity of the so-called normal people (Schumann).
Michel Foucault, who traces, in Madness and Civilization, the history of
madness as a social construct, reports that the seventeenth century houses of
confinement were houses of correction places where a mixed group of
people, such as the vagabonds, the unemployed, the sick, the criminals and not
just the insane were sent. Their confinement was a massive phenomenon
because as marginal groups they posed a risk to social order. No
differentiation was made between them (Sarup 61). Such asylums, designed to
suppress the potential sources of social disorder evolved into instruments of
moral uniformity juridical spaces where one was accused, judged and
condemned (Sarup 63). We have the same concept in Hombre mirando al
sudeste where Rants, because of his ideological divergence (his lucidity about
the insanity of humans [the establishment]) and his marginality (he claims he
is an extraterrestrial alien), is held captive so that he can be treated for his
insanity. He does not belong in sane society and poses a risk to the order that
the authorities have imposed. The film relates madness to divergence and
dissidence, reminding us that during the guerra sucia dissidents were often
dispatched to mental hospitals.
Attribution of madness is also present in Un muro de silencio. The film
depicts the mothers looking for their disappeared children. Skidmore writes
that


the only protestors who managed to defy the generals were a small
group of older mothers who met spontaneously every afternoon to
march around the Plaza de Mayo in downtown Buenos Aires
prominently displaying the names and pictures of their missing
children. Hesitant at first, they courageously stood their ground when
police and military harassed them with threats and intimidation. By
some miracle the women were allowed to continue. Were these men,
normally so ready to brutalize any suspect, now afraid to attack
mothers, the supreme symbol of the values they claimed to be
defending? (99)

The plaza, as the focal point of political life in Buenos Aires, is a masculine
space that represents masculine power. The mothers represent resistance
against the repressive order. They organize protests in the Plaza de Mayo and
in doing so effect a transgression by invading a masculine space. As the
mothers subvert masculine power, they get labeled locas, mad women.
According to Jacques Lacan,

madness is a discourse, an attempt at communication, that must be
interpreted. We have to understand rather than give causal
explanations [] We cannot separate a persons psychology from his or
her personal history. (Sarup 7)

The mothers of the plaza are communicating the disappearance of their
children, a fact that the authorities deny. They are however viewed as insane
for the same reasons as Rants: they are marginal and subversive.
This brings us to the second example that demonstrates how French critical
theory finds echo in Argentine dirty war literary and cinematographic
narratives. There seems to be a parallel between Jean-Franois Lyotards ideas
and Louisa Valenzuelas writing and descriptive styles. Her short story Cambio
de armas, (Other Weapons) is recounted through the consciousness of a
woman who is the captive sex slave of a man, a military officer, who claims to
be her husband. She does not have any memory of the past including that of
her own identity. She refers to herself as the so-called Laura because that is
what she has been told her name is. Held prisoner and suffering from induced
amnesia, she is repeatedly subjected to abjection and violation which she can
only narrate synchronously in language which for her has broken down and
which she has trouble accessing. His visits are for her a source of both pleasure
and humiliation. The text depicts the female body as the site where power and
oppression are exercised. A distinguishing feature of this narrative is the effect
that is produced through fragmentation. Laura Sesana writes that by subverting

the language accepted by a oppressive and patriarchal society to talk about
feminine sexuality, Valenzuela also violates and transcends political censorship
and represents that which is prohibited (5). The structure of the text itself is
fragmented consisting of distinct parts with titles such as words, the
concept, the photograph, and the well, each one an allegory that renders
the reading a decoding. There is symbolic value in each category and its
decoding provides access to the experience of the woman who is being
subjected to diverse forms of destruction and degradation. Madan Sarup writes
that rejecting totality, Lyotard and other postmodernists stress fragmentation
of language games, of time, of the human subject, of society itself (147). He
also argues that the purpose of rejecting organic unity and the espousing the
fragmentary is the deliberate dissolution of unity (147).
The text displays fragmentation in mise-en-abyme style. As the organic unity
of the narration is destroyed, there is also a fragmentation of the
representation of the body of the female character and of her experience. The
technique provokes the reader to distance herself and reflect on the text as it
describes an unspeakable experience. Fragmentation of narration and
representation is a technique that Louisa Valenzuela may have found more
effective as an author to articulate trauma which perhaps wouldnt otherwise
be rendered so powerfully if narrated directly.
Valenzuela also seems to reflect the ideas of Lacan. As already mentioned, in
Cambio de armas, the male perpetrator symbolizing the military dictatorship
is depicted destroying the identity and psyche of the female through torture,
drugs and sequestration. One of the ways he degrades the woman is with
mirrors on the ceiling. He commands her, abri los ojos y mira bien lo que te
voy a hacer porque es algo que merece ser visto, (open your eyes and look
carefully at what Im going to do to you because it is something well worth
seeing, 122). He wants to dominate her completely with his power. For Lacan,
one can only see oneself as one thinks others see one (Sarup 13). While the
woman has no recollection of her identity or memory, she resists her
psychological degradation. She uses her victimizer as a mirror to construct an
identity. Lacan believes that we try to reduce the other to an instrument--a
mirror (Sarup 13). According to him, the first articulation of I occurs in the
mirror stage as it prefigures the whole dialectic between alienation and
subjectivity (Sarup 8). Laura, in Cambio de armas, reconstructs herself and
restitutes her identity with the help of the mirrors on the ceiling that multiply,
mutilate and destroy the image of her persecutor (124). As Lacan states, our
fantasies are symbolic representations of the desire of wholeness (Sarup 16).
The character of Laura reflects this idea.


Conclusion

To conclude, my examination of guerra sucia narratives reveals that loss of
memory is a recurring theme in these narratives, a simulacrum of the collective
amnesia that was imposed on the people during the dirty war and is part of the
Argentine sociopolitical experience. Oblivion or the loss of memory is linked to
exile--both inner and outer, to (self)-censorship, but also to denunciation,
torture, terror, and violence. It is driven by trauma as well as by aspirations for
freedom. As literary narratives, these narratives are also rich for the way they
permit engagement with theory, particularly French critical theory. There is
another level of richness contained in these works. Catherine Boyle reports that
according to Ana Mara Shua whose Soy paciente used a brutalized
hospitalization as a metaphor for the country, writers inside the country were
the kings of euphemism, their language made out of allusions, (757). The
authors and cineastes who have addressed the topic of the dirty war have used
various strategies and devices such as humor, caricature, irony, allegory,
symbolism, grotesqueness, and spatial and temporal metaphors to distance
themselves from the direct articulation of trauma, to overcome censorship and
to give voice to the oppressed. The examination of these devices constituting
the literary richness of these works would have to be the object of another
study. Conflating history with fiction, these narratives are first and foremost
political commentaries by literary craftspeople.

Bibliography

Blommers, Thomas. "Social and Cultural Circularity in La historia oficial." 11 Feb.
2008. <http://www.lehman.cuny.edu/ciberletras/v06/blommers.html-#2>.
Boyle, Catherine. Rev. of Narrativas de la Guerra Sucia en Argentina: Piglia, Saer,
Valenzuela, Puig, by Jorgelina Corbatta.Journal of Latin American Studies Aug.
2002: 757-758.
Cannon, Damien. "La Historia Oficial." Rev. of La historia oficial, dir. Luis Puenzo.
1997. Movie Reviews UK. 11 Feb. 2008 <http://www.film.u-
net.com/Movies/Reviews/Official_Story.html>.
Corbatta, Jorgelina. Narrativas de la Guerra Sucia en Argentina: Piglia, Saer,
Valenzuela, Puig. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Corregidor, 1999.
Cortazar, Julio. "La escuela de noche."Deshoras. Mexico, DF: Editorial Nueva
Imagen, 1987.

Feal, Rosemary. "The Politics of Wargasm: Sexuality, Domination and Female
Subversion in Luisa Valenzuela's Cambio De Armas."Structures of Power:
Essays on Twentieth-Century Spanish-American Fiction. Albany SUNY, 1996.
Feitlowitz, Marguerite. A Lexicon of Terror, Argentina and the Legacies of Torture.
New OUP, 1998.
Historia oficial, La. Dir. Luis Puenzo. Perf. Hector Alterio and Norma Aleandro.
Historias Cinematogrfica/Progress Communications, 1984.
Hombre mirando al sudeste. Dir. Eliseo Subiela. Perf. Lorenzo Quinteros, Hugo
Soto and Ins Vernengo. Cinequanon Productions, 1986.
LaTopo. Rev. of Soy paciente.Shvoong Read Free Summaries. 12 Jun 2007. 11 Feb.
2008 <http://es.shvoong.com/books/novel/1617866-soy-paciente/>.
Muro de silencio, Un. Dir. Lita Stantic. Perf. Vanessa Redgrave and Ofelia Medina.
Lita Stantic Producciones, 1993.
Robbin, Antonius. "Ethnographic Seduction, Transference, and resistence in
Dailogues about Terror and Violence in Argentina."Ethos 24.1 (1996): 71-106.
---. "How Traumatized Societies Remember: The Aftermath of Argentina's Dirty
War."Cultural Critique 59 (Winter 2005): 120-164.
Sarup, Madan. An Introductory Guide to Post-Structuralism and
Postmodernism.Athens: U of Georgia P, 1993.
Schiminovich, Flora. "Corbatta, Jorgelina Fidia: Mito personal y mitos colectivos
en las novelas de Manuel Puig."Revista Hispnica Moderna 43 (1990): 135-
137.
Schumann, Howard. "Man Facing Southeast". Review of Hombre mirando al
sudeste, dir. Eliseo Subiela. Talking Pictures. 11 Feb. 2008
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Sesana, Laura. "Procesos de liberacin: Cambio de armas Luisa Valenzuela
(Buenos Aires, 1938)."Concept: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Graduate
Studies (2004). 11 Feb 2008. <http://www.publications-
.villanova.edu/Concept/2004.html>.
Shua, Ana Mara. Soy paciente. Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada, 1980.
Skidmore, Thomas, and Peter Smith. "Argentina: From Prosperity to
Deadlock."Modern Latin America. New York: OUP, 2005.
Soy paciente. Dir. Rodolfo Corral. Screenplay by Ana Mara Shua. 1986.
Valenzuela, Luisa. "Cambio de armas."Cambio de Armas. Hanover: Ediciones del
Norte, 1982.

Wiesel, Elie. "The Holocaust as literary inspiration."Dimensions of the Holocaust.
Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1990.

Rcits de traumatisme: Rflexions sur la littrature et le cinma
argentins de la Guerre Sale

La priode entre 1976 et 1983 est une poque douloureuse dans
l'histoire de l'Argentine. Les vnements qui ont eu lieu dans cette priode
constituent ce qu'on appelle la guerra sucia, la "guerre sale." La violence
systmatique, la perscution, la rpression, les enlvements forcs, la
censure et l'exil sont autant dlments cls dans les descriptions de la
guerra sucia. Alors que les chercheurs soulignent que "la rpression et par
la suite la qute de la justice laisseraient une cicatrice profonde sur la
socit argentine," la "guerre sale" a galement men une atmosphre de
dnonciation et de peur qui a trouv un cho dans les productions
narratives argentines. Gabriel Garcia Marquez, le clbre auteur colombien,
dclare quen Amrique latine ce sont les hommes et les femmes de lettres
qui crivent sur la vrit, pas les historiens. Il est donc naturel que
l'exposition de la vrit, la dnonciation des abus, et la reprsentation des
conditions de cette priode proccupe de nombreux crivains et cinastes
de l'poque. Mon article se penche sur quelques-uns des rcits littraires et
filmiques argentins qui font de l're sombre et quelque peu obscur de la
"guerre sale" leur sujet tout en soulignant certains aspects de ces discours
qui voquent, plus ou moins implicitement, les ralits sociopolitiques de
cette priode et l'exprience politico-culturelle de cette partie du Cne Sud
marque par la violence, la rpression et l'exil. Larticle met lemphase sur le
phnomne de l'oubli qui rgne dans ces rcits et le relie l'ide de la
censure plusieurs niveaux. J'attire aussi l'attention sur laffinit que ces
rcits partagent avec la thorie postmoderne franaise. Les crivains et
cinastes argentins semblent reflter des ides analogues celles quon
trouve dans la thorie critique franaise quand ils racontant leurs histoires
de la "guerre sale."

Mots-cls: littrature et cinma argentins; guerra sucia; guerre sale;
censure; exil; violence;traumatisme; amnsie; thorie critique franaise


UDK 821.111.09-4

ene i knjievnost u esejima Virginije Woolf

Nina Sirkovi, Sveuilite u Splitu

Apstrakt: Virginija Woolf bila je jedna od prvih autorica koja je promiljanjem odnosa
izmeu ene i knjievnog stvaralatva jasno naznaila razloge inferiornosti ena u
odnosu na mukarca, ukazavi na povijesne, drutvene i estetske prepreke s kojima se
ena suoava u samom knjievnom procesu. Ovaj rad ima za cilj kroz analizu njezinih
eseja ene i knjievnost i Profesije za ene, te poveznicu sa suvremenim
teoretiarkama knjevnosti, ukazati na znaaj ove autorice kao esejistice i kritiarke u
prouavanju knjievnosti koju piu ene, te naglasiti aktualnost njezne proze ak i
sedamdeset godina od njezine smrti.

Kljune rijei: knjievnost koju piu ene, Virginia Woolf, ene i knjievnost,
Profesije za ene, autocenzura, inferiornost, strepnja od autorstva, enska reenica.

Poloaj i uloga ene u drutvu, te borba za njenu ravnopravnost bili su jedan
od imperativa za Virginiju Woolf tijekom cijeloga ivota. Prouavajui povijest i
uvidjevi nedostatak enske tradicije u pisanju, Woolf je primijetila da su
neadekvatno obrazovanje, ogranieno iskustvo i pristup drutvu, usklaivanje
knjievne vokacije s obavezama obiteljskog ivota, dvostruki knjievni standardi,
te uvrijeeni stereotipi o enama bili glavne prepreke s kojima su se knjievnice
morale boriti. U dvadesetom stoljeu javlja se novi pojam estetike, koji se
reflektira i na knjievnost koju su pisale ene. ene su se naizgled emancipirale
od muke tradicije, drale su se vlastitog iskustva i vrijednosti.
97
Woolf je u
svojim djelima stalno poticala ene da samostalno oblikuju svoje stavove i da
uspostave vlastiti odnos prema ivotu uope, pa tako i prema knjievnosti.
Esej ene i knjievnost iz 1929. godine namjerno potie dvosmislenost:
radi li se o knjievnosti koju piu ene ili o knjievnom djelima koja su napisana

97
Elaine Showalter pie da je ova prividna osvijetenost od junakinje zapravo inila rtvu. Dok
junakinje u viktorijansko doba nisu bile svjesne da imaju izbor, a zapravo su i imale jedino loe
mogunosti izbora, junakinje ovog vremena svjesne su mogunosti pravog izbora, ali nemaju
snage za donoenje prave odluke. Showalter tu navodi kao primjere romane Radclyffe Hall The
Unlit Lamp (1924.) i F. M. Mayor The Rectors Daughter (1924.). Ona predbacuje i Virginiji Woolf
svojevrsni bijeg od stvarnosti i zatvaranje oiju pred problemom. Elaine Showalter, A Literature of
Their Own, British Women Novelists from Bront to Lessing, Expanded Edition. Princeton / New
Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999) 243.

o njima? Woolf eli naglasiti vanost konteksta u kojem neko djelo nastaje,
znai, ne zanemariti razliite uvjete koji stoje iza samog djela i utjeu na njegov
konani oblik, to ukazuje na otkrivanje i prouavanje tradicije u enskom
stvaralatvu. U eseju Woolf obuhvaa prolost i sadanjost, a na kraju daje i
svoju viziju budunosti u pogledu enskog knjievnog stvaralatva. Pitanja na
koja pokuava odgovoriti su sljedea: zato ene nisu pisale u kontinuitetu sve
do osamnaestog stoljea, zato su, piui obino kao mukarci, uspjele napisati
neke od klasika engleske knjievnosti i napokon, zato su u prolosti, kao i tada
u njeno vrijeme, odabirale roman kao najomiljeniji oblik umjetnosti?
Da bi se odgovorilo na ova pitanja, treba se vratiti u prolost, jer odgovori
lee u onim skoro nerasvijetljenim hodnicima povijesti gdje su figure genera-
cija ena tako nejasno, na mahove zamjetljive (Woolf 2008: 132) O enama se
malo zna, jer je povijest Engleske prvenstveno mukog, a ne enskog podrijetla.
Mukarci su bili vojnici, mornari i zakonodavci, dok su ene bile lijepe, crveno-
kose i raale djecu. Da bi se dolo do saznanja kakve su bile ene u odreeno
doba, treba povijest okrenuti naopako, potraiti u starim papirima obian dan u
ivotu neke obine ene. Treba upoznati ivot obine ene, da bi se moglo
shvatiti knjievno stvaralatvo neke posebne. Treba znati u kakvim je uvjetima
obina ena ivjela, koliko je imala djece, novca, slobodnog vremena, je li imala
vlastitu sobu i kada budemo u stanju procijeniti njezin nain ivota i njezino
iskustvo, onda moemo govoriti o uspjehu ili neuspjehu neke posebno
nadarene knievnice.
Povijest je vrlo krta podacima o enama autoricama u esnaestom stoljeu,
to znai da su one bile utiane, nijeme. Doba kraljice Elizabete I bilo je iskljui-
vo patrijarhalno, pa je i knjievnost u kojoj su cvjetali drama i poezija, pripadala
mukarcima. Do kraja osamnaestoga i poetka devetnaestoga stoljea situacija
se znatno promijenila. Tome su doprinijele promjene u zakonodavstvu, obia-
jima i nainu ophoenja. U devetnaestom stoljeu ena je imala mogunost
kakve takve naobrazbe i poneto slobodnog vremena. ena iz srednje i vie
klase nerijetko je sama mogla birati mua, nekad nije imala djece, a nekad se
nije ni udavala.
98

Iako je eni bio otvoren put za samostalno pisanje, na nju se ipak vrio pri-
tisak da pie romane. Roman je, kako Woolf smatra, anr koji zahtijeva naj-
manje koncentracije, lake ga je ostaviti po strani, pa poslije nastaviti pisati,
negoli dramu ili pjesmu.
99

98
Woolf tu misli na esto spominjane knjievnice Jane Austen i Emily Bront koje se nisu udavale,
a Charlotte Bront i George Eliot nisu imale djece. Ibid. 134.
99
Ovu ideju Woolf esto spominje, izmeu ostaloga i u eseju ene romanopisci (Women
Novelists), a ire je elaborira u eseju Vlastita soba gdje uz pojam nedostatka koncentracije
povezuje i nedostatak vlastitog, intimnog prostora.

Problem nedostatka iskustva takoer je bitan u razmatranju pitanja zato su
ene pisale na drugaiji nain od mukaraca. ak i u devetnaestom stoljeu,
ena je ivjela osamljeno u svom domu, meu svojim emocijama. Svi romani
nastali u tom vremenu odraavali su injenicu da je ena zbog svog spola bila
iskljuena iz raznoraznih drutvenih situacija, pa joj je, shodno tome, bilo uskra-
eno i iskustvo vezano za njih. Nedvojbeno je da iskustvo ima znatan utjecaj na
pisanje. Dok su mukarci mogli pisati s aspekta vojnika o ratu, ili mornara o
putovanjima i egzotinim krajevima, ena je pisala iskljuivo iz iskustva vezanih
za dnevnu sobu. Za nju je iskustvo rata, politike ili poslovnog svijeta bilo
nedokuivo, ak je i njezin emocionalni ivot bio vezan za zakone i obiaje.
100

Jo je jedan element prisutan u enskom stvaralatvu iz tog doba, kojeg kod
mukaraca nema, a vezan je za enski spol: u romanima koje piu ene, itatelj
je svjestan prisutnosti ene, ene koja osjea nepravdu i trai svoja enska pra-
va. To nije dobro, jer dovodi do iskrivljenja ideja, a esto je i odraz slabosti. Ako
se od lika napravi glasnogovornik za ukazivanje na odreene ideje i probleme,
onda roman gubi na vjerodostojnosti. itateljeva koncentracija ide u dva pravca
umjesto u jednom, on vie ne prati radnju u romanu, nego nezadovoljstvo i
ljutnju autorice. Ismijavanje, osjeaj cenzure, uvjeravanje u inferiornost u
bavljenju umjetnou, s razlogom su provocirali nezadovoljstvo umjetnica. To
se vidi u ogorenju Charlotte Bront, te u ravnodunosti George Eliot, navodi
Woolf (2008, 135). Isti problem nalazi se i kod drugih spisateljica u njihovom
odabiru tema, neprirodnom samoisticanju, njihovoj neprirodnoj poslunosti. Iz
djela gotovo nesvjesno istjee neiskrenost, jer su prihvatile stav o razlici u
autoritetima, pa je njihova vizija postala ili suvie muka, ili pretjerano enska.
Spisateljica je izgubila neovisnost, a time i, to je mnogo vanije, svoju osnovnu
kvalitetu umjetnikog djela. Woolf je i inae smatrala da sve ono u samom piscu
to ga ometa u stvaranju, nije dobro. Zagovarala je ideju o pievom umu, koji,
da bi mogao neometano stvarati, mora biti proien i osloboen od osobnih
emocija koje ga gue, kao i od svih utjecaja sa strane.
Woolf pie kako se u dvadesetom stoljeu situacija polako mijenja, ena vie
nije toliko ogorena ni ljuta, vie ne prosvjeduje dok pie. Polako dolazi vrijeme
kada e ona moi neometano stvarati. Dok su donedavno talentirane ene bile
rezervirane i stajale po strani, sada je originalnost omoguena i obinim ena-
ma. Zato je prosjean roman neke spisateljice autentiniji i zanimljiviji danas,
nego to je bio prije pedeset ili sto godina.
Virginia Woolf je svjesna da e ene, prije nego to budu u stanju zaista
pisati onako kako ele, imati jo velikih tekoa s kojima e se morati suoiti.
Jedna od njih je tehnike prirode, a to je neadekvatnost izraza. Postojei oblik

100
Kao primjere, Woolf navodi Tolstoja koji je kao vojnik imao osobno iskustvo s fronta, Josepha
Conrada koji je plovio morima i posjetio mnoge egzotine zemlje, te George Eliot koja se odvaila
na zajedniki ivot s H. G. Lewisom dok je jo bio oenjen.

reenice eni ne odgovara, to je reenica koju je stvorio mukarac: ona je
prelabava, preteka i prepompozna da bi je ene uspjeno koristile. ena treba
pronai vlastitu reenicu koja e itatelja voditi sasvim prirodno od poetka do
kraja romana. Treba promijeniti postojeu formu reenice, prilagoditi je da
poprimi prirodan oblik eninih misli, bez pritiska i ometanja.
Roman izraava stav o stotinama predmeta ljudskih, prirodnih, boanskih,
on je pokuaj da se ti predmeti stave u suodnos. U svakom dobrom romanu te
razliite elemente na okupu dri snaga pieve vizije. Postoje i drugi odnosi,
poredak meu ivotnim vrijednostima ustanovljen konvencijama koje su odre-
dili mukarci. Budui da je knjievnost u velikoj mjeri zasnovana na ivotu, te
vrijednosti u velikoj mjeri prisutne su i u romanima, znai, prevladava muka
vizija. Tu Woolf pravi zanimljivu primjedbu koja se provlai i kroz druge njene
radove: vrlo je vjerojatno da i u ivotu i u umjetnosti vrijednosti ene nisu
istovremeno i vrijednosti mukarca. Zato ona, kad pokuava pisati roman, eli u
njemu promijeniti ustaljene vrijednosti, eli dati znaaj onome to je mukarcu
nebitno, a s druge strane eli uiniti trivijalnim neto to je mukarcu vano.
Zbog toga e doivjeti kritike, jer e kritiari suprotnog spola biti zbunjeni
pokuajem da se promijene ustaljene vrijednosne norme i nee to shvatiti kao
drugaiji pogled na ivot, ve kao neto slabo, trivijalno ili sentimentalno, to se
razlikuje od njihovog shvaanja.
ene postaju sve neovisnije u svojim stavovima i formiranju miljenja. One
poinju potivati vlastite osjeaje vrijednosti. To se vidi i po izboru tema u ro-
manima, one izgledaju manje zainteresirane za sebe same, a vie ih zanimaju
druge ene. Poetkom devetnaestog stoljea romani spisateljica veinom su bili
autobiografski, izmeu ostaloga jer su ene htjele ispriati svoje patnje, iskazati
svoje zahtjeve. U dvadesetom stoljeu ti razlozi vie ne postoje u tolikoj mjeri,
pa se ene okreu prouavanju vlastitog spola, poinju pisati o enama kako se
do tada jo nije pisalo, jer, sve donedavno, enski lik u knjievnosti bio je muka
kreacija. Tu nastaje novi problem, jer ene vode tako predvidljiv i nezanimljiv
ivot, tako da treba ii u dubinu, otkriti promjene u eninom umu, prikazati je u
novom svjetlu.
Kao zakljuak, Woolf sumira da je knjievnost koju piu ene hrabra, iskrena,
blizu onoga to ena uistinu osjea. Nije puna ogorenja, niti inzistira na enstve-
nosti. Budui da je dobila pravo glasa, ena polako ulazi i u politike, poslovne i
intelektualne sfere. Njeni interesi postaju praktini, ena mora djelovati sama za
sebe, ne ovisiti o utjecaju djelovanja drugih. Stoga enina pozornost prelazi iz
privatne sfere na drutvenu, ona postaje kritiar drutva, a analiziranje indivi-
dualnih ivota odlazi u drugi plan. Ovaj drutveni angaman trebao bi postepeno
voditi i irim aspektima ivota, iza osobnih i politikih odnosa. ena bi se trebala

okrenuti prema pitanjima koje pjesnici pokuavaju odgovoriti pitanjima nae
sudbine i znaenja ivota uope.
101

Osnova poetskog stava uvelike je povezana s materijalnim statusom. On
zavisi o slobodnom vremenu, novcu, ali i o mogunosti koju slobodno vrijeme i
novac pruaju za neutralno i nepristrano promatranje. Kad se ena bude vie
mogla posvetiti sebi i pisanju, njena tehnika pisanja e se takoer poboljati,
postat e hrabrija i bogatija.
Virginia Woolf predskazuje da e knjievnost koju piu ene postati predme-
tom umjetnikog prouavanja, a enski talent e se uvjebavati i postajati sve
jai. Roman e za enu prestati biti odskoni kamen za izraavanje osobnih
emocija, ve e u budunosti postati kao i svako drugo umjetniko djelo, a nje-
govi izvori i ogranienja e se prouavati. ene e pisati poeziju, biografije, eseje
i kritike, a to e pripomoi i samom proienju romana, koji je pun historio-
grafskih podataka i injenica koje su ga uinile bezoblinim. ene e pisati
manje romana, ali e oni biti bolji, kvalitetniji. Woolf je optimistino gledala na
budunost, ispred sebe je vidjela zlatno doba u kojem e ene imati sve ono to
im je dugo bilo uskraivano, a to su slobodno vrijeme, novac i vlastita soba.
U eseju Profesije za ene iz 1931. godine Virginia Woolf razmatra poloaj
ene profesionalnog pisca, ene koja zarauje i ivi od pisanja. U to doba,
profesionalno bavljenje pisanjem bilo je rijetko zanimanje, a po rijeima same
autorice, moda je samo nastupanje na pozornici bilo jo rjee (2008, 140).
ena se nije morala boriti s materijalnim preprekama, pisanje je dotad postalo
asno i bezopasno zanimanje. Obiteljski mir nije bio poremeen rkanjem pera
po papiru, kako Woolf duhovito kae, a ni obiteljski budet nije patio jer je papir
vrlo jeftin. Za male pare sve Shakespeareove drame stale bi na papir. Upravo ta
niska cijena papira po njoj je jedan od razloga zato su ene prije uspjele u
profesionalnom pisanju, nego u nekom drugom zanimanju skuplje stvari njoj
su bile nedostine.
Ostavivi materijalne, vanjske probleme iza sebe, ena se sada mora suoiti s
onim unutarnjim preprekama koje su puno kompleksnije, a prva od njih je

101
E. Showalter takoer istie kako se dobivanje prava glasa odrazilo u knjievnosti koju su ene
stvarale, te objanjava daljnji razvoj knjievnosti koju su pisale ene, koji je na tragu ideja Virginije
Woolf. Ideja o ravnopravnosti i izjednaavanju spolova postupno je feministiku ideologiju
svrstavala u drugi plan, tako da je sufraetski pokret i sam feminizam polako zastarijevao. Nove
teme u knjievnosti, kao npr. prostitucija, abortus, lezbijstvo tretiraju se otvorenije i slobodnije, a
ene se sve vie zanimaju i za knjievnu prolost i tradiciju, pa piu biografije knjievnica
devetnaestog stoljea ili objavljuju zbirke njihovih pisama. enstveni (feminine) elementi u
djelima ena pisaca ovog doba odraavaju se u sukobu izmeu osobnih odnosa i umjetnike
neovisnosti. One vie ne koriste pseudonime kao u viktorijansko doba, ali sukob interesa jo
uvijek je prisutan. enstveni realizam, feministiki prosvjed i enska samoanaliza prisutne su u
djelima modernih autorica dvadesetog stoljea u okviru drutvenog i politikog konteksta.
Ravnotea izmeu individualizacije i socijalizacije nestaje, autori dvadesetog stoljea odriu se
jedinstvenog, koherentnog, potpuno razvijenog karaktera. (Showalter, 302-304)

autocenzura. Tillie Olsen u svojoj knjizi utnje (Silences) tvrdi da korijene treba
traiti u tradiciji enske utnje, jer je ena stoljeima bila uutkana, onijemjela.
Ona govori o neprirodnim utnjama i istrauje okolnosti koje su dovele do ta-
kvog neprirodnog stanja, a nalazi ih u klasi, rasi i spolu, spominje cenzorske, po-
litike, marginalne, prerane utnje (Dojinovi Nei 57-58). utnja i zatomlji-
vanje misli i osjeaja za enu su ogromna prepreka za umjetniko stvaralatvo.
Prije nego to ena pone pisati, mora ubiti vilu kunog ognjita, tj.
savreni estetski ideal o eni koja posluno sjedi kod kue svima na usluzi i
svima odobrava. Taj ideal je gui i sputava. Vila savjetuje: Nikad ne dopusti da
itko nasluti da ima vlastito miljenje, znai, nije upitno je li ena ima svoj stav i
miljenje, ve to to ga treba prikriti (2008, 141). Frustrirana spisateljica uspjela
se rijeiti represivne vile umorivi je. Woolf kae:

Da je ja nisam ubila, ona bi ubila mene, jer udovoljavajui drugima i ne
dozvoljavajui samoj sebi slobodu izraavanja vlastitih misli, ena ne ivi
svojim ivotom, pa nije ni sposobna za kreativni rad. Ubiti vilu kunog
ognjita jedan je od dijelova samog zanimanja ene pisca, pie Woolf u
eseju Profesije za ene. (2008, 141-142)

Sad kad se rijeila stereotipa o samoj sebi, ena moe biti ono to ona
zapravo jest. to je ena, pita se Virginia Woolf i priznaje da na to pitanje jo ne
zna odgovor, kao i da ga ne oekuje ni od koga drugoga. ena e biti svjesna to
je tek kad joj sve sfere umjetnosti i zanimanja budu otvorene i kad se uspije
izraziti u njima.
Jo je jedan problem vezan za stvaralatvo ena, s kojim se mukarci ne
susreu. Woolf pokuava prodrijeti u pievo stanje uma i smatra da umjetnik
najbolje stvara kad je njegov um nesvjestan svoje okoline. On eli svaki dan vidjeti
ista lica, itati iste knjige, izvravati iste radnje iz dana u dan, iz mjeseca u mjesec
sve dok pie, tako da nita ne prekida iluziju u kojoj ivi, da nita ne uznemiruje
njegovo istraivanje naokolo, osjeaje koji se jave i iznenadna otkria tog
srameljivog i neuhvatljivog duha, mate. Ovaj princip je isti za mukarce i ene.
No to se dogaa kad ena pie u stanju transa? Woolf daje primjer mlade
spisateljice koja u stvaralakom transu osjeti svoje tijelo i strast na nain koji nije
adekvatan za enu, odnosno, doe do teme koja je za enu tabu. Ona je zbunjena
i posramljena, njena mata se naglo gasi. Kada bi ena otvoreno pisala o svom
iskustvu, mukarci bi bili okirani. Dok oni imaju velike slobode pisanja, nisu ni
svjesni konvencija i ogranienja koje su nametnuli enama.
Taj problem tijela i tjelesnog iskustva ene, Virginia Woolf priznaje, nije
uspjela rijeiti. Izvana izgleda kao da nema nikakvih prepreka, ali iznutra, ena
ima jo puno predrasuda koje mora savladati. Kad je ena materijalno zbrinuta,
ima svoj novac i vlastiti prostor, to je tek poetak njezina oslobaanja. Daljnja

borba je u njezinim rukama: kako e ona opremiti i urediti svoj vlastiti prostor, s
kim e ga dijeliti i pod kojim uvjetima, vana su pitanja o kojima e ona morati
odluiti sama.
Ideju Virginije Woolf o ubijanju anela u kui prihvatile su i elaborirale u
svom kasnijem radu brojne teoretiarke knjievnosti, izmeu ostalih Sandra
Gilbert i Susan Gubar u svojoj knjizi The Madwoman in the Attic (Luakinja u
potkrovlju). One analiziraju Bloomovu teoriju o dinamici knjievne povijesti koja
proizlazi iz umjetnikove strepnje od utjecaja, tj. njegovog straha da nije vlasti-
ti autor, nego da radovi njegovih prethodnika, koji postoje prije i izvan njega,
imaju prednost nad njegovim vlastitim pisanjem. U pogledu pisanja pjesnikinja,
jasno je da se one nisu bojale povijesnog utjecaja prethodnika, iz oitog razloga
to su ti prethodnici bili gotovo iskljuivo mukarci, koji su bili znatno razliiti od
njih. Ti prethodnici utjelovljavaju patrijarhalni autoritet, a pjesnikinju pokua-
vaju i zarobiti u definiciju vlastite osobnosti i njenih mogunosti koje su svedene
na ekstremne stereotipe (aneo udovite). Zbog uvrijeenih stereotipova o
eni, koji su bili naroito izraeni u viktorijanskom dobu, gdje je ena zapravo
trebala reflektirati mukarev ideal o njoj samoj, ene su pri pisanju osjeale
nelagodu, strah, nesigurnost i sram. Muki autoritet eni piscu izgleda direktno
suprotstavljen terminima definiranja njenog roda. Sandra Gilbert i Susan Gubar
govore o strepnji od autorstva, korjenitom strahu da ena nije u stanju stvara-
ti, te da e je, s obzirom da nikad nee biti u stanju postati prethodnik sam in
pisanja izolirati i unititi. Strepnja od autorstva je povijesno uvjetovana, a
zasniva se na inferiornosti enskog roda u odnosu na muki, te nedostatku vla-
stite enske tradicije. Da bi ena mogla slobodno pisati, mora se osloboditi
stereotipa o sebi te definirati samu sebe i afirmirati vlastiti autoritet.
Kao prvo, umjetnica se mora boriti protiv efekata socijalizacije, dakle, mora
ui u revizionistiki proces isto kao to i umjetnik u Bloomovoj teoriji ulazi u
revizionistiki proces sa svojim prethodnicima. Da bi definirala sebe kao
umjetnicu, ena mora ponovo definirati uvjete svoje socijalizacije. Ona mora
traiti aktivnog enskog prethodnika, koji u ovom sluaju nije neprijatelj, ve
svojim primjerom pokazuje da je borba protiv patrijarhalnog knjievnog autori-
teta mogua. ena pisac trai enski model da bi mogla legitimirati svoje
buntovnike napore. Istovremeno, ona svoj rod doivljava kao prepreku i nedo-
statak koji joj teti. Osamljenost umjetnice, njezin osjeaj nepripadanja mukim
precima, potreba za enskom publikom, strah od neprijateljstva mukih ita-
telja, strah od patrijarhalnog autoriteta i osjeaj srama i tjeskobe pri pisanju
sve su to pojave inferiorizacije, koje oznaavaju borbu spisateljice za umjetni-
ko samodefiniranje.

Nadalje, treba pobijediti i stereotipe o enama u knjievnosti, tj. ubiti
anela i udovite, dva polarizirana klieja o enskom liku. Da bi mogla

kreativno stvarati, ena mora zbaciti sa sebe teret enske istoe i
perfekcije, zapravo bezlinosti koja je sputava. Bila ona pasivna vila ili
aktivno udovite, spisateljica se osjea doslovno i figurativno obogaljena
invalidnim alternativama koje joj postojea kultura nudi. Uskraena za
materijalni, drutveni i psiholoki status koji je neophodan za kreativni
rad, uskraena za obrazovanje i mogunost javnog iznoenja vlastitog
miljenja, ena koja se nije htjela povui u aneosku tiinu, teko je
mogla prevladati strepnju od autorstva (Gilbert i Gubar 17).

Spisateljice, za razliku od svojih mukih kolega, nisu morale ulaziti u borbu s
prethodnicima, kao u bitku snanih i jednakih, ve su prikrivanje koristile kao
strategiju nastalu iz straha, a ne kao ratoborni akt. Zarobljene strukturama koje
su stvorili mukarci za sebe same, knjievnice se nisu toliko bunile protiv
postojee estetike, koliko su osjeale nelagodu i krivicu jer se nisu bile u stanju
prilagoditi toj estetici. Knjievnice su, svjesno ili nesvjesno, odbacivale parade-
gmine polaritete anela i udovita, stvarajui likove koji su prikrivali njihov
vlastiti gnjev. Lik negativke, udovita u romanu, nastao je iz enine energije
vlastitog oaja: sam proces pisanja oslobodio je pomamljenu, gnjevnu, ludu
enu od tiine s kojom se ni ona, ni njezina autorica ne mogu vie pomiriti.
Autorice projiciraju vlastite buntovnike porive ne u svoje junakinje, nego u
likove ludih i udovinih ena. Tako spisateljice dramatiziraju vlastitu podijelje-
nost, svoju elju za istovremenim odbacivanjem i prihvaanjem patrijarhalnih
drutvenih struktura. Luda ena nije suparnica junakinje, ve je u izvjesnom
smislu dvojnica autorice, njenog osjeaja nelagode i gnjeva. Gilbert i Gubar kao
primjere navode Jane Austen, George Eliot, sestre Bront i njihove junakinje iz
devetnaestog stoljea, ali spominju da se ta podijeljenost nastavila i kod spisa-
teljica dvadesetog stoljea, na primjer, kod Virginije Woolf, koja sebe projicira u
otmjenu gu Dalloway i u sluenog Septimusa Smitha. Virginia Woolf struktu-
rira glavni lik iz romana Gospoa Dalloway na taj nain da Clarissa prepoznaje
Septimusa Smitha kao svog dvojnika koji je iskupljuje. Vlastito nezadovoljstvo
projicirano je na drugu osobu, pa tako Septimus Smith postaje rtveni jarac za
sve Clarissine greke i neuspjehe, a oba lika zapravo predstavljaju podijeljenost
same autorice (Gilbert i Gubar 45-59, 71-83).
ena udovite je samo ena koja trai mo samoartikulacije. Lik lude
Berthe Mason iz romana Jane Eyre u dvadesetom stoljeu dobija veu mo-
gunost samoodreenja i samorealizacije. U romanu iroko Sargasko more
(Wide Sargasso Sea) Jean Rhys, pria Jane Eyre ispriana je iz perspektive
izdane i zatoene Berthe Mason. Rhys naglaava rasni aspekt Berthinog
kreolskog porijekla ona predstavlja ono iskonsko, prirodno, srce tame, Drugu.
Pria Jane Eyre javlja se i u romanu Grad sa etirikapije (Four Gated City)
Doris Lessing iz 1969. godine. Junakinja je domaica mukarcu u kojeg je zalju-

bljena, ali otkriva da je on oenjen, te da svoju umno poremeenu enu dri za-
tvorenu u podrumu. Otkrivi to, ona oslobodi enu, te njih dvije odu i unajme
stan u kojem e zajedno ivjeti. U enstvenom (feminine) romanu ovakav kraj je
nezamisliv jer junaci postaju ravnopravni uzajamno se ograniavajui i odriui,
a u dvadesetom stoljeu oni zajedniki i uzajamno napreduju i rastu (Showalter
123-124).
Ovakav razvoj u knjievnosti koju piu ene omoguile su spisateljice
osamnaestog i devetnaestog stoljea u mukotrpnoj i iscrpljujuoj borbi s uvrije-
enim i naslijeenim predrasudama i kanonima. One su lukavstvom postigle da
izgleda kao da su se odvojile od vlastitih revolucionarnih poriva, ak i dok su oi-
tovale te porive. Gilbert i Gubar piu da su velike spisateljice prethodna dva sto-
ljea, povezane dovitljivou, pomou koje su, dok ih nitko nije gledao, otplesale
sa povrine pogubnog ogledala mukog teksta u zdravu ensku mo (83).
Razmiljanja Virginije Woolf o enama i njihovoj knjievnoj djelatnosti utje-
cala su na kasnija prouavanja knjievnosti koju piu ene, kako u smislu prou-
avanja knjievne tradicije kod ena, tako i u pogledu poloaja ene u drutvu,
(auto)cenzure, same estetike enskog pisanja i pronalaska izraza adekvatnog
njenom umu i tijelu, kao i daljnjeg razvoja knjievne kritike uope, naroito u
segmentu feministike kritike koja svoja izvorita pronalazi upravo u radovima
ove izuzetne autorice.

Literatura

Dojinovi-Nei, Biljana. Ginokritika. Rod i prouavanje knjievnosti koju su
pisale ene. Beograd: 1 Knjievno drutvo "Sveti Sava", 1993.
Gilbert, Sandra M. and Gubar, Susan, The Madwoman in the Attic, The Woman
Writer and the Nineteen-Century Literary Imagination. New Heaven and
London: Yale UP, 1979.
Showalter, Elaine, A Literature of Their Own, British Women Novelists from
Bront to Lessing. Expanded Edition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton UP,
1999.
Woolf, Virginia, Selected Essays. Ed. David Bradshaw. New York: OUP, 2008.
------------------- A Room of Ones Own, and Three Guineas. Oxford: Oxford UP,
1998.
------------------- Killing the Angel in the House: Seven Essays. Ed. Rachel Bowlby.
London: Penguin, 1993.
------------------- The Common Reader. New York: Harcourt Publishers Ltd, a
Subsidiary of Harcourt International, 1984.


WOMEN AND FICTION IN VIRGINIA WOOLFS ESSAYS

Virginia Woolf was one of the first authors who, considering the relationship
between women and fiction, clearly pointed out the reasons for womens
inferiority to men. She stated historical, social as well as aesthetic obstacles
that women are faced with during the process of writing. The aim of this paper
is to analyse two Woolfs essays Women and Fiction and Professions for
Women regarding modern literary theory and to point out the importance and
influence of Woolf as an essayist and a critic in the field of womens writing
whose prose work is actual even seventy years after her death.

Key Words: womens literature, Virginia Woolf, Women and Fiction,
Professions for Women, (auto) censorship, inferiority, the anxiety of
authorship, womens sentence.


UDK 821.112.2.09-31

Die Funktion der Erzhlperspektiven in Uwe
Tellkamps Roman Der Eisvogel

Marijana Jele, Universitt Zadar

Apstrakt: Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Eisvogel erzhlt von dem gescheiterten
Philosophen Wiggo Ritter, der sich in seiner Orientierungslosigkeit einer Terrorgruppe
anschliet, die auf einen elitren Stndestaat in Deutschland hinarbeitet. Zu diesem
Zweck plant die Gruppe, die sich selbst Wiedergeburt nennt, Gewalteingriffe. Der
Autor lsst nacheinander sechs Erzhlerfiguren zu Wort kommen, die ber das
Geschehene reflektieren: Wiggo Ritter, Dorothea Ritter, Stefan Ritter, Patrick
Grammart, Karl S. und Jost Fortner. Die Absicht dieses Artikels ist, die Funktion der
multiperspektivischen Erzhlsituation, sowie die Gesellschaft anhand der verschiedenen
Reflektorfiguren zu analysieren, was ein typisches Merkmal des Zeitromans ist.

Schlsselwrter: Multiperspektivitt, Zeitroman, Terror, Gewalt, Rechtsradikalismus

Einleitung

Der Bachmannpreistrger Uwe Tellkamp wurde 1968 in Dresden geboren und
ist Arzt von Beruf. Er schreibt Essays, Sachtexte, verffentlicht Beitrge in
Literaturzeitschriften und verfasste bis jetzt vier Romane. Seit 2004 ist er freier
Schriftstellerund prsentiert sich oft als politisch engagierter Autor. Der
vorliegende Aufsatz beschftigt sich mit der multiperspektivischen
Erzhlperspektive in Uwe Tellkamps zweitem Roman DerEisvogel (2005). Es soll
herausgearbeitet werden, wie diese strukturiert ist und welche Funktion sie im
Roman erfllt. In dieser Hinsicht steht das Phnomen Multiperspektivitt, bzw.
Perspektivenvielfalt, das direkt mit dem Inhalt des Romans verbunden ist, der
wiederum den wiederaufkeimenden Rechtsextremismus und die
Gewaltbereitschaft in der Gesellschaft thematisiert, im Mittelpunkt.
Werke der deutschsprachigen Gegenwartsliteratur befassen sich hufig mit
Rechtsradikalismus, Fremdenhass und Terror. Rechts oder links stehen fr
zwei entgegengesetzte Richtungen politischen Denkens und Handelns (Scheidl
2003: 1). Extremismus selbst meint Monismus und Kompromisslosigkeit im
politischen Konflikt (Holzer 26), mit anderen Worten, [...] die einseitige,
dogmatische Orientierung an der jeweils eigenen Ideologie, der man notfalls

auch mit Gewalt zum Durchbruch zu verhelfen bereit ist (Scheidl 1).
Rechtsextremismus und Terror sind demnach eng miteinander verbunden, was
auch bei Tellkamp, der in diesem Roman ein detailliertes und realgetreues
Gesellschaftsbild zeichnet, im Mittelpunkt der Handlung steht.
In diesem Beitrag wird die multiperspektivische Erzhlsituation analysiert, die
wiederum einen inhaltlich bedingten gesellschaftlichen Bezug aufweist und somit
zu den Merkmalen des Zeitromans gehrt. Gerade die komplexe Anordnung der
Erzhlpassagen macht es notwendig, sich mit diesem Aspekt des Romans zu
befassen.

Inhalt und Rezeption des Romans

Der Inhalt wird im Eisvogel aus verschiedenen Blickwinkeln widergegeben,was
ein zentraler Erzhl- und Strukturaspekt des Romans ist und worauf spter
eingegangen wird. Im Roman erschiet der Protagonist Wiggo Ritter seinen
Freund Mauritz Kaltmeister. Wiggo ist arbeitslos, fhrt ein einsames Leben,
bedauert sich selbst und schafft es nicht mehr, den rechten Weg einzuschlagen.
Er lernt Mauritz Kaltmeister und seine Schwester Manuela kennen, die Mitglieder
einer rechtsextremistischen Organisation, die sich Wiedergeburt nennt, sind.
Mitglieder der Organisation sind auer ihnen ein Bischof, der die religise Elite
vertritt, ein Staatssekretr und ein Schnapsfabrikant. Mauritz grndet deren
militrischen Arm Cassiopeia
102
und will in der Gesellschaft Angst und
Unsicherheit durch Gewalt und Terror verbreiten. Ihre Absicht ist die Zerstrung
der ihrer Meinung nach verlotterten Demokratie und das Errichten eines
Stndestaates, wie die autoritre Staatsform in sterreich in den 30er Jahren des
20. Jh.
103
,also die vollkommeneReorganisation der Gesellschaft. Sie sind fest
entschlossen, die Demokratie und damit die Herrschaft des Mittelmaes zu
beseitigen. Aus Verzweiflung und in seiner Orientierungslosigkeit schliet sich
Wiggo der Terrorgruppe an, die zuerst einen Brandanschlag auf eine Lagerhalle

102
Der lateinische Name deutet auf eine aus der griechischen Mythologie bekannte Figur, die
Mutter der Andromeda hin, genauso wie der Titel des Romans auf eine Gestalt aus der
griechischen Mythologie hindeutet: Alkyone versuchte sich aus Trauer nach ihrem verstorbenen
Gatten das Leben zu nehmen und strzte sich von den Klippen, um sich im Meer zu ertrnken,
doch die Gtter verwandelten sie in Halcyone (eine Unterart der Eisvgel). Harald Zusanek
(Hrsg.): Troizen Alkyone. Untersuchungen zum Vogelkult I, Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2007.
103
Der Stndestaat stellt die Summe brgerlicher Revisions- und Restaurationspolitik gegen das
System des November 1918 dar. Seine bestimmenden Faktoren Antimarxismus und
Antibolschewismus, Destruktion der parlamentarisch-demokratischen Ordnungsprinzipien,
Antiliberalismus und Staatsvorstellungen des politischen Katholizismus mndeten in der
Konstruktion eines autoritren, stndisch gegliederten Staates im Rahmen der Maiverfassung des
Jahres 1934. Gerhard Jagschitz: Der sterreichische Stndestaat 19341938, in:
Weinzierl/Skalnik: sterreich 19181938. Graz: Styria, 1983, S. 498.

plant. Als er aber nach einiger Zeit die Sinnlosigkeit des Terrorismus erkennt und
sich aus der Organisation zurckziehen mchte, kommt es zur Eskalation. Mauritz
sieht ein, dass er die Gesellschaft nicht verndern kann und versucht aus
Verzweiflung seine Schwester umzubringen. Wiggo kommt ihm zuvor und
erschiet ihn, um sich und Manuela zu retten.Unmittelbar vor der finalen
politischen Eskalation gelangt Wiggo dann doch noch der Absprung freilich
selbst nur durch ein Verbrechen: die Erschieung von Mauritz (Jung 29).
Bis zum Ende des Romans erfhrt man immer wieder durch Rckblenden, was
Wiggo, den durchgngigen Erzhler des Romans, veranlasst hat, seinen Freund
Mauritz zu erschieen. Anhand seiner eigenen Erinnerungen, aber auch der
Eindrcke und Ansichten seiner Freunde und Verwandten, versucht sich die
Handlung seinen Beweggrnden anzunhern.
Die Kritiker waren sich, was den literarischen Wert des Romans angeht, nicht
vllig einig. Einige waren begeistert, andere wiederum fanden gerade im Hinblick
auf die Erzhlperspektiven gewisse Kritikpunkte. Volker Weidermann betont so in
seinem Artikel in der Frankfurter Allgemeinen Zeitung die Sehnsucht nach Pathos,
die Wiggo Ritter in den Bann des elitren Ideologen Mauritz Kaltmeister, in dem
er einen Freund gefunden zu haben glaubt, treibt:

Es ist ein Revolutionsroman von Rechts. Ein Buch voller Pathos. Und
Ernsthaftigkeit. Und ohne Ironie. Ein Buch, in dem es um alles geht. Um
einen Mord unter Freunden. Um das Deutschland von heute. Um eine
radikale gesellschaftliche Wende, um das Ende der Demokratie. Um die
Sehnsucht nach einer neuen Elite. Sehnsucht nach einem Krieg.
Sehnsucht nach einer neuen Kunst. Nach Pathos. Nach einer neuen
Literatur. Nach einem ganz neuen Leben. (Weidermann 25)

Hans Christian Kosler lobt Tellkamps Mut, sich an ein Thema heranzuwagen,
um das man gewhnlich einen groen Bogen in der deutschsprachigen Literatur
macht: das Problem der Selbstfindung in einer von Krisen aufgewhlten
Gesellschaft (Kosler 37). Der Eisvogel wird demnach als ein mutiges und
hochbrisantes Buch bezeichnet, vor allem weil es die Probleme der Gegenwart
nachvollziehbar werden lsst: Autorittskonflikte, Einsamkeit,
Orientierungslosigkeit, sexuelles Begehren, die Frage nach dem Sinn des Lebens,
Verlust von wahren Werten, Depressionen, politische Lage und Misstrauen in der
Gesellschaft.
Christian Schneider erkennt die poetische Virtuositt des Autors an, in der er
die groen Strken des Buches sieht und auch die gelungene Ausarbeitung des in
der Gegenwartsliteratur hufigen Vater-Sohn-Konfliktes betont (Schneider 19).
Auch Helmut Bttinger ist vom Roman, vor allem aber von dem
Einfhlungsvermgen des Autors berzeugt: Er streckt seine Fhler nach allen

Seiten aus und hat auch Verbindung zu dem, was von ganz unten kommt
(Bttinger 17). Ijoma Mangold erkennt in Tellkamps Gesellschaftspanorama ein
realistisches Modell von Ereignissen: Mit diesem so groartig halluzinierten wie
glaubwrdig gezeichneten Gesellschaftspanorama hat [...] Uwe Tellkamp [...] eine
geistige Topographie entworfen, die nicht mehr die der alten Bundesrepublik ist
(Mangold 33). Auch Elmar Krekeler bewertet den Roman positiv:

Er wirft klassische Moderne und klassische Kolportage zusammen. "Der
Eisvogel" ist ein Gruselschocker, eine Liebesgeschichte, ein
Intellektuellenroman, ein schwarzromantischer Ausflug in den
Untergrund der Gegenwart, der schtonk" frs 21. Jahrhundert. Er
betreibt Zeitphilosophie, Gesellschafts- und Psychoanalyse. Tellkamp
strzt sich in den Zeitstrudel. Er schneidet fast filmisch Sequenzen
heraus, bricht die Ablufe, kontrastiert die Tonflle. Er ist ein Rhapsode.
Einen ganzen Chor der Stimmen lt er singen, die Geschichte des
verlorenen Sohnes spiegeln. Nicht immer wei man, wer da spricht, nicht
immer geht alles auf. Aber was fr eine Erholung, einem Buch gegenber
zu sitzen, das derartig viel wagt. (Krekeler 31)

Was von anderen gelobt wurde, empfindet Gerrit Bartels als bertrieben. Ihr
zufolge ist der Roman eine groe Enttuschung: Ein furchtbar qulender Roman,
ein aufgeblasener, berladender Roman, ein richtiger Reinfall (Bartels 21). Dazu
kritisiert sie die ihrer Meinung nach aufgetrmten Erzhlebenen, die im Roman
aber dem Zweck dienen, die Leiden und Probleme des Protagonisten aus
mehreren Perspektiven darzustellen, was wiederum eine bildhafte Darstellung
seiner Einsamkeit und seines Absturzes auf vielen Ebenen ermglicht, womit sich
der Autor auch als gewandter Sprachpathetiker offenbart.
Aufgrundder Tatsache, dass noch keine Analyse der Erzhlform im Roman Der
Eisvogel vorliegt, soll an dieser Stelle die komplexe Erzhlperspektive genauer
untersucht werden. Grundlage der Analyse ist die Charakterisierung der Figuren,
die zugleich auch Erzhler sind, um so ihre Motivation und Rolle im Roman zu
bestimmen.

Figurencharakterisierung

Wiggo Ritter wird beschrieben als gescheiterter Philosoph, 30 Jahre alt,
unverheiratet und wohnhaft in Berlin. Er ist der unambitionierte Sohn eines
(erfolg-)reichen Bankers, der es irgendwie geschafft hat, eine Stelle an der
Universitt zu bekommen, die er aber wegen seiner rechten Tendenzen auf
Dauer nicht halten kann. Sein Widerspruchsgeist, den er des fteren an seinem
Vater bte,fhrt nicht nur dazu, dass er seine Stelle als Assistent verliert, sondern

auch zu einem gestrten Verhltnis zu seinem dominanten Vater Stefan Ritter.
Immer wieder betont er, dass er keinesfalls so werden will wie er, der ihn malos
kritisiert und schikaniert: Ein Philosoph willst du sein, wovon gedenkst du da zu
leben, vom Taxifahren? Tellerwaschen? Von der Barmherzigkeit einer Frau, die
doof genug ist, dich zu lieben und zu heiraten? (Tellkamp 118).
Sein Vater hat ganz genaue Vorstellungen davon, was ein junger Mann, der
alle Vorraussetzungen fr eine gute Karriere hatte, in der Gesellschaft zu leisten
hat. Glnzende Erziehung, Aussicht auf Karriere und wird was? Philosoph.
Philosoph, ich mu das Wort wiederholen, so unglaubhaft erscheint mir das
(Tellkamp 237). Enttuschend empfindet er zustzlich noch die Tatsache, dass
sein einziger Sohn noch unverheiratet ist und hlt ihn auch in diesem Bereich als
unfhig. Sein Vater, der von Anfang an hohe Erwartungen an seinen Sohn stellt,
versucht ihm auch so die Augen zu ffnen. Wiggo trumt jedoch weiterhin von
einer radikalen gesellschaftlichen Wende. Nicht nur, dass er die Erwartungen
seines Vaters nicht erfllen konnte, nein, er hat auch einen Menschen gettet.
Wiggo ist anscheinend nicht im Stande, in einer rein
materiellen,kapitalistischen Welt zu funktionieren. Seine Liebe gehrt der
Philosophie, die ihm jedoch keine Anerkennung in den Augen seines Vaters
verleiht und auch nicht in der Gesellschaft. Er fhlt sich unwohl in der
Gesellschaft und trumt von einer Vernderung. Er ist

ein aus der "Zeit Geglittener, der Herkunft Entfremdeter. Er tauscht
Brgertum gegen Auenseitertum und wird zum Gefolgsmann einer
Organisation, die die alte Gesellschaft durch Terrorakte erschttern und
eine neue, konservative Geisteselite an ihre Spitze stellen will (Beikfner
15).

Gewalt spielt bei Tellkamp eine wichtige Rolle, vor allem bei Mauritz
Kaltmeister, der in der berzeugung lebt, die dichte Gesellschaft sei nur durch
Gewalt und Zwang vernderbar. Mauritz und seine Schwester Manuela wollen
versuchen, die Gesellschaft aufzurtteln, sie von Grund auf zu verbessern, sie zu
erneuern und dafr msste sie in ihren Grundfesten erschttert werden. Sie
wollen keinen Stillstand mehr dulden. Mauritz uert sich dazu wie folgt: Die
einzige Mglichkeit, die ich sehe, wirklich und nachhaltig zu verndern, ist der
organisierte Terror (Tellkamp 151). Bemerkenswert ist jedoch, dass Mauritz bei
einem Terrorangriff seine Eltern verloren hat und dennoch bermannen ihn
Kriegs- und Terrorvorstellungen. Terror! Ich wei, was das bedeutet [...],
immerhin habe ich meine Eltern dabei verloren (Tellkamp 159). Die Gesellschaft
neigt sich dem sicheren Verfall zu, da sie nur mehr dem Geld allein vertraut und
jegliche humane Werte verlsst. Diesen Trend mchten Mauritz, Manuela und
Wiggo mit dem Terroranschlag aufhalten.

Verunsicherung ist der Sinn des Terrors. Die Angst der Brger ist der Sinn
des Terrors. Die Brger wrden nach Ordnung und Sicherheit verlangen,
und je weiter der Terror in die Gesellschaft eindringt, desto strker wird
dieses Verlangen warden. (Tellkamp 158-159)

Schlielich wrde die Gesellschaft die New Economy-Welt (Jung 29) verlassen
und zu ihren wahren Werten zurckfinden.
Eine weitere Figur im Roman, die den Protagonisten als Person beschreibt, ist
Patrick G. Er verfasst Wiggos Anwalt einen Brief, in dem er seine Beziehung zu
Wiggo definieren soll, bedauert aber den Zeitaufwand, den er dafr leisten muss.
Sie haben mich gebeten, das alles hier aufzuschreiben, mein Verhltnis zu ihm
undsoweiter [...]. Dieser Brief wird mich einiges meiner Zeit kosten, fr die ich
bestimmt nicht bezahlt werde. Jedenfalls nicht von Ihnen (Tellkamp 34). Er
negiert die Freundschaft zu Wiggo, obwohl er der Freund seiner Schwester
Dorothea ist und, wie er selbst betont, Fast-Schwager. In Bezug auf Wiggo kann
er auf seine Eigenliebe deuten, denn er selbst war sich beraus wichtig und
versuchte auch Patrick von einem radikalen Neuanfang zu berzeugen.
Jost F. ist Wiggos Freund und Arzt von Beruf, der mit Wiggo oft ber seine
Wahl, Philosophie zu studieren, gesprochen hat. Er fand es merkwrdig, dass
Wiggo es immer schaffte, das Gesprch von langweiligen Alltglichkeiten zu
existenziellen Grundfragen zu kippen. Er ist Josts Eindruck nach ein sonderbarer,
eigenwilliger, aber doch faszinierender Mensch. Jost beschloss ein Auge auf
Wiggo zu werfen, nachdem ihn dieser ber Selbstmord ausfragt hatte, ob es nicht
ein Mittel gbe, wie man schnell und schmerzlos von eigener Hand sterben
knne. Es machte mir Angst wie er mich das fragte. Weniger, was er mich fragte,
als vielmehr das Wie. Ich dachte: Das ist ein Selbstmordkandidat. So geht das los.
Mit solchen Fragen, die eigentlich verkappte Hilferufe sind (Tellkamp 107-108).
Jost machte sich Sorgen um Wiggo, seitdem Mauritz aufgetaucht ist und teilte
seine Zweifel mit Dorothea.
Dorothea R. ist Wiggos Schwester und die Freundin von Patrick G. Sie
beschreibt ihren Bruder als misstraurisch und naiv. Oft hat sie ihm geraten,
endlich erwachsen zu werden und nahm ihm bel, dass er sie von ihrer
Berufswahl abbringen wollte. Zudem betont sie seine Abneigung gegenber
rztinnen und Psychiaterinnen, sowie sein pausenloses Gerede.

Wenn man ihm nicht ins Wort fllt, macht er weiter wie Schwarzenegger.
Kennen Sie diesen Film, Terminator, wo zum Schlu nur noch ein paar
Lmpchen blinken in seiner Elektrik, so geschafft ist er schon, aber er
kraucht immer noch weiter? Das ist Wiggo beim Reden. (Tellkamp 36)


Sie vernahm die Vernderung an ihrem Bruder, seitdem er Mauritz begegnete
und durch ihn rcksichtloser und hrter wurde. Seine Wut bekam auch Dorothea
zu spren und sie begann sich vor ihm zu frchten.
Karl S. betreute Wiggos Dissertation, die in Holland verffentlich wurde, was
fr einen Anfnger auergewhnlich, aber durch ihre Qualitt gerechtfertigt war.
Darin setzt er sich mit dem kapitalistischen System auseinander, in dem er sich
ohnedies nicht zurecht findet. Wiggo fiel ihm bereits als Student auf, denn er
hatte schon zu Beginn des Studiums die gesamte Grundlagenliteratur
durchgearbeitet und verfgte ber ausgezeichnete Kenntnisse der Utopien. Karl
S. bemerkte seine Zurckhaltung bei Diskussionen, bedauert aber sein
Ausscheiden aus der Fakultt so sehr, dass er versuchte, ihn wieder einzustellen.
Seine Assistentenstelle war aber inzwischen anderweitig vergeben, was zu
Wiggos weiterem moralischen Verfall beitrug.

Multiperspektivisches Erzhlen

Ein auffallendes und typisches Merkmal des Romans, neben dem
unaufhrlichen und berwltigenden in langen zusammengesetzten Stzen
ausgedrckten Wortschwall,ist der stndige Perspektivwechsel. Im Text
eingestreut erscheinen neben den berwiegenden Erzhlpassagen Wiggos
zahlreiche krzerePassagen unterschiedlicher oben erwhnter Ich-Erzhler, die
sich von ihrer sprachlichen Seite her nicht wesentlich unterscheiden. Es handelt
sich dabei um Hochgebildete, die der Elitegesellschaft angehren. Mauritz und
seine Schwester Manuela treten als Figuren nicht auf und kommen deshalb auch
nicht zu Wort. Es melden sich hingegen Verwandte, Freunde und Bekannte zu
Wort und erzhlen Wiggos Verteidiger ber ihn. Der Verteidiger, der alle
Aussagen aufnimmt und dadurch auch die Standpunkte der sechs Erzhlerfiguren
vermittelt, kann ebenso als ein fiktionaler Rezipient bezeichnet werden. Er wird
somit zu einer integrierenden Instanz des Romans. Nacheinander berichten fnf
Erzhlerfiguren ber Wiggos Kindheit (Stefan R. und Dorothea R.), die Beziehung
zum Bruder (Dorothea R.), ber die Freundschaft (Patrick G.), rztliche Betreuung
(Jost F.) und ber Wiggos akademische Ttigkeiten (Karl S.).
Der Romanbeginnt schockierend mit der Beschreibung des Mordes:

Zwei Schsse, flach und scharf, sehr schnell hintereinander schmetternde
Detonationen, Echos, in einen einzigen Knall gejagt in der Lautstrke von
Hammerschlgen, die mit aller Kraft gegen ein frei hngendes Blech
donnern. (Tellkamp 7).


Gleich zu Anfang des Romans erklrt Wiggo, was sich ereignet hat, obwohl der
tatschliche Schluss noch fern liegt. Im Nachhinein reflektieren die Figuren ber
das Geschehene, als oberste Stimme dabei die der Hauptfigur Ritter,
unterbrochen von Aussagen der oben erwhntenFreunde, Bekannten und
Verwandten, die vor allem auf Erklrungen der Tat bedacht sind. Erst so erfhrt
der Leser allmhlich wie es zu den Schssen gekommen ist, was eine aus
Detektivromanen bernommene Erzhltechnik ist. Dadurch wird das zentrale
Ereignis von Aussage zu Aussage immer klarer und der Leser kann sich das Puzzle
selbst zusammenstellen. Erschwerend kommt hinzu, dass die Handlung nicht
linear dargestellt wird, was eine Folge der Multiperspektivitt ist.
Diese Erzhltechnik ermglicht im Zeitroman, wozu offensichtlich auch Der
Eisvogel gehrt, eine vielschichtige, ausfhrliche und im fiktionalen Rahmen
objektive Darstellung der Gesellschaft. Die sechs erwhnten Erzhlerfiguren
erzhlen ber Wiggo Ritter und versuchen aus ihrer Perspektive dem Verteidiger,
aber auch sich selbst, die Hintergrnde des Mordes zu erklren. Es ist nmlich
anzunehmen, dass die Figuren dadurch, dass sie ihre Erinnerungen an Wiggo
aufrufen, um den Verteidiger eine mglichst objektive Aussage zu geben, auch
selber das Geschehene verarbeiten. Obwohl alle einzelnen Erzhlperspektiven
subjektiv sind, ermglichen sie dem Verteidiger, und so auch dem Leser,
aufgrund der Mehrperspektivitt ein relativ objektives Bild der Ereignisse. In der
folgenden Skizze wird die Position des Verteidigers im Hinblick auf die
Erzhlerfiguren bildhaft gemacht:

Skizze 1: Erzhler in Der Eisvogel

Die unterschiedlichen parallel ablaufenden Erzhlperspektiven im Roman
erinnern genauso, wie teilweise der Inhalt, an Josef Haslingers
ZeitromanOpernball (1995), der insgesamt fnf Erzhlerfiguren aufweist und im
Unterschied zum Eisvogel zwei durchgehende Erzhler hat. Opernball erzhlt von
einem Giftgasanschlag einer rechtsorientierten Terrorgruppe auf den Wiener
Opernball, bei dem es zahlreiche Opfer gibt. Dazu zeichnet er anhand seiner
Figuren, die aus unterschiedlichen gesellschaftlichen Schichten kommen, ein
Panorama der sterreichischen Gesellschaft, was auch durch unterschiedliche

Sprachstile und Perspektiven ausgedrckt wird. Wie im Eisvogel erfhrt der Leser
gleich zu Beginn des Romans, was sich ereignet hat, und im Nachhinein
reflektieren verschiedene Figuren ber die Ereignisse. Die ersten Szenen werden
aus der Sicht des Ich-Erzhlers und Reporters Kurt Fraser geschildert, der auf der
Suche nach Antworten vier weitere Ich-Erzhler ausfindig macht, die sich dann in
Form von Tonbandprotokollen zu Wort melden. Auf diese Weise bekommt der
Leser die Ereignisse rund um die Opernballkatastrophe aus fnf verschiedenen
Perspektiven geschildert, was ein typisches Merkmal des Zeitromans ist. Das
multiperspektivische Erzhlen ermglicht es sowohl den Figuren ihre Ansichten
darzustellen, als auch dem Leser sich seine eigene Meinung zu bilden.
Abgesehen davon versuchen engagierte Romane der Gegenwartsliteratur, die
psychologische und philosophische Welt ihrer Figuren zu akzentuieren. Whrend
Haslinger Reprsentanten verschiedener Gesellschaftsschichten whlt, um so ein
Gesamtbild der sterreichischen Gesellschaft zu entwerfen, liegt es Tellkamp
mehr daran, nicht das uere, sondern das innerliche Leiden und den
philosophischen Geist seines Protagonisten auszubauen. Beide Autoren benutzen
ihre Figuren als Sprachrohre und vermeiden so eine eigene Stellungnahme.
Anhand der folgenden Tabelle knnen die Erzhleranteile im Eisvogel abgelesen
werden, die wiederum deutlich macht, dass es sich um multiperspektivisches
Erzhlen, obwohl mit groen Unterschieden was die Anteile und Ingerenzen
angeht, handelt.

Tab. 1.
Erzhler Seitenanzahl %
Wiggo Ritter 240 77,2
Patrick Grammart 32 10,3
Jost Fortner 26 8,4
Dorothea Ritter 10 3,2
Karl S. 2 0,6
Stefan Ritter 1 0,3
Insgesamt 311 100
Erzhlen in Der Eisvogel

Im Laufe des Romans wird ein Erzhlabschnitt, d.h. eine Aussage, von der
folgenden abrupt unterbrochen, um dann wieder aufgegriffen zu werden. Dabei
brechen manche Stze sogar punktlos ab und beginnen mit Kleinbuchstaben. Der
Autor hastet, wie Beikfner erklrt, mit einer Sprache hinterher, die keinen
Punkt, keinen Anfang und kein Ende kennt. In endlosen Nebenstzen fngt er das
Echo seiner Worte ein, lt die Stze berquellen von Anspielungen und Bildern
(Beikfner 15).

Der Autor lsst, wie Krekeler zurecht erkennt, einen ganzen Chor von
Stimmen auftreten (Krekeler 31). Um dem Leser das Verstndnis des Textes zu
erleichtern, wird jeder neue Wechsel der Erzhlperspektive mit dem Namen der
entsprechenden Erzhlerfigur angekndigt und durch Abstze getrennt: [JOST F.
{}] Arbeit an der Antwort, so hatte es Wiggo einmal genannt, als ich ihn fragte:
Warum Philosophie, ist es nicht wichtiger, etwas zu tun? (Tellkamp 64). Die
Namen der Erzhlerfiguren sind in kursiven Grobuchstaben geschrieben und in
eckige Klammer gesetzt, wonach auch schon ihre Aussagen beginnen. Die
Berichte der einzelnen Erzhlerfiguren werden oft von den eingeschobenen
Erluterungen der Hauptfigur Wiggo unterbrochen, so als wrde diese Stellung
dazu nehmen, sich fr Taten rechtfertigen und den Verteidiger aufklren. Seine
Bemerkungen werden mit einem Bindestrich erkenntlich gemacht. Der
Bindestrich ist so gesehen ein Zeichen dafr, dass sich die Hauptfigur zu Wort
meldet. Auf diese Weise alternieren die Bemerkungen der Hauptfigur und die
Berichte anderer Erzhlerfiguren, die von ihrer Funktion her dazu bestimmt sind,
den Hintergrund der Handlung zu entschlsseln, da der Leser bereits zu Beginn
des Romans erfahren hat, was sich ereignet hat, und nun auf Erklrungen
bedacht ist. Von Bericht zu Bericht wird auch das Geschehen immer klarer. Ohne
diese Berichte bliebe dem Leser nmlich fr immer vorenthalten, wie es zum
Mord kam und was die Hauptfigur zu dieser Tat motivierte. Es sind gerade die
integrierten Berichte, denen der Roman seinen logischen Aufbau verdankt.

Gerrit Bartels zufolge ist dieses Erzhlen jedoch mehr ein Stolpern, denn
Tellkamp will nach vorn, zurck und ansonsten alles: den ganz groen
Wurf, die groe Konstruktion, und so schiebt er die Zeiten ineinander,
trmt Erzhlebene auf Erzhlebene und ballt den Schaum der
Erinnerung (Tellkamp), ohne dass das dem Roman irgendwie frderlich
ware. (Bartels 2005: 21)

Es fllt auf, dass Wiggo Ritter die dominante Erzhlerfigur im Roman ist (siehe
Tab. 1). Vor allem erzhlt er seinem Anwalt, wie er Mauritz Kaltmeister kennen
lernte und in der Wiedergeburt landete. Wiggo erinnert sich zuerst an seine
scheinbar glckliche Kindheit in Nizza, die Freundschaft zu Mauritz, an die
Anziehungskraft seiner Schwester Manuela, das Philosophiestudium in Berlin, an
die innerfamiliren Verhltnisse, an das Ende seiner akademischen Laufbahn und
schlielich an die Mordtat, die es dazu kommen lie, einen Anwalt einzuschalten,
der ihn vor Gericht vertreten soll. Dieser fgt die Aussagen aneinander, erscheint
aber im Roman nicht als Figur, weshalb er namenlos bleibt. Hin und wieder wird
jedoch mit Anreden auf seine Prsenz aufmerksam gemacht: Ich wunderte mich,
Herr Verteidiger, da ich sowenig Gewalt ber die Waffe hatte (Tellkamp 7).

Wiggos Kindheitserinnerungen, Liebeserfahrungen, Reflexionen ber
Philosophie und ber die groen Fragen der Menschheit werden durch andere
Aussagen unterbrochen. Dabei wird der Leser ab und an daran erinnert, dass es
sich um Aussagen handelt, die auf ein Diktiergert aufgenommen werden: neue
Kassette, neues Diktiergert. Sprechprobe. Eins, zwei drei (Tellkamp 30). Das
erinnert erneut an Haslinger, der die Leser auch hin und wieder daran erinnert,
dass die Zeugenaussagen aufgenommen werden, um so den Hintergrnden des
Geschehens auf den Grund zu kommen. Beide Autoren simulieren auf diese
Weise den dokumentarischen Erzhlgestus.

Schlusswort

Zur allgemeinen Begriffsbestimmung von Multiperspektivitt auch in
Tellkamps Roman eignet sich folgende Erluterung:

Multiperspektivisches Erzhlen liegt in solchen Texten vor, in denen das
auf der Figurenebene dargestellte Geschehen [...] facettenartig in
mehrere Versionen oder Sichtweisen aufgefchert wird.(Nnning et al.
18).

Dabei werden die folgenden Merkmale betont:
(1) Erzhlungen, in denen es zwei oder mehrere Erzhlinstanzen auf der
extradiegetischen und/oder der intradiegetischen Erzhlebene gibt, die dasselbe
Geschehen jeweils von ihrem Standpunkt aus in unterschiedlicher Weise
schildern;
(2) Erzhlungen, in denen dasselbe Geschehen alternierend oder
nacheinander aus der Sicht bzw. dem Blickwinkel von zwei oder mehreren
Fokalisierungsinstanzen bzw. Reflektorfiguren wiedergegeben wird;
(3) Erzhlungen mit einer montage- bzw. collagehaften Erzhlstruktur, bei
der personale Perspektivierungen desselben Geschehens aus der Sicht
unterschiedlicher Erzhl- und/oder Fokalisierungsinstanzen durch andere
Textsorten ergnzt oder ersetzt werden.
In Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Eisvogel liegt die unter Punkt (2) angefhrte
Erzhlsituation vor. In diesem Fall wird das erzhlte Geschehen aus der Sicht von
insgesamt sechs Reflektorfiguren widergegeben. Somit bezieht sich die
Multiperspektivitt, wie von Nnning/Nnning definiert, auf die Prsenz von zwei
oder mehreren Fokalisierungsinstanzen bzw. personalen Orientierungszentren
(centers of consciousness) (Nnning et al. 42).
104
Demzufolge liegt die

104
Traditionelle Varianten multiperspektivischen Erzhlens sind auch Detektivromane, die eine
Reihe von Zeugenaussagen prsentieren, anhand derer versucht wird, Verbrechen aufzuklren.

Multiperspektivitt, wie bereits anfangs festgestellt, auf der Figurenebene. Ein
Ereignis wird nicht aus der Perspektive des Einzelnen widergegeben, sondern aus
mehreren Perspektiven, bzw. Erzhlerfiguren. Schmidt-Dengler definiert das
folgendermaen:

Eine der bewhrten Methoden, Massenereignisse zu schildern: Die
Auflsung in Stimmen. Aber nicht nur das Changieren des
Erzhlstandpunktes und die somit klug verteilte und auch
differenzierende Leistung macht die Leistung dieser Polyphonie aus,
wohlgemerkt: Eine sehr distinkte Polyphonie, alle behalten ihre Stimme,
ihre sogar meistens durch sprachliche Details gekennzeichnete Stimmen.
Die Leistung besteht auch darin, den Roman gleichsam zu
dezentralisieren.
105

Auch Volker Neuhaus schenkt dem multiperspektivischen Erzhlen besondere
Beachtung und behauptet, die einzelnen Positionen wrden dazu dienen,
unterschiedliche Aspekte der Thematik zu errtern. Infolgedessen msste der
Leser selbst eine Konjektur der einzelnen Gesichtspunkte veranstalten und seine
Sicht der Dinge aus dem Wechselspiel der Blickwinkel und Standpunkte
entwickeln (Bauer 103).
Viele Romane der deutschsprachigen Gegenwartsliteratur sind demnach
zumindest teilweise Zeitromane, denn sie befassen sich mit aktuellen Problemen
und Vernderungen auf politischer, gesellschaftlicher oder sozialer Ebene. Auch
Tellkamps Roman gibt anhand der Erzhlerfiguren die Gesellschaft wider und
kann so gesehen als typischer Zeitroman betrachtet werden, denn er stellt die
geistigen Strmungen und Tendenzen seiner Zeit am Schicksal des Protagonisten
beispielhaft und realistisch dar. Ein weiteres Merkmal, das den Eisvogel als
Zeitroman besttigt, sind genaue Ortsangaben. Die Handlung spielt hauptschlich
in Berlin und es werden bekannte Orte erwhnt: das KaDeWe Kaufhaus, der
Fernsehturm am Alexanderplatz, der Savignyplatz, der Wannsee usw.
Tellkamp schildert eine von Existenzngsten, Autorittskonflikten,
Orientierungslosigkeit und allgegenwrtiger Wut geprgte Gesellschaft, die als
solche vom Terrorismus bedroht ist. Die einzelnen Erzhlerperspektiven
ermglichen also nicht nur eine Rekonstruktion der Ereignisse, sondern auch
einen mglichst objektiven Einblick in die Ursachen der Gewalt. Was die Erzhler
verbindet ist die Beziehung zur Hauptfigur, den sie in mndlicher oder

Platons Symposion kann literaturgeschichtlich als Prototyp des multiperspektivischen Erzhlens
gelten, da ein Erzhler in diesem Text ber insgesamt sieben Reden berichtet, die whrend eines
Gastmahls gehalten wurden (Bauer 103).
105
URL: http://www.elib.at/index.php/Oesterreich_-_Gegenwartsliteratur_ab_1990_-
_Wendelin_Schmidt-Dengler (19.09.2009).

schriftlicher Form beschreiben, was sie unterscheidet, sind die individuellen
Erfahrungen und Erinnerungen.

Primrliteratur

Tellkamp, Uwe.DerEisvogel. Berlin: Rowohlt Verlag, 2005.

Sekundrliteratur

Bartels, Gerrit. "Im Schaum der Erinnerung. Der Bachmannpreistrger Uwe
Tellkamp verhebt sich mit seinem verschmockten Roman Der Eisvogel und
sorgt fr die groe Enttuschung dieses Bcherfrhlings." Die Tageszeitung
17.03.2005: 21.
Bauer, Matthias. "Von der Spiegel-Metapher zum Focus-Konzept Diskussion der
Erzhlperspektive. "Romantheorie. Stuttgart-Weimar: Metzler Verlag, 1997.
Beikfner, Uta. "Wappentier des Terrors. Der Eisvogel von Uwe Tellkamp ist fr
den Leipziger Bcherpreis nominiert." Berliner Zeitung 17.03.2005:15.
Bttinger, Helmut. "Deutsche Wut und Rechter Terror. Uwe Telkamps
zwiespltiger Elite-Thriller Der Eisvogel."Die Zeit 19.09.2008: 17.
Holzer, Willibald I. "Rechtsextremismus Konturen, Definitionsmerkmale und
Erklrungsanstze." Dokumentationsarchiv des sterreichischen
Wiederstandes (Hrsg.): Handbuch des sterreichischen Rechtsextremismus.
Wien: Verlag Deuticke, 1993, 11-96.
Jagschitz, Gerhard. "Der sterreichische Stndestaat 19341938. "Weinzierl/
Skalnik: sterreich 19181938. Graz: Styria, 1983.
Jung, Werner. "Ein eiskalter Engel: Der neue Roman des Klagenfurt-Preistrgers
Uwe Tellkamp Der Eisvogel." Freitag 18.03.2005: 29.
Kosler, Hans Christian. "Zyniker bauen keine Kathedralen. Der Eisvogel Uwe
Tellkamps brisanter Roman ber Rechtsradikale". Neue Zrcher Zeitung
31.05.2005: 37.
Krekeler, Elmar. "Zurck zum hohen Ton. Uwe Tellkamps Roman Der Eisvogel ist
ein deutscher Gesellschafts-Thriller." Die Welt 19.03.2005: 31.
Mangold, Ijoma. "Nie wieder Kaltakquise! Wie man die Bundesrepublik auf eine
heie Herdplatte setzt: Uwe Tellkamps groartiger Roman Der Eisvogel.
"Sddeutsche Zeitung 17.03.2005: 33.
Nnning, Vera und Ansgar Nnning (Hrsg.): Multiperspektivisches Erzhlen. Zur
Theorie und Geschichte der Perspektivenstruktur im englischen Roman des 18.
bis 20. Jahrhunderts. Trier: WVT, 2000.

Scheidl, Gnther. Ein Land auf dem rechten Weg? Die Entmythisierung der
Zweiten Republik in der sterreichischen Literatur von 1985 bis 1995. Wien:
Braumller Verlag, 2003.
Schneider, Christian. "Die Rckkehr des Pathos und das Ende der Demokratie Der
Eisvogel ein Roman des Bachmann-Preistrgers Uwe Tellkamp."
Literaturkritik 2005: 19.
Weidermann, Volker. "Neues Deutschland. Die Sehnsucht nach Pathos und
heiligem Ernst: Der Schriftsteller Uwe Tellkamp will keinen Spa verstehen."
Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung 10.04.2005: 25.
Zusanek, Harald (Hrsg.). Troizen Alkyone. Untersuchungen zum Vogelkult I.
Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2007.

Internetquellen:

<http://www.elib.at/index.php/Oesterreich_-
_Gegenwartsliteratur_ab_1990_-_Wendelin_Schmidt-Dengler (19.09.2009).>

FUNKCIJA PRIPOVJEDAKIH ULOGA U ROMANU UWE TELLKAMPA DER EISVOGEL

Roman Uwe Tellkampa Der Eisvogel govori o neuspjehu filozofa Wigga
Rittera. Wiggo se u svojoj dezorijentiranosti pridruuje teroristikoj skupini,
koja radi na stvaranju staleke drave u Njemakoj. U tu svrhu grupa koja sebe
naziva Wiedergeburt planira teroristike napade. Kako bi se rasvijetlila
pozadina ubojstva, javljaju se brojni pripovjedai: Wiggo Ritter, Dorothea Ritter,
Stefan Ritter, Patrick Grammart, Karl S. i Jost Fortner. Namjera ovog lanka je
analizirati funkciju multiperspektivnog pripovijedanja, te na temelju tih
pripovjedaa prouiti stanje drutva.

Kljune rijei: multiperspektivnost, drutveni roman, teror, nasilje,
desniarski ekstremizam


UDK 821.111(73).09-2

Teievo vienje mita o amerikom snu

Milena Kosti, Univerzitet u Niu

Apstrakt: Stiv Tei je samo jedan od savremenih knjievnika koji je istraivao
kulturoloke procese koji neizbeno prerastaju u razliite oblike nasilja i surovosti. Svrha
ovog rada jeste da se ispitaju posledice takve prakse u okviru zapadne kulture, gde
generalno dolazi do unitavanja ljudskog potencijala, i da se preispita mogunost
povratka uenju Sokrata i Pelagija uenju koje se zasniva na potpunoj samospoznaji,
afirmaciji i veri u uroenu dobrotu oveka. Pitanje na kome Stiv Tei, autor srpskog
porekla koji je na sopstvenom primeru iskusio mit o amerikom snu, insistira u svojim
dramama jeste da li je mogue da doe do ostvarenja ovog sna, a da se, pritom, ne izdaju
osnovni principi ljudskosti.

Kljune rei: ameriki san, demokratija, nasilje, samospoznaja, vrednosni sudovi,
imaginacija.

U poslednje vreme u Srbiji konstantno se pominju osnovna naela demokra-
tije isti tretman i tolerancija prema rasnim i religioznim manjinama, kao i pre-
ma svima onima koji se razlikuju i ne pripadaju dominantnoj veini. Meutim, u
praktinom smislu, srpskom narodu je ta dugoekivana demokratija bila na-
metnuta u okviru vojno-humanitarne akcije Milosrdni aneo, u prolee, 1999.
godine. Danas je veoma popularno istai da ivimo u periodu integracija i da e
uskoro doi dan kada e nova, tolerantna, demokratska Srbija biti sastavni deo
Evrope. Govori se o reformama koje treba da se sprovedu u delo kako bismo
konano postali deo evropske porodice.
Jedan od drutvenih aspekata koji treba da se reformie jeste kolstvo, a ta
reforma je uveliko u toku. O posledicama ove reforme jo uvek je rano govoriti,
ali svakako treba biti svestan injenice da se prvi nedostaci i anomalije ve daju
uoiti. Jedan od vodeih amerikih intelektualaca, Robert Brustin, koji se bavio
pitanjem amerikog kolstva, primetio je da se u kolama deca podstiu da ra-
zvijaju takmiarski duh i da pobeuju u raznovrsnim disciplinama, ali te vetine
ne ukljuuju oblast imaginacije. Kljuno pitanje koje Brustin formulie u svom
eseju o obrazovanju jeste: kako to da se ameriko obrazovanje svodi na sofi-
sticiranje uma i fiziku utreniranost organizma, a u potpunosti je indiferentno
prema razvijanju kritikog i imaginarnog potencijala? (Brustin 249) tavie,
tvrdi Brustin, zapadnjaki obrazovni sistem unitava kreativnu sposobnost poje-

dinca i ima za cilj da stvori servilne poslunike sistema, kojima nedostaje krea-
tivnost i imaginacija za osmiljavanje potencijalno drugaijeg naina ivota.
Do istog zakljuka dolazi i Vilijam Golding u svom eseju Na vrhu talasa, u ko-
me istie da je obrazovanje danas izgubilo svoju primarnu funkciju da podsti-
e ljude da formuliu raznovrsne vrednosne sudove i pretvorilo se u neku
vrstu treninga, slinom onome koje je Pavlov koristio u svom poznatom eksperi-
mentu sa psom. Ono to je savremenom drutvu potrebno danas, istie
Golding, jesu tehniari, vojnici, administratori, itd. Proces kome se ovi ljudi pod-
vrgavaju kako bi se osposobili za razliite poslove se jo uvek naziva obrazo-
vanjem; meutim, Golding je miljenja da je prava re koja opisuje ovaj proces
zapravo trening (Golding 128).
Na alost, humanistiki koncept obrazovanja za koji se zalau Brustin i
Golding danas ostaje nerealizovana utopistika tvorevina, a tome svakako do-
prinose i ve pomenuti novi paketi mera i reformi u oblasti obrazovanja.
U savremenom drutvu, represivne drutvene konvencije, s jedne strane, i
kreativni instinkt i spontanost, s druge, svakodnevno su u sukobu, a nekada se
posledice ovog sukoba ogledaju u razliitim oblicima kriminalnog ponaanja ili
neuroza. O ovim simptomima koji se manifestuju kroz najrazliitije oblike nasilja
prema pripadnicima drugaije veroispovesti, pola i rase u amerikom drutvu
pie, izmeu ostalih i Edrijen Ri, savremena amerika pesnikinja i esejista, u
uvenoj zbirci eseja pod nazivom ta postoji tamo (Ri 15).
injenica koja je poraavajua, kako tvrdi Ri, jeste to to se nasilje danas
posmatra kao normalna i prirodna pojava, naroito meu mlaom populacijom.
tavie, dananja omladina eljno iekuje upravo one scene u filmu koje su
pune nasilja, dok veina odraslih zapostavlja aspekt ivota u savremenom dru-
tvu koji se upravo zasniva na nasilju, korupciji, surovosti, kriminalu. Prema Ri,
sve su to simptomi oaja koji je rezultat nezadovoljstva ivotom danas. Ljudi
boluju od samonametnute amnezije i poricanja oigledne stvarnosti. Poricanje
stvarnosti postaje sindrom koji se upotrebljava i na najviim dravnim instan-
cama. Na kraju XX-og i na poetku XXI-og veka, koncept rata predstavlja, tvrdi
Ri, apsolutni nedostatak imaginacije u naunoj i politikoj sferi. Ri se zapravo
poziva na rat u Zalivu iz 1991. godine i istie injenicu da je i ovaj rat, poput
sukoba u Vijetnamu koji mu je prethodio, prezentovan u medijima kao najdo-
stojanstveniji patriotski in. Sama ideja da od pomisli na rat, cela nacija moe da
se ujedini u oseanju moralne ispravnosti i patriotizma jeste, kako kae Ri,
merna jedinica za nedostatak imaginacije.
U svetlu zakljuaka o savremenom drutvu (a posebno o amerikom drutvu
danas) do kojih su doli Brustin, Golding i Ri iz svojih raznovrsnih perspektiva,
moemo govoriti i o Stivu Teiu, jo jednom od savremenih autora koji u svo-
jim dramama istrauje i kritikuje kulturoloke osobenosti koje neizbeno vode u
nasilje, rat i surovost. Svrha ovog rada jeste da se istrae uzroci takve kulturo-

loke prakse unutar zapadne kulture u kojoj je obogaljivanje kreativnog pote-
ncijala postao uobiajeni proces, kao i da se ispita da li je mogui povratak
zapadne kulture uenjima Sokrata i Pelagija, koja se svode na ideju kompletne
samospoznaje i afirmacije ljudske dobrote. Konano, kljuno pitanje u radu bie
kako doi do ostvarenja amerikog sna, a istovremeno ostati dosledan sebi. Ovo
je pitanje koje je Stiva Teia lino veoma zanimalo, budui da je i sam bio na
tom putu kao srpski emigrant koji je u Americi iiveo sopstvenu priu od trnja
do zvezda.
U komadu Brzina tame Tei obrauje temu glorifikacije sopstvenih greaka
u amerikom drutvu. Vlada nikada nee priznati da je rat u Vijetnamu pred-
stavljao jednu od najveih istorijskih greaka; tavie, vijetnamski sukob zvani-
no se velia kao jedan od najznaajnijih istorijskih dogaaja. Jedina greka
(koja nikad nee biti izneta u javnost) jeste ta to Amerikanci nisu dobili taj rat.
Kada se imena i lokacije promene, kada umesto Vijetnama navedemo primer
drugih drava (Srbija 1999. god., Irak 2003. god., Libija 2011.god.,...), dolazimo
do zakljuka da se isti proces stalno ponavlja: mete se menjaju, a neprijateljstvo
prema onima koji nude otpor i dalje ostaje.
Brzina tame se zasniva na hamletovskom preispitivanju koncepata istine i
lai. Glavni junak, Do, nagraeni vijetnamski heroj, zasluio je poast zahva-
ljujui injenici da je spasao ivot svog ratnog druga Lua. Ovaj herojski podvig
takoe ga kvalifikuje i za ui izbor takmienja ovek godine drave Juna
Dakota, poto vlast nikada ne zaboravlja svoje odane poslunike. Meutim,
prava istina iza ovog herojskog podviga je sledea: tokom sukoba u Vijetnamu,
Amerikanci su radioaktivnim supstancama bombardovali predeo gde su bili
locirani njihovi vojnici. Nakon toga, vojnici su detoksikovani i tokom tog procesa
sterilisani, to je upravo podatak koji doprinosi optem stanju konfuzije i mora-
lne dezorijentacije, koje je Tei lino iskusio, budui da je proveo dve godine u
Vijetnamu.
Svestan injenice da je deo instrument i oruje sistema, Do instinktivno
osea da je jedini nain da okaje svoje grehe da se okrene ivotu i postane otac
detetu koje zbog prethodno pomenutog procesa detoksikacije i sterilizacije ni-
kako ne moe biti njegovo. To je injenica koja ne utie bitno na rasuivanje
glavnog junaka. Do ne eli da propusti priliku koja mu se ukazala. Nakon svega
to je iskusio u ivotu, postao je ovek koji ume da ceni istinske ivotne
vrednosti u stilu uvene izreke Viljema Blejka da je sve to ivi sveto. Odnos koji
ima sa erkom pun je nenosti i stalno joj napominje: Ti si pravi heroj. Vidi...
nisi me samo usreila kada si se rodila. Spasila si mi ivot. Umirao sam, Meri, a ti
si me svojim roenjem spasila (7).
Meutim, u savremenom drutvu manipulie se i sa idejom roditeljstva.
Tei ilustruje ovu ideju opisivanjem kolskog projekta za koji se Meri, Doova
erka, dobrovoljno prijavila. Projekat se zasniva na eksperimentu deca kol-

skog uzrasta treba da se brinu o daku zemlje, tekom otprilike pet kilograma,
sve vreme pretvarajui se da su roditelji deteta. Cilj ovog projekta jeste da se
deci pokae znaaj prihvatanja odgovornosti za sopstvene ivotne odluke. Me-
utim, ukoliko uporedimo nain na koji se drava brinula o povratnicima iz Vi-
jetnama sa novim, demokratskim trendovima o toleranciji i odgovornosti koji se
nameu deci kolskog uzrasta, uoiemo veliku dozu licemerja u razlici izmeu
ideja koje se promoviu i onih koje se praktikuju. Jedina utena injenica u ovoj
licemernoj situaciji jeste nain na koji se Meri ponaa prema bebi ona je
brina i nena poput prave majke to nam donekle daje nadu da deca u svojoj
iskrenosti i neiskvarenosti mogu uticati na ispravljanje greaka roditelja.
Do ivi ivot posle Vijetnama zasnovan na paradoksu. Prihvatajui tue
dete kao svoje, on pokazuje da svaki ivot treba ceniti bez obzira na okolnosti.
ini se da su i Do i njegova supruga Ana, obogaljeni od strane sistema, nali
jedno drugo kako bi konano otkrili svrhu svog postojanja u meusobnom
pomaganju i razumevanju.

Po prvi put u ivotu smo iskusili takvu ljubav. Mislim da ak nismo ni
shvatali koliko je sve oko nas loe, dok neto nije postalo dobro. Toliko
smo bili sreni kada smo shvatili da bolna mesta mogu da zacele da
nam zaista nije bilo bitno kako e isceliti. Mislim da smo u nasoj urbi
da volimo i budemo voljeni zacelili bolna mesta na pogrean nain. Oko
lai. (49)

La koji Ana spominje zasnovana je na injenici da Meri nisu otkrili pravu
istinu o oinstvu. Ova la nas upuuje i na ostale misterije i nerazjanjene prie
iz Doovog ivota.
Posle rata, Do i Lu, povratnici iz Vijetnama, od kojih je sada jedan uspean
poslovni ovek, a drugi skitnica koji irom zemlje obilazi spomenike posveene
vijetnamskim rtvama, prvobitno su se bavili deponovanjem smea. Lu nije
uspeo da prihvati novi nain ivota nakon rata i ostaje odbaen od svoje drave
i sunarodnika. On predstavlja simbol svega onoga to moe da ugrozi ameriki
sistem vrednosti, zato to se na njemu vidi prava istina o ratu i dravi. Ono to
sistem prepoznaje u ovom povratniku iz Vijetnama koji ne uspeva da se vrati na
pravi ivotni put jeste upravo injenica da njegov nain ivota ne odgovara viziji
koju veina Amerikanaca ima o sebi. Prvi in prihvatanja Lu doivljava od Meri,
koja svojoj vetakoj bebi daje ime ovog ratnog veterana. Tei ovde jo
jednom naglaava svoje ubeenje da nova generacija Amerikanaca nee
ponavljati greke svojih roditelja, koje se prevashodno zasnivaju na odbacivanju
ljudi iz drutva poput smea nakon to poslue odreenoj svrsi. Do je u
potpunosti svestan ove injenice i zbog toga se na sledei nain zahvaljuje na
nagradi ovek godine:

Pre nego to sam uao u graevinski biznis, bio sam u ubretarskom
biznisu. to me dovodi do zahvalnosti. eleo bih svima da se zahvalim
jer mi je vae ubre, vaa prljavtina i otpaci, koje neko mora da odnese
negde, bilo gde, i zakopa da ga vi ne biste gledali, omoguilo novi
poetak u ivotu. (39)

Posle rata, Do i Lu su eleli da uzvrate istom merom dravi koja ih je
pretvorila u bogalje, a posle odbacila. Poto su bili u ubretarskom biznisu,
ilegalno su skladitili nuklearni otpad na mesto koje je bilo predvieno za
izgradnju novog naselja:

Kao da smo izlivali smrt na barel. Znali smo da je u kontejnerima bila
smrt, ali je bio dobar oseaj dok smo to radili. Ravnali smo raune. Opet
je bio rat, samo to smo ovog puta mi gaali nae. I ba kao to je danju
bio dobar oseaj voleti te, Ana, tako je nou bilo dobro napiti se i mrzeti
i sipati smrt u one rupe. Hajmo sad, na eks! Jedva sam ekao da sunce
zae, pa da se napijem i ponovo mrzim. Ja i Lu, zbijali smo ale dok smo
to radili, ak smo u tome podsticali jedan drugog. Majka Zemlja, tako je
Lu zvao brdo. Ja sam je zvao Majka Drava. Evo ti, majice. Jo jedna
tura, mi astimo. Radili smo to iz noi u no, iz nedelje u nedelju, vie
od pet meseci, ali ma koliko se upinjali da mrzimo, nikako nam nije bilo
dosta. eleli smo jo vie da mrzimo. Vie je otrova bilo u nama nego u
svim onim kontejnerima zajedno. Hteli smo onu vrstu mrnje koja
skrnavi ivot. Neku venu mrnju smo hteli. Da se osvetimo za sve. I
poslednje noi tamo gore, pronali smo nain kako da mrzimo. Popeli
smo se na vrh onih praznih kontejnera. Gledali smo se i cerili, dok smo
sputali pantalone do kolena. Onda smo se dograbili za onu stvar i
psovali dok smo radili ta smo radili. Evo ti, mamice. Evo ti! I iikljali
smo svoje mrtvo seme u one mrane rupe, ionako ve pune smrti. Evo
ti, mama. Da vidimo kakva e se deca izroditi iz ovoga. Evo ti tvoje
sledee generacije, mama. Da vidimo kako e ti se dopasti ti sinovi i
keri. Sve sam to eleo. eleo sam taj uas svim svojim srcem. Ali vie
ga ne elim. elim da povuem re, da ponitim sve. elim da ponitim,
a ne znam kako. Ne mogu vie da podnesem. Srce mi je... (83)

Do postaje svestan injenice da ga je sistem iskoristio i obogaljio, a nakon
povratka iz Vijetnama, umesto pomoi i priznavanja greke, nailazi na odba-
civanje i revolt. Takav stav ga pretvara u zver, koja koristi iste metode sistema
koji prezire udi za osvetom, ali brzo se kaje zbog toga, jer shvata da e
njegova dela prouzrokovati bol i patnju nevinim ljudima, kao to je i on sam bio
nekad, a to ne moe da dozvoli. Posle rata, Do traga za oprotajem, ali i sam

postaje svestan injenice da prvo mora da oprosti onima koji su mu naudili kako
bi zasluio oprotaj.
Meutim, veina ljudi ne eli da ih neko konstantno podsea da postoje
gresi koji treba da se oproste. tavie, nakon ispada na veeri prilikom dodele
nagrade, Doova porodica vie nije dobrodola u njihovoj blizini, tako da je Do
primoran da se iseli. Daleko od oiju, daleko od srca. Veina ljudi se zadovoljava
ouvanjem privida stabilnosti, mira i sigurnosti, nego priznanjem da ameriki
san, ne samo to jo uvek nije ostvaren, ve je prilino daleko od realizacije.
Tei pokazuje u ovom komadu da sindrom poricanja, inae duboko uko-
renjen u zapadnjakoj tradiciji, mora da se prepozna i ukloni iz psihe veine ljudi
kako bi se osigurao povratak na prvobitne i originalne ljudske vrednosti.
Iako je Tei napisao komad Na otvorenom drumu, u neku ruku post-
apokaliptinu verziju Beketove drame ekajui Godoa, zarad formulisanja svog
stava prema ratu u Vijetnamu, funkcija drame prevazilazi ove okvire Tei
ovde zapravo govori o uzrocima i poreklu svih vojnih sukoba, kao i o pravom
amerikom mitu. Teievi likovi, Al i Aneo, poput Beketovih Lakija i Poca, nala-
ze se na otvorenom drumu i trae superiornu civilizaciju Zemlju slobodnih.
U prvoj sceni zatiemo Anela, sa omom oko vrata, dok Al prolazi pored
gurajui kolica puna umetnikih predmeta. Al, intelektualac, spaava Anela
samo zato to mu je potreban kao ivotinja koja e vui kolica. Pozadinu prie
ini neimenovani graanski rat, koji upravo slui autorovoj svrsi da pokae kako
postoji isti obrazac za sve ratove koji su ikad voeni i koji e se tek voditi. Al i
Aneo, uitelj i njegov sledbenik, imaju ansu da se uzdignu iznad ovih okolno-
sti. Njihov ulazak u Zemlju slobodnih zavisi od toga da li e ispuniti zadatak
koji su dobili od njih se zahteva da ubiju Isusa, koji je simbol autentine i
uroene ljudskosti u svakome od nas. Na kraju ovog neobinog hodoaa
glavni protagonisti drame shvataju da je osnovna karakteristika oveka da voli
bez motiva. Njihovo odbijanje da ispune zadatak zapravo podrazumeva otpor
prema izdaji intuitivne spoznaje ivota.
U drugoj sceni drame, Aneo evocira uspomene na prvu posetu muzeju. To
je bio Dan oloa, tako da je olou dozvoljeno da ue besplatno u muzej i
edukuje se. Slike koje su izloene u muzeju oslikavale su depresiju i patnju,
prisea se Aneo. Meutim, iako se samo na desetak metara udaljenosti na
ulici mogla videti ista slika autentinih ljudi, niko nije izrazio zainteresovanost za
pravu patnju, niti je taj prizor nazvao remek delom. Nasuprot tome, ljudima vie
odgovara uramljena slika realnosti od prave istine. Reakcija oloa je bila za
oekivati. Razgoropaeni neadekvatnim tretmanom, poeli su da pale umetni-
ke slike, a na kraju i sam muzej.
Osnovna funkcija umetnosti da nam prui kreativne uvide u realnost
izdaje se, tvrdi Aneo. Na primer, Al pravi kolekciju umetnikih dela samo da bi
obezbedio ulaznicu u Zemlju slobodnih, jer uvari ove zemlje cene novanu

vrednost tih dragocenosti. Metod koji on koristi kako bi neukog Anela obrazo-
vao sastoji se na suvim injenicama o umetnikim delima i njihovim tvorcima,
to ga svrstava u red ljudi o kojima je Aneo govorio to su ljudi kojima je stalo
do muenika na slikama, a ne do muenika u realnom ivotu.
Tei se bavi istom temom u drami Umetnost i dokolica. Aleks, sindikatski
dramski kritiar, jedan je od ispraznih ljudi o kojima je govorio T.S. Eliot, koji
ne moe na pravi nain da vrednuje umetnost i primeni njene dragocene uvide
na sopstveni ivot. Iako mu poznavanje umetnosti predstavlja profesiju, Aleks
joj pristupa u vakuumskoj izolovanosti, te svojim najbliima ne izlazi u susret
kada im je najpotrebniji. Njegova retorika postaje isprazna, jer se ne primenjuje
u realnim okolnostima:

Moram da iskoim iz voza. Moram da ponem da ivim svoj ivot. Ali
onda pomislim: Aleks ejni je jedan od onih ljudi koji svakoga dana
pomisli kako e sutra poeti da ivi svoj ivot. A onda, iznenada, kao da
mi se crna maska nadvije nad glavom, voz ulazi u tunel i sve postaje
mrano. Drama je zavrena. (63)

Iz navedenog primera vidi se da umetnost u savremenom drutvu postaje
izgovor za odbacivanje autentinog ivotnog iskustva, tako da ovaj komad pred-
stavlja Teievu reakciju na destruktivne posledice konzumerskog vrednovanja
umetnosti. Tei je miljenja da umetnost nikako ne treba da bude odvojena od
konkretnog i pojedinanog.
O istom procesu govori i Edrijen Ri u svom eseju Zato sam odbila dravno
priznanje za umetnost (1997). Ona istie razloge zbog kojih je odbila ovo
prestino priznanje koje bi joj uruio tadanji ameriki predsenik Klinton i kae
osnovno znaenje umetnosti, po mom miljenju je nekompatibilno sa cininom
politikom njegove administracije (Ri 3). Pesnikinja koja, poput Stiva Teia,
veruje u drutveno prisustvo umetnosti kao glas obespravljenima, kao glas
pobunjenika protiv zvanine politike, kao pravo koje svako od nas stie na roe-
nju nije mogla uestvovati u ovom krajnje licemernom ritualu, kako ga je sa-
ma nazvala: Niko od politikih frakcija nije se zauzeo za ljude koji su se, upra-
vom smislu te rei, osetili odbaenim od sopstvene vlade (Ri 3). Ri odbija
licemerne sistemske podsticaje i naglaava da je primarna funkcija umetnosti
regeneracija uroenih elja, a samim tim je od vitalnog znaaja za razvoj demo-
kratske drutvene vizije. Svaka vlast koja se udaljava od demokratskih principa,
tvrdi Ri, nailazie na ozbiljne prepreke i kritike od strane auteninih umetnika.
Uloga autentinog umetnika zasniva se na uspostavljanju veza izmeu svih
ljudi koji su odbaeni i na povezivanju sa pravom umetnou koja e im, u tom
sluaju, biti bliska. Postoji neto u svim tim ljudima to treba videti, kae Aneo

u drami Na otvorenom drumu, a uloga umetnika jeste upravo da istrai koji su
to kvaliteti i da im pomogne. Na taj nain, umetnost,

stvara drutvo bez odbaenih, u kome e se vrednovati ljudska indivi-
dualnost i potraga za pristojnim, obinim ivotom. U takvim uslovima,
umetnost e predstavljati glas gladi, elje, nemira, strasti, sve vreme nas
podseajui da se demokratski procesi nikada ne zavravaju. (Ri 6)

U svetu u kome je ivot (umetnost) izgubio pravo znaenje, jedini nain da
se evocira uenje Sokrata i Pelagija zasnovano na uroenoj dobroti po Teiu je
da se otvoreno pokazuje emocija prema blinjem. ini se da je Alu, intelektua-
lnom skeptiku, ovo neostvariv zadatak, iako je sasvim uoljivo da Aneo udi za
emotivnim iskazivanjem ljudskosti. Ta njegova potreba dolazi do izraaja u
epizodi sa devojicom koju nalaze na putu, pri emu joj Aneo, otelotvorenje
primitivnog varvarina, spaava ivot, dok mu edukovani i superiorni Al nalae da
je ostavi na putu, jer e im ona samo predstavljati prepreku na putu do Zemlje
slobodnih.
Kao to je ve napomenuto, poslednji test koji Al i Aneo treba da poloe
kako bi ostvarili svoj san o ulasku u Zemlju slobodnih jeste da ubiju Isusa, koji
je u drami predstavljen kao gluvonemi muziar koji svira elo. Ovakav opis Isusa
zapravo predstavlja kritiku patrijarhalne civilizacije i njenog logosa Isus je
simbolino nem, jer odbija da koristi jezik civilizacije, a gluv je na zahteve lanih
patrijarhalnih autoriteta. Pre nego to umre, proizvodi najdivniju muziku, poput
Sokrata.
Monah koji se zatie u manastiru samo je jo jedan od mnogih objektivnih
birokrata koji tumai Bibliju koristei pravne smicalice. U Bibliji pie da je
zabranjeno ubijati, ali ne pie nita o ubistvu Boga, tako da ovu okolnost treba
iskoristiti i ubiti Isusa zato to je oveka doveo u sukob sa svojim umom (73).
Poto ipak nisu sposobni da poine ubistvo (tj. da eliminiu trake ljudskosti
u sebi), Al i Aneo su za kaznu zbog neposlunosti razapeti na krstu, sledei
Isusov primer. Ova kazna je neophodna kako bi Al konano shvatio da racio-
nalne sposobnosti zapravo predstavljaju glavnu zamku ljudskosti, zato to se
pomou njih moe analizirati svet, ali se odbacuje mogunost bilo kakve
emotivne reakcije. Al konano postaje svestan injenice da je osnovna karakte-
ristika ljudskosti ljubav bez ikakvog racionalnog povoda, i, u tom smislu, ovo
hodoae mu je bilo neophodno da bi shvatio kako ljudska priroda zaista
funkcionie. On ne doivljava sebe kao oveka razapetog po kazni, ve kao
oveka koji je konano rairio ruke kako bi zagrlio ceo svet. Konano se
oslobaa jednostrane vizije ivota i sam sebe doivljava kao remek delo. Dok je
pre smatrao da je koncept slobode problematian, jer im se ovek oslobodi
odreenih stega, nastaje problem kako i u koje svrhe iskoristiti novosteenu

slobodu, Al konano postaje svestan pravog znaenja ovog koncepta, tj. biti
konano slobodan da bez ikakvih interesa i motiva voli blinjeg svog.
Veliki je broj modernih kritiara koji su uvideli da je humanistiki projekat
koji poiva na snu o nesputanoj slobodi paradoksalno dobio razliite oblike ne-
slobode u savremenom drutvu. Npr. Riard Rubentajn u Lukavstvu istorije
uoava u zapadnjakoj istoriji impuls ka totalnoj dominaciji. Rubentajn reinter-
pretira znaenje Auvica, ne kao aberaciju, nego kao deo kontinuiranog ropstva
koji je vekovima deo zapadne civilizacije. Njegova ideja je da je Auvic zapravo
nastavak tradicije koja potie od Stare Grke i Rima. Do aktiviranja ovog virusa u
cirkulaciji zapadnjake krvi, kako slikovito Rubentajn naziva ovaj proces, dolo
je u periodu renesanse, a njegove posledice porobljavanje ili unitavanje Dru-
gog su dominantne u modernom drutvu danas.
Rubentajn nudi korisni kontekst u analizi glavnog motiva Teievih drama
odbacivanje ljudskosti od strane modernog oveka. O istoj ideji govori Mire
Elijade u Teroru istorije. Elijade pravi razliku izmeu tradicionalnog (arhainog) i
modernog (istorijskog) oveka. Tradicionalni ili arhaini ovek je iveo smatra-
jui da pripada neemu to je mnogo vee od njega samog, tj. da je neizostavni
deo prirodnog (kosmikog) ciklusa. Na taj nain, on nikad nije ni pomiljao da
naudi prirodnom poretku stvari, jer bi to rezultovalo propau njega samog. S
druge strane, moderni ili istorijski ovek je verovanja da ljudsko bivstvovanje
nema veze sa prirodom ve sa istorijom koja se bazira na linearnoj progresiji
dogaaja koje se intelektom poimaju, pa da, samim tim, racionalno, analitiko
znanje vodi do mudrosti i sree. Te iste procese, inicirane u renesansi, a kulmi-
nirane u birokratskon totalitarizmu 20. veka, zapaa i Rubentajn i definie ih
kao sekularizaciju, otrenjenje i racionalizaciju. Kombinacija svetovne otre-
njene svesti i iskalkulisane racionalnosti spreava bilo kakav spontan, moralan
stav prema blinjem ili pak prema prirodnim ili politikim zakonima. Umesto
toga, stav prema ljudima i prirodi se bazira na moralnoj neutralnosti, a u politici
na bespogovornoj poslunosti. Otelotvorenje ovakve ideje u 20. veku je biro-
kratija, ija je glavna karakteristika dehumanizacija, tj. nedostatak ispoljavanja
bilo kakve emocije u kontaktu sa ljudima. Prema Rubentajnu, Auvic je primer
modernih tehnika birokratije iji je cilj konano ropstvo i totalna dominacija
(Rubentajn 28).
Primenjujui teoriju Nortopa Fraja o dijalektikoj prirodi mita, koji poinje
kao revolucionarna vizija slobode, da bi u svom institutionalizovanom obliku
zavrio kao totalitarna dogma (Fraj 21), na likove iz Teievih drama, dolazimo
do ideje da se novosteena sloboda upotrebljava prvenstveno za ostvarivanje
destruktivnih ciljeva za sticanje i ouvanje vojne, politike i ekonomske moi u
savremenom drutvu. Hubristike aspiracije, sagledane iz savremene perspe-
ktive, dodaju konkretnu istorijsku dimenziju Frajovom optem paradoksu, zato
to ukazuju na kauzalnu vezu izmeu navedenih zloupotreba slobode i savesti

na pragu modernog doba i masovnih problema od kojih pati dananje postmo-
derno drutvo. Nasuprot toj dominantnoj tradiciji, postoji seanje na onu
ontologiju koja je predhodila kvarenju bitka. Ta alternativna filozofska i etika
tradicija moe se poistovetiti sa Kantovom kritikom praktinog uma, ija je
glavna ideja da svako svako sa strahopotovanjem treba da se osloni na
zvezdano nebo iznad nas i moralni zakon u nama (Kant 154).
Tei se generalno u svim svojim dramama bavi problemima ljudi koji su
napravili pogrene ivotne izbore i izdali svoju ljudskost, te pate od posledica
destruktivnih izbora. Zakljuak do koga dolazi u svakoj od svojih drama uvek je
isti, a moda je najefektnije opisan u gnevnom pokliu Dijane, glavne protago-
nistkinje u drami Povratak na poetak: elim razvod od ivota u kome je
neophodno svakodnevno pristajati na rtvovanje nevinih i njihove tragedije
kako bismo konano postali ljudska bia. Takav nain ivota moe postati
zavisnost (Tei 73).
Poput brojnih pripadnika svoje generacije koji su iskusili na sopstvenom
primeru kako su im ideali ostali nerealizovani, ali i falsifikovani i kao takvi
ponovo interpretirani masama, Tei se u svojim dramama bavi temom izdaje.
U svojim dramama, Tei oslikava galeriju odbaenih i suicidalnih likova koji
potiu iz disfunkcionalnih porodica, koje koristi radi satire mita o amerikom
snu. Meutim, Teieve drame ne treba itati samo u kontekstu kritike ameri-
kog drutva, ve u kontekstu kritike globalnog savremenog drutva uopte.
Jedini izlaz iz modernih globalnih tokova nazire se u ouvanju nacionalnog
identiteta, linog integriteta i ljudskog dostojanstva, a ne nasilnim kalemljenjem
tuih mitova i ideala.

Literatura

Brustein, Robert. Dreams and Hard-back Chairs in Reimagining American
Theatre. New York: Hill and Wang, 1991.
Golding, William. On the Crest of the Wave in Hot gates. Faber and Faber, 1974.
Eliade, Mircea. History and the Myth of Eternal Return. London: Penguin, 1989.
Frye, Northrop. The Critical Path: An Essay on the Social Context of Literary
Criticism. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1973.
Kant Immanuel. Critique of Practical Reason.Transl. Abbot T.K. London:
Penguin, 2002.
Rich, Adrienne. What is Found There: Notebooks on Poetry and Politics. London:
Virago, 1993.
Rich, Adrienne. "Why I Refused National Medal for the Arts."Los Angeles Times.
3.8 (1997): 3-6.

Rubenstein, Richard. The Cunning of History: The Holocaust and the American
Future.New York: Harper & Row, 1975.
Tesich, Steve. Arts and Leisure. New York: Samuel French, 1997.
Tesich, Steve. On the Open Road. New York: Applause Theatre Book, 1992.
Tesich, Steve. The Speed of Darkness. New York: Samuel French, 1991.

TESICHS VISION OF AMERICAN DREAM

Steve Tesich is just one among numerous contemporary authors who
explore cultural practices that make war, violence and cruelty inevitable. The
goal of this paper is to explore the consequences of such cultural practices
within Western culture and to examine whether it is posible to return to the
teaching of Socrates and Pelagius, based on complete self-knowledge and
affirmation of the goodness of man. The question posed by Tesich, an American
author of Serbian origin, is whether it is possible for one to realize his or her
American Dream and, at the same time, remain loyal to ones inner self.

Key Words: American Dream, democracy, violence, self-knowledge, moral
judgements, imagination.


UDK 821.111(73).09-2

Sem epard: amerika porodica ameriki sniva
Dugo putovanje kui

Vesna Brati, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: Sem eprd je utentino meriki brend. Zovu g njboljim i njvitlnijim
merikim drmskim piscem dnnjice. Dugo vremen je bio zltni deko merikog
pozorit koji je treblo d ispuni mit o velikom merikom drmskom piscu. Po nekim
je to mjesto i nkon pol vijek njegovog stvrltv ipk ostlo uprnjeno. U ovom
rdu detljno emo se pozbviti njegovim tzv. kiensink drmm, kojim se poslije
svojih postmodernistikih, ekspresionistikih (esto i drogm indukovnih) tripov s
mrgin pribliio centru i konno nkon 33 godine krijere (i slve) i Brodveju. Spreg
junjke gotike, linih demon i vlstite porodine ptologije, udruenih s rhetipskim
nsljeem rui mit o (idelnoj) merikoj porodici. eprd stvr ve 47 godin, li je
ono njbolje to je stvorio ostlo u Regnovom dobu individulnog preduzetnitv kd
je jedn glumc i kuboj mogo d bude sve, k i predsjednik.

Kljune rijei: Amerik, drm, porodic, ptologij, rhetip, meriki sn

Smostvoreni mit (Derose 1), Sem eprd je otvorio rznovrsne moguno-
sti nlize, p se u postmodernom plurlizmu perspektiv i pristup njegove
drme posmtrju i ko ekspresionistike, i ko relistike i ko nturlistike.
itnj se kreu od psihonlitikih (inspirisnih Frojdom i Lknom) i femini-
stikih (znimljivo oprenih: z i protiv eprd), preko onih u kontekstu popu-
lrne kulture i kulture msovnih medij, ztim impresionistikih doivljj ljubi-
telj pozorit, producent, glumc, p do mnje impresionistikih li n
smu performtivnost pozorinost vie orijentisnih itnj tetrolog, de-
konstrukcije drmskog tekst/didsklij u cilju pokzivnj d se tekstom
(re)konstruiu likovi (Debr Gejs), ili d je pk drmski tekst metfor z proces
smorelizcije eg du Lknove ljestvice imginrnog, simbolinog i relnog
(Viljem Kleb), te njzd do nliz ssvim podreenih biogrfiji (kkv je
godinm uporno Don uijev). Njee itnje eprd nije iz ekskluzivno je-
dne perspektive (jer postmoderno stnje koje ilustruju njegove drme po defi-
niciji iskljuuje svku cjelovitost i usmjerenost), ve ukljuuje simbiozu rzliitih
referentnih pozicij.
Ko god je piso o Semu eprdu nije zobio meriki sn. Ili mnifestnu
sudbinu. Ili, njee, ni jedno ni drugo. No, pozorite Sem eprd nem tpi-

ju nmeriki sn; meriki sn je njvjerovtnije jedini utentino meriki mit
i nijedn meriki utor nije osto imun n njeg. Ameriki sn, ili, mod
preciznije mit merikog sn je ironijsk podlogmerikog pripovijednj u
cjelini. Ameriki pisci njee upozorvju n moguu getsbijevsku sudbinu
otkrivnj d je ovj sn l(), i da se mbis bezn dublji od Velikog knjo-
n otvr pod likovim koji se z tj sn dre ko z jedinu tku oslonc.
Ko mld drmski pisc eprd dje gls, ili je mod, imajui u vidu epr-
dovske pozorine tehnike, bolje rei sliku mogue mnifestcije merike
iskorijenjenosti iz mtice mit. eprd ko striji, ve knonski pisc dleko je
eksplicitniji; on ns ne (smo) upozorv n posljedice ve i nlzi uzroke pto-
lokih izopenjmerikog sn. U skldu s svojom pozntom sklonou z
postvljnje to veeg broj problemskih os n scenu (koje n krju morju d
se stiu u jednoj tki, to je z eprd nemogu i besmislen zdtk), eprd
meriki sn dekonstruie iz nekoliko uglov i, nrvno, ne definie g. eprd
se retoriki pit iji je to sn: Defersonov, Voingtonov, Linkolnov ili Mrtina
Lutera King? (Roudan 69). Polivlentn, neuhvtljiv, fleksibiln, ini se d je
meriki sn frz pogreno ostvljen u jednini. Ne postoji jedn meriki sn,
ko im neeg tkvog to su ond meriki snovi i im ih koliko i grn
Amerike. Jedino to je jsno, po eprdu, jeste d ovj sn ne funkcionie. I
ne smo to. On je stvorio jednu neobinu pusto koj e biti n propst
(Roudan 70). Pomlo strozvjetno zvui eprd u ovom prorokovnju o
merikom pdu kroz simulkrum sn. No, eprd ide jo i dlje u dekonstru-
kciji ove merike ftmorgne: geogrfski meriki, ovj sn je duhovno mno-
go striji. Prvi snivi su evropski puritnski koloniztori, zemlje gldni Evro-
pljni s eljom z domincijom (Roudan 70). Ovo Bodrijrovo primitivno
drutvo (Baudrillard 7), zsniv se, tvrdi eprd, n mrketingu. Reklmom je
poel kmpnj z osvjnje Zpd, z osvjnje do zmiljene Grnice,
koj se ezdesetih godin prolog vijek podigl s Zemlje u pustinju svemir.
Reklm je i dns nin d se zvedu lkovjerni, eljni sn.
Jer, reklm je jo jedn put kojim se produbljuje rscjep izmeu stvrnosti i
iluzije, kojim se slik, simulkrum, dvodimenzionlni okvir nmeu ko norm. Po
eprdu, reklmom idelnog imid kreir se jo jedn rscjep u merikom
tkivu prosjen meriki mukrc ne uklp se u sliku idelne merike muko-
sti jednko ko ni prosjen en te rscjep postje potencijlni izvor nsilj.
Simulkrum i mrketing su jedn od uzrok merike trgedije, drugi je
konzumerizm i bespotedn drvinijnsk logik (liberlnog) kpitlizm koj
g podstie. Egzistencijlno i ontoloko postlo je jednostvno ekonomsko.
Zkon ponude i potrnje kojem se podreuju kriterijumi poeljnosti i dostu-
pnosti sve moe d se dobije uz dekvtnu nkndu, od limenke kok-kole do
nos kkv im Anelin Doli ili jgodic Hle Beri vodi neizbjeno uvoenju
kpitlistiko-konzumerske logike i u njintimnije i njsvetije oblsti ljudskog.

Ameriki sn je entitet podlon neprestnoj trnsformciji, nestbiln ko i
identitet eprdovih junk. U svojoj verziji prem blgodetim digitlne civi-
lizcije, Sem eprd proglv internet i runr moguim ekvivlentimme-
rikog sn potkrj strog milenijum. Finln dekonstrukcij ovog pojm donosi
istinu koj boli: Ameriki sn je uvijek jedn fntzij koj se promovie kroz
reklmirnje. Uvijek djemo prednost fntziji nad relnou (Roudan 70). Nije
ni udo ond to je ovj fiktivni entitet no svoje prirodno stanite u fikciji.
N eprdovoj duhovnoj krti, strogo gledno, izdvajaju se tri oblsti:
Porodic, Drutvo-Svijet i Pustinj. Svku od tih oblsti nseljv ili ju je
nseljvl, mkr u jednom periodu, nek reln, umjetniku blisk, linost,
njegov opus obuhvata zist veliki broj rznovrsnih fiktivnih likov koji se lome
izmeu ov tri crstv. Kojem e se i kd crstvu neki od njih privoljeti
zvisi od komplikovne sprege opsesivnog strh od neslobode i kompulzivne
potrebe z toplinom domeg. Vein njee nije sigurn koji izbor je prvi, ili
je poput smog eprd, svjesn d prvog izbor nem i d onog moment
kd izbor nprvimo ve limo zlterntivom. eprdov Amerik je
svremeni tmni viljet t god izberemo, kjemo se.
Prv porodin trilogij (Prokletstvo izgldnjele klse, Pokopno dijete i Prvi
Zpd), ond i kvintet (upotpunjen drmmLudi od ljubvi i Obmana uma),
postmodernistiki i eprdovski zinjeni, uplovili su u pozntu i prihvenu
mticu merike porodine drme, s prepozntljivim prijeteim gotskim
tonovim publici bliskim jo od ONil, Vilijms i Miler.
No, eprd je poeo d pie ko devetnestogodinjk, ve rnih 60-ih i u
rsponu od dvije decenije motivi i teme koji u kvzi-nturlistikom okviru
kiensink drme irmerik pozorin publik poinje d prepoznje ko
simbol, legoriju ili metforu specifino merikog pojvljivli su se u ekspe-
rimentlnim jednoinkm, p k i u bizrnim zpletim njegovih pozorinih
suovnj s prokletstvom kretivnosti (Grd Anel, Smoubistvo u b-molu,
Zub zloin, Geogrfij sniv konj). Poput dez melodij, dijelovi vlstitih
sjenj, njee njrnijih, postju svje i iznov znimljiv mterijl podesn
z njrzliitiju upotrebu. eprd nlzi opte u pojedinnom i svoj iskustv
tk u potku koj i jeste i nije njegov, s jedne strne dovoljno privtn d
osigurutentinost, s druge dovoljno opt d evocirrhetipsko, ili, ko
tkvo to uopte postoji, rhetipski meriko. D li je to pokuj linog i(li)
kolektivnog egzorcizm i d li je ktrz uopte mogu opet je, ini se,
specifino meriko pitnje.
Porodice koje eprd postvlj n scenu su uvijek problemtine, disfunkcio-
nlne zjednice u kojim se n specifin nin mijenjju uloge pojedinih
lnov. Ideln obrzc merike porodice, nije ono to eprd pokzuje (u)
svojim drmm. Spoljnji okvir koji lii n idiline ilustrcije Normn
Rokvel, kko primjeuje jedn od sporednih likov u drmi Pokopno dijete,

moe d zvr smo n prvi, letimin pogled. Skriven tjn, sr porodinog
problem ne otkriva se n smom poetku. Td jo ne znmo z le iz kue,
niti kostur u ormru, li je prv scen dovoljn d gledlc/itlc shvti d
pred sobom nem idelnu, k ni normlnu meriku porodicu. Arhetipske
figure: Otc, Mjk, Brt, Sestr, Dijete kod eprd se dekonstruiu d bi se
rekonstruisle n nov nin, mijejui svoje osobine i pojvljujui se u novom,
nepredvienom i nepredvidljivom obliku prethodno ktivirjui merikoj kolekti-
vnoj svijesti dobro poznte duhove trdicionlnog gotskog horor. U skldu s
eprdovim poimnjem identitet ko nestbilnog, nefiksirnog, plutjueg
identiteti pojedinih lnov porodinih zjednic ne zdrvju se u okvirim
predvienih i izvoenih ulog. Dev se d ulogu Oc, Ptrijrh porodice
preuzim sin ili sinovi (Prokletstvo izgldnjele klse), ili unuk (Pokopno dijete).
Porodic je trdicionlno i trdicionlno meriki referentna taka mnogo vie
u oblsti duhovne geogrfije nego u oblsti mterijlnog i opipljivog, svetilite u
kojem se tri utjeh i utoite, i pribjeite kd pojedincu dojdi trk z z-
rdom i postiznjem kojom je obiljeen svkodnevic. eprd mjstorski pok-
zuje d nije mogue pobjei u u porodicu jer tmo ne ek nikkv utjeh. Po-
rodic je korumpirn ne mnje od svremenog drutv od kojeg se eli pobjei.
Istini z volju, eprdovi junci nisu uspjeni ni u vnjskoj neporodinoj sferi
koj po principu binrnih opozicijspoljnje/unutrnje muko/ensko treb
d bude trdicionlno crstvo mukrc preduzetnik. Oni se vrju ko nedo-
nod u okrilje unutrnjeg enskog prostor i tre utoite u okviru mte-
rice/utrobe domeg ognjit jer npolju nisu uspjeli. Povrtk u utro-
bu/porodicu je boln i on je povrtkom bludnog sin/sinov njee
oskrnvljen, prodirnje je nsilno, uz simbolinu lomljvu ulznih vrt. Proces
je reverzibiln u odnosu na proces rnj i neprirodn, ptoloki i obvezno
metforino ili istinski obiljeen incestom i smru. Pokopno dijete vr se
nzd u oekivnu toplinu li nilzi n odbijnje, neprepoznvnje kojim se
indukuje nsilniko ponnje izzvno egzistencijlnim strhom od nenl-
enj prostor z sebe. Spoljnji svijet odbcuje junk ko prokenog, on
bjei kui, mjci pod skut i ne nilzi n odgovrjui prijem; eto rzlog z
erupciju nsilj.
Prdoks kojim su obiljeeni eprdovi egzistencijlni kuboji (Wetzsteon
5) predstavlja potreb koje su bolno svjesni potreb/potrg z sigurnou
unutrnjeg prostor, ili d budemo precizniji, potreb d unutrnji prostor i
zist bude sigurn. Ono to Slim rtikulie jo 1971. u zborvljenoj jednoinki
Ujed zvijeri iz movre:

Nije dobro biti beskunik, zn. To izjed ovjek iznutr. Pit se kud
su svi ti ljudi poli. Nou. Oni odu od tebe. Imju vtre i toplotu unutr.
Npolju svijet moe d progut ovjek. On se u njemu izgubi. Tome

nem krj. On poinje d udi z mlo topline poput gldnog pset. Z
drgom, z prijteljem. (356)

uter (Akcij) preispituje i dekonstruie 1975. u postpokliptinoj viziji
svijet (Amerike). Privuen svjetlou svije, sluenom i uenom toplinom
unutrnjeg prostor, ovjek nije neslin leptiru koji e oprljiti kril nmmljen
opsnim svjetlom. Unutr nije sigurno, mod k ni sigurnije nego spolj.
Bjeei od bezbojnog svijet bez zvukov u kojem neto ipk fntomski
odzvnj vidi svjetlost svije i: Postje ti hldno jer si npolju. Odvojen.
Misli d je unutr prijtnije. Prijznije. Toplin. Ljudi. Rzgovor (176).
Isti strh (ili mod svijest) u poetizovnom obliku doekuje ns u jednom od
Motelskih zpis s krj 80-e: Ponekd smo stojim npolju i posmtrm kko
se lnovi moje porodice kreu unutr kue. Dev mi se d dugo tko stojim.
Oni ne znju d ih posmtrm (56).
Pol decenije ksnije (Prvi Zpd, 1980), fscincij domim prostorom
otkriv se u krtkom Lijevom opisu suburbne idile, meksikih ploic, bkrnog
posu, i plvun koji suvereno vldju tim prostorom smopouzdno se
kreui iz prostorije u prostoriju. Lijov je vizij rj u predgru, meutim,
smo povrn odrz egzistencijlne gldi eprdovskog trgoc z domim,
udobnim, toplim. Mjesto n kkvom bi poelio d si odrsto, zn (12) s
poetk 80-ih podsje vie n dnevnu sobu iz nekog sitkom- nego n dom
kojem bi svi zbludjeli sinovi nemirnih 60-ih i nksioznih 70-ih d se vrte. Svi
mitovi su se u svijetu konzumerizm trnsformisli u svoje ktloke vrijnte,
p i ovj. Preko Lij, utentinog lutlice otkriv nm se d od slik (imid)
populrnog konzumerizm vie ne moe d se pobjegne ni u pustinju Mohve.
Invzij potroke kulture n privtni prostor je nezdriv, sve je lko, sve
dostupno ko im ime d se plti hrn, seks, filmovi, drog.
Mjk, koj u eprdovim drmm uvijek im njmnje dvojicu nedor-
slih mukrc o kojim mor d se str, nikd nije nisto d li je stri Dedl
ili mldi Ikr u veoj opsnosti i vie djetinjst, i njen prolongirn neodlunost
otvr teren z novo nsilje i borbu Oc i Sin. Odnos Oc i Sin kod eprd
nikd nije konstruktivn. Sin i Otc tretirju se ko dv rvnoprvn rvno-
prvno slb bi, iji sukob je njlke i u ovom sluju, ini mi se, njmnje
tno objsniti ediplnim konfliktom. eprdovi sinovi ele d zmijene Ocli
ne zbog seksulnog zdobijnj Mjke ve zbog toga to Otc ne odgovr
njihovoj slici ptrijrh, voe, preduzetnik. Otc nije dovoljno muko d bi se
nosio s zhtjevim koje nmee dunost Voe i zto mor biti svrgnut. Sin,
meutim, ne poznje nijedn drugi uzorni model z Oc i nkon svrgvnjistog
preuzim njegov model ponnj (Vesli i Vins to rde simbolino preuzimjui
oevu/djedovu odjeu), pri emu se zrni krug nstvlj i mldi Ptrijrh je
jednko neefiksn ko stri, osim to im mnogo vie energije z nsilje.

Prokletstvo krvi ne vreb iz ugl, ono je tu, u mldom merikom mukrcu
reflektovno kroz zstrujue trnsformcije crt lic u retrovizoru koje
postju predke crte, ukazujui tako d nem nin d se opovrgne
determiniu sng krvnog srodstv kao egzistencijln nunost:

Htio sm d sino [...] Mogo sm d se vidim u retrovizoru. Svoje lice.
Svoje oi. Prouvo sm svoje crte. Sve u vezi s njim. Ko d sm
gledo u drugog ovjek. Ko d sm mogo d vidim cijelu njegovu
rsu iz njeg [...] U retrovizoru sm g gledo kko die ko zaleen u
vremenu. I svki g je dh obiljevo. Obiljevo z svgd bez
njegovog znnj. A ond se njegovo lice izmijenilo. Njegovo lice postlo
je lice njegovog oc. Iste kosti. Iste oi. Isti nos. Isti dh. A lice njegovog
oc pretvorilo se u lice njegovog djed. I nstvilo se tko. Mijenjnje.
Sve do lic koj nikd rnije nism vidio li sm ih i dlje prepoznvo. I
dlje prepoznvo kosti ispod njih. Prtio sm porodicu sve do Ajove.
Sve do posljednjeg [...] A ond se sve rstopilo. Sve rstopilo. (130)

eprd gotovo nikd ne prikzuje svoje junke vn ztvorenog domeg
prostor ili iluzije tkvog prostor, k i hlucinogene bujice monolog iz rnih
jednoinki izlivju se u nekoj kuhinji ili sobi, mkr bil i motelsk. Oni su nje-
e izmeu etiri zid, gotovo gorfobini. Nekd toliko upleni od vnjskog
prostor eprdovi likovi se ogrnivju jo i vie i gotovo p stpju s nekim
komdom kunog nmjetj. Potreb z toplinom domeg prostor, z ne-
kom vrstom vjetke utrobe vodi k kttonikoj zlijepljenosti z kdu (Stu,
ikgo), fotelju (uter, Akcij) ili ku (Dod, Pokopno dijete). Tkv postvk
moe kod gledlc d evocir i (post)moderni osjej ztvorenosti, osuje-
enosti, zrobljenosti.
Unutrnji prostor metfor je i z intimnu stvrnost junk koji se iznov
vrju pozntom scenriju i igrju stru ulogu nebrojeno put, sve u iluziji d
su rekonstrukcij sebe i bijeg od nemeziz sopstvenog DNK- mogui.
Povrtk u domi prostor ve odrslog junk znk je neuspjeh i infnti-
lizm (Tilden, Dejk). Opozicij unutr/vni je vie nego trnsprentn. Kd nisu
u stnju d se suoe s ivotom, eprdovi junci regresirju do stdijum
djetet. Dejk (Obmana uma), nkon to divljki pretue enu i kukviki ju
ostvi d lei n podu mislei d je mrtv ke: Ne nputm ovu sobu. Mm
mi donosi hrnu. Ne treb mi vn. Tmo se smo uvlim u nevolju ili: Ne,
tmo npolju je ludo. Vni. im prekorai prg (67). Povlenje unutr,
bjenje kui znk je i neprihvtnj odgovornosti z vlstite postupke, kuni
prg (vrt) stvr osjej lne sigurnosti i uv disfunkcionlno porodino
ognjite. Neostvreni mukrc u svremenoj Americi bjei u infntilizm,

poput nsilnih i pijnih oev eprdovog djetinjstv koji su ko izgubljen
djec (Roudan 71).
Prv drm porodinog ciklus u nslovu nosi dvije vne osobine eprdovih
porodic: prokletstvo i gld. U sreditu je jedn frmersk porodic u Kliforniji:
otc (Veston), mjk (El), sin (Vesli) i ki (Em). Jednom ovkvom porodicom, li
bez linih imen, eprd poinje svoje drmsko stvrltvo 1963. godine
(Kmenit bt). Sd su lin imen tu d ortogrfskom i fonetskom slinou
simbolino podvuku slinost izmeu genercij, odnosno neminovnost preno-
enj porodinog prokletstv. Drm poinje sinovljevim pokujem d snir
tetu koju je nnio otc d pokupi osttke slomljenih ulznih vrt, ksnije i
nprvi nov. No nkon jo jedne u nizu roditeljskih sva zbog oevog
pijnstv, Vesli sznje d mjk iz oevih le s sumnjivim dvoktom sklp
pogodbu o prodji porodine kue. Em, ki, je djevojic koj uprvo ulzi u
pubertet, odlin je k i ln klub 4H. On gotovo jednovremeno sznje d je
iz friider (koji je fokln tk pozornice i likovi tmo poseu kd god su gldni
bilo eg rzumijevnj, podrke, ljubvi), nestlo pile koje je uzgjl, k i
ubil i pripremil sm d bi izvel demonstrciju isprvnog trnirnj u klubu
4H i d mjk prodje kuu. Ob su sznnj z nju trumtin i on nprsno
odluuje d u potpunosti promijeni ivot. Trei trumtin moment je ensk
kletv koj ju je uprvo stigl i o kojoj, prilino neuobijeno, rzglbju i muki
i enski lnovi porodice bez usteznj. Situcij u kojoj brt o intimnim tjelesnim
dognjim pri ocu podsje n rzgovor Mldi i Mukrc u Kmenitoj
bti. Otc je u ob sluj zgroen nruvnjem tbu u komunikciji izmeu
lnov porodice: Ti ne treb d zn kd tvoj sestr im menstruciju! To je
povjerljivo meu enm. One to dre u tjnosti (87). Bioloke i fizioloke
potrebe orgnizm o kojim se govori ili se k obvljju tmo gdje im nije mjesto
u kuhinji imju funkciju nglvnj ptolokog stnj u porodici, efekt
ok slui d shvtimo d se radi o situciji koj ni u jednom trenutku ne smije d
se doivi ko normln. Ako ns pokreti i rdnje koje imitirju normlnost i
svkodnevnost i n trenutk zvrju tu je Vesli koji e u kuhinji urinirti po
sestrinim ppirim!
Pijni otc se vr kui nkon to je no proveo npolju, dok je mjk ve
npustil kuu d bi se nl sdvoktom koji joj pome oko prodje imnj.
Sin i otc rzgovrju, otc otkriv vlstiti num d prod imnje i sznje z
eninu zvjeru sdvoktom, resti se i prijeti ubistvom, ond iscrpljen zspi
ni mnje ni vie nego n kuhinjskom stolu. Kd lee, eprdovi junci su rnjivi,
izloeni moguim zloupotrebm. Dodu je dok spv nsilno odsjeen kos,
Kodi u Geogrfiji sniv konj je vezn z krevet, Frenki u Obmni um je
primorn d uestvuje u uvrnutoj zmjeni rodnih ulog.
Nkon buenj, Veston izlzi iz kue d bi pogledo imnje od kojeg se
otuio, toliko d se ne osje njegovim vlsnikom. Odbcuje svoju prljvu

odjeu i hod kroz kuu ng, nkon eg se podvrgv ritulnom kupnju vrel-
om i hldnom vodom i opere odjeu svih ukun. Odluuje d ne prod imnje
i d pone d rdi n zpostvljenoj frmi. Otrenjenje je, meutim, stiglo
preksno, stvri su otile predleko d bi se dle poprviti mlim, privtnim
ritulom, b ko to i Dejk uzlud (jer ksno) spozn d je sve osim Bet u
njegovom umu lno.
Novo lice u eprdovoj porodici ne iskupljuje prole grijehe. Specifino
meriki mit isprvljnj ili mod bolje odbcivnj prolosti kroz metfo-
riko (ovdje i ritulno) ponovno roenje upotpunjeno hrinskom simbolikom
krtenj/kupnj doktrin preporod jo jedn je nedosnjni meriki
sn. eprd je preko ovog merikog mit u direktnoj vezi smerikom
knjievnom trdicijom, iko njvjerovtnije nenmjerno. Performns izvoe-
nje, rije (i situcij), koji je po Mrnki (Marranca 15) posto specifino meri-
ki i s pozornice se preselio u stvrni ivot, inei n performns (n poslu,
privtno) vnijim od sutine (t god on bil) je snno eprdovo scensko
oruje. On je moderni ekvivlent romntikoj (trnscendentlistikoj) merikoj
vjeri u ponovno roenje.
Prolost nosi svoju kletvu, odgovornost, prihvtnje odgovornosti i kznu.
eprdove porodice prinose rtvu mrnim Erinejm porodinog ognjit e-
dnim krvi. Em gine (Prokletstvo izgldnjele klse), Dijete je utopljeno, Dod
mrtv (Pokopno dijete), Otc ubijen, Bet pretuen, Frenki rnjen (Obmn
um).
Pokopnodijete je drug drm iz njegovog porodinog ciklus, drm
kojom je osvojio Pulicerovu ngrdu. Ako Kletv izgldnjele klse pri o
dinmitu u krvi (Rosen 118-152), Pokopno dijete je pri o otrovu u krvi.
Mnje lin od ostlih, ov drm je ujedno i mnje merik vie
rhetipsk, s temtikom koj prizivsocijcije n Strindberg, Ibzen i ONil.
D nije pr luzij n sunne merike drve, Floridu i Kliforniju, Novi
Meksiko i meriki fudbl ne bismo morli d locirmo ovu grijehom i tjnom
(ini se d u ovom popisu krivic nedostje) ngrienu drmu nigdje u prostoru.
No, sznnje d je u pitanju zputen frm u Ilinoisu ne mijenj nit bitno u
ovoj sgi o porodinoj degrdciji dekadenciji. N frmi su otc (Dod), mjk
(Hli) i dv sin, jedn mentlno poremeen (Tilden), drugi fiziki obogljen
(Bredli). U posjetu im (u drugom inu drme) dolzi unuk (Vins) s djevojkom
(eli). Ono to bi treblo d slijedi je porodino okupljnje, bogt trpez i
nostlgino-sentimentln sjenj n prolo. Umjesto tog, dvoje mldih
susree se s neoekivnim. Ne smo d se porodic ne okuplj ve Vins niko
ne prepoznje. Umjesto bogte trpeze eli doekuje gomil mrkve koju treb
oistiti, Vins lju po jo viskij. Vins se, n krju, vr pijn i nsiln.
Ovogput prepoznt je, mogue jer je i nsiljem skopn z svoju lozu. U
meuvre-menu, eli je sznl mrnu tjnu Vinsove porodice. Hli je rodil

nezkonito dijete i Dod g je usmrtio dvljenjem. Njegovo se mjesto pokop
ne zn, porodini je zloin toliko tjn [...] d su svi ubijeeni d se nikd nije
ni desio (122). N krju, eli odlzi, Dod umire nkon to je prethodno ostvio
kuu u nsljee unuku i zvjeto d g shrne, odnosno sple zjedno s
gomilom njegovog lt u smom centru mojih polj kd no bude hldn,
bez vje-tr (129). Vins je zuzeo mjesto n porodinom tronu kuu, Hli se
povli u svoje odje n sprtu. N smom krju, Tilden se penje n sprt
nosei osttke iskopnog djeijeg le s sobom. Ki kojom poinje drm
prestl je, jlov zemlj oko kue je poel d r. Hli zvrv drmu
himnom prirodnom udu roenj ij posljednj reenic n engleskom evocir
ne smo sunce koje je donijelo novu plodnost zemlji ve i mogunost d je
zemlj iskupljen pronlskom djeijeg le i smru ubice Dod.
Veliki broj motiv koje susreemo u drugim porodinim drmm i ovdje je
prisutn: neprepoznvnje, nsilje, bolest, invliditet, strh od smoe, nemoi,
smrt, zjednik nesre koj determinie porodine odnose umjesto ljubvi.
lnovi ove ptogene zjednice vezni su tjnom i nesreom. Oni se meu-
sobno mrze i istovremeno zvise jedni od drugih, Dod od Tilden, Hli i kon-
no, Bredlij, dok su Bredli i Tilden, budui invlidi, po prirodi stvri zvisni od
drugih. Povrinsk brig (Hli upozorv Dod d popije svoje lijekove, Tilden
uri d mu donese vodu kd mu pozli, Bredli mu sreuje kosu), ustvri je
smo msk zpsolutnu indiferentnost, ili k ubilku mrnju. Od Dod se od
smog poetk oekuje d umre. D ubrz vlstitu smrt. Nek itnj drm u
potpuno mitolokom kljuu pozivju se n mit o krlju kukuruz koji ritulno
umire, spljuje se a njegov pepeo vr plodnost jlovoj zemlji. U ovom sluju,
osim mitolokog edipln ptologij je tkoe zhvln teren za tumaenje.
Nroito jer je mogunost incest ovdje njvjerovtnij. Iz drme je jsno d
pokopno dijete nije Dodovo, jer su on i njegov en ve imli dovoljno
sinov i nis(u) spvli u istom krevetu otprilike est godin (123).
Otrovnije nego Bejlor u drmi Obmn um, nemoni porodini ptrijrh
obruv se i n pretke i n potomke. U odnosu n Dod koji je rhetip, ostli
eprdovi oevi su smo blijede slike. On je princip mitske mukosti koj
oplouje li je emocionlno nezinteresovn. Jednko z pretke ko i z
potomke. Hli en je t koj se str o sjenju n porodinu trdiciju, od
grobov do ivih. To joj mod obezbjeuje rhetipski kvlitet jer su u njenoj
ndlenosti potomstvo i plodnost, ujedno i odvr pnju s jezive prie o
incestu usmjeravajui je n mitsku priu o Prmjci Zemlji u vjenom ciklusu
rnj. Njen zavrni govor mogo bi se tumiti i ko pohvl Suncu/Apolonu,
tipino mukom bonstvu, koje vr Zemlju u ivot. Rijetko gdje su eprdovi
junci ovko otrovni u rijeim i postupcim i ovko gorko pesimistini u vezi
s ljudskom prirodom ko tkvom. Nem nieg to ovjek nije u stnju d
urdi upozorv Dod eli (110).

Obmn um kojom se porodini ciklus zvrv dekonstruie vorit
porodine ptologije obren u rnijim drmm. On je tublic nd
propu rnijih pozorinih (i prvih) porodic koj putuje kroz stre teritorije i
metodino ih sve unitv (Rosen 155). Jedn mld, nsiljem poruen poro-
din zjednic i dvije porodice iz kojih potiu, svjedoe o porijeklu nsilj n
svoj nin se bore z opstnk dok se rdnj prenosi s desnog n lijevi krj
pozornice, iz Klifornije u Montnu, izmeu kojih je przn centr pozornice
koji stvr utisk [...] neogrnienog prostor koji nigdje ne vodi (7). Ov
drm je eprdov konni obrun s porodinom temtikom sve do drme
Pokojni Henri Mos deceniju i po docnije. Sem eprd, osvjedoeni mrzitelj
zvretk, ovdje je konno uspio neto d zvri i drmu smu i cio
porodini ciklus. Sve njegove teme su tu: prokletstvo krvi, muko-ensk
(ne)komunikcij, frustrcij, nputnje, sjenj, potiskivnje krivice.
Junci Obmne um ive dugo u vlstitim obmnm i poricnju. Jedn od
mehnizm odbrne od neprijtnih sjenj i osjenj krivice je, bez sumnje
poricnje. Gurnje prine pod tepih, ili ko u ovom sluju ispod krevet,
gdje mjk pohrnjuje kutiju s oevim prhom. U Dejkovoj sobi djetinjstv
mijeju se prin i predki pepeo. Prolost je u memljivim riznicm
zborv.
Lorejn porie d je Dejkovo vspitnje bilo loe, Dejk se ne sje dn
oeve smrti, Lorejn svoje snhe. Betin mjk Meg jedv se sje Betinog
mu. N krju se Bet sje Dejk jedino u trgovim jer, ko to sm ke u
fzijom polomljenom tuno-njenom reeninom ritmu: Ako se neto
polomi polomljeno. Ako neto polomljeno dijelovi jo ostli. Dijelovi i dlje
plutti. Neko vrijeme. Ond budu nestli. Mod nikd ne vrte. Zjedno.
Mod nikd (53).
Krj, ini se, donosi osloboenje od strhov kojim su likovi sputni. Prol-
zei kroz neki privtni ritul linosti se iscjeljuju ili se, mkr, ngovjetv
iscjeljenje. Strhovi i duevn ptnj uzrok su fizikog bol, slbosti i bolesti
(Dejk, Lorejn). Vein likov je u nekom trenutku n sceni bolesn, u krevetu,
onemol i ostavljena n milost drugim.
Neki u ovoj drmi nlze z eprd novo upuivnje n ljubv ko lijek z
sve boljke. Meutim, i ljubv je u jednom trenutku definisn ko jo jedno u
nizu oboljenj s tom rzlikom to je to bolest koj ini d se osje dobro.
Dok trje. Ond, kd je vie nem, gore ti je nego kd si se rzbolio (98).
Porodic je specifino ljudsk, drutven ktegorij i postoji mnogo biolokih
i individulnih preprek njenom opstnku. Ljubv i ltruizm esto nisu u stnju
d pobijede druge, je sile u ovjeku. U drmi se vie put poziv nt-
vistiko, prerzumsko i n krju, nimlno u ljudim. Meg se spominje mjinog
uporeivnj mukrc i en s suprotnim ivotinjm, Seli u brtovljevom

i oevom glsu prepoznje neki prijetei, ivotinjski ton, pred njihov konni
obrun oni tre jedn drugome slbosti ko to to ine ivotinje (99).
Drugu znjnu prijetnju opstanku porodice predstavlja est eprdov motiv
odlenj koji ispunjv enske likove paraliuim strhom, kojim se muki
likovi koriste d bi privremeno ili trjno umkli domem, civilizciji. Seli se
cijelo tijelo trese od sjenj n sve te odlske (72), Lorejn se pit: Postoji li
ijedn dobr rzlog u ovom bezbonom svijetu zbog kojeg mukrci nputju
ene? Ov dv motiv prijetnje ine se poveznim jer mukrc esto
postup poput rnjene (divlje) ivotinje: pripitomljen je dok mu treb njeg,
im je ponovo zdrv on bjei: On je poput ps lutlice. Kod kue je neko
vrijeme i mzi g i hrni i lie ti ruku ond opet odlzi (93). Lorejn, ko i
neke druge eprdove mjke vri trnsfer ljubvi s mu n sin i
pokuv tko ndomjestiti odsustvo suprunske ljubvi. Sin se, meutim,
pokzuje jednko nedekvtnim, uz nestlnost, nsilnike impulse i probleme
s lkoholom tu je njee i nek en prem kojoj sin osje snnu erotsku
privlnost, rivlk mjci u zdobijnju sinovljeve ljubvi (Anselov ktolik
suprug u Pokopno dijete, Bet u ovoj drmi). eprdovi sinovi i ljubvnici, z
rzliku od Lorensovih, mnogo vie mrze oc nego to vole mjku, destru-
ktivni dio ediplnog je ovdje mnogo ji od incestoidnog.
U tmosferi opteg neprepoznvnj i nestjnj (Bet: itv ivot moe d
ti se preokrene. Nopke. U trenu. Nglo [...] itv svijet moe d nestne. Sve
to zn moe d ode. Nee prepoznti ni vlstite ruke (87), Bejlor nlzi
konstntu u svetoj merikoj zstvi i itlc/gledlc uiv u postmoderni-
stikom istovremenom velinju i prodirnju konzistentnosti merikog idel
Bejlor: Ne prepoznje vie zstvu? Iste je boje koje je i bil. Nisu je
promijenili, zr ne? Mod dodli zvijezdu ili dvije, li ine je potpuno ist.
Kko moe d je ne prepozn? (138-139.)
Ako je ovo drm kojom se nudi rzrjeenje porodinog konflikt ond je
predznk tog rzrjeenj negtivn. Jedn je ku zvijn snijegom i dv pr
(mli i striji) ostju u unutrnjem prostoru, drug je do temelj spljen i
nputen. D li je slujno to su obje ene pomlo dementne, ob mukrc
neim onemoguen d npuste domi prostor, jedn budui str i onemoo,
drugi rnjen?
Sem eprd, vjeiti djek merike drme, sd gzi ezdeset osmu
godinu. Ve poinje d lii vie n sebi drgog Beket nego n Din ili Njumen.
I dlje ne voli d dje odgovore. I dlje mrzi sve zvretke i oduevljv se
poecim jer su izvor mogunosti. N Brodvej su g pustili skoro dvije
decenije poto je zPokopno dijete dobio Pulicer. Jo pie, md mnogi
smtrju d je njbolje ve npiso. Dns su njegovi junci ostrjeli kuboji
koji utirju mrtve konje (utirnje mrtvog konj, 2007). Poeo je s hlucino-
genim, ekspresionistikim terorom slike i politikom nezinteresovnou

ond kd je ngovnje bilo u modi, zvrv drmm (Bog pkl) s
ijom projekcijom uri d bi preduhitrio izbore i osujetio republiknski
fizm (Clap 1).
Meutim, jedini eprd koji izlzi iz okvir smomerikog, mkr to bilo i
svemeriko i zrnj u rhetipsko je eprd porodinih drm. Nove nude
merike stvrnosti (etniki, rsni, rodni drugi, mnjine i njihovo predstvlj-
nje), rju nove drmske sile. Mo krik i bijes trijde eprd Memet
Rejb ostje u prolosti, mkr kd je o merikoj drmi rije.

Literatura

Baudrillard, Jean. Transl. Chris Turner. America. London: Verso, Bath, 1996.
DeRose, David. Sam Shepard. New York: Twayne, 1992.
Geis, R. Deborah. Postmodern Thatric(k)s, Monologue in Contemporary
American Drama. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1996.
Kleb, William E. "Motion" in San Francisco."Alternative Theatre 1.5 (1976): 45.
"Sam Shepard."American Playwrights Since 1945: A Guide to Scholarship,
Criticismand Performance. Ed. Philip C. Kolin. New York: Greenwood, 1989.
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Marranca, Bonnie (ed.).American Dreams: The Imagination of Sam Shepard.
New York: Performing Arts Journal, 1981.
Rosen, Carol. Sam Shepard: A Poetic Rodeo. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2004.
epard, Sam. Simpatico. New York: Vintage, 1995.
---. Operation Sidewinder, The Unseen Hand and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam,
1986.
---. Plays: 3, A Lie of the Mind, States of Shock, Simpatico. London: Methuen,
1996.
---. "Buried Child"Seven Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1981.
---. "Angel City"Fool For Love and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1984.
---. "Eyes for Consuela"The Late Henry Moss, Eyes for Consuela When the World
Was Green: Three Plays. New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1999.
---."The Late Henry Moss"The Late Henry Moss, Eyes for Consuela When the
World Was Green: Three Plays. New York, NY: Vintage, 2002.
---. Plays 1. London: Methuen, 2002
---. "Fool For Love"Fool For Love and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1984.
---. "seduced"Fool For Love and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1984.
---. "suicide in B-Flat"Fool For Love and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1984.
---. "The Unseen Hand"The Unseen Hand and Other Plays. Toronto: Bantam,
1986.

---. "True West"Seven Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1981.
---"Curse of the Starving Class"Seven Plays. Toronto: Bantam, 1981.
Shewey, Don. Sam Shepard. NY: Da Capo, 1997.
eprd, Sem. Prev. Trjkovi ore.Zpisi iz motel. Beogrd: Klio, 2009.
Wetzsteon, Ross. Introduction to Fool for Love and Other Plays by Sam Shepard.
New York: Bantam, 1984.
Clap, Susannah. "Torch Songs and Torturers."Rev. of The God of Hell by Sam
Shepard. The Observer. guardian.co.uk, 30 Oct. 2005. Web. 4. Apr. 2008.

SAM SHEPARD: THE AMERICAN FAMILY DREAMS THE AMERICAN DREAM A LONG
JOURNEY HOME

Sam Shepard is an authentic American brand. He is referred to as the best
and the most vital American living playwright. For a long time Shepard was a
golden boy| of the American stage bound to embody the myth of the great
American playwright. Some still believe the place to be untaken, although
Shepard has been writing for almost half a century now. This paper deals with
Shepards so-called kitchen-sink plays which brought him closer to the
cultural mainstream and finally, after 33 years of playwriting to the Broadway
itself. This blend of Southern Gothic, personal demons and family pathology,
along with the exploration into the archetype, destroys the myth of the (ideal)
American family. Sam Shepard has been writing for 47 years now, but the best
of his works were written in the 1980s, during the Reagan era a golden age
of individual entrepreneurship when anything was possible and when a good
performer could become anything, even the President.

Key words: America, drama, family, pathology, archetypal, American Dream


UDK 821.111(73).09-31

Sustav i pojedinac distopijska obiljeja Don
DeLillove fikcije
Marko Luki, Univerzitet u Zadru

Apstrakt: Don DeLillova knjievna produkcija, unato injenici da se radi o jednom od
kljunih autora suvremene amerike knjievnosti, opetovano prkosi pozitivnom
sagledavanju utopijskog Amerikog sna. Umjesto mogueg pozitivnog sagledavanja
vrijednosti utjelovljenih u sam nacionalni koncept drave DeLillo se odluuje na izravno
podrivanje i propitivanje samih vrijednosti drutva, te struktura koje osiguravaju
funkcioniranje samog sustava. Namjera je ove analize ukazati na povezanost odreenih
teorija moi (Foucault, Chomsky, etc.) sa samim funkcioniranjem drutva, odnosno s
drutvom predstavljenim u DeLillovim naracijama. Kao mogu primjer i pokazatelj
prisutnosti ovakvog tipa anksioznosti posluit e DeLillov prvi roman Americana u
kojemu autor ukazujui na nestanak prvotnih mitskih vrijednosti iskonske Amerike
ispisuje jednu novu distopijsku i paranoinu Ameriku ije je funkcioniranje zasnovano
na sustavima moi.

Kljune rijei: DeLillo, distopija, sustav, Foucault, Chomsky, mo, paranoja

Raspravljajui o suvremenoj amerikoj knjievnosti, a posebice o njenom
mainstream segmentu, nezaobilazno je istaknuti rad Dona DeLilla kao jednog
od najprominentnijih amerikih autora. Pojavljujui se i pozicionirajui se u
drutvu suvremenih amerikih skribomana poput Pyncheona, McCarthya i
drugih, DeLillo opetovano uspijeva sagledati i iitati ameriko drutvo ukazu-
jui pritom na jedan alternativni aspekt Amerikog sna. Njegova autorska
interakcija s navedenom tamnom stranom sna ne donosi ispunjenje oekiva-
nja obeanih od strane amerikog utopijskog drutvenog konstrukta ve
umjesto toga ocrtava bezizlaznost jednog sistemski ustrojenog drutva. DeLillo
tako predstavlja itav niz likova ija je jedina mogunost, i u konanici jedina
funkcija, odraivanje egzistencijalne simulacije u skladu s nametnutim susta-
vom. S obzirom da bi primjerena analiza anksioznog odnosa likova, drutva i
onoga to po DeLillu sainjava suvremenu Ameriku zahtijevala razradu daleko
kompleksnijeg diskurza, namjera ove analize jest prije svega izdvajanje nekih
odlika koje obiljeavaju ovako ustrojen distopijski imaginarij, te ukazivanje na
moguu artikulaciju navedene teorije kroz autorov roman Americana.


Kao mogua polazina toka pri racionalizaciji i analizi sustava koji zasniva
svoju funkcionalnost na kontroli i manipulaciji mogue je upotrijebiti niz teorija
proizalih iz razliitih podruja drutvenih znanosti. Ono to je zajedniko svim
tim teorijama jest pozicija pojedinca unutar takvog ustroja. Pojedinac (ba kao i
njegovi odgovarajui modeli unutar DeLillove fikcije te fikcije mnogih drugih
autora) neizbjeno predstavlja dno imaginarne strukture moi jednog drutva
te je sukladno tome tek objekt moguih pomaka, promjena ili elja viih
instanci moi. Neizravnim prihvaanjem struktura moi, a uvjetovano njihovom
nevidljivou, kao to to spominje Foucault i o emu e rijei biti kasnije, poje-
dinac ostvaruje prividan osjeaj slobode i zabludu autonomnosti koju mu gara-
ntiraju trendovi zapadnjakog konzumerizma. Osjeaj nelagode kojemu je
pritom izloen i koji unutar DeLillovih tekstova predstavlja jednu od okosnica
oko kojih autor konstruira egzistencijalne krize svojih likova, pojaava se razra-
dom teorija zavjere koje u raznovrsnim oblicima upotpunjavaju ve kom-
pleksne svjetove autorovih romana. Gotovo svaki od DeLillovih romana tako
stvara obrise sivog podruja, dijela svakodnevnice koji ne ini sastavni dio
ivota normalnih pojedinaca. Ovakvo podruje, izvor nepoznatih ili slabo
nasluenih struktura moi, pritom je dodatno izdvojeno potroakim navadama
koje, naglaavajui individualnost i jedinstvenost pojedinca, dodatno pridonose
njegovu otuenju i samim time veoj predispoziciji za manipulaciju. Manifesta-
cije ovakvog sivog podruja u autorovim tekstovima variraju od eksplicitnih
prikaza vlasti i politike sprege koji izravno sudjeluju u kreaciji stvarnosti ili
njenoj kasnijoj korekciji, kao to je to sluaj u romanu Libra ili u DeLillovom
prvijencu Americana u kojem glavni lik otuen unutar korporacijskog svijeta
nastoji pronai vlastiti identitet bijegom i pokuajem ponovnog pronalaenja
amerikog (mitolokog) Zapada.
Bez obzira o kojem se tematskom odnosu moi radi, DeLillovi tekstovi uvijek
jasno odvajaju mo od subjekta pritom preutno naglaavajui upravo sustav
nasilja, specifino konstruiran i sproveden, koji proima cjelokupnu ameriku
suvremenost. Za razliku od podreenih subjekata (fiktivnih ili realnih), ovakvi
konstrukti moi nisu ograniena dosega, ve stalnim usavravanjem i kreira-
njem sve manje i manje vidljivih oblika kontrole odnosno nasilja osiguravaju
svoju daljnju prisutnost i aktivnost. DeLillovi tekstovi tako, izmeu ostalog, opi-
suju i predstavljaju ivote pojedinaca zajedno s njihovim anksioznostima indu-
ciranim nadzornim sistemima i postojanjem paralelnih i iznimno represivnih
struktura koje gotovo da izmiu ljudskoj kontroli.
Kao jedan od predloaka razvoja struktura moi koje pojedinca pretvaraju u
podloan subjekt moe posluiti rad Michela Foucaulta u kojem autor izmeu
ostalog historijskim pregledom i analizom izdvojenih fenomena, istie ulogu
moi u svakodnevnom ivotu. Jedan od mehanizama koje koristi kao
objanjenje nastajanja odreenih sistema nadzora jest koncept Panopti-

kumaJeremyja Benthama koji u svojoj jednostavnosti te izrazitoj uinkovitosti
predstavlja iznimno zanimljiv prototip kasnijih mehanizama kontrole i nadzora.
Ideja Panoptikuma zasnovana je na specifinom arhitektonskom konstruktu u
kojem dominiraju dva zdanja. S vanjske strane nalazi se zgrada prstenastog
oblika dok je u sredini postavljen toranj. Prstenasta zgrada u sebi sadri elije
od kojih svaka ima dva otvora s jedne strane prozor, a s druge otvor koji gleda
prema centralnom tornju. Svakoj eliji se dodjeljuje po jedan zatvorenik ili pak
neki drugi mogui subjekt (bolesnik, uenik, radnik, itd.) dok se u centralni
toranj postavlja nadzornik. Ovakvo postavljanje stvari, zajedno s uinkom
osvjetljenja koje istie svakog pojedinca unutar elija te na taj nain omoguuje
besprijekoran nadzor, osigurava jedan novi i daleko efektniji oblik nadgledanja i
kontrole. tovie, upravo zbog osjeaja neizvjesnosti kod subjekata, koji ne
znaju kada se nad njima vri nadzor, te zbog nemogunosti stupanja u kontakt s
ostalim elijama, osigurava se automatizirana mo i samim tim savreniji
sistem. Foucault objanjava:

Odatle proizlazi i glavni uinak Panoptikuma: da se kod zatoenika
stvori svjesno i stalno stanje vidljivosti kojim se osigurava automatsko
funkcioniranje moi. Da se postupa tako da nadgledanje bude
neprestano u svojim posljedicama, ak ako i jest diskontinuirano u
djelovanju [...] da zatoenici budu obuhvaeni situacijom moi koje su
sami nosioci. (206-207)

injenica da su zatoenici/subjekti nositelji situacije moi, odnosno da ih
sustav primorava da sami kontroliraju vlastito ponaanje omoguava jo jednu
stvar ekonomiziranje instrumenata prisile i cjelokupnog sistema nadzora, to
e se pokazati idealnim rjeenjem u modernim inaicama ovog koncepta. S
obzirom na viestruku mogunost primjene ovakve idejne strukture koja varira
od ustanova za kanjavanje, medicinskih ustanova, pa sve do obrazovnih i
drugih institucija ija se funkcionalnost u odreenoj mjeri zasniva na istovre-
menoj manipulaciji veeg broja pojedinaca, Panoptikum se (upravo zbog svoje
uspjenosti) postavlja kao mogui prototip instrumenta kontrole veine
suvremenih ivotnih situacija. Njegova primjena pritom ne donosi samo jedan
novi sustav kontrole, nadzora i usmjeravanja/voenja masa sukladno potre-
bama viih instanci, ve istovremeno doprinosi definiranju jedne nove politi-
ke anatomije (Foucault 214) koja svrgava piramidalni ustroj moi sastavljen
od kralja/vladara na njenom vrhu te populacije podanika koji ine bazu takve
strukture, stvarajui inverziju takve strukture. Novi sistem tako apstrahira
kralja/vladara kao jedini simbol moi, te ga zamjenjuje daleko efikasnijom
sistemom izlaganja pojedinca upravo putem njegove (nametnute) individua-
lizacije, kontinuiranom nizu manifestacija moi. Takav ustroj u kojem cilj i

svrha nisu odnos suverenosti, nego disciplinske relacije (Foucault 214) osigu-
rava vlastiti postepeni napredak no istovremeno ne ograniava razvoj drutva
kao to je to bio sluaj s koncentracijom vlasti u pojedincu.
Ono to proizlazi kao neophodni imbenik ovakvog ustroja jesu potrebne
tehnike, odnosno kako ih Foucault definira discipline, putem kojih postaje
mogue koordinirati velike skupine ljudi. Kljuna odlika disciplina sastoji se pri-
tom u njihovoj uspjenoj implementaciji u svakodnevnom ivotu pojedinca, a
bez raskonih znakova suverenosti (Foucault 227) koji su ranije pratili djelo-
vanje moi. Povrh toga, i kao to postaje vidljivo putem analize DeLillovih
tekstova, dolazi do pojave beskrajno malih vidova discipline (Foucault 229)
svakodnevnih panoptizama koji esto omoguuju funkcioniranje razliitih poli-
tikih ideologija i sustava. Krajnji rezultat ovakvog ustroja i shvaanja suvreme-
nog drutva, Foucault zakljuuje, jest mogunost poistovjeivanja velikog broja
drutvenih institucija i struktura sa sustavom funkcioniranja zatvora. Ovakvo
shvaanje suvremenosti ne doputa previe mogunosti za optimizam,
posebice ukoliko je predmet analize suvremeno ameriko drutvo, odnosno
inherentna mogunost zloupotrebe polazinih struktura amerike demokracije.
Suvremeni oblici manipulacije pritom prestaju biti tek tenje pojedinca ija
se namjera u obrisima uoava kroz knjievnost ili odreene javne politike
stavove i govore. Vraajui se na Foucaultovsko poimanje suvremenih struktura
odnosno mikrostruktura moi koje svojim kapilarnim ustrojem garantiraju izra-
vnu kontrolu nad pojedincem, postaje jasno da konvencionalno shvaanje
odnosa moi i masa, odnosno pojedinca kao dijela gomile, postaje vrlo kompli-
ciranim zadatkom. Jedan od kljunih autora koji u tome uspijeva, poglavito ka-
da se radi o problematici amerike nadzorne uloge unutar globalnog konteksta
zasigurno je Noam Chomsky. Njegova sveobuhvatna analiza politikog razvoja
SAD-a, (posebno u meunarodnoj politici), ukazuje na kontinuirano nastojanje
SAD-a da se postave u poziciju vodee zemlje unutar novog neokolonijalnog po-
retka. Iako su ovi podaci relevantni unutar ispitivanja obrazaca nasilnog po-
naanja struktura moi (drave) naspram pojedinca, od daleko su vee vanosti
autorove sporadine analize nekih od mehanizama pomou kojeg se vri takva
kontrola. Chomsky razvija svoju analizu polazei od ideje neophodnosti isklju-
ivanja naroda iz procesa upravljanja. Ukoliko je mogue kontrolirati ljude
silom, navodi Chomsky (Imperial 22), tada nije potrebno voditi rauna o tome
to oni misle ili pak kako se osjeaju. Stvar se mijenja u (makar prividnom) de-
mokratskom drutvu u kojem se, uslijed nestajanja sile kao oblika prisile i, kao
to obrazlae Foucault, inverzije strukture moi, nenasilna kontrola nad stavo-
vima i miljenjima ljudi nalae kao nunost (22). Ono to proizlazi iz ovakvog

stava vladajuih struktura jest sustavni razvoj odnosa s javnou koji paralelno s
propagandnim sustavima postaju okosnica razvoja kapitalistikog drutva.
106

Kao kljuni faktor pojavljuje se potreba za kontrolom radnika za vrijeme
obnaanja njegovih dunosti, ali i tijekom njegova slobodnog vremena. Termini
koje Chomsky koristi
107
su on-job control i off-job control kontrola za vri-
jeme obnaanja posla koja osigurava produktivnost i time dobit, ali i kontrola
tijekom slobodnog vremena koja se ostvaruje putem prakticiranja raznovrsnih
oblika konzumerizma, osiguravajui na taj nain daljnje nesmetano odvijanje
moi osloboeno mogueg utjecaja irokih masa. Autorovo shvaanje i tuma-
enje amerike suvremenosti zasnovano je na reinterpretaciji ideje demokra-
cije koja sada postaje tek instrumentom drave, odnosno neizmjerno monih
multinacionalnih kompanija, koje zajedno s dravnim sustavima definiraju
apsolutno sve, ukljuujui i samu percepciju stvarnosti ire populacije. Disto-
pijsko drutveno ureenje tako, po shvaanju Noama Chomskog, postepeno
prerasta u ameriku, ali i svjetsku stvarnost i svakodnevicu. Promatrajui pri-
mjere koje autor predstavlja postaje oita prisutnost odreenog modela
ponaanja ija je funkcija nametanje apsolutne kontrole nad irom populacijom
putem medijaliziranih i neizravnih metoda. Ograniena primjena otvorenog i
eksplicitnog nasilja unutar demokratski definiranih drutava, a posebice SAD-a
kao zemlje iji je identitet zasnovan na konceptu demokratskog ustroja, nalae
primjenu posredovanog nasilja ije je djelovanje gotovo neprimjetno, no
istovremeno putem infinitezimalnih raspodjela odnosa moi (Foucault 222)
garantira njegovu uinkovitost. Modusi postizanja ovakvog stanja kod popu-
lacije, odnosno pojedinaca, raznovrsni su. Kao jedan od relevantnijih primjera
Chomsky navodi neobjektivnost medija koji postepeno prerastaju u instru-
mente promoviranja retorika struktura moi:

Radi se o prirodnom oekivanju i neupitnoj pretpostavci da e glavni
mediji, te druge ideoloke institucije, u veini sluajeva odraavati
perspektive i interese utvrenih autoriteta. (Necessary Illusions 10)

Svaki od navedenih primjera na odreeni nain ukazuje na postojanje jedne
poneto tamnije strane amerikog sna, odnosno na postojanje skrivenih
struktura koje na izravan nain ili pak u suvremenom drutvu pod okriljem
razliitih umjetnih tvorevina poput konzumerizma (odnosno kako Chomsky

106
Chomsky navodi 1920. kao godinu koja obiljeava poetak razvoja industrije odnosa s
javnou, nastale kao neophodna nadopuna razvoja i novih oblika organizacije velikih
industrijskih postrojenja u kojima radnici postaju tek dio proizvodnog lanca i kao takvi potrebuju
konstantni nadzor i kontrolu (Imperial 21).
107
Autor posuuje termine on-job control i off-job control iz teksta The Consumer Trap
(Michael Dawson, University of Illinois Press, 2003).

naglaava propagande), utjeu na stvaranje distopijskog drutva uvjetovanog
osebujnim odnosima moi i ekonomskim sustavima koji garantiraju daljnji
opstanak takvih odnosa. Sudbina pojedinca pritom je preputena njegovoj
sposobnosti i elji za konformizmom, odnosno tek sporadinim pokuajima
nametanja odreenog stupnja kontrole nad dogaajima koji ga okruuju.
Jedan od takvih pokuaja ponovnog prisvajanja kontrole ili razumijevanja i
racionaliziranja svakodnevice moe se uoiti u jednoj od istaknutijih tema koje
se pojavljuju i obrauju unutar knjievnog stvaralatva u drugoj polovici dvade-
setog stoljea. Radi se naime o temi zavjere koja u tek prividno utopijskim
drutvima pojedincu prua mogunost suoavanja sa sustavom. Razlozi za
ovako iznimnu popularnost (i primjenu) ove teme u knjievnosti te u nekim dru-
gim medijima upravo ukazuju na problematiku pronalaenja prikladnog objekta
unutar suvremenog drutva spram kojeg valja usmjeriti vlastito nezado-
voljstvo. Vrativi se jo jednom na Foucaultov tekst Nadzor i kazna, moemo
uoiti specifian nain ponaanja u kojem osuenici, suoavajui se jo jednom
neposredno pred egzekuciju s kraljem ili vladarom, odvano prkose sustavu
vrijeanjem i proklinjanjem zakona, vlasti ili pak vjere svjesni da im vea kazna
ne moe biti dodijeljena.
Reakcija masa na ovaj, kako ga Foucault naziva politiki ritual (46),
odnosno ritual moi, iznimno je pozitivna iz dva oita razloga. Prvi je, sukladno
tadanjem ustroju, vidljiv simbol moi spram kojeg nezadovoljne mase mogu
usmjeriti vlastito nezadovoljstvo. Drugi razlog predstavlja mogunost masa da
putem osuenika verbaliziraju vlastito nezadovoljstvo te ga opet izravno upute
izvoru moi. U drugoj polovici dvadesetog stoljea, s obzirom na ponovno
strukturiranje pozicija moi, dolazi do nestanka jedinstvenog izvora moi, a
samim tim izostaje i kvalitetna mogunost verbaliziranja nezadovoljstva. Teorije
zavjere doputaju formuliranje prividnih i esto krajnje fiktivnih objanjenja,
ija primarna funkcija nije toliko dokazivanje injenica koliko spoznaja
odreenih struktura moi koje upravljaju sudbinom veine.
Kao primjer analize ovog fenomena unutar knjievne, ali i filmske, produ-
kcije moe posluiti tekst Timothyja Melleyja Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture
of Paranoia in Postwar America u kojem autor analizira pojedine aspekte
teorija zavjere, ali i osjeaja paranoje koji proizlaze iz spoznaje postojanja
pozadinskih manipulativnih sila. Pratei sve vei stupanj anksioznosti koja
zaokuplja populaciju nakon Drugog svjetskog rata, Melley prezentira termin te
daje njegovu definiciju kojom objedinjuje cjelokupnu problematiku;

Snaga/Mo/Pokretaka sila panike (Agency panic) proizlazi iz naglaene
anksioznosti uslijed prividnog gubitka autonomije i uvjerenja da
djelovanje pojedinca uvjetuje netko drugi ili da tog istog pojedinca
konstruiraju vanjski, moni izvritelji. (Melley VII)

Ovakva spoznaja, koja u mnogoemu nalikuje na apsolutno shvaanje i
primjenu Chomskyjevog diskurza, rezultira stvaranjem specifine naracije ija je
funkcija otvoreno i izravno predstavljanje kompleksnog slijeda dogaaja koji
sainjavaju jednu takvu situaciju, a ponekad i odreeni drutveni ustroj. U
svojoj analizi teorija zavjere kao popularnog koncepta druge polovice dvadese-
tog stoljea, Melley naglaava da je neophodno uzeti u obzir da se one gotovo
vie ni ne povezuju sa sitnim i privatnim tajnim dogaanjima i spletkarenjima,
ve da esto referiraju na djelovanja velikih organizacija, tehnologija i sustava
(8). Naracija koja proizlazi iz takvih sustava, ocrtavajui njihovu kompleksnost,
prividno definira poziciju pojedinca spram neke od opisanih struktura moi,
koje na trenutak postaju vidljive, i kao takve, postaju predmetom promatranja,
kritike ili pak suprotstavljanja.
No koja je poveznica izmeu navedenih primjera pokuaja manipulacije,
propagande, odnosa moi, kontrole pojedinca te paranoje i autora Dona DeLi-
lla? Osnovna veza izmeu ovog niza termina i koncepata i autora jest upravo
DeLillova pripadnost grupi amerikih spisatelja druge polovice dvadesetog sto-
ljea ija je primarna nakana preispitivanje amerikog sna i pokuaj defini-
ranja onog to se moe nazvati amerikom suvremenou kroz pojmove nadzor,
kontrole, moi i nasilja. Uz to je kljuni termin i paranoja, koja funkcionira kao
okosnica velikog broja njegovih romana s naznakom da tek rijetko, kao to je to
sluaj u romanu Libra, preuzima i dominantnu ulogu unutar naracije. Paranoja
ili ira ideja straha od stanovitih definiranih ili nedefiniranih konspirativnih tijela
u DeLillovim romanima postaje stvar svakidanjice, stanje koje koegzistira sa
stanjem konzumeristike kulture, koja pak potpomognuta propagandom,
oglaavanjem, reklamama, itd,. ublaava razne oblike anksioznosti kod pojedi-
naca. Drutvo koje DeLillo opisuje, unutar svojih potroakih tokova i navada,
tek je djelomino svjesno postojanja neeg to se ne nalazi unutar egzistenci-
jalnih okvira svakog od pojedinih likova. DeLillovi opisi u potpunosti odgovaraju
Chomskyjevom modelu u kojem pojedinac, kao krajnji subjekt djelovanja dra-
vnog aparata, postaje zaokupljen iskljuivo vlastitim ivotom, odnosno vlastitim
potroakim navadama.
Paradigmatian je tako pasus iz autorovog prvog romana Americana u
kojem je mogue uoiti sr amerikog konzumerizma, ali i DeLillovo shvaanje
pozicije potroaa/pojedinca unutar dotine kulture:

U ovoj zemlji postoji univerzalno tree lice, ovjek koji mi svi elimo biti.
Reklamiranje je otkrilo tog ovjeka. Koristi ga za izraavanje mogunosti
koje su otvorene potroau. Troiti u Americi ne znai kupovati; to znai
sanjati. Reklamiranje je sugestija da san ulaska u tree lice jednine
moda moe biti ostvaren. (Americana 262)


Americana, iako poneto suzdrana pod pitanjem paranoje, prepriava
svojevrsnu ivotnu krizu Davida Bella, dvadeset i osmogodinjeg televizijskog
producenta, koji unato besprijekornom i tovie gotovo hedonistikom stilu
ivota nije u mogunosti nastaviti sa svakodnevnom rutinom. Razlozi za takvo
to, koliko god bili mnogostruki, ne odstupaju od ideje umjetno induciranog
individualizma, koji istovremeno moemo promatrati kao otuenje. Bell, anglo-
saksonski protestant, problematine obiteljske povijesti te s gotovo naslijee-
nom sklonou prema marketingu i medijima poput televizije i filma, doveden
je do, kako to definira Michael Oriard, ruba bezumlja uzrokovanog zaposle-
nikom paranojom (7). Poistovjeujui se s obrascem uspjenog mladog poslo-
vnog ovjeka koji mu nameu drutvo i poslovna okolina, Bell ispunjava ideju
amerikog sna uz svojevrsnu sublimaciju vlastite individualnosti. No, proporcio-
nalno uspjehu raste saznanje o vlastitom nezadovoljstvu te optereenost
obiteljskom prolou. Bell se tada odluuje za putovanje na ameriki Zapad s
prividnom namjerom snimanja filma o pripadnicima plemena Navaho, no u biti
s prikrivenom eljom ponovnog evociranja i pronalaenja mitolokog Zapada,
romantinog prostora apsolutnih vrijednosti.
Kretanje prema zapadu i ususret Zapadu kao sustavu vrijednosti u jednom
segmentu je prekinuto te Bell pronalazi sebe u malom gradiu negdje na Sre-
dnjem Zapadu, gdje zapoinje projekt snimanja filma o vlastitom ivotu. Pria
koju pak pokuava uobliiti nije nita do pokuaj racionalizacije odnosno razu-
mijevanja i uklanjanja tereta prolosti, poglavito problematinog odnosa s
roditeljima. Po zavretku snimanja i prihvaanju vlastitog formativnog razdoblja
i prolosti, Bell nastavlja putovanje pokuavajui pronai iskonsku Ameriku
divljinu koja predstavlja san svih pjesnika i istraivaa (DeLillo 341) i s ijim e
se vrijednostima nastojati usporediti.
No, slijedi razoaranje. Umjesto pronalaenja izvora vrijednosti ijim je
mitolokim nabojem u cijelosti proeta amerika samospoznaja, u posljednjem
dijelu romana glavni lik nailazi na Ameriku ije vrijednosti odraavaju i realno,
ali i metaforino stanje zemlje. Naime, likovi na koje nailazi variraju od pred-
stavnika kontrakulturalnih ezdesetih godina, iji hipijevski stil ivota odudara
od vrijednosti pograninog podruja, pa sve do iskvarenih propovjednika,
homoseksualaca te epizoda seksualnog orgijanja. Razoaran onim to otkriva, a
to nije neka druga Amerika kojoj se nadao ve realnost koja ponitava
mitoloke projekcije, Bell se odluuje za povratak na stari ivot, iji ustroj, iako
predvidljiv i monoton, prua svojevrsnu utopijsku izolaciju. David Bell se vraa
prostoru kojeg na poetku romana opisuje, unato kasnijem pokuaju bijega,
gotovo kao utjelovljenje sigurnosti: tada ne bi mogao hodati meu ovim
stolovima dvije tisue jutara ni uti bune pisae maine a da ne povjeruje da
je to mjesto na kojem si siguran (25).

Indikativno je uoiti pritom prostor radnje posljednjih epizoda romana.
Neposredno prije sjedanja u zrakoplov i povratka u New York, Bell prolazi kroz
Dallas, putujui rutom kojom je svojedobno proao i Kennedy. Simbolika ovog
proputovanja, osim mogueg autorovog ukazivanja na povijesni dogaaj koji je
uvjetovao niz dramatinih promjena unutar amerikog drutva, moe biti pro-
matrana i kao segment ire narativno simbolike strukture koju autor postepe-
no oblikuje kroz niz romana. Istovremeno, kao relevantna injenica namee se
in nasilja ubojstva predsjednika, koji iako tek natuknut i predoen itateljima
gotovo kao subliminalni tekst, unutar povijesnog konteksta i zahvaljujui ak
medijskoj intenzifikaciji, dobiva mo utjecaja na budunost itave jedne nacije.
Promatranjem nasilja i evidentiranjem njegova pojavljivanja u DeLillovom
prvijencu, dolazi se do zakljuka da ono u potpunosti odgovara odnosima moi
navedenih od strane Foucaulta. Nasilje ne mora poprimiti eksplicitne oblike, no
unato tome ono je konstantno prisutno i manifestira se putem prisile, otue-
nja i kontrole nad pojedincem. Bell tako ispunjava uvjete koje od njega potra-
uju njegova radna okolina i drutvo, no u svakom slobodnom trenutku, daleko
od oiju javnosti, upranjava niz besmislenih rituala:

Sjedio sam za stolom i penkalom ocrtavao obris svoje ruke na praznom
komadu papira [...] Hodao sam jo malo po uredu i pogledao u hodnik
[...] Tada sam otkopao hlae i izvukao penis. Neko sam vrijeme tako
hodao po uredu. Osjeaj je bio dobar. (27)

Nesuvislostima se suprotstavlja paranoja uvjetovana ponaanjem viih
instanci unutar tvrtke. Ovdje se jo jednom mogue vratiti konceptu discipline,
preciznije odnosa discipline i prostora kao instrumenta prisile i kontrole. Ideja
rasporeivanja pojedinaca u prostoru u svrhu ostvarivanja discipline po
Foucaultu (143) povlai za sobom niz postupaka poput izbjegavanja stvaranja
skupina, izolacija sa svrhom stvaranja disciplinske monotonije, nametanja
nadzora nad djelatnou, itd. Svi ovi elementi stvaraju ono to Foucault (151)
naziva elijskom mikrofizikom moi koja osigurava funkcionalni nadzor nad
skupinama. Logikim slijedom svi likovi unutar DeLillovog romana, funkcionira-
jui unutar radnog kolektiva, istovremeno prieljkuju slobodu od nadzornog
sistema (artikulirajui tu tenju esto puta suludim ponaanjem), ali ga se i
boje vjeno praeni sumnjom da ih se nadzire. Njihov strah pritom nije nimalo
manje iracionalan i sulud od metaforikih pokuaja bijega. Bell tako u jednom
trenutku shvaa da nije oprao zube nakon ruka koji je esto popraen i s
nekoliko pia. Opisujui kupaonice ispunjene redovima mukaraca koji etkaju i
ispiru usta, Bell verbalizira strah od mogunosti vlastitog postojanja (zajedno s
ostatkom zaposlenika) iskljuivo na videovrpci:


I postojao je osjeaj da neiji smrtonosni mali prst moe dotaknuti du-
gme i da emo svi biti zauvijek izbrisani. Ti trenuci u toaletu pored de-
setak mukaraca koji struu po zubima moda su bili najgori od svih. i-
nilo se da nismo nita doli elektronski signali prolazili smo kroz vrijeme
i prostor s mucanjem i zatamnjenim ludilom televizijske reklame. (24)

Sveprisutno oko kamere ostvaruje uvjete za stvaranje suvremenog panopti-
kuma i samim time osigurava uinkovitost, no ono to je vanije, naglaava
utjecaj razliitih medija, a poglavito filma, unutar svakodnevnog ivota pojedi-
naca. Film unutar DeLillovog romana tako postaje dominantni medij koji ocrta-
va isprepletenost onoga to Grgas naziva naplavinama ikona amerike vizua-
lne kulture (97) i svijesti pojedinca, u ovom sluaju Davida Bella. Ono to DeLi-
llovim likovima preostaje jest potraivanje protutee, ili barem onog to iz nji-
hove perspektive predstavlja oblik eskapizma. Prividni bijeg, kao to to uoava i
Chomsky, jest konzumerizam kojemu se Bell ali i ostali likovi preputaju bez
zadrke pokuavajui realizirati marketinki koncept amerikog sna.
Iako je interakcija izmeu navedene vizualne kulture i pojedinca od iznimne
vanosti za razumijevanje romana, njena relevantnost unutar analize moguih
obrazaca nasilja unutar teksta ograniena je na autorovo naglaavanje medija
kao relevantnih imbenika za proces stvaranja okruja nadzora i paranoje,
odnosno vrenja posredovanog nasilja nad pojedincem. Valja naglasiti pritom
da DeLillo nije prvi autor iji tekstovi pokuavaju definirati povezanost medija i
biljeenje podataka s ponaanjem i integritetom pojedinaca. Situacije u kojima
mediji odreuju egzistenciju pojedinca naziru se ve u inovativnim narativnim
pristupima i teorijskim razradbama Williama Sewarda Burroughsa.
Kao najbolji primjer, iako poneto rudimentaran ukoliko ga usporedimo s
mehanizmima kompleksnih struktura prisutnim u DeLillovim tekstovima, moe
posluiti Burroughsov esejistiki komentar na kritike upuene njemu i drugim
autorima sklonima koritenju eksplicitnih prikaza seksa u svojim tekstovima.
Unutar teksta ironino naslovljenog Playback from Eden to Watergate,
Burroughs izmeu ostalog predstavlja mehanizam pomou kojeg je mogue
uspostaviti kontrolu nad odreenim pojedincem. Za primjer uzima fiktivnog
politiara kojega se snima na tri razliita magnetofona. Prvi magnetofon biljei
govore i razgovore, usredotoujui se na greke u govoru poput mucanja,
pogrenog izgovora rijei i slino koje potom u procesu pomnog montiranja
naglaava. Drugi magnetofon slui za snimanje seksualne aktivnosti politiara.
Ova se snimka moe dodatno naglasiti uspjenim spajanjem sa seksualnim
objektom koji je nedopustiv, nepristupaan ili pak oboje, kao na primjer,
senatorova maloljetna ker (nav. u Odier 15). Na treoj snimci zabiljeeni su
glasovi negodovanja.

Za Burroughsa, spajanje nasnimljenog materijala i njegovo predstavljanje
unutar odreenog konteksta predstavlja jednostavnu formulu pomou koje
bilo koji kurvin sin iz CIA-e moe postati Bog (15). Burroughs na sebi svojstven
nain pretjeruje, no postavi li se njegova teorija unutar vremenskog konteksta i
politikih zbivanja s kraja ezdesetih godina prolog stoljea, te uzmu li se u
obzir aktivnosti tajnih slubi vezane prvenstveno za tajne snimke dobivene po-
stavljanjem prislunih ureaja u spavau sobu politikog voe Martina Luthera
Kinga, Jr., na koje i sam Burroughs referira, ili pak snimke vezane za Watergate
aferu, pozicija medija i tehnologije te mo koja proizlazi iz toga postaje sve
jasnija.
I dok Burroughs slui kao pretea i zloguki prorok distopijske uloge medija i
tehnologije u budunosti, DeLillo zamjenjuje prikazivanje mehanizama kontro-
le, koji u suvremenom drutvu postaju sve kompleksniji i manje vidljivi, proma-
tranjem sporadinih fenomena unutar drutva, odnosno prikazivanjem anksio-
znih odnosa pojedinaca i drutva uvjetovanih razliitim imbenicima. Uzima-
njem nasilja kao polazne toke itanja DeLillovih tekstova, uoljiva je pozicija
autorova prvijenca kao romana koji zapoinje oblikovanje nekih od preokupa-
cija koje e dominirati veinom njegovih tekstova. Americana kao tekst koji pri-
je svega izraava autorovo propitkivanje mogueg pronalaenja ili pak zadra-
vanja identiteta unutar vjeno promjenljive Amerike ne uspijeva u svojoj nakani
otkrivanja neke konane smislenosti. Ono u emu uspijeva jest uoavanje la-
tentne nacionalne anksioznosti, uvjetovane vanjskim imbenicima poput te-
hnologije, medija ili, u odreenim sluajevima, vladajuim strukturama.

Literatura

Chomsky, Noam. Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies.
Boston: South End, 1989.
Chomsky, Noam, i David Barsmian. Imperial Ambitions: Conversations on the
Post 9/11 World. New York: Metropolitan, 2005.
DeLillo, Don. Americana. Prev. Marijana Javornik ubri. Zagreb: Hena com, 2003.
Foucault, Michel. Nadzor i kazna: Raanje zatvora. Zagreb: Informator, 1994.
Melley, Timothy. Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar
America. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2000.
Odier, Daniel. The Job: Interviews with William S. Burroughs. New York:
Penguin, 1989.
Oriard, Michael. "Don DeLillo's Search for Walden Pond."Critique 20 (1978): 5-
24. EBSCO. Web. 8. 1. 2007. <http://search.ebscohost.com>


THE SYSTEM AND THE INDIVIDUAL THE DYSTOPIAN FEATURES OF DON DELILLO'S FICTION

Don DeLillo's literary production, regardless of him being one of the key
figures the contemporary American literary production, constantly refuses to
acknowledge the existence of the utopian American dream. Instead of looking
at the possible positive values embodied in the very concept of the nation
DeLillo decides to directly undermine and challenge the very values of society
and the structures that ensure the functioning of the entire system. The
intention of this analysis is to indicate a connection between certain theories
of power (Foucault, Chomsky, etc.) and the very functioning of society, and/or
the society presented in DeLillos narratives. As a possible example of the
presence of this type of anxiety the article analyses DeLillos first novel
Americana in which the author narrates the disappearance of the original
mythical values of primeval Americaand retells a new and paranoid dystopian
America whose functioning is based on various systems of power.

Key Words: DeLillo, dystopia, system, Foucault, Chomsky, power, paranoia.


UDK 821.163.4.09-31

Psiholoko nijansiranje mukih likova u
romanu Ljubavnik Duklje

Vojii Olga, Univerzitet Crne Gore

Apstrakt: U ovom tekstu se istrauju svi elementi koji reguliu faktore psiholokog
osvjetljavanja likova u savremenom romanu kakav je Ljubavnik Duklje Jevrema
Brkovia.Introspektivna ravan je sagledana kroz tehnike unutranjeg monologa i
doivljenog govora koje su, inae, najfrekventnije u ovom djelu. Antropoloka metodo-
logija prouavanja likova pomjera kanonizovane granice i savremenom itaocu pred-
stavlja junaka koji je u potpunosti nenormativan u odnosu na likove konstruisane u eri
socijalistikog realizma. Savremeni junak je disperzivan i transformativan, u stalnoj je
koliziji sa spoljanjim svijetom i vrlo esto podvojen i unutar samog sebe.Snopovi bi-
narnog rasijavanja linosti doprinose totalnoj polarizaciji te italac pred sobom ima
junaka rastrzanog intelektualnim i moralnim nedoumicama aktualizovanim u XX vijeku.
Time i horizont oekivanja biva prevazidjen, jer je pred auditorijumom roman crno-
gorske knjievnosti koji uruava tabuiziranu prolost i profilie urbane karakterologije
koje sa novih aspekata kritikuju staro i tumae novo.

Kljune rijei: lik, karakter, savremeni junak, snopovi binarnog rasijavanja, horizont
oekivanja

Pitanje karakterolokih specifinosti unutar knjievnog teksta zaokuplja teo-
retiare knjievnosti jo od antike. Poto je antiko vrijeme favorizovalo mime-
tizam onih pojava koje su utemeljene i postojee, to su i karakteri bili preslikani
iz stvarnosti, ili makar, vrlo nalik njima. Dakle, shvatanje umjetnikog karaktera
nije se razlikovalo od shvatanja ovjekove prirode u ivotu, drutvu, pa i u
neumjetnikoj literaturi. Bez obzira na to to je razvoj epoha, a posebno dvade-
seti vijek donio razdvajanje umjetnikog od neumjetnikog karaktera i to se
ak i artificijelni karakter u doba savremene literature razloio na vie linosti
snopova diferencijacije, ipak, karakteroloka tipizacija koju je sainio Aristotel,
mjerodavna je i danas. Aristotel je bio svjestan individualnog vienja stvarnosti
kod pojedinih tragiara pa je, shodno tome, Sofokle prikazivao karaktere koji su
bolji od prosjenih, Euripid upravo onakve kakvi jesu, a Eshil je portretisao
polarizovanu unutranjost junaka i u tome je bio pretea ekspira i Dosto-
jevskog. Potujui stvarnost, ali dajui prednost umjetnosti, Aristotel je smatrao
da od karaktera treba kreirati paradigme ideale koji svakako prevazilaze

stvarnost i slue kao model identifikacionog proienja obinom ovjeku. Ta-
kav arhijunak odgovara primarnoj ideji koja se tie problema kakav bi ovjek
trebalo da bude, a pjesnitvo koje oblikuje takvog uzoritog junaka postaje
derealizacija stvarnosti.

Kako je tragedija podraavanje ljudi koji su bolji nego mi proseni,
potrebno je ugledati se na dobre ikonografe (slikare portretiste). I oni,
naime, mada unose u sliku individualne crte i na taj nain postiu
slinost, ipak, prolepavaju ono lice koje crtaju. Tako i pesnik, kad
podraava srdite ili lakoumne, ili druge takve karaktere, treba da ih
prikazuje kao ljude s takvim osobinama, a opet plemenite. (Aristotel 39)

Ovim Aristotel, osim to razdvaja junaka u prostoru umjetnikog teksta od
junaka u postojeem svijetu (to je tek dvadeseti vijek u cijelosti osigurao), isto
tako ukazuje i da je pjesnitvo filozofskije od istorije, jer se ovjeanstvo kroz
njega osmiljava i preobraava.
Da li junaci romana Ljubavnik Duklje posjeduju slinost, prilinost, plemeni-
tost i dosljednost koje karakteriu i antike junake ili pak oni postaju harmo-
nian sklop satkan od osobina koje predstavljaju antiku paradigmu, ali i od
onih kojima je polazite urbana karakterologija? Nezavisno od toga da li su
junaci ovog romana osobe nastale podraavanjem postojeeg (istorijske
linosti) ili su verbalni produkti, prikazani su, prema Bahtinovoj tenji, kao juna-
ci koji nijesu heroji proizali iz epskog ili dramskog recepta, ve kao supstrat
ljudskog. Takvi knjievni likovi, pripadali mimetikoj ili semiotikoj struji (zavi-
sno od toga da li su stvarni ili fiktivni konstrukti) imaju i pozitivne i negativne
karakterne crte, daju se i kao trivijalni i kao uzvieni likovi, a njihove mentalne
konstrukcije imaju svoju varijabilnost. Heroizacija i nepromjenljivost junaka do-
prinijeli bi neuvjerljivosti i afektiranoj poetinosti djela, a ovi junaci svojim akci-
jama rainjavaju svaku vrstu patetizacije; autor ih je oblikovao datim idejnim,
etikim, emotivnim i strukturnim svojstvima, svi imaju fiksiran cilj i ideju za koju
se bore i u tome jesu nepromjenljivi, meutim, razliite socijalne uslovljenosti
razliito determiniu i status njihove ideje. Poto su to dinamini junaci, oni ne
dozvoljavaju vremenu, drutvu i istoriji da retardiraju ili vrate unazad njihovu
linu idejnost, ve nastoje da oni budu pokretai i sudionici vremena. Mahom
su usamljenici, tako da esto, zbog tog istog nametnutog vremena i drutva,
podnose refleksivne mijene, izoptenost i kolizione susrete sa sobom u izdife-
renciranim vremenskim osama. Ideja o zavisnosti ovjeka od drutvene sredine
izuzetno je popularizovana u XVIII vijeku; neminovnost je da ovjek formira
neka svoja dejstva u skladu sa sredinom; ali ovaj roman pokazuje da ovjek
knjievni lik zbir ideja, ne moe biti predvidljivi pomiritelj sopstvene i tue
stvarnosti onda kada se ta tua uspostavlja kao destruktivna u odnosu na

njegovu. Umetniki lik se ne izgrauje samo kao realizacija odre-ene kulturne
sheme, kae Lotman, nego i kao sistem znaajnih odstupanja od nje, koja
nastaju pomou posebnih ureenja(Lotman 326).
Odstupanja se oituju kroz otpor prema ukorijenjenim stvarnosnim mjeri-
lima, ali i kroz neprepoznatljivost i nepredvidljivost u odnosu na aktualizovanje
karakterizacija veine djela ranije crnogorske knjievnosti, to ovaj roman ini
antiredundantskom lektirom.
Kultura kojoj pripadaju junaci ovog romana esto se kroz njihova monoloka
i dijaloka istupanja daje kao potkultura, zbog ega oni iskljuuju svaku mo-
gunost pripadanja takvoj potkulturalnoj emi, osim onu koja se tie prostornog
obiljeja. Do kreiranja snopova binarnog rasijavanja unutar njihove psihe, dolazi
otuda to pomenuti kulturni kod iziskuje i namee kanon ponaanja kakav ne
odgovara junacima Ljubavnika Duklje. Zato formiraju sopstvenu normu koja e
ih esto kotati frustracije i bezizlaza, ali e na tekstovnom semiotikom planu
ostvariti dosljednost umjetnikog shvatanja ovjekove prirode, kakvu je
proklamovao i Aristotel.
Velun Seo je tip junaka ije se miljenje daje transverzalno kao da esto
presijeca i ravan sopstvenog ponaanja i podvrgava kontroli svako svoje pripa-
danje nekom ili neem. Njega autor ne daje kao sumnjajueg, ve vjerujueg u
sebe, tako da samoispitivanje ne proizilazi iz nekog pritajenog izvora nesigu-
rnosti, ve iz zrelosti koju junak dobija, a koja mu namee kontinuirane debate
sa sobom. Iako je prioritetni lik, autor ga ne daje u prva dva obimnija poglavlja,
ali se moe rei da je i taj preambulni dio posluio kao posredno upoznavanje sa
Velunovim karakterom. Govoriti o Duklju i istoriji, znai deifrovati istorijsko-
nacionalni diskurs koji postaje Velunov zatitni simbol tokom itavog ivota.
Kada autor sa globalizovane tematike pree na usko porodinu, ozroviko-
jabukiko-seoku mitologiju i familijarni folklor, on opet itaocu nudi bogatu
istoriju porodice ijom e se genetikom oblikovati izdanak Velun. Kada italac
jo uvijek nije u potpunosti svjestan ijom e se idejnom, socijalnom i intimnom
problematikom pozabaviti Brkovi, vaskrsava tree poglavlje Isus je u Kotoru
imao plave oi koje u sredite zbivanja postavlja i krunie Veluna Seoa.
Postupkom in medias res autor kristalie situaciju koja Velunu slui kao
podstrek za retrospektivno gledanje na ukupni dosadanji ivot. Velunovo
karakterno oblikovanje namjerno se daje kroz formu gledanja unazad, jer se u
bilansnom hodu zrelog junaka kroz ivotne zamke, najcjelovitije daje sam taj lik.
Kada je shvatio da u kotorskom zatvoru stradaju nevini ljudi, Velun je po ko zna
koji put doveo u pitanje humanost i pravednost borbe Komunistike partije.
Oivio je sjeanje na povratak iz rata u opustoenu Podgoricu, na sakrivanje
naroda po morakim peinama i naposljetku na odvoenje u Rusiju, tj. na
kolektivni lin svih onih koji su sumnjivi po nacionalnosti, profesiji ili vjerovanju.
Iz jedne takve seobe, spasao je Cigane porodine prijatelje i svoju veliku

ljubav Bracu Seniju. U trenu kada se na njega nenadano obruila apsolutna
istina kojoj, do tog golog momenta spoznaje, nije poznavao mjerila i norme,
Velun je pozvao u pomo pretke, jer nije znao ta mu je initi.

Je li to opet bilo ono njegovo prizivanje predaka kad god mu je teko,
kad god mora donijeti odluku u kojoj je ulog itav njegov ivot. Inae,
njegova su razmiljanja ila toliko daleko u prolost svoje porodice, da
je preputajui se virovima i bujicama matanja o nemoguim mo-
gunostima, esto zadirao i u poredak stvari prirode, dovodei u pitanje
i kauzalitet u porodinoj genetici. (Brkovi 177)

Bilo je trenutaka kada je iskreno vjerovao, naravno i elio, da je trebalo
da se rodi umjesto djeda, pradjeda, pa i prapradjeda, a neki od njih
umjesto njega. (169)

Velun je elio biti roen u neko drugo vrijeme da bi izbjegao epohu poasti
komunizma. Era komunizma za njega personifikuje upravo potkulturalnu, pseudo-
humanu ideju ija sutina jeste sigurna smrt za sve one koji joj se suprot-
stavljaju. Kad Velun odluuje da ne eli vie biti dio mehanizma koji sprovodi
tiraniju duha i tijela, kao i gotovo pomodnu lucifersku maniju bratoubilatva i
kumoubilatva, za njega vie nije bilo poasnih mjesta pod okriljem te partije.

Pravo je udo kako su u tom grdno posvaanom komunistikom svijetu,
u tom haosu ideolokih i policijskih presija, tajnih slubi i najprljavijih
dounika u istoriji junoslovenskog dounitva, neki ljudi ipak ostali
istih ruku, i pred sobom i pred istorijom. Ako je u tom vremenu i u toj
Crnoj Gori bilo asnih ljudskih bia, osim novoroenadi, kada se sve
ovo smiri, oladi, a narod se makar malo oisti od velikih posrnua i sva-
kakvih niskosti, ako Crnogorce u novo zlo razbraenja opet neko ne
gurne, trebalo bi nekog od tadanjih velikih komunista, moda kano-
nizovati. (468)

Ovo posredno Velunovo monologiziranje otkriva uenje junaka kako se i
sam naao u grotlu lai, ubistava, kontrole miljenja i revidiranih stavova, a u
naznakama daje ak i isto ovjeiju radost to mu se itav taj deformisani
vrtlog inio neznanim pa je sam ostao neukaljan. Velun nije bio ovjek neupu-
en u neistoe partije onda kada su se one zaista i deavale, ali se njegovo
odsustvo sluha i percepcije za takvo to u datom momentu, opravdava niego-
vom istom borbom i idejom, ali i njegovim neuestvovanjem u svemu to mu
po poretku stvari nije odgovaralo i pripadalo. Ali, kroz prethodno navedene
reenice istie se i autorov (pripovjedaev) stav o vremenu koje nije etiketirano

samo komunistikim razdobljem, ve komunizam predstavlja travestijski
postupak kojim se izrie istina o univerzalijama svih vremena; kao da je autor na
trenutak iskoraio iz teksta i obratio se jednom vrstom apela samom itaocu.
O sirotinji koja je zavedena i koja postaje autohtoni prvijenac komunizma,
kae se:

Komunisti su, kako je Velun znao i Savi Jabukiu da kae, unijeli veliku
pobrkanost u vrednovanju crnogorskog bia, pogotovo ratnikog:
odjednom se u centru jedne ideologije, kao njen ideal, nala vazdakanja
sirotinja, i to ona koja nikada i nigdje nije iskoristila ansu, koju je svaki
rat svakom Crnogorcu jednako davao, pa ni veliku ansu da junaki
pogine, to bi, ipak makar donekle, promijenilo status njihovog
potomstva. (382)

Komunizam i postkomunistiko stanje jesu pojavnosti Velunovog rasijavanja
na mnotvo osa dezorijentacije. Linost koja svoju protolinost trai u vremen-
skim maglama i inkarnacijama djedova i pradjedova, najvie i najnemilosrdnije
biva upitana i muena od sebe sama, ba kada je u pitanju pripadnost komu-
nistima. Ovdje se Velunova priroda pretvara u viestrukost pitanja, odgovora,
kolebanja i uzdrmanih stavova. Na konkretnim nivoima niim od njega samog,
jer su uzrokovani epohom klasifikacije ljudi emu on nije elio da se povinuje,
Velun postaje zbir postupaka, datosti i podstruktura koje istupaju nezavisno
jedna od druge, i to je vano, ine da ovaj lik bude upotpunjen u unutranjem
sistemu.
Goli otok je Velun Seo smatrao najradikalnijom muionicom u kojoj su se
ljudi okretali na svirep nain jedni protiv drugih te poslije toga postajali manje
ljudi, a mnogo vie animalizovani primjerci skoro redukovane savjesti i svijesti
aklimatizovane pod djelovanjem partijskih direktiva. Robotizovani ljudi u slubi
partijskog jednoumlja vie nijesu mogli biti korisni ni sebi ni porodici, samo
dounikoj mrei. Samo rijetki meu njima nijesu mogli biti destabilizovani i
izmijenjeni, a od takvih se partija najvie plaila.

Veina njih je s Golog otoka, jednostavno prekomandovana da budu
Udbini saradnici u civilu, da prate svoje, da ih nemilosrdno prijavljuju
kao to su ih nemilosrdno na Golom otoku tukli. Velun je znao da je
major Labi [...], s Golog otoka izaao kao nepopravljiv, a takvih je iz te
srednjovjekovne muionice, inkvizitorske postaje na sjevernom Ja-
dranu, tog paklenog otoka, izalo samo nekoliko. Od takvih su inform-
birovci, Udbini pitomci, bjeali da im se oi ne sretnu i ne pogledaju, jer
su znali da tih samo nekoliko nepopravljivih jednoumaca znaju svu
bijedu moralnog posrtanja na Golom otoka. (329)

Drugo veliko i sudbinsko samoispitivanje Velun Seo doiljava onda kada
ulazi u tjelesno-romantinu vezu sa Bracom Senijom. Rijetki su romani crno-
gorske knjievnosti u kojima je tjelesna elokvencija uopte izraena, a kamoli
naznaena u mjeri u kojoj postoji ovdje. Brkovi raskrinkava sve erotske pre-
drasude koje mogu postojati u jednom narodu i njegovoj knjievnosti. Ono to
bi u tradicionalnom crnogorskom etikom i vrijednosnom kodu moglo biti ime-
novano kao preljuba, u ovom romanu ne dobija takvo ime pa tako ni osudu.
Tjelesna komunikacija izmeu oenjenog i vremenog Veluna Seoa i mlade
Brace Senije ne moe se nai na hijerarhiji najnie drutvene osude stoga to
naratorski nivo ne dozvoljava takve ocjene. Ljubav ovo dvoje ljudi predstavlja se
kao neto to je bilo neizbjeno, kao radnja koja se podrazumijevala i koja je
tekla ne osvrui se na potencijalna budua i vrlo oekivana osuivanja. Osuda,
dakle, jeste postojala u unutranjoj ravni junaka kao neto to jeste sud oeki-
vanja, ali autor nije dopustio njenu spoljanu manifestaciju, jer bi tako uguio
ovaploenje istinskog umjetnikog erosa. Jo jedna neoekivanost u Brkovie-
vom tekstu stoji u tome to italac ne oekuje da junak koji je ratni major u
penziji, porodian ovjek i svesrdni dukljanista po ivotnoj vokaciji, odjedanput
doivljava ljubavni preporod na idilino-pastoralnom planu. To dolazi iznenada,
zato to se Velun u cjelovremenom sastavu daje kao promiljen i ozbiljan o-
vjek, posveen jednoj ideji, i koji, iako ima sparantski odnjegovanu muskulatu-
ru, ipak nije rob njenih mogunosti. Horizont oekivanja biva prevazien onda
kada karakter za koga bismo pomislili da se odlikuje asketizmom, postaje dio
lirske sage. Iako donekle iznenaen Velunovom poetskom notom koja se u
ovom sluaju ne tie prolosti, ve ljubavi, italac upravo tada kada se upoznaje
i sa erotskom snagom privilegovanog junaka, postaje impresioniran irinom
umjetnikog prostora datom na raspolaganje Velunu Seou.

Stalna neoekivanost u junakovome ponaanju postie se, prvo, time
to se karakter ne izgrauje kao jedna unapred poznata mogunost
delovanja, nego kao paradigma, skup mogunosti jedinstven na nivou
idejne strukture, varijativan na nivou teksta. (Lotman 329.)

Nakon prve noi provedene sa Bracom, Velun sabira pridole impresije i pita
se kakvo e njegovo mjesto biti u tom trouglu.

Nee san na oi, ali nee ni kajanje, pomislio je kada je bio sasvim
siguran, ako pria krene, da ga Jegda i Antonije nee osuivati. Zato da
ga iko, osim podgorike zlooke arije osuuje? [...] Po emu to, po
kakvom ljudskom i prirodnom zakonu, on nema pravo na ljubav, na
mladu enu, na vrelo tijelo, na impulse koje u njemu izaziva ta ena, to
tijelo, ta pohotna bludnica? (Brkovi 421)

Ego starog ratnika i Crnogorca koji je u porodici i drutvu osvjedoen i milju
i djelom, kada je u pitanju retorinost mukog erosa koji obilato progovara iz
njega, ne dozvoljava drugaije razmiljanje od onoga kojim sve dokaze obre
sebi u prilog. Ako bi se Velun Seo za trenutak izdvojio iz prostora umjetnikog
teksta, u domenu iskazivanja hipererotinosti, on bi dejstvovao kao arhitipian
uzorak crnogorskog naroda, koji i na branom i na vanbranom polju, prisvaja
ono to misli da mu po prirodi pripada. Interesantno je i njegovo miljenje o
tome da ga najblii, ak i kad bi saznali za njegovu ljubav, ne bi osudili, to se
kasnije potvruje kao tano. Kontradikcija je sa jedne strane ne oekivati osudu
najdraih, a sa druge strane ne inicirati zajedniki ivot sa Bracom Senijom ili,
makar, ne imati porod sa njom, iako se to, posebno pri koncu ivota, oituje kao
njegova opsesivna frustracija, ali je takav postupak psiholoki opravdan s
obzirom na Velunovo pripadanje junacima iz teatra dvadesetog vijeka. Lom koji
pokazuje Velun tokom dvijedecenijske veze sa Bracom, doprinosi dinamizaciji
apsurda koliko god bio siguran u sebe i u opravdanost svojih akcija, osobito
onih koje pripadaju tjelesno-ljubavnom nizu, na unutarpsiholokom presjeku
Velun se daje i kao kolebljivi, uzdrmani i mnogopitajui karakter. Fakat je da ne
odustaje od sebe, svojih zamisli i prohtjeva i onda kada, makar, intuitivno i
miljenjem, ako ne injenjem, ipak ide na tetu drugih. Recimo, u stanju je da
istinski pomisli da za njegovu Jegdu ne bi bilo mjesta pod okriljem njegove kue
ako bi odluila da prisvoji neko pravo kojim bi upotpunila svoju ensku prirodu;
u stanju je i da nepominjanjem prezre svoju najljepu sestru Vidanu Seo zato
to se udala, tanije pobjegla, za uvenog srpskog majora i to sa sred
skadarskog bojita. Ono to mu se u odreenim ivotnim periodima inilo kao
nakazno, demoralisano, obesmiljeno ili poraavajue, u poznijim godinama,
bolje reeno, predsmrtnim mjesecima, pokazuje se kao razumno rezultirajue
ishodite svih njegovih polazita koja su esto bila u stanjima kompleksnih
disharmonija linosti. Pred kraj ivota iz Veluna nestaju primjese mukog
ovinizma, tako da sve prethodno to je optereivalo njegovu umjetniku figuru
i to se inilo i egoistinim balastom, sada se daje kao podrazumijevajui
pokazatelj puta kojim mora razvojno i neprikosnoveno ii jedna takva linost. U
sceni koja se odvija na Beogradskom institutu za plune bolesti formira se motiv
prepoznavanja Velun se upoznaje sa svojim sestriem, Vidaninim sinom i tada
sve ono to je bila viedecenijska muka, transformie se u oprotaj i kajanje. U
zoni meuljudskih kontakata dolazi do Velunovog potpunog oovjeenja na
umjetnikom i estetskom planu. U savremenom romanu, dakle, paradigmatika
karaktera se ne realizuje samo u jednom vremenu i na fonu jedne strukture
idejne, moralne, ljubavne, ve se pronalazi i konkretizuje na planu cijelog
vremena i prostranstva djelovanja jednog ili vie junaka.
U ovom romanu eros poiva i u samoj sintagmatici naslova, a razlog to je
autor jednom porivu dao, ako ne poasno i vladajue, a ono, vrlo izraajno

mjesto, je u tome to se eros kao sastavni pa i generalni element ljudskog bitka,
zapostavlja u veem dijelu evropskih nacionalnih literatura. Snagu erotske moi
autor nipoto ne vulgarizuje, ve joj daje idejnost, filozofsko utemeljenje i
znaenje svih poetaka i krajeva. Onda kada je ovjek tijelo, svoju igru i smijeh
otkrio kao neto to ga uzdie u linom mikrokosmosu, nestala je destrukcija i
mranjatvo srednjovjekovlja, a pronaena je renesansna semantika u ovjeku i
oko njega. Eros jeste taka antropocentrizma koje se po Frojdu valja osloboditi
kada se nagomila viak energetskih nivoa, a takoe u fanatizovanom obliku
moe postati libido razdvajanja i unitenja. Dvojaku ulogu erosa Brkovi je
harmonizovao i uinio mjerom ivotnog poimanja, ne nikako poniranja.

Rijei koje vidljivo sadravaju grafijsku i znaenjsku komponentu
Erosa/erosa, kao to su erotao (pitam, ispitujem, istraujem) ili erotema
(pitanje o emu), upuuju na to da je eros vazdanji i savtoliki ovjekov
nemir izraen u neizbrojivim pitanjima o sebi i svijetu; ali i energija
potrebna za traenje odgovora, i volja moi ustrajati u tome. (Salei
144-145)

I Doma Ozrovi, jednako kao i Velun Seo ne pokazuje svoju ekstrovertnost
pa i svoj uroeni dendizam, samo kroz istorijsko-etnike seanse, ve i kroz
cjelishodno ispoljavanje libida. On je lik izgraen na modelu urbane hronotopi-
nosti, ali sa intenzivnim osjeajem za ono to je valjano, a to poiva na
tradicionalno folklornim osnovama. Kroz njega je autor prikazao tipino bahti-
novski slobodan rast svih ljudskih mogunosti, ali ne samo na fiziolokom planu;
naprotiv, njegov fizikus se ne daje jednostrano, ve u vezi sa svim njegovim
blagodatnim potencijalima. Tako se otkriva neograniena mo ivota, trajanje.

Razodjenuli su se tako brzo kao su se u toj disciplini dugo takmiili.
Pobijedila je Duda. Navukla ga je na sebe. Iz tame i svjetlosti njihovih
tijela, ispitujui prostranstvo starog francuskog kreveta, govorili su rijei
samo za njihove ui. Jo sasvim nezadihana, Duda je poela svoj
monolog kao uvod u veliku no njihovih tijela. (360)

Doma Ozrovi je lik koji na najviem nivou doivljava proces izdvajanja i
izuzimanja iz kolektivne cjeline i jedinstvenog mjesta i vremena. On, naravno,
nije otueni ili prognani junak koji zbog linog kompleksa zapostavlja maticu
kao to to ini njegov roak Slaven Jabuki. Ozrovi je otjelotvorenje svega
onoga to je porodina tradicija mogla objediniti u njemu, a to je urbana sada-
njost preradila i uinila rafiniranim. U izvjesnom pogledu, on je i plemiki tragi-
ki junak, jer, iako je usamljeni pojedinac stacioniran u tuoj sredini, on svoje
miljenje bezuslovno slobodno ispoljava, makar ga to kotalo izoptenja iz zaje-

dnice. Njegovo otmeno beduinsko lutalatvo nije samo teritorijalnog, ve i mi-
saono-nemirnog ubjeenja. Vagabundizam koji ga karakterie, plod je nepresta-
nog konfliktnog sueljavanja sa neistomiljenicima, meu kojima su rijetki izni-
mci oni koji na humanoj ravni mogu suprotstaviti svoje miljenje. Po Juriju Lo-
tmanu, lik se reprezentuje u cijeloj svojoj funkcionalnosti tek onda kada se da u
suprotnosti sa drugim likovima, jer u razliitosti stoji njihova upore-divost.
Doma Ozrovi, ali i Antonije Seo dati su u komparaciji sa Slavenom Jabukiem.
Sva trojica predstavljaju ogranak jednog stabla, meutim, genetske klice su se
izdiferencirale i izvrile razliitu preraspodjelu, tako da Slaven na planu svih
linih podstruktura postaje antipodni lik. Njegovo antijunatvo se vidi u tome
to on djeluje kao lik iz nekadanjih regionalistikih romana i on se izdvaja iz
integriteta kolektiva, ali u novoj sredini dolazi do ponitenja njegovih humanih
osobina, to jest, dolazi do ekspatrijacije te Jabuki postaje lik na moralnom gu-
bitku. Dakle, Doma i Antonije se na semantikom prostoru daju kao razueni,
aktivni, pozitivni, asocijativni na ivot, promjene i ljubav, a Slaven Jabuki kao
antijunak koji svojim ponaanjem favorizuje antiivot ili, makar, surogat ivota i
ljudskih osobenosti. Do pomirenja ovakvih krajnosti nikada ne dolazi.
Da je Doma Ozrovi nepopravljivi buntovnik i opozicionar najradikalnije
vrste, vidi se i po njegovom doivljaju prolosti. Ozroviev osvrt na blisku i dale-
ku istoriju nikada nije regulisan onim to stoji u istorijskim itankama koje se
publikuju za iru javnost, on tota iz onoga to je istorijsko ustrojstvo potire, u
tom je poduhvatu samo svoj i vrlo dalekovid. Za kralja Nikolu kae:

Vraam se naem mladom kralju Nikolici i njegovoj kraljici Mileni, Mii,
Minji, Manji i sa jo jedno desetak tepajuih deminutiva to svi poinju
sa M. Nikolin otac Mirko, inae veliki vojvoda grahovski, bi Boji i crno-
gorski, nesklon Srbima, pogotovo beogradskim, abakim, kragujeva-
kim i nikim, jednom izjavi da su mu vie pri srcu beogradskih svih se-
dam dahija, nego Karaoko i njegove samozvane vojvode. (347)

Domaeve, esto opasne igre sa istorijom, proistiu iz obilja podataka kojima
je raspolagao i iz napominjanog otpora prema serviranom i servilnom tumae-
nju onoga to je bilo, ali i iz onoga to je vantekstovno, ali ne i vanumjetniko i
tie se autorove sugestije da pokae istorijino i lice i nalije.
Antonije Seo se doivljava kao lik koji je najmanje zainteresovan za prolost,
pretke, groblja i stare kule; njegova ambicija je diplomatija i njegova lina
afirmisanost kroz tu granu spoljne politike. Ali, ba u krilu diplomatije, kao i pod
patronatom Velunove i Domaeve figure, shvata da reprezentovanje jedne
zemlje drugoj, podrazumijeva i znanje cijele njene prolosti u koju moraju biti
ukljuene i sve nacionalne zastranjenosti, ostraenosti, tabu-teme i dvolinosti
esto skrivene pod mistikom istorije. Kada se sretne licem u lice sa svim

maskama, predanjima i sumnjivim istinama, Antonije Seo se opredjeljuje za
budunost. Dodue, ni on nije imun na sve fosilne taloge prolih zbivanja,
hipersenzitivan je na sve oeve rijei pred odlazak na kolovanje u Beograd, ali
on ne eli da prolost bude optereujua putokazna smjernica svih njegovih
opredjeljenja. On je generisan osobitom porodinom genealogijom, a njome je
zagarantovana i ekskluzivnost njegovog karaktera. Iako se okree novom toku
istorije koju e sam kreirati i adaptirati sebi, ipak, da bi doao do te
samorazvojne instance, priznaje sebi da mu je Velun neophodan. U testa-
mentnom razgovoru oca i sina na stubama kule, najvie se razgovaralo o rodo-
slovima. Antonije se pokazao kao aktivan uesnik u dijalogu, a ne kao pasivan
slualac opsjednute oeve kozerske tirade koja je esto mogla da pree u
monoloki oblik, tako da je na Velunovo pominjanje paralelnih rodoslova o
istim porodicama, postavljao pitanja u prepoznatljivom seokom duhu:

Kako je mogue da ti nai tajni, ili paralelni rodoslovi jo postoje i kod
nas, i kod Ozrovia i kod Jabukia? Znaju se, citiraju, pamte se do u
detalje, a ima detalja kao u loe komponovanom narodnom spjevu. Za
Jabukie je ak i normalno da imaju vie rodoslovnih verzija: namnoili
su se kao da dolaze iz najmanje deset rodoslova.(307)

Ili:

Da li je tano da je na Cetinju, Crnojevia Rijeci, evu, Virpazaru,
Podgorici, Danilovgradu, pa i malom Kolainu, postojala pijaca udeenih
i ivopisno ukraenih rodoslova? (307)

Antonije Seo nipoto ne eli da bude marioneta namjetene prolosti, jer
zna, da ako su se i u jednoj drevnoj i slavnoj zemlji i rodoslovi i ordeni mogli
kupovati, onda, shodno kupljenom porijeklu, i istorija moe biti podeena tako
da ugodi svim razliitim uvstvima. Takva istorija obiluje manjkavostima, u njoj
ima nesagledivih maglina koje, recimo, Doma Ozrovi otkriva te od miste-
rioznosti pravi istinitost, a Antonije se ne eli zadravati na njima, smatrajui da
bi tako gubio od budunosti. Kada otkriva neto iz porodine prolosti, on to
ini da bi jasnije sagledao sadanje stanje. Njegova razmiljanja o Dunji Seo,
oevoj sestri, jesu proizvod fascinacije enom koja je, po njegovom miljenju,
bila nesvakidanja za njeno vrijeme i njeno podneblje.
Kada razmilja o Vojvodini, njega, u stvari, interesuje istorijska uzronost
ustrojstvo zbivanja po kojem se neto desilo ba tako, a ne drugaije.

On Vojvodinu nije mogao da nazove ni srpskom, ni maarskom, ni hrvat-
skom, ni rumunskom ili rusinskom, ni folksdojerskom, iako folksdojera

u Vojvodini vie nije bilo, ve samo vojvoanskom. Za njega je Vojvodina
bila samo vojvoanska, iako su je nekolike kolonizacije pokuale oteti od
Pete i Bea i sasvim je pribliiti Beogradu i umadiji. (337)

Po razumijevanju svih prolih, jasnih i nejasnih dogaajnosti, i Do-
ma Ozrovi i Antonije Seo, jesu inovativne karakterne figuracije crn-
ogorske literature. Ozrovievo nepriznavanje nametnutih konanosti i
otpor prema tuinskom, ali i crnogorskom marginalizovanju svakog
uea matice u krupnijim dogaanjima, kao i Seoevo aristokratsko
prenebregavanje svega onoga to bi moglo da umanji njegovo sopstvo,
jesu koraci modernog ovjeka ija motorika proizvodi novu dimenziju
vremena i ak, futuristiko raunanje ivota kao trajnog procesa.
Istorija je tok stvari, povezanost dogaaja, koja se ne saznaje prima-
rno na nain planiranja i oekivanja i nesigurnog predznanja, nego su-
tinski uvek kao neto to se ve dogodilo. Ali time ova povezanost
pripada sasvim drugoj dimenziji. Ovde slobodna odluka pojedinca nije
uraunata u neki raun sa predvidivim rezultatom. Ona se tu, naprotiv,
saznaje kao ono to nije bilo predvieno, i to je upravo time to se do-
godilo tako kako se dogodilo, stvorilo istoriju. To su scene slobode iz
kojih se, prema Rankeu, sastoji svetska istorija. Ta formulacija doputa
da se istorija prikae kao pozornica (Gadamer 97).

U romanu Ljubavnik Duklje Ozrovi i Seo jesu savremeni generatori koji
koncipiraju dogaaje drugaije od svojih predaka, drugaije i od Veluna Seoa,
za njih je svako trajanje istovremeno i emocionalna potvrda koja podlijee sudu
budunosti.
Jedan u nizu sugestivnih likova koji opovrgavaju mehanizam oekivanosti i
predvidljivosti, jeste Mijat Seo, zvani Mijat Rus. Kad se kae karakteroloka
oekivanost, ne misli se samo na paradigmatsku ustolienost likova koja se tie
samo ovog romana, ve, prije svega na trajanje ojsko-junakog modaliteta koji
je uspostavljen upravo crnogorskom literaturom nastajalom mnogo prije Brko-
vievog opusa. Mijat Rus posjeduje manduievsku duevnost tipino slo-
venskog porijekla, miunoviku odlunost na akciju i markomiljanovsku karakte-
roloku skrupuloznost, ali iz tog epskog prostora on, ipak, unekoliko izlazi i
formira se kao junak savremenog doba. Novomilenijumskim ga ini uvanje
sopstvene intimne batine i neodavanje riterskog asti, to je u suprotnosti sa
tipino regionalnim anegdotsko hiperbolisanim samoiskaziva-njem. To da je
Mijat Rus svojevremeno bio najvei zavodnik na ruskom dvoru i da je zbog
intrigantnih pozicija jedva izvukao ivu glavu, znalo se samo po uvenju, a od
njega samog ne. U familijarnom krugu apatom se govorilo o njegovim don-
uanskim potencijalima, a glasno se hvalospjevisalo samo o njegovim ratnim

podvizima ija se veliina shvatila tek posthumno. Kada se u porodinom
pripovijedanju govorilo o njegovoj smrti 1918., onih dana, dakle, kada je Crna
Gora izgubila svoju nezavisnost i meunarodnu veliajnost, to vie nije bila pria
iz porodinog predanja, nego apoteoza junaku koji se ne prilagoava nijednoj
sredini, struji ili sili, ve je dosljedan samom sebi, makar ga to kotalo gubitka
ivota. Kao da je naslutio smrt, toga dana kada ga je zaista i zadesila, obukao je
sveanu uniformu sa cjelokupnim ordenjem. Odluno se pokuao suprotstaviti
srpskoj invaziji na kulu i imanje Seoa, ali tog sunanikog dana on je bio
usamljeni pojedinac usred militantne kolektivne ostraenosti, pojedinac prede-
stiniran da umre za jedino pare svoje zemlje u cijelom univerzumu.
Narednik Mici prie Mijatu, otkide mu medalju s bluze, dohvati ga za brk i
pljunu mu u lice. Jedan ga vojnik udari nogom u tur i skide mu kapu. Mijat nika-
ko da shvati ta se to s njim na njegovom guvnu deava: bez kape, bez medalje,
iupanog brka i popljuvanog lica, smoga snage da se uspravi i podigne: ,,Mr s
moje zemlje i moga imanja, nikakva vojsko!(Brkovi 127)
Starac Mijat Rus je u navedenoj porodinoj noveli prikazan oksimoronskim
potezima u jednom trenutku je paradan, lijep, dostojanstven, sa sveanim
naumom da protjera uljeze sa sunanikog imanja i mladikim afinitetom da to
zaista i ostvari, a u drugoj slici se daje kao neko ko za tren gubi prisebnost, jer
postaje izvor rugla i egaenja u novopridoloj obijesti i poasti. To stanje je
kratkotrajno, jer Mijat puca u vodnika Milenkovia, ime i sebi presuuje.
Paradoks je vei onda kada italac saznaje da su u sunanikoj kuli odate
posmrtne poasti i krvniku i delatu.
U vrijeme revolucionarnih istorijskih tokova, stvari se deavaju takvom
motorikom da pitajui i mislei pojedinac ne moe nai adekvatne odgovore,
naprotiv, nosi ga kovitlac istorije. Ali, sa take gledita koja pretpostavlja
udaljenost od zamuenih tokova, pojedinac ima pravo na sumnju i ak na
preinaavanje navodnih fakticiteta. Lik Mijata Rusa upotrijebljen je kao sredstvo
samospoznaje svih mukih likova u romanu, jer svi oni jesu tumai spoljanjih
dogaanja koja su uslovnosti i uzronici unutranjih procesa.

Znai li kauzalitet u istoriji ukidanje ovekove slobode, raskrinkavanje
ovekove svesti o slobodi kao puke iluzije? Pretpostavlja li kauzalitet
slobodu ili je upravo iskljuuje? Sve su to pitanja koja ine nezaobila-
znim vraanje na praizvorno razumevanje onoga to podrazumevamo
pod kauzalitetom. (Gadamer 62)


Literatura

Aristotel. Pesnika umjetnost. Beograd: Zavod za udbenike i nastavna sredstva,
1988.
Brkovi, Jevrem. Ljubavnik Duklje. Podgorica: DANU, 2006.
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Pohvala teoriji. Podgorica: Oktoih, 1996.
Lotman, J.M. Semiosfera. Novi Sad: Svetovi, 2004.
Lotman, J.M. Struktura umetnikog teksta. Beograd: Nolit, 1976.

PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFILES OF MALE CHARACTERS IN THE LOVER OF DUKLJA

This text analizes all the elements which regulate factors of psychological
illumination of characters in a modern novel such as The Lover of Duklja by
Jevrem Brkovi. The introspective rapine is examined throughout inner
monologue technique and live speech, which are the most frequent in this work.
Anthropologic methodology of characterization moves standardized borders and
presents the main character, who is completely innormative in a relation with the
characters constructed in the era of socialistic realism. A modern main character
is dispersed and transformative, in collision with the outer world and often closed
in to himself. Beams of binary dissemination of personality contribute to a
complete polarization, so that the reader is presented a character who is torn
with intellectual and moral doubts, which are actualized in 20
th
century. Horizon
of expectation is being transcended, because in front of the auditorium there is
a Montenegrin novel which plunges a past full of taboos and profiles urban
characterswho take new perspectives to criticize the old and interpret the new.

Key words: figure, character, modern figure, rays of binary spread, horizon
of expectation.


UDK 821.134.2.09-31
82-225

The Enlargement of Various Definitions
Parody and Its Revival

Iskra Tasevska Hadji Boshkova, Ss. Cyril and Methodius
University, Skopje

Abstract: Analyzing parody in this contemporary literary and methodological sphere
may appear to be anachronistic, considering the specific accounts, that represent quality
base, and upgrade the theoretical postulates. Yet, the idea of reactualizing parody in the
light of one classic text, such as the novel Don Quixote of Miguel De Cervantes
Saavedra is not aspiring to provoke transformation of the common theoretical stands
(antic, modern, and postmodern), nor their confrontation in order to achieve an isolated
valorization. The primary intent is to underline once more the impossibility parody to be
connected with certain generic concept (rendering this novel parody of chivalric
romances), and then this intent is spread through the multidirectional analysis of parody,
the fact that seems to be done necessarily, and comprehensively. Parody in the novel
Don Quixote is being analyzed concerning its three-folded nature textual, discursive,
and phenomenological, elements that describe the conditional nature of parody in
general. The textual approach to parody in fact includes the narratological analysis, and
the formal acceptance of parody as a trope. The examples that follow the account make
parody perceptive through the characteristic of certain personae, playful dispositions,
framed texts, transpositions of names, etc. On the other hand, the discursive approach
includes examples that highlight narrative specifics, the level of narration, and narrative
stance, thus functioning as a second area of parodys realization. The phenomenological
analysis of parody is consequently the third aspect, through which the novels
possibilities can be depicted, and the selected episode of the enchanted Dulcinea is not
the only one, that can be exposed to a certain phenomenological inquiry. Mainly, this
approach is directed towards the variations of meaning, and especially the potential stock
of the meaning. Through the intentional act (and the effects of parody), this meaning
achieves its full actualization.

Key words: parody, Don Quixote, narratology, discursive theory, phenomenological
analysis

In this contemporary scientific and knowledge sphere, to think (or write)
about parody would appear to be an anachronistic process. Thus, striving to
give more than misunderstood theorizing, and more than simple text with

theoretical content, this article (through our unique sense of unwillingly
decomposed matters, of which parody is one typical example) will therefore
provide one kind of proposal for reintegration, and reunion of various
definitions, that are essentially gathered around one equally ambiguous topic.
This kind of approach is productive for the new possibility that literary and
cultural theory are offering excessively. That new possibility (as we try to
explain) integrates several stances: the ancient definitions of parody as trope,
modern and postmodern applications of the term, and all this uses are then
seen in the light of one classic, but usually designated as modern literary text
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. The following question thus arises how
is it possible to combine the ideas and theoretical aspects, focusing on a text
which belongs to the classic, Renaissance (and, thus overgrown) epoch of
literature (and literary theory as well)? Here, we feel that it is important to
acknowledge the ancient inheritance, influencing the whole Renaissance
literature, and, in that manner, parody as well.
Still, the analysis we are willing to provide under the terms of literary
specification, narratology, and phenomenology is more than explication of
parody it strives over the classical (formalistic) approach of Viktor Shklovsky
(parody as making of stories, ambivalent characters and plot), and that is why
we are observing the discourse of this story as one of a kind, more than a
pastoral foundation:

This game of shepherds and shepherdesses is in fact the source for all
of the pastoral scenes in the novel. Cervantes himself wrote pastoral
novels in this same conventional spirit. Pastoral scenes are numerous
throughout Don Quixote, and at times we are led to believe that the
whole novel is about to take off on a new tangent that will turn it into a
pastoral. In fact, after his defeat at the hand of the Knight of the White
Moon, Don Quixote goes home, intent upon becoming a shepherd.
(Shklovsky 100)

Ancient poetics gives, at the same time, the etymology of parody. First of
all, it is being understood as inadequate and unimportant (as a characteristics
gained from its content mocking, non-heroic, laughable). Margaret A. Rose
combines the attitudes of several ancient scholars towards parody, thus
depicting the ancient state of affairs: Aristotle in his Poetics is describing parody
not directly, but inwardly as connected to comedy, which is thus stigmatized as
unserious; then, Rose cites Fred W. Householder Jr., who evokes Aristotle and
Quintilian, especially the latter, because his definition of as a song
whose imitations are provided by the abuses of language is not correspondent
to the actual meaning of the term parodia, usually defined (by Athenaeus,

Hegemon, etc.) as a narrative poem of moderate length, in epic meter, using
epic vocabulary, and treating a light, satirical, or mock-heroic subject (7). On
the other hand, if we treat this subject mainly through its etymology, as
Lelivre does, we can see that it suggests more than one meaning the prefix
para implies both states: something near and something opposite, generally
noted by Linda Hutcheon as intimacy instead of a contrast (32). Rose also
describes the 16th Century scholars, and their way of approaching to the
problem of parody J. C. Scaligers Poetices libri septem, whose term ridiculous
directly points to the inverted words of poems and songs of the ancient
rhapsodists; John Florio, who understands parody as a turning of a verse by
altering some words (10), which led to the 19th Century DIsraelis definition
of parody as spreading out on alternation and variation in text (or work of art).
It is notable that all of these ancient scholars pointed out the indubitable fact
there is something comical and mocking in the essence of parody, and it seems
to us that parody is precisely indebted to this kind of quality. We feel that Rose
is quite right when she depicts the variety of similar forms to parody:

Other forms related to the types of parody known to the ancient were
what has been called the cento or centones (a string of quotations, also
termed a quolibet after the Baroque), which may not necessarily be
parodic or comic, but which can be used in parody, or for parodic
purposes, and the , or silloi (from the singular sillos). These silloi
(or squint-eyed pieces as they have also been called in English) were
epic poems in mock-Homeric hexameters used to attack philosophical
argument. (16-17)

Linda Hutcheon in her book A Theory of Parody gives us a profound analysis of
modern uses of the term parody, as well as her own specific characterization of
parody as a form of repetition, form that is established through ironic critical
distance, and the pragmatic aspect. It is true that one of the main ancient
aspects of parody should not be forgotten its well-defined function as a
parallel, or a kind of imitation, code structure as re-coding (bitextual
determination, as Jenny states), whose intention varies from respectful
admiration to biting ridicule (Hutcheon 16). The fact that Hutcheon sees parody
as double-text relation, but also as something which stresses the difference
(especially because this is the fact by which it is differentiated from pastiche)
revokes the pragmatic readers aspect: Parody is to pastiche, perhaps, as
rhetorical trope is to clich. In pastiche and clich, difference can be said to be
reduced to similarity (38). Still, acknowledging the importance of textualization,
and contextualization, Hutcheon opens up a well-known, but problematic aspect
the pragmatic range of parody. If we are to see its specifics, it should be

stated as reworking, incorporating. Parody is closely related to irony on structural
and semiotic level, but also to satire on pragmatic level. The fact that parody
always supposes encoding and decoding undoubtedly describes and underlines
the instance of the reader, as a willing subject in the course of plot formation,
and interpretation. Here we should note that sense of game, playfulness of
parody as presupposition, and privileged knowledge of readers interpretative
intention. This is also synthesized in this statement:

Irony can be seen to operate on a microcosmic (semantic) level in the
same way that parody does on macrocosmic (textual) level, because
parody too is marking of difference, also by means of superimposition
(this time, textual rather than semantic context). Both trope and genre,
therefore, combines difference and synthesis, otherness and
incorporation. (Hutcheon 54)

Parody as a genre and trope also brings about the aspects of meaning and
discourse on the one hand, the meaning is derived through writing and
reading, but on the other, the later also requires some common language
transformations, and so-to-speak speech act potential. This way of approaching
the problem of parody is very familiar to Simon Dentith, who defines parody in
the light of word intonation, discursive communities, and in the way language is
being altered through epochs of development: The slang of one generation
becomes the target of parody in the next: hip and ace are long since as comic
as ripping and jolly good, and to use them would be to make yourself subject
to mocking laughter, (2) or: Parody involves the imitation and transformation
of anothers words (3). All these statements underline the cultural allusive
imitation as central to parody. In order to explain the discursive nature of
parody, we find theoretical postulates of Grard Genette and Mikhail M.
Bakhtin most helpful. Generally, Genette relates parody with its antic
inheritance, especially citing Scaligers statement about the close connection
between parody and rhapsody, thus provoking the tight co-existence between
parody and the epic. As to the depiction of the real bond concerning parody
and the pastiche, the mock-heroic element is the similar characteristics, but the
fact that they are already inscribed in the very text of the epic, (Genette 15)
gives us important direction to understand the recurrent formulas, and
retardations in the epic as parody elements. The discursive nature of parody
can also be apprehended through the distinction noble/vulgar, satirical/non-
satirical (proper parody is one of satirical kinds), transformation/imitation, etc.
However, in order to achieve better perceptibility of the different modes of
speech, and intention that brings about parody, Genette finds out the
polemical mode between satiric, and the serious (thus characterizing Miguel De

Unamunos anti-Cervantian book The Life of Don Quixote), and the playful
manner (specifics of parody) between the ironic, and the humorous. We find
this argument most inspiring, because Don Quixote is exclusively based on
distortion of these delimitations, and again (in parts) their confirmation.
Having in perspective this specific nature of parody, we must not omit the
fruitful implications of Bakhtins theoretical views. Analyzing the double-voiced
speech (as transformation, equivalent to the supposed heteroglossia), Bakhtin
determines its qualities: he voice of the Other is speech into speech,
enunciation into enunciation, but, at the same time, speech on speech,
enunciation on enunciation (1980, 128). This category is crucial for the
existence of dialogism into the text, but also to the perception of the context.
Bakhtins stratification brings upon the question of verbal presence of this
heteroglossia, mainly perceived as modification of the direct, and the indirect
speech. However, most applicable to parody are the verbal-analytic
modification of the indirect speech (where the words of the Other are present
in the indirect enunciation, notable in Don Quixote in the context of consulted
literature for writing the novel, and the one read by Don Quixote), and the
irregular direct speech, in which most of the variously directed intentions are
intersecting, and are disclosed. This classification is made more perceptible
through the double characterization, that confirms parody as multidirectional
double-voiced speech, that transfers various, and mostly opposite intentions,
and marked accents: The voice of the Other always sounds in our mouth as
strange to us, very often with ironic, playful, rabble-rousing intonation (Bahtin
2000: 183). All these statements compel us to note the indetermination, and
multiplicity of Bakhtinian statements and opinions in contrast to widely
structuralist Genettian stance.
Here, we feel obliged to reaffirm and re-examine the actual discursive
power of parody. To do so, there are several notions that need to be taken into
consideration (more precisely, the Foucauldian discursive pattern). Michel
Foucault and his statement about the conjunction of knowledge, power, and
truth as actual elements of the dominant discourse gives us opportunity to
rearrange and re-confront parody, and its textual aliveness. Sara Mills, in her
observations about discourse and ideology, clearly delimits the truth, the
subject, and the economic determinants as characteristics of ideology. If we
examine this statement: The notion within ideology of false consciousness
assumes that there is a consciousness which is not false (Mills 29), we can note
how Bakhtinian thought has evolved from Marxist critics to post-structuralist
(same is true about Foucault). That is why we must feel free to rearrange, and
consider parody as specific turnover from the dominant discourse (political,
social, artistic, etc.), form of disobedience, and divergent stance. This is one of

the most important characteristics of parody in this contemporary world.
However, Foucault also reminds us of something which is crucial:

They (the discursive relations) are actually on the margins of the
discourse: they offer him objects on which it can discuss, or more
precisely [] they determine the tangle of relations, that discourse
should accomplish in order to be able to speak of this, or that object, to
be able to examine it, name it, analyze it, classify, explain, etc. (51)

All these assertions only highlight the fact that there is no discursive practice
independent of the discursive relations, thus no discourse is isolated from the
dominant one. That is why it is most important, in order to achieve pertinence,
and wide-spread applicability, to range and examine parody as textual (tropic),
discursive, and phenomenological mode of being.
Genette acquires one textual perspective of the existence of parody, derived
from various examples, one of which is the novel Don Quixote. Firstly, we
reconsider the terminological implications (the definitions of this novel as
modern, realistic, etc.), also noting the absurdity of describing parody through
generic modifications (Don Quixote understood as parody of the chivalric
romances). Genette comes upon different transformations that this text is
exposed to, from objective forgery of identity, to lucid imitations, pastiche, etc.
If we consider all the terminological delimitations that Genette made, from
parody (as applied noble text to vulgar/real action) to burlesque travesty (a
noble text transformed into a vulgar style, with characters that kept their
identity), and mock-heroic poem (where vulgar subject is treated in noble
style), we can see that all these observations (including the textual ones)
converge with the primary definition of parody. We take these conclusions to
be applicable to the textual nature of parody, and we examine them through
several examples. First of all, we take the construction of the attributes of
several characters:

Our hidalgo was around fifty, strong, but skinny, with a scrawny face.
He was fond of waking up early, and going on a hunt. They say his
surname had been Quixada, or Quesada, but it is a question that the
authors could not agree upon, although there are authentic retentions
that his name was Quixana. But, that is of little importance, it is enough
for our story not to be substantially withdrawn from the truth. (
1: 33)

Thus, Sancho arrived with its escort at a village of about 1000 citizens,
one of the best in dukes possession. [] The bells started to toll, and in

the middle of common happiness Sancho was led to the cathedral with
honor, in order to address a prayer to God, and then he was given the
keys of this little town with some hilarious ceremonies, and they
received him as a lifelong governor of the island Baratarya. []
Remember, said Sancho, not I, nor anybody of my kinship was ever a
Don. They simply called me Sancho Panza, Sancho was the name of
my father, my grandfather, and all the Panzas were without any
complement Don or Donna. After all, I think that in this island there
are more Dons than stones. ( 2: 365-366)

Reading through these quotations, we can note several important elements
of parody: the elements of parody are derived from the specific quasi-imitative,
quasi-original figure of Don Quixote, enriched with the attributes of his horse
Rocinant, and his servant Sancho. They are described as untypical figures
(concerning the chivalric tradition), but the playful manner in which they are
represented disables the rejection, and the denial of this fictional world. At first
glance, the Dons madness is something that we perceive as undoubtedly true,
incorporated into his physical, and psychological condition. That is the way we
interpret all the statements, accepting their dominant humor. However, soon
after reading the passages that define Don Quixotes passion for reading novels
(among them even the previous novel of Cervantes!), combined with the
gallant, and high (noble) style of the sentences, whose sense would not be
able to recapture, or understand Aristotle, even if he resurrected only because
of it ( 1: 34), we feel free to note the textual aspect of
parody as a playful, and polemical relation.
It is interesting to affirm the ways in which parody in this text projects its
inconsistency, and polyvalencethe playful, humorous notes of Sancho Panza,
and his deformations of the proverbs; satirical range of deforming classical (and
typical for the romances) poems and sonnets, but also their inner polemics
(discrepancy in dividing the words, and phrases), focused both on their form,
and their sense. The textual strength of parody can be also observed through
the so-called paratexts dedications from the author (with his divided identity,
although he is designated), and prologues, through which the supposed author
is in dialogue with the inscribed reader (incarnated in the figure of authors
friend), which are actually critical, and polemical answers of the problems of art
in general, metafictional, and metapoetic dialogue with the Aristotelian poetics,
and the medieval tradition. The unclosed and direct revelation of authors
intent the goal to undermine the bad and disastrous influence of chivalric
romances again marks the textual power of parody, and its ambivalence is
pointed to rupture of any kind (in narration, character, plot, references, etc.).
The specific status of this form of parody, present in this textual level, can also

be seen through the mixture of various elements (and, conditionally, genres)
we observe elements of the burlesque in form of disfiguration of speech
(widely noted in Sancho Panzas utterance), and through mock-heroic elements
as well (the final transformation/transgression of Sanchos attributes, seen as a
shadow through the accepted words of Don Quixote). The omnipresent parody
on textual level obtains one effective result total disintegration of identity
through versatile, polemically oriented deformations (Don Quixotethe Knight
of the Doleful Countenance, Tereza Panza-Huana Panza-Tereza Cascaxo,
Aldonza LorenzoDulcinea del Toboso, etc.).
The treatment of discursive diversity, and discursive elements of parody
require a more applicated, and extended approach. In fact, this kind of account
defines and re-examines the premises of Foucauldian theoretical paradigm. He
ranges the field of discourse as limitation of the considered objects, that are
actually created by the practices of discourse. In order to understand the
creation of discourse object, instead of their nature as ready-made facts, we
need to figure out and apprehend their excessive authority, and function as
borderline of various human utterances. It seems indubitable that this
conception in fact reveals the relative character of the real, especially in
practices of presentation, and transformation. Approaching to the discursive
elements of parody, we need to delimit their characteristics. If we try to define
the term discourse as specific speech, formal conversation, interaction where
something is held to be true (beliefs, statements, etc.), transferred to someone
else, it is notable that parts of the text, and even the whole text can be realized,
and conceived as a discourse. However, if we do not overlook Foucaults
definitions, the structured character of discourse cannot be omitted. The rules,
and factors that delimit discourses are not only social, cultural (external), but
are also governed by the intrinsic discursive structure. That is why, in order to
realize, and depict the specific nature of parody as a discursive entity, a textual
limitation must be provided. An argument for this statement can be obtained
through the relation between the narrator, and the two authors in the novel
Don Quixote. Similarly, it can be revealed through the manifold of personae,
that tell a certain incorporated story (mise en abyme). Several examples would
be helpful:

But, it is I, who is actually a stepson (not a father) to Don Quixote, and I
am not willing to take the usual steps, nor I will beg you, my dear
reader, like others, eyes filmed over with tears, to forgive or to pass
over the flaws, noticeable in this creation of mine. You are not a cousin,
nor a friend to my hero. ( 1: 7)


I can also mention some other particularities, but they are of little
importance, and do not contribute at all to the truthfulness of this
history, which is by no means bad if its content is true. If we can make
any kind of remark about its veracity, then it is probably the fact that its
author is an Arab, because they are noted for their lies. Actually, Arabs
are our big enemy, and it can be supposed that the author would rather
put some characters down, instead of saying a word more. (
1: 93)

The parish priest understood their common desire, and said: Prepare,
and beware, because the story goes like this: In Florence, a rich and
famous town in Italy, in the region called Toscana, lived Ancelmo and
Lothario, the two rich and noble knights, tightly knit together by great
friendship, thus called The Two Friends. ( 1:
349)

In the first example, the general narrator of the story is connected (or
identified) with the author (especially if we consider the title The Authors
Preface instead of marking it as prologue in the English publication of this
novel). However, after a few passages, the confirmed author of this novel is
perplexed, and related to the actual (and primary) author, namely some
Moorish chronicler Cide Hamete Benengeli, who is, unfortunately, because of
being a Moor not a reliable one. This facts lead to a different kind of conclusion
it is actually the transdiscursive power of parody that is being demonstrated
here: first, the disrupted identity of the relation author/narrator, imagined
through their vivid interplay (a parodization of authorship as well); second, the
distinctive trans-contextualization, and vigorous dialogue with the predominant
(medieval) prejudices, transformed into a cross-cultural, and interreligious
confrontation. The rules of this dominant discursive structure are being held in
potentiality, and then are being released through the scope of pseudo-
historical context. That is why this text is timeless, and can be read throughout
various historical epochs.
In fact, the discursive rules are only demarking the field, in which parody can
transform everything into a playful and polemical diversion. This kind of
discursive interplay is roused by the narrators transformations as well, that can
be noted in the third example. The narrators interim actuality is usually provided
by one of the characters (as substitute for the narrator), that explicates, or retells
a certain (well-defined) kind of story. The third quotation is a fragment of the
famous episode The impertinently curious man, which is a good example, and
can demonstrate diverse functions of parody from a kind of formal and
material disintegration of love poems, letters, and sonnets, to religious, and

metatheoretical (philosophical, poetical) contemplations, that are polemically
involved into the higher discursive structure. The melodramatic end of this
story, filled with declarations of self-sacrifices, again highlights the discursive
range of parody, its dialogic (intertextual) nature, and the effects that, instead
of being unidirectional (concerning the action), spread on style, subject, matter,
characters, etc.
In order to approach to parody from a phenomenological point of view, we
call our intention upon one example, that quotes Erich Auerbach as to explain
the stylistic, and the philosophical range of the novel. It is one of the major
episodes, where the grotesque of courtly love, and deception is at the highest
level (as well as the final disintegration of characters):

By this time, Don Quixote was down on his knees beside Sancho. His
eyes were fairly starting from their sockets, and there was a deeply
troubled look in them as he stared up at the one whom Sancho had
called queen and lady; all that he could see in her was a village wench,
and not a very pretty one at that, for she was round-faced and snub-
nosed. He was astounded and perplexed and did not dare to open his
mouth. The girls were also very much astonished to behold these two
men, so different in appearance, kneeling in front of one of them so
that she could not pass. It was this one who most ungraciously broke
the silence. (Auerbach 336-337)

The phenomenological perception of intentional acts (in Ingardens sense)
proves to be very applicable to this sequence. In order to maintain directedness
in our account, first we should make clear the distinction between the
intentional act (characterized with its specific intentional object, and the range
of its attributes/noema), a mental act based on a certain non-existent (but also
not ideal) object, and the stratification of the literary work of art (segmentation
of different strata), among which the stratum of meaning units is of great
importance to our analysis. The fact that the literary work of art has a totally
different mode of existence compared to the ideal objectifications, but
depends on them in the stratum of meaning units, urges us to apply an
approach different from the previous acknowledgements (of Karl Bhler,
Edmund Husserl, Rene Welek, etc.). Ingardens phenomenology is, among other
things, based on differentiation between the nominal word meanings, and the
functional concepts. The nominal word meanings have a five-folded structure,
and some of their most important elements are the material and the formal
content, as well as the intentional directional factor (which is more significant
to the studies of the syntax). The material and the formal content of the
meaning are truly important to depicting the variations and transformations

that parody can perform over an existing objects. In fact, the abovementioned
quotation is a perceptible example of the relation between the formal, and the
material content. Literary work of art as an intentional object defines itself in
terms of intentional correlates of the sentence, that are in fact fictional
adequate of propositional statements. The dilemma between the real and the
fictitious can be solved through this conception on the one hand, pure
intentional objects (derived from such acts) are strictly subjective, and they are
a result of one conscious subject, while on the other, the derived intentional
object (the ones pertaining to the literary work of art) are actually
intersubjective, and they have already lost their emotional, and value
characters. Thus, the problem between the real and the fictitious is something
that can be observed in parody through the phenomenological interpretation.
The abovementioned example provides two kinds of statements assertive
propositions, whose character is unconditioned, and sentences that express a
supposition. In fact, through this second kind we can observe the full energy of
parody in action, because its diversionary power is inscribed into various
attributes (changes in material content) round-faced, snub-nosed,
ungraciously broke the silence, etc. However, if we analyze the paragraph as a
whole, we can mark several transpositions in intentional object as well the
way of depicting this scene alludes to comical ambivalence, and crucial change
of the dominant perspective, where the narrators point of view and Don
Quixotes stance suddenly merged. The confirmation of this statement can be
noted through the changing of position between the ambivalent characters.
Effectively, this process affirms the intentional object that gains its double
structure, after being conceived as unique the potential stock of the meaning
is emerging, and according to this, everything kept in aliveness ironical
confrontations, humorous implications, that range the playful side of parody.
That is why Auerbach points out the inevitable effect of this episode, and
according to this statement, the realized grotesque inscribes the active
presence of serious and humorous (satiric), thus providing the polemical, and
widely spread double-voiced strength of parody:

Many illustrators have rendered the scene: Don Quixote on his knees
beside Sancho, staring in wide-eyed bewilderment at the repellent
spectacle before him. But only the stylistic contrast in the speeches,
and the grotesque moment at the end (Dulcineas fall and remounting),
afford the fullest enjoyment of what is going on. (339)

Instead of conclusion, we can use the dialogical and innovative nature of
language constructions to describe the parodical ambivalence, and
reoccurrence the same way that Don Quixote was born for Cervantes, and

vice versa, parody was also born for interpreters, who wish to examine the
limitations of meaning in that syntactical, and discursive construction called
text, in the same way that these people were born to invent it.

Bibliography

Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis, the Representation of Reality in Western Literature.
Fiftieth-Aniversary Edition. Transl. Willard R. Trask. Princeton: Princeton UP,
2003.
Bahtin, Mihail. Marksizam i filozofija jezika. Prev. Radovan Matijaevi.
Beograd: Nolit, 1980.
___________. Problemi poetike Dostojevskog. Prev. Milica Nikoli. Beograd:
Nolit, 2000.
Dentith, Simon. Parody. London: Routledge, 2005.
, .
. 1 2. : . : , 1985.
, . . . :
, 1983.
Genette, Grard. Palimpsests, Literature in the Second Degree. Transl.Channa
Newman and Claude Doubinsky. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1997.
Hir, E. D. Naela tumaenja. Prevod Tihomir Vukovi. Beograd: Nolit, 1983.
Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody, the Teachings of Twentieth Century Art
Forms. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 2000.
Ingarden, Roman. The Literary Work of Art. Translation: George G. Grabowicz.
Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1973.
Mills, Sara. Discourse. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2004.
Ricoeur, Paul. Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning. 7th
ed. Fort Worth: Texas Christian UP, 1976.
Rose, Margaret. Parody: Ancient, Modern, and Post-Modern. 2nd ed.
Cambridge: CUP, 1995.
Shklovsky, Viktor. Theory of Prose. Translation: Benjamin Sher. London: Dalkey
Archive, 1991.

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UDK 811
Derridas Methodology

Chung Chin-Yi, National University of Singapore

Abstract: In this paper I examine Derridas method as exemplified by several of his
texts. Derrida demonstrates that discourse is always simultaneously determined by its
shadow or ghost, because each moment of exclusion and distinction of its constituent
terms requires the opposing term as a relational Other and defining axis to be upheld.
Derrida thus demonstrates that transcendental and empirical are empty terms on their
own as philosophy requires its relation to non-philosophy to define itself, transcendental
and empirical only exist in relation to each other through iterability and differance. One
cannot define the transcendental in isolation from the empirical and vice versa. Truth is
thus neither transcendental nor empirical, but located in the space between that is quasi-
transcendental.

Keywords: transcendental, empirical, Derrida, method, style.

In this paper I will be examining Derridas methodology through reading
various Derrida texts that describe his method. I will describe differance, the
quasi-transcendental and iterability as essential to coming to an understanding
of Derridas method. Derrida discovers that the transcendental and empirical
are dynamically related through differance and iterability, or repetition with a
difference. The transcendental is thus not conceivable outside of its relation to
the empirical, and vice versa. Each moment of exclusion of the transcendental
from the empirical is necessary for maintaining the transcendental subject in
Husserl, just as Heideggers empirical Being requires the exclusion of Christian
ideology, accounting for the transcendental on empirical grounds, for his
radical worldliness to be defined. Transcendental is thus not conceivable
without the empirical and vice versa.
Derrida overcomes logocentrism by exceeding the text in locating the point of
exteriority and transcending its totality. This he does through an acknowledge-
ment of differance, the point of interaction between philosophy and empiricism,
or philosophy and non-philosophy. Differance is the acknowledgement of the
economy of conceptual oppositions of the structure within totality. These
conceptual oppositions are the condition of possibility for philosophy. This forges
a doubling of philosophy because empiricism had been traditionally relegated to
the place of supplement or absence. In place of totality, Derrida acknowledges

the play between presence and absence which makes philosophy possible. By
acknowledging that there is nothing outside the text, (Derrida 1976: 158)
Derrida is democratizing philosophy by demolishing the hierarchy of re-
presentation that claims that signified, or ideal, is superior to image, or sign. This
is because in his reading the supplement, or the sign, is interchangeable with the
signified and is in fact the very condition of its possibility. The hierarchy between
speech and writing also collapses as Derrida argues that there never has been
anything but writing (Derrida 1976: 158). There is no external referent or
transcendental signified that divides representation into signifier and signified,
but a chain of supplements that infinitely refer to each other. Derrida thus
overcomes totality and logocentrism by acknowledging the quasi-transcendental,
which is the repetition of the transcendental in the empirical. Derridas method is
to locate the limit of the text, or the limit of philosophy, and transgress it towards
what it had negated or what had been suppressed within the economy of its
conceptual oppositions. Deconstruction acknowledges this as a double writing
through iterability and the concept of signature. The absolute is only perpetuated
by the trace. The transcendental is only activated through its repetition as the
empirical in iterability. The transcendental does not exist outside the empirical,
just as the empirical does not exist outside the transcendental through
repetition.
What Derrida demonstrates in both Rousseaus autobiography and
philosophy is that each term is as vital to illuminating the other and thus cannot
function without the opposing term because it needs to exclude the opposing
term to be defined by it. There can be no nature without culture, voice without
writing as these perform an essential function, and these so called original
terms such as mothers are already supplements of an origin that does not exist.
The difference between these terms, the supplement, is excluded from
Rousseaus philosophy but demonstrated to be absolutely necessary by
Derrida. The supplement which had been designated as an absence is in fact
not a void but a replacement that is as much plenitude as the presence to
which it is supposed to be secondary. In this sense it is dangerous because it is a
doublement of the originary. The sign, as well as writing, which Rousseau had
marked as something subversive and secondary, is fully capable of functioning
in the place of the signified. The space between the supplement and the
originary that is the differance between the two is the a priori condition of both
to function. What nature had relegated as secondary to presence, such as
masturbation is in fact the condition of relating to otherness in the first place to
occur. Auto-affection that takes place in activities such as masturbation and
self-contemplation marks the division, the temporal delay and differance that is
the condition of communication and provides the entrance of absence.
Absence is the supplementary condition that co-exists with presence in order

for communication to occur. Presence and absence are not hierarchies in this
sense but doublings of each other, each replacing the other in what Derrida
calls the chain of supplements. The supplement exists in the plane between
presence and absence because it is the differance that enables the functioning
of metaphysics. Culture is another such supplement relegated to nature which
is its own a priori condition of possibility. Culture is not subservient or
secondary to nature but an essential condition of possibility to the forming of
the human, hence while Rousseau would valorise a sort of naturalist
primitivism in the noble savage Derrida demonstrates that culture is no less a
factor in determining the vagaries of human behaviour.
A supplement is an appendage, an addition which is extraneous and not
neccessary, an artificial aid or technology that is parasitical on the original.
Perhaps it is also an inferior copy of the original called upon to perform the
tasks of the original where the original is lacking. It makes up for a lack, as
Derrida calls it, it is a substitute. However where Rousseau would denigrate it
as something dangerous and evil because it lacks the qualities or the
presence of the original Derrida would argue that it is a replacement that is
necessary. Analogically, the empirical has been named an inferior copy of the
transcendental by Plato. Derridas intervention implies that it is not a parasitical
copy but a neccessary replacement or a section of an entire infrastructure,
economy or system. To this it is entirely essential and a necessary condition for
that which it replaces. Derrida shows that the origin is already a supplement
and the supplement is necessary to conceiving the primary term. For instance,
masturbation and auto-affection are the conditions of possibility for relating to
others, these are not secondary to nature. Wet-nurses are a neccessary
substitute for mothers when mothers are unable to perform that function.
Culture is not secondary to but equal to nature (and its condition of possibility).
On Derridas account, Rousseau claims that there has never been an
intermediary between everything and nothing. The supplement is an absence,
writing and representation are absences, in reality there is only presence and
plenitude. Speech and nature are examples of this. Derrida argues instead that
the supplement is not an absence but an intermediary, or the mediation
between presence and absence. The supplement is the differance that enables
both the existence of presence and absence. Rousseau argues that that writing
is only a supplement to speech, masturbation is a subservient evil to Nature,
and for Rousseau only speech or nature in its full plenitude or presence is
metaphysically concrete. Rousseau has formulated such arguments because he
believed in the value of presence and origin, or the absolute proximity of the
signifier to the signified, and in seeking to preserve the value of the origin and
voice, or a certain phonocentrism and logocentrism, Rousseau prioritizes the
originary element in philosophy as its superior element and very foundation.

Rousseau then denigrates as secondary all that is supplementary in philosophy.
Derrida demonstrates that such a move occludes and excludes the very
condition of possibility of his philosophy the supplement as the a priori
difference that is necessary to thinking both. Derrida wants to point out the
differance between everything and nothing, presence and absence that makes
metaphysics possible. This differance is the supplement or writing. This spacing
between transcendental and empirical, namely the quasi-transcendental,
conditions metaphysics through the distinguishing movement of the trace.
Derrida thus performs meta-phenomenology in naming differance and the quasi-
transcendental as the conditionality that produces metaphysics. Rousseau
protects not merely metaphysics, but logocentrism and phonocentrism, the
absolute proximity of the signifier to the signified, and the priority of the signified
over the signifier. What Derrida shows is that differance is necessary to
producing and thinking this very logocentrism and presence that would
otherwise not hold as that which is supplementary is an a priori condition of
possibility for thinking the structure of Rousseaus philosophy. Logocentrism
and phonocentrism would be impossible to conceive without the supplement
which Rousseau labels as dangerous and inferior.
Derrida justifies his use of the word supplement by using it as a tool to
explore the status of all that has been designated as the negative or subsidiary
pole of philosophy or systems of thought. The negative, Other, ghost or shadow,
and absence have always been relegated to a supplementary status in
philosophy. In his essay, Derrida argues that what is supplementary is essential
and necessary, an a priori condition of possibility. The quasi-transcendental
acknowledges the between of the supplement as intermediary which makes
philosophy possible, philosophy is neither transcendental nor empirical, but
enabled by the between or nothing, or differance which separates the two
(Derrida 1976: 157). The advantage of Derridas method over other methods of
reading is that it accounts for the conditions that make reading possible.
It makes for an inclusive reading rather than a partial or politically biased
reading, and there is politics that is being addressed. This politics is an ethics of
open-ness to the other and a hospitality to what had been traditionally been
relegated to a secondary and subservient status. In this way, the transcendental
or the Absolute is not reduced but expanded to include Otherness, making for a
reading that is democratic and just. Reading is thus informed by an ethics of
performing justice and hospitality rather than blindness and exclusion to the
Other and unthought of language. Deconstruction is performative as well as a
form of testament to forms of injustice which it then addresses by performing a
reading that addresses excluded differences and elements. Derrida demonstrates
that the condition of possibility for a texts reception is its repeatability, or
iterability. Without this trace or representation, nothing would be communicated

to consciousness. Deconstruction thus is a doubling commentary in the sense
that it takes the condition of possibility for the very act of reading to occur into
account, its necessity for mediation, or iterability. Derridas question, in place of
What is Philosophy, is What makes Philosophy possible? This entails an
examination of the conditions of possibility for reading. What Philosophy has
failed to acknowledge, is that it is precisely that, that it is a reading, or a certain
method of reading. A text, by its very nature, is open to just that, readings that
exceed the manifest intent that an author inscribes (what the author means
[voudrait dire]). Reading, as has been traditionally conceived, is the uncovering of
the latent meaning of a text. This is the transcendental signified or external
referent of meaning that the reader only discovers or sees. Derridas intervention
shows that reading is inevitably an act of production of signifying structures. The
reader invents and always exceeds what is latent in the text, and as Derrida
would have it, is entirely capable of identifying its blindspot and reading or seeing
beyond the circumscribed meaning of a text. This act of exceeding the blindspot
of the text is the opening of the text towards what had been latent within its
manifest structure, or as Derrida would put it, a doubling commentary.
Philosophy has to acknowledge that as a text, not indubitable Truth or the
Absolute, it is inescapably open to reading, which opens the text beyond its
circumscribed meaning. As Narcissus only acknowledges Echo
108
by identifying
the Other within himself, reading must be reflexive of its own (theatrical)
conditions of production in order for justice and love to be part of it. Derridas
intervention shows that reading is not an act of discovery but an act of invention,
in which one exceeds the circumscribed limits of the text to see beyond its
blindspots, inventing meaning where meaning is not latent or fixed but radically
uncertain and undecidable, open to the readers act of active invention, seeing,
decoding, interpretation and deciphering meaning where this had not been
determined prior to the readers intervention. Reading is thus an act of
production rather than a passive act of decoding latent meaning, and the reader
on Derridas account is no passive witness but an active reader who invents and
produces meaning, empowered to render a subjective perspective rather than
discover an objective reality or transcendental signified.
De Man has alleged, in The Rhetoric of Blindness, Derridas reading of
Rousseau (De Man, 1973) that Derrida sets up a straw man in the philosophy
that he reconfigures, that the texts are not blind to what they negate, but that
their purported blindness is a feature of its rhetoricity, or allegorical nature.
While this is a clever way to accuse Derrida of only discovering the figural, or
metaphor, it fails to acknowledge the fact that Philosophy has never set itself
out merely as a figural project. Philosophy has always claimed to be the

108
Jacques Derrida, Politics of Friendship (New York: Verso, 1997), 24.

repository of Truth. It has never set itself up as mere rhetoric. De Mans reading
thus fails to acknowledge what is at stake at the heart of the very project of
Philosophy. While De Mans reading accurately notes that what is at stake in
Derridas reading of philosophy is mediation, that is, its allegorical or
metaphorical nature, what De Mans reading fails to note is that Philosophy has
never acknowledged this mediation, has always privileged a logocentrism that
translates into transcendental or empirical idealism. While De Man accuses
Derrida of discovering a blindness that is already implicit in the text, this is a
clever sleight of hand that fails to note that Derridas real observation was
precisely that this structurality and metaphoricity is a condition of possibility for
our very ability to encounter and read the text. The text would not function
without this mediation or iterability, and it is this step towards highlighting the
necessary mediation and iterability of a text as a condition of possibility for its
reading that Derrida performs. While De Man rightly acknowledges that Derrida
highlights metaphoricity, De Man does not acknowledge that Derrida highlights
this figurality as a condition of possibility for reading as we require the
structurality of a text and its capacity for mediation to encounter it. De Man
thus fails to note that Derridas demonstration of metaphoricity is a condition
of possibility for reading a text and overcoming blindness rather than a simple
naming of its structurality that is already implicit. Derridas text is not blind to
the figurality that is implicit in Rousseau, rather it foregrounds this figurality as
a condition of possibility for reading, and hence while Rousseaus text would
elevate the value of presence, Derridas text foregrounds the importance of
metaphor, mediation and figurality to reading a text. Hence Derrida is not blind
to the figurality already implicit in Rousseau as de Man claims. Reading from de
Man:

The critical reading of Derridas critical reading of Rousseau shows
blindness to be the necessary correlative of the rhetorical nature of
literary language. Within the structure of the system text-reader-critic (in
which the critic can be defined as the second reader or reading), the
moment of blindness can be located differently. (De Man, 1973: 141)

De Man thus argues that blindness is selective and a feature of the
rhetorical nature of texts, but it is not true that Derrida is blind to this rhetorical
nature of texts and the figurality of Rousseaus writing because it is precisely
what he wishes to foreground in suggesting that differance and iterability are
the conditions of possibility for reading a text. Derrida is thus not selectively
blind to Rousseaus own figurality as De Man alleges, but seeking to foreground
this figurality as a condition of possibility for reading a text. Derrida is also not
selectively blind to presence as De Man alleges. Rather he wishes to highlight

differance and iterability as conditions of possibility for reading a text, so De
Man misreads him by accusing Derrida of being blind to presence in favour of
absence. It is thus not true, as De Man alleges, that Derrida takes a step
towards privileging absence which is what Rousseau is trying to protect the text
from, because Derrida highlights the difference and differance between the
opposing terms as the condition of possibility to thinking philosophy rather
than making any move to privilege absence in place of presence. Derrida thus
highlights differance and iterability as the conditions of possibility to reading a
text rather than performing a reversal of opposing terms as De Man alleges.
Derrida does not overturn presence in favour of absence as De Man suggests,
rather he enables us to see that presence must be mediated through absence
in the law of iterability that enables deconstruction. Presence and absence are
two sides of the same coin and supplementary rather than mutually exclusive,
because philosophy is an infinite chain of supplements rather than the
representation of a transcendental signified as Rousseau would have us believe
as he raises voice and origin to absolute status.
This paper, along with Derrida, questions the relation between the
transcendental and empirical. Derridas reconfiguration of philosophy through
his positing of the quasi-transcendental will be explored. Bennington defines
the quasi-transcendental as the location, rather than exclusion as what has
been supplementary in philosophy. Thus, the negative and empirical are
incorporated rather than introjected to expand metaphysics and embrace
alterity and otherness in the process. It will ask how this reconfiguration
strengthens or weakens the project of metaphysics. It will investigate the
implications of overturning the metaphysical hierarchy as well as the
implications of not choosing between the transcendental and the empirical, but
envisioning the monstrous birth of the quasi-transcendental. The quasi-
transcendental locates the transcendental and empirical in a paradoxical
relationship of simultaneous similarity and difference. It will explore the
difference between concept and metaphor in trying to determine if the
distinction between philosophy and literature is rigid as has been upheld by
institutions. It will ask the question, Is Derrida a philosopher? I interpret the
quasi-transcendental as an acknowledgement of the paradox that governs
metaphysics: the transcendental is simultaneously identical and different from
the empirical. The difference translates into a difference that is a non-
difference or a sameness. Therefore the quasi-transcendental is a thinking of
this paradox of identity in non-identity. The transcendental and empirical
remain separated and distinguished by nothing.
I will now discuss the relation between the transcendental and empirical as
accounted by Derrida. According to Derrida, the transcendental and empirical are
distinguished by nothing. This nothing, spacing or trace refers to the gap between

the transcendental and empirical which enables the phenomeno-logical
reduction. Were the transcendental and empirical ontologically separate and
distinct, no phenomenological reduction would be able to take place. But
because the transcendental has to be reducible to the empirical, and cannot exist
outside its repetition in the empirical, which is retrospectively formed through
the differentiating movement of the trace, the transcendental does not exist
separately from the empirical. Hence the a priori difference between the
transcendental and empirical translates as a difference which is nothing and
separates nothing. The transcendental translates into the empirical. As Derrida
argues, the transcendental ego is the empirical ego, and cannot exist outside of
it. Transcendental-empirical difference is an illusion. For instance, in Husserlian
discourse, expression is separable from indication. But Derrida demonstrates that
there can be no expression without indication, as expressive signs are, by their
very nature as a sign, indicative or referential to something else. Hence there can
be no pure expression reduced without indication, or pure transcendental
without empirical, as expression and indication are interwoven (Verflechtung)
rather than separable. Transcendental and empirical are thus not separable. They
exist in a dynamic relation of differance and iterability rather than being
ontologically distinct. It is the quasi-transcendental or the written mark,
functioning as if it was transcendental, which enables meta-physics as it is the
conditionality of transcendental-empirical differrentiation as well as the
condition of impossibility for designating an exclusive sphrere of idealism or
expressive signs, or empirical signs in converse. The quasi-transcendental relates
the transcendental and empirical in simultaneous identity and difference, identity
and non-identity. The necessity for the quasi-transcendental to distinguish the
transcendental and empirical makes it impossible to separate transcendental and
empirical as each separation depends on the other term for the distinction to be
upheld. If there were no empirical, then it would be impossible to distinguish, as
Husserl does, a pure transcendental idealism from it. The empirical thus inhabits
the transcendental even as it is separated from it through the written mark or
quasi-transcendental. Husserl requires the empirical to distinguish it from his
transcendental idealism. The transcendental only exists in relation to the
empirical through iterability and differance.
I now move on to the definitions of the quasi-transcendental by Gasche and
Bennington. Gasche defines the quasi-transcendental as such:

The quasi-transcendentals metaphoricity, for instance upon which
philosophys universality is grounded are no longer simply
transcendental, for they represent neither a priori structures of the
subjective cognition of objects nor the structures of understanding by
the Dasein. The quasi-transcendentals are, on the contrary, conditions

of possibility and impossibility concerning the very conceptual
difference between subject and object and even Dasein and Being.
The question of the quasi-transcendental, of quasi-metaphoricity in
this case, is a judiciary question in a new sense. Instead of inquiring into
the a priori and logical credentials of the philosophical discourse,
Derridas heterology is the setting out of a law that is written on the
tinfoil of mirrors between which thought can either maintain the
separation of fact and principle in an endless reflection of one another,
or sublate them in infinite synthesis. (Gasche317-318)

For Gasche thus, the quasi-transcendental sets out a law of heterology that
relates the transcendental and empirical in an infrastructural economy that
either keeps them separate or sublates them together. I will eventually discuss
this phenomenon as the paradox of simultaneous difference and sameness,
paradoxical identity in non-identity. For Gasche, the quasi-transcendental relates
philosophy to contingency which opens and closes philosophys argumentative
discursivity. This is because the quasi-transcendental is simultaneously the
ground of possibility and impossibility of philosophy. It lends to philosophy a
quality of undecidability and heterogeneity. The quasi-transcendentals reinscribe
the opposition between transcendental and empirical because it functions as the
difference, spacing or gap that allows both to function. The quasi-transcendental
is thus a meta-condition for philosophy that inscribes its condition of possibility
as differance, or the spacing and gap between the transcendental and empirical
which is neither transcendental nor empirical but the conditionality of thinking
both. I affirm Gasches reading of the quasi-transcendental as an oppositional
difference which determines philosophy as a ground of simultaneous possibility
and impossibility, but diverge where he describes the quasi-transcendental as an
infrastructure because I read the quasi-transcendental as a paradoxical relation
which exceeds the limits defined by labelling it as a system or infrastructure. I
define the quasi-transcendental as a paradoxical relation of simultaneous identity
and difference, identity and non-identity, sameness in diffence as transcendental
and empirical exist in and through each other as repetitions of the same as their
distinction is really a non-distinction as transcendental-empirical difference is an
illusion.
Bennington defines the quasi-transcendental as the difference which had
been excluded from a philosophical system, the supplementary term which had
been relegated to a secondary status such as masturbation or writing in
Rousseau. This thesis extends Benningtons definition of the quasi-
transcendental as excluded difference and oppositional thinking to define the
quasi-transcendental as a paradox of sameness in difference, identity in non-
identity. The quasi-transcendental is the spacing or limit and conditionality

between the transcendental and empirical that allows the thinking of both
rather than an infrastructural economy defined by Gasche. This builds on the
thinking of difference and oppositionality defined by Bennington.
Where philosophy has traditionally defined itself as either transcendental or
empirical, I will proceed to examine Derridas account of it as quasi-
transcendental. Derrida sees modern social science, both structural and
hermeneutic, as aware of a lack of a center and yet somehow in search of
something more than mere interpretation: a best or more primordial
interpretation, or the dissolution, as Levi-Strauss says, of the human sciences
into the physical sciences.

There are thus two interpretations of interpretation, of structure, of
sign, of play. The one seeks to decipher, dreams of deciphering a truth
or an origin, and which lives the necessity of interpretation as an exile.
The other, which is no longer turned toward the origin, affirms play and
tried to pass beyond man and humanism. (Derrida, 1978: 292)

Derrida chooses a third place- the place of the quasi-transcendental, a
monstrous birth that goes beyond these two interpretations of interpretation.
This enlarges metaphysics beyond mere idealism or empiricism and is a more
holistic embracing of the differance which constitutes the two.
Derrida argues that difference is constitutive of all experience. The economy
of differance is the condition of possibility of thought. Derrida highlights
differance and iterability as the condition of possibility for phenomenology and
metaphysics. Derridas writing is a celebration of play and margin, textuality
and difference as the limit and the impossibility of a text is precisely what he
locates as its possibility. Derrida thus juxtaposes the impossibilities of a text
with their possibilities, in order to show that these impossibilities are precisely
the site of possibility.

In the following section I describe Derridas methodology as exemplified by
several of his texts. In Outwork, Derrida discusses deconstruction as the
structure of the double mark which seizes and entangles the binary opposition,
one of the term retains its old name so as to destroy the opposition to which it
no longer quite belongs, and to which in an event it has never quite yielded. The
history of this opposition is of the incessant struggles generative of hierarchical
configurations, working the entire field within which these texts move. Thus
deconstruction renames the old structure through displacing the dislodging
through the signature and trace in order to displace and reverse the hierarchy to
which it belonged. The structure itself is worked in turn: the rule according to
which every concept necessarily received two similar marks: a repetition without

identity: one mark inside and the other outside the deconstructed system, which
gives rise to a double reading and a double writing. Deconstruction is a double
science. Deconstruction thus challenges the hierarchy of the binary opposition
through the discovery of aporia which fixates it through its traditional
consolidation. Through examining the fact that signified and signifier, interior and
exterior are not opposites but the same and undergo a process of erasure,
deconstruction democratizes philosophy by demonstrating that there never has
been anything but writing. Writing is not inferior to speech but its possibility as a
system of differences which relays signifier to signifier in an infinite play of
supplements rather than a referential origin or transcendental signified.
Deconstruction is the celebration of endless play in meaning through the
movement of the infinite trace, which opens up signification to infinite
possibilities as there is nothing outside the text. There is no mythical origin or
transcendental signified. There is just the play between supplement and signifiers
which relate to each other in a system of differences and differance.
Deconstruction thus reverses the hierarchy of transcendental and empirical,
signifier and signified to celebrate infinite play and textuality to show that
philosophy is a form of literature. Because reading is invention and not discovery
with the movement of the infinite trace, as reading is determined within a
context of radical uncertainty and undecidability, reading is thus a productive act
rather than an inheritance of latent and decided meaning. Reading is taking
chances with a text rather than subscribing to an ossified and unshakeable
ground of inherited meaning. This act of invention thus pluralizes meaning and
opens the text towards an abyss and an infinite amount of possibilities. Meaning
is abyssal and infinite rather than circumscribed and predetermined.
Beginning with Nietzsches aestheticization of philosophy, Derridas
philosophy takes on a similar turn towards aphorism and metaphor by showing
that philosophy proceeds by metaphor and signature to collapse the divide
between literature and philosophy. Derridas collapse of the oppositions
between speech and writing, transcendental and empirical, signified and
signifier demonstrates that there is a paradoxical difference which is not a
difference but a difference which translates into a sameness between the two
because concepts are irrevocably mediated. Philosophy proceeds by signature
and metaphor through having to go through a process of repetition or
iterability. Metaphoricity, or the quasi-transcendental, is thus a condition of
possibility for philosophy. Philosophy proceeds by metaphor and thus does not
exist outside its signification through metaphoricity, or iterability and signature.
In Tympan, Derrida writes that philosophy has always insisted on thinking its
other. This is the supplement of philosophy, or the negative of the binary. A
tympan marks the limit of a discourse (it is the outer membrane of the ear). To
tympanize philosophy means to reconsider the meaning of the limit and to blur

the boundaries between outer and inner, presence and absence. Deconstruction
exceeds this limit and examines the differance between outer and inner,
presence and absence that makes philosophy possible, so there is no longer a
margin, or a within and without of philosophy, but a text whose supplements are
infinitely open to reading. The two forms of philosophy that Derrida identifies
hierarchy and envelopment- lead to forms of phallocentrism and logocentrism as
patriarchy and the ideal or center are privileged at the expense of what is
supplementary to it. In place of this, Derrida writes that philosophy has always
thought its other. It has always proceeded through iterability or the repetition of
the ideal in the sensible. This sensible Other is that which Idealism negated while
remaining blind to it. The task of philosophy now is to rethink the margin or the
limit. Philosophys task is to exceed it and show that philosophy and its other are
not a hierarchy or envelopment but essentially that inner and outer, presence
and absence are the same. It is the differance between the two which enables
metaphysics to function.
In Signature, Event, Context, Derrida argues that writing forms the basis of
communication by means of its ability to perpetuate itself through citability and
iterability. Writing forms a rupture and spacing with the absent origin in order
to enable it to communicate. Writing functions even in the absence of the
sender, and thus reveals communication to perpetuate itself even in the
absence of its origin. Writing is a system of differential marks and differance, in
terms of iterability and the deferral of meaning through space and time.
Writing is precisely what enables communication. Writing thus forms the basis
for speech which is modelled after it as a system of difference in order to
communicate the principle of communication is iterability, citability and
repeatability of the original mark. In the essayDerrida discusses the opposition
between speech and writing. Derrida begins by giving a deconstruction of
writing. Derrida observes that writing, as conceived traditionally, is closely
linked to communication. Writing is a means of extending the field of
communication. It does not add to it or alter it but simply transmits meaning in
the absence of the sender of the message. Writing is thus shown to be a means
of communication through conveying, across the passage of space and time,
the identical message but differing and being altered slightly in its mediated
form through repetition with a difference, or iterability.
Deconstruction then intervenes and transforms by dislodging and displacing a
traditional hierarchy and pluralizing it to discover a double science or a double
writing through iterability, metaphoricity and signature. Derridas discovery of
repetition with a difference demonstrates the fundamental mediation of
concepts that dislodge and displaces hierarchy, instituting a new writing that
signifies plurivocally rather referring to a univocal transcendental signified.
Hence, meaning becomes polysemy and dissemination, which proceeds by

metaphor, and thus collapses the distinction between philosophy and literature.
Everything is writing. There never has been anything but writing (Derrida, 1976:
158). Philosophy and literature are the same in existing as texts to be interpreted
rather than as the uncovering of univocal or absolute meaning belonging to a
transcendental signified or absolute origin. As meaning is an act of invention, one
has to gamble and take chances with a text, in a climate of radical indeterminacy
and undecidability. Where there is radical indeterminacy and undecidability, the
readers role becomes infinitely more active in producing signifying structures
where there had been none, as there is nothing outside the text, meaning is
invention rather than discovery of pre-determined essences and unshakeable
truths. Truth is differance, occupying a space between determinacy and
indeterminacy, because affirming truth as a presence denies possibility and
alterity while denying truth only reproduces it as a negative and thus remains
bound to its ontological structure. Truth is thus not reducible to presence or
absence. Rather it occupies a space between as differance and the quasi-
transcendental. Truth is neither presence nor absence, philosophy nor non-
philosophy, metaphysics nor non-metaphysics but inhabits a space between, the
paradoxical space of the quasi-transcendental, that determines the thinking of
both. This is because it is this prior and anterior difference that determines the
very possibility of thinking truth and its other, philosophy and non-philosophy,
transcendental and empirical. In this thesis we will be examining the quasi-
transcendental nature of truth, truth that is neither transcendental nor empirical
but the difference and differance between the two.

Derrida defines his aesthetic as ethical. It provides a ground for response
and is performative, formulated to take responsibility for an event and render
hospitality and justice to the Other and the unthought. It is a signature and a
pledge in response to forms of injustice and totalitarianism, bearing witness
and giving testimony to what is traditionally suppressed within a rigidly
enforced power structure. Deconstruction is thus about beauty in the sense
that it is an aesthetics of complexity where other forms of philosophy enforce
certain forms of blindness, essentialism, simplification and injustice.
Deconstruction renders hospitality to the Other and the unthought of language
and politics. As Derrida mentions elsewhere in the interview, deconstruction is
a sensitization to the multiple levels of structurality within an event or
philosophy, it is a performative and demonstration that the dominant force in
discourse cannot function without its shadow or ghost and thus has to
acknowledge it as something which is as essential to determining it. In this way
it renders justice and hospitality to the unthought and Other of language and
politics. Deconstruction is thus essentially ethical and testimonial, recognizing
all constituents within an economy of forces rather than privileging the

dominant force in traditional consolidation as negative and positive, One and
Other, transcendental and empirical, are all essential to thinking and
determining each other. Deconstruction is justice in the sense that it bears
witness to the whole and all constituents within a structure rather than
privileging and blinding itself to one element, thus enabling a seeing beyond
circumscribed elements to acknowledge the fundamental beauty of an
organism or structure in its totality and wholeness. Derridas work is thus a
signature in the sense that it bears witness to the repetition that is necessary to
thinking a structure. Where phenomenology has traditionally divided itself into
either transcendental and empirical, Derrida demonstrates that transcendental
and empirical are empty terms on their own and exist only in relation to each
other as each requires the other as its defining axis and relational Other for the
distinction to be upheld.
Deconstruction is thus justice as it enables a seeing beyond traditionally
consolidated blindspots to acknowledge that transcendental idealism or
empirical idealism is aporetic and blind to Otherness where true philosophy
acknowledges that these exist only in dynamic relation to each other. There is
no such thing as a pure transcendental idealism as Husserl needs to exclude the
empirical in order to define his transcendental, just as Levinas, Merleau-Ponty,
Heidegger, Blanchot and Ricoeur require the transcendental to exclude it from
their radical empiricisms. As Derrida has argued, deconstruction is the thinking
of futurity and the opening of reading to the future of a democracy to come
that acknowledges Otherness and alterity. It is an ethics of hospitality and
open-ness to the Other as well as acknowledging the possibility of the self only
exists in relation to the Other because the Other is always already implicit in
the positing of the self. Deconstruction thus does not perform anything other
than an acknowledgement of conditions that are already implicit in reading,
discovering that the ghost of a text that inhabits it has always simultaneously
determined it as its relational Other and condition of possibility for its very
conceptualization. It is thus a mistake to assume Derrida is merely displacing
and reversing hierarchy. His concern is to point out theoretical blindness and
essentialism when one chooses to privilege only one aspect of a discourse,
because discourse is simultaneously determined by its shadow or ghost.
Deconstruction is thus the thinking of the simultaneous one and the other
because these exist only in and through each other through iterability and
differance. As Derrida puts it, the relation is not merely ethical, but messianic
as the other arrives before me, is already pre-existent in me as a condition of
possibility as alterity is implicit in thinking the One and the ego, the Other
precedes me as a condition of possibility for the self, hence texts are not so
much deconstructible as an action or process but self-deconstructible as a very
possibility implicit in the thinking of structure. Alterity and Otherness is the

condition of possibility for thinking the self, hence opening the text to its Other
or ghost in deconstruction is merely naming the conditions that allow us to
read and encounter the text in the first place.
In this paper I have examined Derridas method as exemplified by several of
his texts. Derrida demonstrates that discourse is always simultaneously
determined by its shadow or ghost, because each moment of exclusion and
distinction of its constituent terms requires the opposing term as a relational
Other and defining axis to be upheld. Derrida thus demonstrates that
transcendental and empirical are empty terms on their own as philosophy
requires its relation to non-philosophy to define itself, transcendental and
empirical only exist in relation to each other through iterability and differance.
One cannot define the transcendental in isolation from the empirical and vice
versa. Truth is thus neither transcendental nor empirical, but located in the
space between that is quasi-transcendental. intervention.

Bibliography

De Man, Paul. Blindness and Insight. London: Routledge, 1971.
--- Critical Writings. University of Minnesota Press, 1989.
Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Transl. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1976.
--- Writing and Difference. Trans. Alan Bass: The U of Chicago P, 1978.
Gasche, Roldophe. The Tain of the Mirror. Harvard UP, 1988.

DERRIDA MTHODOLOGIE

Dans cet article, jexamine la mthode de Derrida comme en tmoignent
plusieurs de ses textes. Derrida montre quele discours est toujours simultanment
dtermine parson ombre ou un fantme, parce que chaque moment de
lexclusion et la distinction de ses termes constitutifs ncessite le termesopposant
comme un axerelationnel Autre et la definition dtre confirme. Derrida montre
ainsi que transcendantale et empirique sont des termes vides de leur propre chef
en tant que philosophie exige sa relation la non-philosophie se dfinir,
transcendantale et empirique nexistent quen relation lautre parlitrabilit et la
diffrance.On ne peut dfinir la transcendance dans lisolement de lempirique et le
vice-versa. La vrit nest donc ni transcendante, ni empirique, mais situdans
lespace entre qui est quasi transcendantale.

Mots-cls: Transcendantale, Empiriques, Derrida, la mthode, de style

Metodika nastave stranih jezika /
Teaching Foreign Languages


UDK 378:[371.3:811.111

Development of Generic Competencies
Through English for Specific Purposes

Solzica Popovska, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje
Danica Pirl, University of Ni

Abstract: The paper deals with the possibility of developing certain generic
competencies at tertiary level such as: the capacity for analysis and synthesis, the
capacity for applying knowledge in practice, basic general knowledge in the field of
study, information management skills, interpersonal skills, the ability to work
autonomously, elementary computer skills and research skills by courses that develop
another generic competence- Language for Specific Purposes, or more particularly ESP
courses.

Key words: generic competencies, Tuning Project, ESP.

Introduction

Education experts have always been aware of the importance of clearly
defining competencies that are supposed to be achieved by particular education
programs. However, certain current changes on different levels of education call
for redefinition of the competencies too. Such a case is the implementation of
the Bologna Declaration in the programs of tertiary education throughout Europe
and the introduction of three cycle degree programs. Hence the Tuning Project
has been launched to (re) design, develop, implement, evaluate and enhance
quality of the first, second and third cycle degree programs. In the part that
redefines the competencies of undergraduate special attention has been paid to
a type that has long been neglected by the education system worldwide, the so
called generic competencies.
The aim of this paper is to reveal the potentials of LSP, and ESP in particular,
to contribute to successful development of the generic competencies in tertiary
education.


Generic Competencies

The research has shown the relevance of using the concept of competences
as a basis for learning outcomes (Ibid.). The competences have been divided
into two main groups: specific and generic. The former refer to subject specific
knowledge and skills that are expected to be developed on the bases of the
undergraduate program and the latter, also called transferrable skills
represent competencies that undergraduate students should develop during
the first cycle of tertiary studying that will prepare students to fit better in the
future roles in the society.
These so called generic competences include:
- Instrumental competences: cognitive abilities, methodological abilities,
technological abilities and linguistic abilities;
- Interpersonal competences: individual abilities like social skills (social
interaction and co-operation);
- Systemic competences: abilities and skills concerning whole systems (a
combination of understanding, sensibility and knowledge; prior acquisition of
instrumental and interpersonal competences required).
This means that studies should comprise not only gaining knowledge in a
particular field by studying theory and memorizing data but should also enable
development of higher order thinking skills and skills for successful
communication as well as the ability to combine them.
Here is an extensive list of 30 generic competences:
1 Capacity for analysis and synthesis
2 Capacity for applying knowledge in practice
3 Planning and time management
4 Basic general knowledge in the field of study
5 Grounding in basic knowledge of the profession in practice
6 Oral and written communication in your native language
7 Knowledge of a second language
8 Elementary computing skills
9 Research skills
10 Capacity to learn
11 Information management skills (ability to retrieve and analyze
information from different sources)
12 Critical and self-critical abilities
13 Capacity to adapt to new situations
14 Capacity for generating new ideas (creativity)
15 Problem solving
16 Decision-making
17 Teamwork

18 Interpersonal skills
19 Leadership
20 Ability to work in an interdisciplinary team
21 Ability to communicate with non-experts (in the field)
22 Appreciation of diversity and multiculturality
23 Ability to work in an international context
24 Understanding the cultures and customs of other countries
25 Ability to work autonomously
26 Project design and management
27 Initiative and entrepreneurial spirit
28 Ethical commitment
29 Concern for quality
30 Will to succeed

The results show that participants in different scientific fields recognize
different priorities concerning generic competencies and different ways of
achieving them. However, on the basis of the teaching experience of the
authors of this paper in the field of ESP, we strongly recommend that the
second language mentioned in point 7 be considered as Language for Specific
Purposes which is actually an academic subject comprising many first cycle
programs worldwide. In addition, in this paper we shall prove that ESP can be
the means by which many of the generic competencies are developed.

ESP as a Tool for the Development of Certain Generic Competencies

We shall apply our ESP experience to the following eight generic
competencies that have been chosen and treated separately within the
discussion of the basic Tuning Project Publication:
- The capacity for analysis and synthesis.
- The capacity for applying knowledge in practice.
- Basic general knowledge in the field of study.
- Information management skills.
- Interpersonal skills.
- The ability to work autonomously.
- Elementary computer skills.
- Research skills.


The Capacity for Analysis and Synthesis

This competence is recognized as crucial for all Subject Area Groups (SAG),
but is also most differently understood. Namely, while SAG in Business expect
this competence to enable them to identify the right research question or
problem, the ability to describe as well as to conclude and formulate
recommendations as indicators, SAG in mathematics expect it to help them
use their previous knowledge and apply it to a new situation or a problem.
Other SAGs understand analysis as activity by which one understands
information, evaluates it critically and assesses it properly, and synthesis is
understood as activity by which they can: combine, formulate, describe,
conclude, summarize, interpret, relate, argue, predict, solve etc., which clearly
point to critical thinking skilss.
And this is what an ESP course includes. Since it is a language course it deals
with the communication skill development, and since it treats content based
materials, it makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the
discipline it serves (Dudley-Evans). Here the critical thinking is revealed to be
crucial for advancement in the area, as the specific communication
competencies planned to be developed by the course include the ability to
understand, interpret and communicate information within a particular
scientific area. The training includes respective activities as follows:

1. Activities for understanding the content:
- studying the structure of the paragraph: definitions, fully developed main
points, topic sentences, excluding inappropriate pieces of information, major
and minor support sentences;
- applying the cognitive process in the processing of information by defining
the main point of a paragraph which comprises: putting forward questions to
which the passages are answers, making use of rhetorical functions and logical
connectors;
2. Activities for interpretation of the content:
- representing respective information by individual sets of notes which
includes: acquaintance with types of notes and with the note-taking activity;
practicing it on different texts throughout the EST course;
3. Activities for communication of the content:
- interpretation or paraphrasing which is done by writing a summary of the
texts on the basis of the individual notes. As an alternative, students may use
their notes to interpret the information orally.
4. Activities for autonomous presentation of the content:
- After mastering the information processing and its interpretation students
may extend the skill of writing by preparing seminar papers and the skill of

speaking by giving short presentations on scientific topics as well as
participating in discussions on their colleagues presentations.
In order to compare the similarities between the ESP activities just
mentioned and those recognized by students participating in the Tuning Project
by which capacities for analysis and synthesis can be increased, here is the list
contained in the basic Tuning Project publication:

formulating ideas of a concept as a result of the reading, researching,
discussing and brainstorming in highly specific, subject-focused work,
either academically and professionally oriented; learning to describe
objectively, categorize, relate categories; making independent
autonomous interpretations, evaluations, distinctions and differentiation
and sharing insights from learning through debates, theses; becoming
aware of their own, and challenging others,taken-for-granted
assumptions; revealing links between contemporary concepts; quantifying
information; applying relevant theory to source material; incorporating
new conclusions into existing knowledge; placing specific events and/or
problems into wider contexts; giving proof and/or counterexamples,
essays, assignments, projects, examinations, theses.

The Capacity for Applying Knowledge in Practice

This competence is developed by the ESP courses mostly through written
and oral activities.
So, all ESP students may write a seminar paper or prepare and give a
presentation on a topic closely related to their subject area, thus combining
linguistic skills with specific content. In addition, all of them may practice
writing of all sorts of business letters and other types of formal correspondence
regarding their specific field including application letters or letters of
motivation for different opportunities. ESP is also a suitable means for
practicing writing reports, graphic presentation of data and other ways of
presenting the information that is included in their textbook materials which
are most frequently authentic materials. One very successful exercise is making
a commercial on a product that students are supposed to make up. This can be
used by students of marketing who should develop their skill of persuasion, or
by students of any applied science area who need to practice creativity, giving
instruction and who should learn to distinguish between persuasion and
argumentation.


Basic General Knowledge in the Field of Study

The Tuning Project distinguishes three aspects by which basic knowledge
can be perceived:

the first, the basic facts; and second the basic attitude considered
specific to the subject area. The third aspect is constituted by related or
necessary general knowledge which is not strictly subject specific: e.g.
knowledge of mathematics or a foreign language for physicists and of
history and politics for education students. (Ibid.)

Here, the LSP/ ESP are directly referred to. On one hand the ESP course
presupposes more than basic knowledge of English on behalf of the students
and on the other it contributes to their acquiring basic general knowledge in
their field of study by carefully chosen content-based materials which deal with
basic notions of the respective scientific field.

Information Management Skills (Ability to Retrieve and Analyze
Information from Different Sources)

This competence is fairly uniformly understood to mean knowing how to
find information in the literature, how to distinguish between primary and
secondary sources or literature, how to use the library in a traditional way or
electronically how to find information on the Internet. (Harper 1986)
While preparing seminar papers or presentations on topics related to their
field of interest students of ESP use different sources of information ranging
from en cyclopedias and other reference publications, to Internet sites which
they are able to evaluate rather critically, distinguishing between those that
offer scientifically supported materials from those that are quite unreliable
sources. When writing a seminar paper they are instructed on how to cite
references, and through activities used for the development of analysis and
synthesis they are taught how to choose and analyze information, regardless of
the sources.

Interpersonal Skills

Although the participants in the Tuning Project have recognized this
competence as crucial for three subject areas: Education, Nursing and Business
Studies, it is obvious that interpersonal skills are crucial for every individual in
the course of her/his personal development.

Interpersonal skills or the ability to communicate successfully is dependent
on its counterpart intrapersonal competency which is the ability to cope with
ones own feelings. As ESP is taught among student teachers of different
disciplines at different faculties it can contribute to the development of their
interpersonal competence by asking students to reflect on their future
profession as teachers, to work in pairs or groups, to give a presentation and to
cope with the criticism of the colleagues, and in turn to direct critical attitude
without offending their colleagues. Their intrapersonal competencies may be
increased by the development of students self-respect and self-confidence and
more precisely by treating the students as whole personalities, not only as
learners; by accepting their different intelligences, attitudes, traditions and by
respecting their true efforts to use the foreign language as a tool in their future
professions to the extent they are capable of. Here the role of the teacher is
most appreciated as s/he should be the model or the template the students
should try to achieve. ESP teachers fit in this role perfectly because they have
already accepted the switch of the teacher-centered approach to learner-
centered one including needs analysis and autonomous learning.
In order to support the above argument, here is a final comment on
interpersonal competencies given by the authors of the Tuning Publication:
These competencies may be of less importance in

the case in wholly mono-cultural contexts, but how many of those are
there in 21st century Europe, or, indeed, 21st century anywhere? It is
not proposed here that all subject areas imitate the Education, Nursing
and Business Studies SAGs in the emphasis given to this group of skills
and competences, nor that the same teaching and learning strategies
be used. However, students in all subject areas would benefit if
programs were to address more explicit, analytical and practical
attention to this group of competences because there is no doubt that
whatever employment a graduate will find, these skills will be of use to
them. Hence a useful direction of endeavor to educate the educators
could be to develop awareness, both in our capacity as teachers and as
learners, of this group of skills. (Ibid.)

The Ability to Work Autonomously

This competence is highly supported in every subject area and it includes
organization of ones time, the ability to define priorities and stick to them, to
show responsibility in the choice of knowledge gained, sources used, etc. The
point is to prepare future graduates to accept the lifelong learning concept and
undertake the responsibility for self development throughout ones life.

ESP teachers encourage students:
-to choose topics of presentation on their own;
-to conduct research and choose sources of information;
-to decide when to give the presentation thus having the opportunity to
organize their own time;
At the same time ESP teachers, as most FL teachers nowadays, include the
students actively in the course design, conduct needs analysis and give different
sorts of homework that support autonomous learning. In addition they may
encourage the students to prepare and keep developing professional portfolios
(following the example of the European Language Portfolio) which will help
them define their future learning tasks, and enable them to follow their
progress.

Elementary Computer Skills

Most faculties introduce computer and information technology skills within
their studying programs, regardless of the specific subject areas. FL teaching
gives its share in this process by having developed so called Computer Aided
Language Learning which enables complete language course to be performed in
the computer laboratory. Consequently, many ESP courses include exercises
and activities that involve use of computers including assignments that require
Internet research, teacher-student communication by e-mail, and even the
possibility of performing computer aided testing.

Research Skills

These skills are again strongly related to the specific subject areas and their
specific methodology approaches. ESP can contribute to this competency again
by encouraging students to prepare and give presentations which are based on
quite simple and not very deep research projects and to present the results in
front of the classmates.

Conclusion

At the end we can conclude that the potential of ESP (and any LSP) in the
development of some generic competencies of undergraduate students is real
and quite substantial. The cognitive approach that enables the successful
processing of information used by most LSP teachers contributes to the
increase of both analysis and synthesis skills, to the capacity to apply
knowledge in practice and to gaining basic general knowledge in the field of

study. Preparation and giving presentations may help to develop: information
management skills, the ability to work autonomously, elementary computer
skills and research skills. Finally ESP course may also increase interpersonal
skills providing that the teacher has high level of consciousness (which should
be achieved, preserved and increased by the teachers constant personal and
professional development) and is able to help the students improve their
communication skills (from a psychological rather than linguistic point of view).

Bibliography

Dudley-Evans, T,St John, M. Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A
multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Grabe, B. Discourse Analysis and Reading Instructions. (sine anno) Retrieved
January 20, 2011 from http://eca.state.gov/education/engteaching/pubs-
/BR/functionalsec1.htm
Harding, K. English for Specific Purposes. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007.
Harper, D. (ed). ESP for the University. Oxford:Pergamon Press, 1986.
Tuning Educational Structures in Europe. retrieved in January 2011
<http://tuning.unideusto.org/tuningeu/
109
>

RAZVOJ GENERICKIH KOMPETENCIJA POMOCU ENGLESKOG JEZIKA U STRUCI

Rad tretira mogunost razvijanja izvesnih generikih kompetencija na
tercijarnom nivou kao to su: kapacitet za analizu i sintezu, kapacitet za pri-
menu znanja u praksi, bazina opta znanja u oblasti studiranja, sposobnost za
upravljanje informacijama, interpersonalne sposobnosti, sposobnost samo-
stalnog rada, osnovne kompjuterske vetine i istraivake vetine, pomou
kurseva koji razvijaju jednu drugu generiku kompetenciju, a to je Jezik u oblasti
struke ili preciznije kursevi Engleskog jezika u oblasti struke.

Kljune rei: tercijarno obrazovanje, generike kompetencije, Tuning
Project, Engleski jezik u oblasti struke

109
Tuning Project coordinated by the University of Deusto, Spain and the University of Groningen,
The Netherlands http://www.tuning.unideusto.org/tuningeu/index.php?option=com_frontpage-
&Itemid=1


UDK 371.3:811.111243(497.7)

Vocabulary Learning Strategy Use of EFL
Learners in the Republic of Macedonia in
Correlation with Language Proficiency

Anzela Nikolovska, Ss. Cyri l and Methodius University, Skopje

Abstract: The paper reports the results of a study of the correlation between the use of
vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) of EFL learners in the Republic of Macedonia and
their language proficiency. A questionnaire designed for the purpose of the study was
administered to 709 EFL learners from ten elementary schools, ten secondary schools, as
well as five Faculties of the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje. Descriptive
statistics indicate that in spite of the slight variation in the strategy category means by
proficiency, all the five categories are used at a medium frequency level (M between
2.50 and 3.49). All the eleven strategies tested by Chi-square tests showed significant
variation by proficiency. The findings raise issues such as the causal relationship
between proficiency and strategy use, as well as the necessity of training less successful
learners how to use strategies which are in positive correlation with proficiency.

Key Words: vocabulary learning strategies, language proficiency, chi-square tests,
significant variation.

Introduction

Ever since the 1970s there has been a gradual shift of interest from the role
of the teacher and teaching methods to the role of the learner and the need for
taking control of the learning process. Questions such as which factors
contribute to success in language learning, what actions the learners take to
enhance their own learning, how the different individual variables interact in
shaping the strategic profile of the language learner have been the major
concern of a plethora of empirical studies of language learning strategies. These
studies have focused on several major goals: 1) the identification of strategies
of successful language learners with a possibility of teaching these strategies to
less successful learners; 2) the investigation of the effects of individual
variables, such as age, gender, proficiency, motivation, cultural background,
etc. on strategy choice, and 3) finding the most effective approach to teaching
language learning strategies (Chamot 2001).

The emergence of interest in language learning strategies has gone hand in
hand with the recognition of the role of vocabulary as an essential component
of language acquisition. Chamot found that learners of English as a second
language reported more strategy use for vocabulary learning than for any other
language learning activity (in Schmitt 1997).
This paper will report the results of a study of the relationship between the
use of vocabulary learning strategies of EFL learners in the Republic of
Macedonia and the level of their language proficiency.

Research into the Relationship between Language Learning Strategies and
Language Proficiency

A number of empirical studies have explored the relationship between
language proficiency and learning strategy use.
Examining the relationship between success in language learning and the
use of the following strategies functional practice, inferencing, formal
practice and monitoring by grade 10 and grade 12 students learning French in
Toronto, Bialystok came to the conclusion that greater strategy use does not
automatically cause greater success in learning (1979). Certain strategies
correlated with proficiency more than others, depending on the language task.
Studying the differential strategy use of beginning and intermediate ESL
students, OMalley et al. found that intermediate high school students used
more metacognitive strategies than beginning students, which led to the
conclusion that greater use of metacognitive strategies contributes to greater
language proficiency (1985). The study of Politzer and McGroarty revealed that
the strategies of successful learners are not universal (in Kaylani, 1996). Success
in language learning depends on how the different strategies are combined for
specific purposes and on learner variables such as: cultural background,
nationality, gender, etc.
Abraham and Vann compared the strategies of successful and unsuccessful
learners and found that unsuccessful learners fail to use learning strategies
appropriately to the language task (1987). Kaylani investigated the effects of
gender, proficiency and motivation on the learning strategy use of high school
EFL learners in Jordan (1996). The findings showed that frequency of use of
Metacognitive, Cognitive and Memory strategies differentiated students based
on their proficiency ranking.
Green and Oxford studied the relationship between learners gender,
proficiency and strategy use among Pre-basic, Basic and Intermediate English
students at the University of Puerto Rico (1995). They discovered that more
proficient language learners reported higher overall use of learning strategies

and frequent use of a greater number of strategy categories. Bremner reported
on a survey of language learning strategies used by a group of Hong Kong
learners (1999). The use of eleven out of the possible fifty strategies varied
significantly by proficiency in favor of more proficient learners.
The research of Shmais of University English majors learning strategies in
Palestine indicated no significant differences for the two variables examined
gender and proficiency (2003). Liu explored EFL learners strategy use among a
group of Technological Institute English majors in China and found out that
more successful learners reported using each of the six strategy categories
(Affective, Social, Cognitive, Metacognitive, Memory and Compensation)
significantly more frequently than learners with lower proficiency (2004).
For the purpose of investigating the correlation between the use of
vocabulary learning strategies and success in language learning, Ahmed studied
the vocabulary learning strategies of 300 EFL learners in Sudan (1989). More
successful learners used more strategies and were more aware of their needs
as learners than less successful learners. Studying the relationship between
language proficiency and vocabulary strategy use among a group of Chinese
students, Gu and Johnson discovered that the strategies which require deeper
processing, such as guessing from context, looking words up in a dictionary,
note-taking and Metacognitive strategies, correlate more with proficiency than
other strategies (1996). Among the researchers exploring the relationship
between proficiency and vocabulary strategy use were also Kojic-Sabo and
Lightbown (1999). They found out that it is the quality rather than the quantity
of strategy use that determines learning outcomes. Autonomous and
independent learning, as well as participation in extracurricular activities, were
found to contribute greatly to success in learning.
The research results presented above reveal that successful learners
generally use a richer repertoire of learning strategies than less successful
learners. They use a number of strategies more frequently and with greater
sensitivity to the learning task and context. However, the picture becomes
clearer if proficiency is related to other variables, such as: learners gender,
cultural background, motivation, personality and other factors.

The Present Study

The present study is part of a large-scale study which aimed at investigating
the relationship between the use of vocabulary learning strategies of
Macedonian EFL learners in relation to age, gender and proficiency, as well as
the influence of vocabulary teaching strategies on the choice of vocabulary
learning strategies. Presenting the results regarding all the questions explored

will surpass the scope of this paper. Therefore, it is the relationship between
the use of VLS and language proficiency that will be the subject of this paper.

Method
Subjects

A total of 709 EFL learners participated in the study. 292 of the total sample
studied English at elementary level, 311 at secondary level and 106 were
University students. 213 participants were male, 464 were female, whereas 32
participants did not report their gender. The study was conducted in ten
primary and ten secondary schools in different towns in the Republic of
Macedonia, as well as five Faculties of the Ss. Cyril and Methodius University
in Skopje. There was a relatively wide divergence in age from 13 (primary
level) to 20 years (tertiary level).
The proficiency level of primary and secondary school learners was
determined according to the mean of the mid-term grade in English and the
grade on the cloze-test enclosed with the questionnaire. The proficiency of the
University students was determined according to the mean of the final grade in
English upon their graduation from secondary school and the grade on the
cloze test. Three proficiency levels were established:
a) low (mean between 1 and 2.5)
b) medium (mean between 3 and 4)
c) high (meanbetween 4.5 and 5)

Primary school Secondary school University
Proficiency level
Low 75

106 17
Medium

127 139 48
High

86 65 39
unreported 4 1 2
Total 292

311 106
Table 1: Sample distribution by proficiency level across the three levels of education

It can be seen that most participants (a total of 311) belong to the medium
proficiency (MP) level. Then comes the low proficiency (LP) group with 198

learners across the three levels of education and, finally, the high proficiency
(HP) group with a total of 190 participants.

Instrument and data collection procedure

The instrument used is a questionnaire for the learners designed for the
purpose of the study based on a vocabulary learning strategy (VLS) taxonomy
created in line with the taxonomies proposed by Oxford (1990), Schmitt (1997)
and Pavicic (2003). The taxonomy included 44 strategies belonging to one of
the following categories: Social (imply learning through interaction with
another person), Memory (transform information for the purpose of
memorizing it), Cognitive (used to analyze and process the material in order to
master it), Metacognitive (used to monitor, plan and direct the learning
process) and Compensation strategies (compensate for the lack of knowledge).
Below is the taxonomy used in the questionnaire:

A. Social strategies
1. Ask teacher for explanation.
2. Ask another person for explanation
3. Talk to foreigners
4. Ask the speaker to repeat
5. Learn in a group

B. Memory strategies
1. Relate words to personal experience
2. Make a mental image of the word
3. Relate the word to synonyms or antonyms
4. Use graphic organizers
5. Group words according to meaning
6. Remember the configuration of the word
7. Write the translation on cards
8. Use rhyme to remember new words
9. Relate the new words to feelings and movements
10. Check the meaning by covering the translation

C. Cognitive strategies
1. Keep a vocabulary notebook
2. Write new words several times
3. Say new words several times when studying
4. Record oneself when reading out loud

5. Read for pleasure in English
6. Try not to translate word-for-word
7. Make sentences with the new words
8. Learn English from TV
9. Find meaning dividing words into parts
10. Highlight the new words
11. Learn English from the Internet
12. Learn English through computer games
13. Look for cognates
14. Write the words down in class
15. Use a bilingual dictionary
16. Use a monolingual dictionary
17. Learn new words through songs

D. Metacognitive strategies
1. Plan learning
2. Learn English through other extracurricular activities
3. Learn from the mistakes on a test
4. Test oneself with word tests
5. Self-initiated study of words from texts
6. Ask for advice how to study more effectively

E. Compensation strategies
1. Use gestures when stuck for words
2. Make up new words when stuck
3. Guess the meaning from context
4. Paraphrase
5. Ask the interlocutor for help
6. Avoid difficult topics

The participants responded to the 45 strategy descriptions on a 5-point
Likert scale (1 = never; 2 = rarely; 3 = sometimes; 4 = usually and 5 = always).
The following three levels of strategy use were established based on the
participants self-reported frequency of VLS use:
a) low (mean between 1.00 and 2.49)
b) medium (mean between 2.50 and 3.49)
c) high (mean between 3.50 and 5.00)

The questionnaire also contained a short cloze test used to determine the
proficiency level of the participants and 30 vocabulary teaching strategies (VTS)
to which the subjects responded by ranking their perceived frequency of use on

a 5-point scale (never, rarely, sometimes, usually and always). The purpose of
this part was to investigate the effects of VTS on the choice of VLS. The results
of this part of the study will not be discussed here.
The questionnaire was administered during regular English classes. The
administration took between 20 and 45 minutes. It was anonymous and it was
written in Macedonian. The participants were told that the results would have
no impact on their marks.
The data were analyzed by means of the statistical programmes SPSS for
Windows and STATISTICA. Chi-square tests were used to check whether the use
of specific VLS varied significantly in relation to learners proficiency.

Data analysis and discussion
The Relationship between Proficiency and the Use of VLS Categories

Education level
Elementary Secondary University
Proficiency level Proficiency level Proficiency level
Strategy
category
LPL MPL HPL LPL MPL HPL LPL MPL HPL
A

2.4 2.7 2.9 2.7 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.8 2.8
B

2.9 2.6 2.7 2.6 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.6 2.9
C

3 3.2 3.3 2.8 3.2 3.3 2.8 3 3.2
D

3.1 3.1 3.3 2.4 2.8 2.7 2.5 2.5 2.6
E 2.7 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3
Table 2: Mean value for strategy categories by proficiency level

Note:
LPL = low proficiency level; MPL = medium proficiency level; HPL = high proficiency
level
A = Social strategies; B = Memory strategies; C = Cognitive strategies; D =
Metacognitive strategies; E = Compensation strategies

As Table 2 indicates, all the five categories are used at a medium frequency
level (between 2.5 and 3.49), except for Social strategies, elementary level
low proficiency learners which fall within the range of low frequency (M = 2.4).
At elementary level, Social strategies are more frequently used by more
proficient learners (M for LPL = 2.4, MPL = 2.7 and HPL = 2.9). It is only Memory

strategies that are used more frequently by low proficiency learners than by
their more proficient peers (M for LPL = 2.9, MPL = 2.6 and HPL = 2.7). The
mean of frequency of use for Cognitive (M for LPL = 3, MPL = 3.2 and HPL = 3.3),
Metacognitive (M for LPL and MPL = 3.1, HPL = 3.3) and Compensation
strategies (M for LPL and MPL = 2.7, HPL = 2.9) shows no significant variation by
proficiency.
At secondary level, the greatest variation in frequency can be noticed in the
use of Cognitive and Metacognitive strategies LPL and MPL. The frequency
mean of Cognitive strategies LPL is 2.8 higher than the mean for medium
strategy users (3.2) and high strategy users (3.3). Similarly, Metacognitive
strategies are used more often by medium (2.8) and high proficiency learners
(2.7) than by low proficiency learners (2.4). It is obvious that the mean of Social
strategies (M for LP = 2.7, MP = 2.8, HP = 2.7), Memory strategies (M for LP =
2.6, MP = 2.8 and HP = 2.7), and Compensation strategies (M for LP = 3.1, MP =
3.3, HP = 3.2) varies insignificantly by proficiency.
The mean of Cognitive strategies among University students is higher at HPL
(3.2) than at MPL (3) and LPL (2.8). Memory strategies are used more
frequently by high proficiency learners (2.8) than by medium and low
proficiency learners (2.6). As can be seen from Table 2, the effects of
proficiency on the use of Metacognitive, Social and Compensation strategies
are insignificant.

The Relationship between Proficiency and the Use of Individual VLS

Whereas all the strategy categories have medium means, all the eleven
strategies whose correlation with language proficiency was tested by chi-
square tests proved to be statistically significant. These strategies were:

A3 Talk to foreigners (Pearson Chi-square = 104.865; df = 10; p =.00000)
B7 Write the translation on cards (Pearson Chi-square = 30.578; df = 10;
p =.00069)
B9 Relate the new words to feelings and movements (Pearson Chi-square
= 37.526; df = 10; p =.00005)
B10 Check the meaning by covering the translation (Pearson Chi-
square = 20.788; df = 10; p =.02265)
C5 Read for pleasure in English (Pearson Chi-square = 69.406; df = 10; p
=.00000)
C8 Learn English from TV (Pearson Chi-square = 49.525; df = 10; p
=.00000)
C11 Learn English from the Internet (Pearson Chi-square = 60.746; df =
10; p =.00000)

D2 Learn English through other extracurricular activities (Pearson Chi-
square = 42. 723; df = 10; p =.00001)
D4 Test oneself with word tests (Pearson Chi-square = 40.186; df = 10; p
=.00002)
E3 Guess the meaning from context (Pearson Chi-square = 70.422; df =
10; p =.00000)
E4 Paraphrase (Pearson Chi-square = 25.777; df = 10; p =.00406)

The chi-square tests revealed that there is a significant correlation between
language proficiency and the use of all the eleven strategies tested (p<.05).
More proficient learners are more willing to talk to foreigners (A3).Learners
with higher language proficiency were found to relate the new words to
feelings and movements (B9), as well as check the meaning by covering the
translation (B10) more often than less proficient learners. The higher the
proficiency level, the more willing the learners are to read in English for
pleasure (C5), learn English from TV (C8) and from the Internet (C11). In
addition, more successful learners learnt English through other extracurricular
activities (D2) and tested themselves with word tests (D4) more often than
their less successful peers. The two Compensation strategies tested (E3 and E4)
also correlated significantly with proficiency. Higher achievers are more inclined
to guess the meaning of unknown words from context and paraphrase than
lower achievers.
The only strategy that showed negative variation was B7 (Write the
translation on cards). This means that lower proficiency learners are more likely
to write the translation on cards than their high proficiency peers.

Conclusions and Classroom Implications

The aim of the present study was to investigate the correlation between
Macedonian EFL learners vocabulary learning strategy use and their language
proficiency.
In spite of the slight variation in the strategy category means by proficiency,
all the five categories are used at a medium frequency level (M between 2.50 and
3.49). Consequently, Macedonian EFL learners can be considered as medium
strategy users.
The Chi-square tests of the eleven individual strategies reveal that there is a
significant correlation between proficiency and strategy use. This means that
more successful learners use all of these strategies except for one (B7 = Write the
translation on cards) more frequently than less successful learners.
The findings raise the issue of the relationship between language proficiency
and strategy use. If this relationship is to be viewed as one of bi-directional

causality (Green and Oxford 1995; Bremner1999), it can be said that higher
proficiency can contribute to greater strategy use, while at the same time greater
strategy use can increase language proficiency. In line with this reasoning, it can
be inferred from our findings that owing to their higher proficiency level more
proficient learners are more likely to talk to foreigners, relate the new words to
feelings and movements, check the meaning by covering the translation, read in
English for pleasure, learn English from TV and from the Internet, as well as
through other extracurricular activities. They are also more likely to test
themselves with word tests, as well as guess the meaning of unknown words
from context and paraphrase than lower achievers. Thehigher strategy use of
successful learners can be accounted for by their superior language competence
which enables them to communicate in English more confidently and motivates
them to engage in extracurricular activities, which further develops their English
language proficiency. It also makes it possible for them to compensate for
missing knowledge better than less successful learners.
On the other hand, if proficiency is to be considered an outcome of high
strategy use, it can be concluded that by motivating and training less proficient
learners to use the strategies typical of successful learners, their language
proficiency can be increased. In other words, teachers should motivate less
proficient learners to talk to foreigners, read in English for pleasure, learn English
from TV and the Internet, as well as through other extracurricular activities
As the current study has proved, the other strategies which are used more
often by good language learners, such as paraphrasing, testing oneself with word
tests, guessing the meaning from context, relating the meaning of new words to
feelings and movements and checking the meaning by covering the translation,
may become the goal of a strategy training programme.
As previous research has revealed, the best single predictor of vocabulary
learning strategy use is previous vocabulary learning strategy instruction (Stoffer
1995). This finding brings to the fore the necessity of raising learners awareness
of their preferred learning strategies, as well as teachers awareness of the
diversity of learning styles and strategies in the classroom. The task of the
teacher in this respect is to address this diversity by adapting their teaching style
to match the learning styles and strategies of their learners. In addition, teachers
should be trained how to integrate strategy instruction in the English language
classroom on a regular basis.
As Oxford points out (1990), learners can be trained to use strategies through
awareness-raising, one-time strategy training or long-term-strategy training. She
suggests that teachers should first diagnose the language learning strategies of
their learners, then introduce new strategies and provide plenty of practice
within regular class activities.

Although these findings cast some light on the relationship between
proficiency and vocabulary learning strategy use, they are far from conclusive. In
order to investigate this complex relationship in more depth, further research is
needed, which will delve into the complex interplay between learning strategy
use, proficiency and factors such as learner beliefs and attitudes about learning,
personality, motivation, etc.

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UDK 371.3:811.111243(496.5)

Standardized EFL Teaching

Shpresa Delija, Faculty of Foreign Language, Tirana
University

Abstract: Being under constant political, economic and social change especially, after
the 90-s, our country has had an urgent need to change its education system. So in recent
years, the Albanian Government has shown great interest in teaching and learning
English in accordance with European standards by amending new laws (law no. 10 307,
dated 22.07.2010) to promote English teaching and learning in order to meet the needs
and interests of students. In order to make English teaching available for our students it
is important to lead EFL teachers towards successful teaching, which means having a
well-designed lesson plan via well organized objectives. As Agni Malderez and Caroline
Bodczky say in their book (1999: 22), objectives will be addressed concurrently and
throughout the course, which means that without objectives there will be no language
lesson. So this paper deals with the reasons why teachers need to be upgraded
professionally and how objectives help them enhance language teaching in their
language classes. This paper also gives answers to the following questions: What
principles should the language teachers consider while setting objectives? Why should
they follow them? How do students benefit from a well-designed lesson plan? Data
collection from these questions pointed out the importance of professionalism in
teaching English in our schools. Identifying the reasons for the big political and
economic changes made teachers aware of their professional development in order to
implement contemporary teaching methods.

Key Words: design lesson plan, implement teaching methods, objectives,
professionalism, set objectives.

Why Objectives in Teaching English?

Over the last 21 years Albania has changed much in all spheres of life,
education included. The opening of Albania to Europe and the world at large
set big tasks to the people to learn foreign languages, English being an
international means of communication. People of all ages and especially young
people love to go abroad for different reasons: study, work, research or travel.
So learning English as a foreign language has become a necessity for every one.
Nowadays, English teaching and learning comprise an important part of the

school curricula, which reflect the National Strategy for the Development of pre
university education (2008) that states

Foreign languages policy of the Ministry of Education and Science are
designed and applied in accordance with the development in our country and in
concert with the EU policy in this regard, following two basic EU directives,
multilingualism and intercultural education.
Being the Governments priority new laws and amendments are passed by
the Government and the Parliament in order to further develop English
teaching in Albania. According to the Law of the Higher Education in Albania
(law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) everyone has the right to be educated, and
in 2012 the high school students are not going to take four exams but five, with
English being obligatory. Revista Msuesi no.1, 2010). Therefore, great tasks
were set forth to the English teachers to change their way of teaching to
promote a more communicative learning.
The need to adjust the Albanian school system to the European standards and
to the levels of foreign language competence as described by the Council of
Europe (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
Learning, Teaching, Assessment [CEFR] 2002), asks for professional English
teachers that meet the above standards. There is a growing demand for well-
qualified EFL teachers who are able to teach communicatively but also have the
desire and responsibility for growing professionally in order to keep up with the
changing needs and interests of their students. This demand can be met if
methods of teaching and learning are modified in line with the curricula and
syllabus objectives in order to provide them with language skills. As Don Snow
has pointed out (3, 19), students learning depends ultimately on their own
efforts and the teachers on their own side should be reasonably successful
learners of English, which means that they themselves should give their students
a better understanding of how to learn and use the language correctly.
In 2005 an analysis of the higher education in Albania was made in order to
see which standards were to be fulfilled so that the implementation of Bologna
System would be easier. This study concerned the following:
a) Sufficient information about Bologna System;
b) Quality teaching in our schools;
c) ELP for university and high school students
d) Language text books and other teaching materials.
In the study, therefore, we, the faculty teaching staff conducted a deep
analysis of all the problems we encountered such as the qualification of teaching
staff in line with the European standards in education, authentic textbooks, the
design of ELP, and improvement of teaching methods. We conducted a deep
analysis on these problems, and after getting the sufficient information about the

Bologna System, we started to apply it in all levels of high education. These
changes asked for teaching quality in English and the primary starting point was
through setting clear objectives and goals in teaching.

Focus on Objectives

The focus of this paper is on the importance that teacher growth has in
setting clear objectives and goals during the course planning. Don Snow
emphasizes the idea that the goals of the language course serve as the focus
around which everything else is built (37). Through a good planning of the
course the teachers know where their students are going. They also lead
students to climb up the ladders of the language towards the acquisition of
communicative language skills through cooperative learning, thus making
possible the removal of their traditional lessons (Kagan & Kagan1.5, 1.6).
There are two assumptions in this research: Why professionalism in the
teaching process and Why objectives help in teachingFL? The first assumption has
to do with learning teaching and how teachers could be throughout the teaching
career (Scrivener 370). They should understand curriculum content and goals,
including the subject matter and skills to be taught, and the students needs as
well. Teachers should know their students needs and interests and at the same
time they should know how their students learn and develop during the teaching
and learning process within social contexts. The second assumption concerns the
way teachers should set objectives in order to accomplish their duty successfully.
Course aims and objectives should be: a) explicit and shared, b) knowledgeable
and c) practicable (Malderez & Bodczky 22-23). In studies conducted about
Teacher Education by Viljo Kohonen (40) it is stated that teachers should clarify
their personal aims and interests for themselves to promote reflective learning.
He goes further with the idea of the teachers portfolio as a tool for teachers to
get upgraded professionally (40). To have a portfolio teachers need to know how
to identify students needs and interests which help them set course objectives in
order to turn them into objectives for their lesson plans. This assertion was based
on research which has shown that without group discussion you cannot come to
the right solutions. Providing teachers with sufficient knowledge on teaching and
learning objectives results from the research ad proves that training teachers in
how to design course objectives should influence professional development of
teachers.


Method

In the context of the drawbacks to traditional teaching methods I have
constructed a study to identify teachers professional development via the set
of teaching objectives that could benefit English language student teachers in
Albania. I started with the proposition that teachers growth could affect better
organized course design and lesson plans, which, with well designed objectives,
could affect English language learning.

Participants

I did a case-study which was focused on some questions addressed to some
student teachers (A), newly assigned teachers (B), and experienced teachers in
5 primary schools in Tirana. I examined the following research questions:
A: What pedagogical skills and strategies should the student teachers need
to have in EFL learning and teaching?
B: What methods can be used to create a communicative language
environment in your classes?
Both groups of participants of this research (A and B) answered the above
questions, which produced data for this study. Groups A and B were composed
of student teachers and newly assigned teachers, whose goal in life was to
become English language teachers in undergraduate levels of schooling. The
young teachers teach in 5 primary schools, whereas the student teachers study
to become English teachers. There were mainly 10 newly assigned teachers and
20 student teachers, all of them females of 21-26 years old. They were selected
randomly. There were no males because there are few male teachers in the
primary schools in Albania. It has not yet become a profession for men to teach
young learners. The study occurred in a six-month period (January-June
2008),during which I observed the needs and interests of the respective study
groups. I handed out questionnaires and then interviewed the young teachers
and the student teachers as well. I had talks with them in order to get sufficient
data for my research. I made the interviews once a month for three months in a
row (from January-April). The interviews concerned professional development
of the young EFL teachers in Albania. Each interview lasted 15 minutes. There
were experienced teachers that participated in this research. They played
mostly a secondary role, but of student teachers benefit. The student teachers
and the newly assigned teachers observed the experienced teachers lessons
for exchanging experiences.


Procedure

The data was collected at the end of April 2009 from all the actors that took
part in the study. I interviewed them randomly. I interviewed the newly
assigned and the student English language teachers at different times of the
day to get to know better their needs, interests and their mood. I used these
techniques for the interview because I wanted to judge them from their
psychological point of view and what the effect their mental state at different
times of the day had on the teaching process. I evaluated their background in
English as well. I involved these actors in the study in order to better see how
teacher professionalism can help learning in the English class. The student
teachers also observed 10 English classes in primary schools and attended the
classes of experienced teachers in order to see the pedagogy they used. The
student teachers talked with the experienced teachers and noted down the
skills and the strategies they should have as future teachers to make the
lessons effective. After the observed lesson they exchanged ideas about
teaching and especially about course design and lesson planning. They were
concerned mainly in the setting up of course and lesson plan objectives.
During the observation of the EFL classes the student teachers were divided
into groups of five because classes are very big in the Albania. As the focus in
this study was to find ways to professionalize EFL teaching I asked the student
teachers to jot down all the steps that experienced teachers used during their
teaching. The student teachers contrasted their teaching with their own
theoretical background together with the theory they were provided at the
university. So, during the observation a slight modification could be as follows
lesson planning, principally objectives, course design, mainly course
objectives.
I used the following rubrics for the observation, questionnaires, and the
interview. The ranking was: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree
and strongly agree, and the ranking of never, sometimes, and always.
Participants in this study collected data about classroom setting, classroom
conditions, the students conduct during the English lesson, the teachers
behavior and their communication in class (gestures, eye contact, and
intonation). The use of all these techniques in data collection provided me with
evidence from which strategies and teaching tips were identified.

Findings and Results

Data collected from the interviews, questionnaires and observations are
presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 in the Appendix. The data were not only in
quantity but also qualitative while examining the questions. In examining the

collected data either in quality or quantity, there were clear distinctions
between what the student teachers get at the university and what they face in
the real situation in the schools where they have started teaching. So the newly
assigned teachers confessed that they never face the same situation as they are
taught at school. Four of them said that they are sometimes treated well by the
senior teachers, and what is very much to be appreciated is the training. They
never get training at schools, which affect their teaching and especially the
setting of the course and lesson objectives. As for their psychological state
concerning teaching during the parts of the day they emphasized that they
always feel good while teaching in the morning. This shows that in the morning
they are fresh and full of energy to give their utmost in their teaching process.
This means that they sleep well during the night; moreover, studies reflect this
information: sleep debt considerably affects the teachers thinking and mood
report Gais and Born (2001). Furthermore, lack of sleep brings loss of energy,
lethargy, and emotional instability reports Sirito (2003).
The teachers mood in teaching is very important during the teaching
process. The merrier, the more tranquiller, the more organized and the more
love they put into their teaching, the better the results are on the students and
the teachers sides.
Class conditions also affect teaching. According to the results of table 1 I
may say that classroom environment in the piloted schools does not attract the
language learners towards a standardized learning, which needs to be
improved.

Conclusion

This study gives evidence on the importance of teacher training at school
and outside it. It also emphasizes the fact that EFL course design and lesson
plans in terms of clearly set oobjectives are very crucial in teaching in line with
the European standards. It is also important to point out what works best in
teaching EFL to student teachers and the new ones in order to give them the
possibility to develop professionally. The collected data provided by all the
actors in this study made possible the identification of the actual situation in
our schools and what is more important the tasks set for the national trainers in
order to apply teacher trainings in the schools. Training EFL teachers and
especially the young teachers for professional growth can be applied in all the
schools in Albania. This will increase the desire for students to learn English
better and at the same time it will motivate the student teachers to teach
professionally.


Bibliography

Edge, Julian. Continuing Professional Development: Some of our perspectives.
IATEFL. 2002.
Gais, S, Plihal, W. Wagner, U, and Born, Jan. Midlife in Insomnia. National
Neuroscience
Journal 13. 2000.
Kagan, Spencer and Kagan Miguel. Kagan Cooperative Learning. 2009. Print.
Malderez, Agni, Bodczky, Caroline, and Williams, Marion. Mentor Course a
Resource Book for Trainer-Trainers. Cambridge UP, 1999. Print.
Revista Msuesi no. 1. 2010.
Scrivener,Jim. Learning Teaching. Macmillan. 2009.
Snow, Don. From Language Learner to Language Teacher.Michigan USA:
McNaughton and Gunn. 2007.
Stickgold Robert and Walker Mat. The Neuroscience of Sleep. Elsevier. UK. 2009.
Strategjia Kombtare pr Arsimin e Lart SKALA 2008-2013. Print.
The Law on Higher Education amended by a new law no. 10 307, dated
22.07.2010.

MSIMDHNIE E STANDARDIZUAR E GJUHS ANGLEZE

Duke qen n ndryshime t vazhdueshme politike, ekonomike dhe
sociale, veanrisht pas viteve 90
t
, vendi yn ka patur nj nevoj t
ngutshme pr ndryshime n sistemin arsimor. N vitet e fundit Qeveria
Shqiptare ka treguar nj interes t madh n msimdhnien dhe
msimnxnien e gjuhs angleze n prputhje me standardet evropiane,
duke br t mundur amendimin e ligjeve t reja (ligji nr. 10 307 m dat
22.07.2010, pr t nxitur msimdhnien dhe nxnien e gjuhs angleze me
qllim q t plotsojn nevojat dhe interest e nxnsve. Pr ta br
msimdhnien e gjuhs angleze t dobishme pr nxnsit tan sht e
rndsishme q ti drejtojm msuesit e gjuhs angleze drejt nj
msimdhnieje t sukseshme q do t thot t kesh nj plan msimor t
planifikuar mir nprmjet organizimit t kujdesshm t objektivave t
msimit. Astu si kan theksuar Agni Malderez dhe Caroline Bodczky n
librin e tyre (1999, 22), objektivat duhet t hartohen n lidhje me msimin
dhe njohurit, si dhe t vazhdueshme gjat gjith kursit, q do t thot se
pa objektivat e msimdhnies e t nxnies nuk mund t ket plan
msimor.
Pra, ky artikull trajton arsyet pse msuesit kan nevoj t prditsohen
nga ana profesionale dhe si i ndihmojn objektivat t zhvillojn m tej

msimdhnien e gjuhs s huaj n klasat e tyre. Ky artikull, gjithashtu, u
prgjigjet pyetjeve t tilla: Cilat jan parimet q duhet t marrin pr baz
msuesit e gjuhs kur prcaktojn objektivat? Pse duhet ti ndjekin kto
parime? Si prfitojn nxnsit prej nj plani msimor t detajuar mir?T
dhnat e grumbulluara prej prgjigjeve theksuan rndsin e
profesionalizmit n msimdhnien e gjuhs angleze n shkollat tona.
Identifikimi i arsyeve pr ndryshimet e mdha politike dhe ekonomike
ndrgjegjsoi msuesit pr zhillimin e tyre profesional me qllim q t
zbatonin metodat bashkkohore t msimdhnies.

Fjalt kye:hartoj planin msimor, objektivat, profesionalim, zbatoj
metodat e msimdhnies.

Apprendix 1

Table 1. Observation by student teachers and newly assigned teachers

Strongly
disagree
Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
agree
Lessons are done in lively
and comfortable classrooms.

15

-

12

3

Quotes and posters on the
walls inspire teaching.

-

-

8
22
-
Bulletin boards are found in
all the language classrooms.
13 14 3
-

Students are interested in the
language lesson.
15
-
10 5 -
Teachers are kind, helpful
and do their best to upgrade
professionally.
- 3 20 7 -
Language teachers attract
their students by using
authentic materials in class.
11 - 4 - 15
Teachers use only
communicative teaching
methods
20 3 7 -
Students are always in the
center of teaching.
12
-
13 5 -
Total

66 37 73 49 15


Appendix 2

Table 2. The interview to the newly assigned teachers

1 2 3 4 5
1. Are you faced with the same teaching situation you
were taught at school?
10 - - - -
2. Do you find a friendly situation in the school from
the very beginning of the school year?
6 4 - - -
3. Do you exchange experience with the older
teachers at your school?
3 5 - - 2
4. Do you get teacher training at your school by the
senior teachers?
10 - - - -
5. Do you read professional books in order to develop
professionally?
-
2
- 4 8
6. Have you observed classes from the experienced
teachers?

2 8 - - -
7. Do all of you talk about your teaching methods and
especially about course objectives?
- 6 - 4 -
8. Do you find setting objectives to your teaching
difficult?

-

-
3
-
7
9. Do you feel good while teaching in:
a. the morning?
b. the afternoon?
c. the evening?

-
-
-

-
-
-

-
-
-

-
-
-

20
-
-
TOTAL 31 25 3 8 37

Appendix 3

Table 3 The interview to the student teachers.

1. Do student teachers study teaching because they have a
goal in their life?
14 6
2. Do they take part in micro-teaching while they have
seminars in class?
12 8
3. Are they conscious of what they study and why they
study teaching English?
16
4
4. Do you find teaching English interesting?

7 3 10
5. Does teaching always makes you feel inspiring?

2 12
6
6. Are the teaching materials useful for you in the future
career?

3 9
9
7. Do you set objectives easily?

12
5
3
8. Does setting objectives help you in your teaching?

20
TOTAL - 33 62 - 10

UDK 378:[371.3:811.111(671.1)

The Evolution and the Expectation in the
Teaching/Learning of Quality Bilingualism for
Quality Education at the Tertiary Level of
Education in Cameroon

Ojage Nicoline Agbor Tabe, University of Maroua, Cameroon

Abstract: With Cameroon being an official bilingual country where English and French
are the two official languages and both languages having an equal status; it is vital to
find out the evolution and the prospects of the teaching/learning of the Bilingual
Training course at the tertiary level after fifty years of education. It is in line with this
thinking that we have put together the following guiding questions for this paper: What
changes have occurred in the state-owned professional schools as the teaching of
Bilingual Training is concerned? And how should they be taught in the above
institutions to suit the current changes as a means of anticipating for an excellent
teaching/learning of Bilingual Training in Cameroon? This article answers these worries
by providing a picture of what the teachers, students, the school authorities and the state
are supposed to do if we must achieve the learning/teaching of quality bilingualism for
quality education in higher institutes of learning in Cameroon.

Key Words: evolution, expectation, teaching, bilingualism, education, professional
institutions.

Introduction

In the course of observing how English and French as second official
languages are being taught in some State-owned higher professional schools in
Cameroon and listening to some of the comments made by students about
their bilingual training course:
-Why are techniques of communication not taught in English as in French? I
would have boycotted the classes if not for the need of passing my exams and
graduating from the school.
-English is not important because I am not going to use it at work. French-
my first official language is my workplace language.

-I am tired of this grammar all the time from primary school to secondary
school to the university and here too. I dont know what is new that this
teacher is adding to my knowledge. It is such a boring class.
-Why are we taught administrative writings in French only and not in
English? Are they indirectly obliging us to write professional writings only in
French?
-Why are teachers who are not language teachers and not proficient in
English coming to teach us English?
I started wondering what should be done as regards the teaching/learning
of our second official languages which we commonly call Formation Bilingue
(FB). This is just a pointer to the numerous lapses in the teaching/learning
process of our second official languages in Cameroon and also an indicator of
the boring nature of the learning of these languages at the tertiary level of
education where we expect the best from the trainers. Many other questions
ran through my mind like what were the dreams of the proponents of this
policy of official bilingualism and how has their vision evolve with time? and
what should be done by who at the tertiary level to better encourage
Cameroonians to continue to desire learning their second official languages?
These worries have been resolved in this paper.
Before diving into the roots of the matter, it is important to highlight some
key words evolution, quality and expectation which I think will pave the way
for my talk. Evolution means development, growth or advancement. Quality
means the worth, eminence, excellence, superiority, class, value or the
standard of something and expectation means the prospects, hopes or
anticipations of something. Having the notion of what evolution, quality and
expectation are all about now leads us to the interpretation of the topic which
is the development and the prospects of superior bilingualism for superior
education. That is, what advancement have been made in the teaching and
what anticipations can be made to give bilingualism in higher professional
colleges in Cameroon an excellent and eminent image as teaching/learning are
concerned. In the following parts, the states vision of official bilingualism and
the evolution has been traced. I have also looked at the expectations at
different levels: Cameroons vision of quality official bilingualism, expectations
of the bilingual training teacher at the pre-course phase of the course,
expectations of the teachers and learners during and after the course and what
is expected of the school authorities for a quality bilingualism course.


Cameroons vision of official bilingualism

We cannot talk about the Cameroonian vision of official bilingualism without
making mention of Fonlon a famous founding Father of the stated policy and
president Ahidjo the first president after independence.
Fonlon in1963 with precision states what he thinks the vision of this
language policy should aim at

the teaching of English and French in our schools and colleges should be to
produce citizens capable of handling both languages with consummato skill,
capable of producing in English or French, as they please, works of arts or
science of the highest merit (70).

In like manner, Ahidjos vision of official bilingualism in the Federal
Constitution was one that the pipuls of the lycee, regardless of their Federated
State of origin, would acquire a perfect knowledge of English and French and be
able to function equally well in one language as in the other, after reaching a
given level.
From the above reactions of Fonlon and Ahidjo, you can bear with me that
their dream was that of producing equal official bilinguals on attaining a certain
level of education. For them, after attaining a certain level of education;
citizens should be able to be competent and performing in both English and
French.
Also, the ever first English syllabus for secondary schools in francophone
provinces by MINEDUC outlined fully the dream of official bilingualism in
Cameroon:

The teaching of English in the French speaking area of Cameroon has
two principal objectives. The first of these is to contribute to the
development of a bilingual culture in which the majority of the citizens
are able to express themselves in both English and French and can truly
share a common heritage. While the achievement of this goal will
foster national unity, it will also prepare Cameroonians for a unique
role among the Anglophone and francophone countries of Africa.

The second objective is to contribute to the young francophones
intellectual growth by the acquisition of a language which is so significant in the
fields of literature, philosophy and science. At the practical level, the teaching
of English must aim at the command of current English as a means of
communication, first oral, then written. This willinvolve some or all of the
following abilities:

to understand and answer questions which requires explanation or
information.
to understand radio broadcasts.
to manage ones own way in an Anglophone area.
to read and understand passage such as directions or announcements,
then passages of greater difficulties from newspapers or books
to correspond with Anglophones.
to appreciate the culture of the other Anglophone countries
to pursue advanced studies in English (5).

Looking at the objectives of the ever first French-speaking programme of the
teaching of English and French to Francophones and Anglophones respectively,
you can bear with me that more emphasis was laid on the majority of the
citizens being able to express themselves in both English and French not leaving
out a command of current English and French as a means of communication.
That meant that there was a shift of the vision of official bilingualism from what
was purported by Fonlon and Ahidjo to what was maintained by the ever first
academic programme. This disparity gave rise to two diverse visions of official
bilingualism:
1. The production of equal official bilinguals proposed by Fonlon and Ahidjo.
This entails the acquiring a perfect knowledge of English and French and being
able to function equally well in one language as in the other, after reaching a
given level.
2. The production of received official bilingual propounded by the ever first
academic programme of MINEDUC. That is, acquiring the second official
language for the purpose of communication.
It is not surprising when Tchoungui quoted by Ubanako attests that two
main objectives were assigned to the policy of official bilingualism:

to give opportunity to every Cameroonian to study his or her first
official language according to their geographic location and to give
him/her the opportunity to study and speak the second official
language as well and consequently become a perfectly balanced
bilingual.(13)

At the level of teaching/learning, these diverse views gave birth to two
different teaching approaches to official bilingualism:
1. A lighter teaching of bilingual training for the purpose of communication
2.A heavier teaching of bilingual training for both communicative
/grammatical competence

The questions one can keep asking is: why this differences in the early
vision of official bilingualism in Cameroon and does this account for the present
confused state of the teaching of official bilingualism at the tertiary level where
some schools practice the lassez faire official bilingualism for communicative
purposes while others practice a hard official bilingualism for both
grammatical/ communicative competence? This leads us to the next phase of
our paper which is:
A. What changes have occurred in the teaching/learning of the Bilingual
Training course in the target schools?
B. What type of bilingualism is supposed to be practice in higher institutes of
professional learning in Cameroon?
-Is it quality bilingualism for quality education?
-If yes then how can we attain our objectives?

Evolution in the Teaching of English/French to Students in State-owned
Professional Schools in Yaound

Since 1961, the year that saw the re-unification of the former two federated
states into a united Republic of Cameroon; the government of the country has
constantly recognized English and French as the two official languages of the
country with the both languages having the same status. The state policy of
official bilingualism was stated in the federal constitutions of 1961, amended in
1972 as follows: The official languages of the Republic of Cameroon shall
be English and French, both languages having the same status. The state shall
guarantee the promotion of bilingualism throughout the country..
In order to promote bilingualism for integrative purposes, the state
envisaged the teaching of English to all French -speaking students on the one
hand and the teaching of French to all English-speaking students on the other.
This effort of the government was reiterated in the educational policy as Mckay
quoting Todd points out:

a bilingual approach was also adopted towards education. From
nursery schools upwards, all education was to be in either French or
English with bilingualism in those two official languages being
specifically catered for in a number of secondary schools and the
University. (127)

In conformity to the above, English/French has since then been taught in the
state-owned professional schools with the spirit of promoting official
bilingualism under the framework of Bilingual Training. This was done with

the goal of helping the learners to acquire their second official language
English or French so as to contribute to the growth of the bilingual culture. In
conversations with Professor Alobwede, Mrs. Ngasa and Mr. Nashifu, all
pioneer lecturers of two state-owned engineering professional institution: the
National Advanced School of Public Works and the National Advanced School
Polytechnique respectively, I was made to understand that barely general
English/French grammar was being taught to the above students. As time
passed on, the students exercised the lack of motivation to the learning of
general grammar as they do not see any need in concentrating on learning
grammatical rules which is a mere repetition of what they were doing from
primary schools through secondary and even university. For them, what they
were learning does not have any relevance to their prospective professional
world. This above low spirit manifested by the students triggers a change to
what was taught to them. The introduction has also highlighted the low spirit
that has preoccupied in the teaching/learning of the Formation Bilingue
course. Mrs. Ngasa, a pioneer English language teacher in the National
Advanced School of Public Works has this to say as this shift from general
grammar to technical English is concerned:

Personally, I have the impression that the students were not
motivated because they have been doing a lot of grammar in their lives.
I have imposed English for science and technology on the learners
because of its importance on their profession (interview conducted by
Agbor, 10/02/2009 at the NASPW,Yaound)

Following this observation, the trainers tried to shift from the stiff
grammatical rules to some kind of teaching of English that relates to the field of
the students which is Professional English. One of the reasons for this change
advanced by the teachers is: since most of the best first hand science text
books are available in English and only later translated into French. Another
reason for this shift from the teaching of general grammar to special technical
vocabulary given by Mr. Nashifu was that, most technical appliances and
products that these students will constantly be in contact with throughout their
working lives are labelled in English. The above points provided a propitious
setting for the change from the teaching of general grammar to the teaching of
Professional English.
Following the development in the teaching/learning of the official
languages, we also expect a subsequent change in the teaching/learning
approaches and even the comportment of the teachers, the students and the
school authority not leaving out the state which the next portion projects as
quality bilingualism in higher education.

Expectation for Quality Official Bilingualism at the Tertiary Level of
Education in Cameroon

Much is expected of the teachers before, during and after the course. There
are also prospects for the students, the school authorities and the government
for use to succeed which the forthcoming sections advanced.

A. What are the expectations of the teacher before classes?
The first and most important issue in the teaching of a quality bilingualism
course is whether the course reflects the needs of its learners. Any quality
bilingualism course should consider the factors that affect their learners wants.
That is, the teacher is expected to know the linguistic background of his/her
learners, current knowledge of learners Second language (L2) and the
similarities/differences between their previously acquired languages and the
target language, learners expectation and aspiration and their purpose for
learning their second official language. Therefore, the teaching of quality
bilingualism for quality education in any professional school must take into
account the specialty of the learners and their prospective professional
language needs.

B. What are the expectations of the teachers during the course?
Hamachek holds that quality teaching is more than one thing. He opines that
it is both an art and a science. I strongly buy his assertion of quality teaching
which encompasses the teachers appearance, teaching style, teaching
methodology, teachers language, teachers behaviour and personality, the
teachers perception of self and others. All these abilities that teachers of
bilingual training should aspire for their attainment of quality bilingual training
teaching can be presented in the form of 43 commandments:
1. Thou shall have broad knowledge and interest
2. Thou shall strive to be intellectually prepared
3. Thou shall know thy learners
4. Thou shall use advanced organizers especially pre-learning tasks
5. Thou shall be noted for conceptual simplicity
6. Thou shall be stable and warm
7. Thou shall express more friendly feeling towards thy learners
8. Thou shall be nonpunitive
9. Thou shall be responsible, systematic and imaginative
10. Thou shall be creative
11. Thou shall be flexible
12. Thou shall be enthusiastic
13. Thou shall not always be perfect and all knowing

14. Thou shall be human and considerate
15. Thou shall value thy learners
16. Thou shall be self-confident
17. Thou shall have positive perception of learners
18. Thou shall challenge and encourage thy learners
19. Thou shall be sensitive to thy personality feedback
20. Thou shall be autocratic, practice laissez faire and be democratic
21. Thou shall give thy learner thy first priority
22. Thou shall be learner centered
23. Thou shall be integrative rather than dominative
24. Thou shall judge what thy teaches and how well thy teaches
25. Thou shall cultivate a thirst for learning in thy learners
26. Thou shall fashion all thy teaching to take place in a cultural, historical
and sociopolitical context
27. Thou shall participate in workshops on effective teaching strategies
28. Thou shall do research and be acquaint with scholarship
29. Thou shall raise thy learners awareness of cross- cultural sensitivity and
diversity
30. Thou shall dream and be on the offense rather than on the defense
31. Thou shall differentiate between the trivial and the meaningful
32. Thou shall use real-life examples
33. Thou shall strive to change thy learners and thyself as thou teaches
34. Thou shall reflect on what is meaningful to thy learners
35. Thou shall encourage self- learning
36. Thou shall evaluate thy learners before, during and after the course
37. Thou shall test thy learners on what thou had taught
38. Thou shall be cordial with thy learners
39. Thou shall vary thy methods
40. Thou shall possess good correction approach
41. Thou shall welcome learners questions
42. Thou shall be patient with learners
43. Thou shall never allow thou learners to leave the class with any worry
concerning the lesson

C. What are the expectations of the learners?
10 commandments have been postulated for learners to adopt if they intern
to acquire quality Formation Bilingue Learning at the Tertiary Level.
1. Learners should be very open to their teachers before, during and after
their lesson/course
2. Learners should participate actively in class

3. Learners should start seeing themselves as teachers and endeavour to
comport as one
4. Learners should respect their teachers view and that also of their fellow
students
5. Learners should be polite to their teachers and classmates
6. Learners should try to have a say as to what they are being taught
7. Learners should engage into self- learning activities
8. Learners should assert their preferable teaching/learning styles
9. Learners should give undivided attention to their classroom learning
10. Learners should keep on asking question until they are satisfied

D. What are the expectations of the school authorities?
The first and most important expectation of the school authorities is for
them to create a Bilingual Training Unit with coordinators to manage the affairs
of the Bilingual training course programme.
The school library should be well equipped with books on Learning
English/French at the tertiary level, Professional English/French, English/French
in general, English/French language books for specialized technical vocabulary
and the teaching/learning of English/French as second and foreign languages
for teachers and students to explore and improve on their knowledge.
Also, if we must achieve efficient teaching and attain the objectives of
quality bilingualism; I advise the school authorities to recruit lecturers who
have acquire some valuable extra knowledge on the teaching of professional
English because it has an impact on the teaching/learning process. More
lecturers (even part timers) should be recruited and paid regularly.
In the same light, teachers should be given enough hours to cover a good
amount of the professional language knowledge needs of the learners which is
an aspect of quality bilingualism at higher stage before graduation so as to arm
them with valuable skill needed in the job market. I think if the teaching of
quality Formation Bilingue in English/French at the tertiary level is taught
every semester, it will give the trainers enough time to cover much than they
actually do.
Furthermore, there should be a syllabus for the bilingualism courses based
on the need of the learners from different specialties. In addition to the above,
the programme should be flexible and should be modifiable as new trainees are
admitted yearly to truly suit the wants of the students.
Teachers should be given (financial and certificate) best teacher awards
annually to enable them create a good psychology in teaching and a good
learning climate which is recommended for any successful Formation Bilingue
learning situation. This justify why Morgan and Peter (33-34) in citing William
and Burden identify factors as challenge, choice, curiosity and involvement for

being responsible for motivation and creativity in second and foreign language
learning.
The state can better the teaching/learning of quality Bilingualism by
providing the schools with a language laboratory with audio and video
cassettes, films and video games on the learning and teaching of
English/French. This is in line with Crosss (41) proposal of instrumental
materials, class size and quality teaching as having the greatest impact on
quality education.

Conclusion

The teaching/learning of the official languages have evolve during fifty years
of education at the tertiary level and so the teaching/learning approaches
should equally evolve to that of quality. For Cameroon to meet up to
expectation of quality bilingual training teaching/learning, the entire higher
education community and more especially the trainers, put their hands
together so that they may succeed. By so doing, we will have a positive
outcome for quality bilingualism for quality education at the tertiary level. It
will also keep the candle of the learners constantly burning for the learning of
their second official languages and avoid circumlocution on basic grammar
which is boring to them because they have been seeing it from primary school
through secondary and even university levels of their studies.

Bibliography

British Council. TeachingEnglish TKT Essentials. Module 1 -3, 2010.
Charleston. "Enhancing the Quality of Teaching in Colleges and Universities:
Teaching forDiversity." Teaching Education. 4, 1 (Febuary 1993):7-9.
Dan Marshall, J. Teaching Education. 4, 1 University of South Carolina, 1991.
Haberman, Martin. "Can Cultural Awareness Be Taught In Teacher Education
Programs?"Teaching Education. 4, 1(1991):25-35.
Hamachek, Don. E. Behavior Dynamics in Teaching, Learning and Growth.
Michigan State University: Allyn and Bacon: Boston, 1975.
Morgan, C. and Peter, N. Teaching Modern Foreign Languages: A Handbook for
Teachers. London: Kogan Page, 2001.
Niara and Judarkasa. "Quality teaching is Judged by what we Teach, not Just
how Well." Teaching Education. 4. 1 (1991): 17-21.
Sapon- Shevin, Mara. "As we Teach, we Change our Students and
Ourselves."Teaching Education. 4,1 (1991): 46-56.

Simon, P. "Insights into Better Teaching." Teaching Education. 4, 1, University
of South Carolina (1991): 57-68.
State Document: Cameroon. English Syllabus for Secondary Schools in
Francophone Provinces. MINEDUC, 1975.
State Document: Cameroon. The Federal Constitutions. 1961 and 1972. Print.
Ubanako, Valintine. "Regional Varieties and Educationally Determined Lects in
CAME." 2007.
Wolfson, Bernice. "Becoming a Teacher."Teaching Education. 4,1 (1991): 69 -77.

EVOLUTION ET ATTENTE DE L ENSEIGNEMENT/APPRENTISSAGE DUN BILINGIUSME DE
QUALITE DANS L ENSEIGNEMENT SUPRIEUR AU CAMEROUN

Pour un pays officiellement bilingue linstar du Cameroun o lAnglais et le
Franais sont les deux langues officielles ayant un statut gal, il est important de
connaitre lvolution et les dbouchs de lenseignement/apprentissage des
cours de formation bilingue au niveau tertiaire aprs cinquante ans dducation.
Cest dans cette optique que les questions suivantes ont t poses ? Quels sont
les changements survenus dans les coles de formation cibles sagissant les cours
de formation bilingue et comment celles-ci devraient tres enseignes dans ces
grandes coles en vue de promouvoir un enseignement- apprentissage adquat
pour la formation Bilingue aprs cinquante annes dducation ? Cet article
esquisse une rponse ces questions tout en donnant des indications sur ce
quon attend des enseignants, des lves et des autorits scolaires en vue
dassurer un bilinguisme de qualit pour une ducation de qualit dans les
grandes coles du Cameroun.

Mots-cls: Evolution, Attentes, enseignement, bilinguisme, ducation,
grandes coles.


UDK 371.686:81243

Film u nastavi stranog jezika

Budimka Uskokovi, Univerzitet u Beogradu

Apstrakt: U ovom lanku se nudi objanjenje funkcije i naina korienja filmova u
nastavi stranog jezika. Definie se nekoliko mogunosti predstavljanja filmova, kao i
pozitivni i negativni aspekti prikazivanja filmova u nastavi. Polazite rada je da medijska
kompetentnost predstavlja petu jeziku kompetenciju, a govori se i o odnosima filmova i
socijalnih i istorijskih aspekata stvarnosti. Rad se bazira na eksperimentu sprovedenom u
Nemakoj i zakljuuje se da bi bilo efikasno ako bi se takav eksperiment sproveo i na
ovdanjim prostorima u cilju poboljanja medijskih sposobnosti i boljeg uvida u nivo
reakcija mlaih uenika i studenata.

Kljune rei: film, drutvo, kompetencija, eksperiment

Uvod

Film je jedan od vodeih medijuma kulture savremenog oveka i bez njega
se teko moe zamisliti kulturni ili tehniki savremeni ivot. Iako toga uglavnom
nismo svesni, film zauzima sve vie prostora u svetu medija i tek ciljnim
koncentrisanjem na njegovo prouavanje, moe se spreiti da ovek ostane
pasivan posmatra scena koje kasnije gube svoje primarno znaenje, menjaju se
i utiu na njegovu svest, postaju deo renika ili opte kulture.
Kao posebna umetnost, film omoguava jedinstven pristup stranom jeziku,
te je tim vei i njegov znaaj u nastavi stranog jezika, bez obzira na probleme
koji se mogu javiti, a o kojima e kasnije u samom tekstu biti rei. Korienje
filma u nastavi stranog jezika, religije, likovne umetnosti, geografije i nekih
drugih predmeta, ne sme biti ogranieno samo na nivo osnovne kole, ve treba
da nae mnogo iri prostor u skladu sa uzrastom, rodnim razlikama, verskim
opredeljenjima i interkulturnim razlikama uenika. Veliki broj filmom obraenih
tema zadire u duhovno odrastanje i razvoj uenika i moe biti od pomoi u
savladavanju svakodnevnih problema i izazova.
Film je specifina obrada irokog spektra tema esto strane kulture,
informacija o zemlji i ljudima iji jezik uimo i sa kojima moemo doi u kontakt,
socijalne realnosti, istorije, dijalekatskih razlika, autentinih govornih situacija,
realnih komunikativnih impulsa i povoda, modela ponaanja.

Iako neki izvori njegovo korienje smatraju dodatnim optereivanjem
nastave, eksperimenti sprovedeni u Nemakoj pokazuju drugu stranu stvarnosti
na kojoj su deca i mladi eljni usavravanja u medijskoj kompetentnosti. To je i
jedan od razloga za ee odravanje seminara i izradu projekata preko kojih bi
se nastavnici, sticanjem novih informacija, dalje usavravali.
Cilj ovoga rada je da pomogne nastavnicima da sagledaju sve prednosti i
mane primene filma u nastavi, ali i da podstakne nastavnike da se to ee
bave ovim medijem jer je on jedan od naina pospeivanja aktivnosti uenika i
odravanja njihove panje. Ovde e biti rei i o znaaju kratkometranih filmova
i televizijskih serija.
Obrada ove teme mogla bi pomoi i srbistima u nastavi srpskog kao stranog
jezika, odnosno moe biti dobar podstrek za prikazivanje srpskih filmova u
nastavi i kod nas i u svetu, na prostorima gde se srpski jezik izuava kao strani.

Medijska kompetentnost kao poseban predmet?

S obzirom na to da ivimo u tehniki veoma razvijenoj civilizaciji, postavlja se
pitanje da li je potrebno uvesti novi predmet koji bi za cilj imao postizanje
medijske kompetentnosti, odnosno sticanje sposobnosti pretraivanja i
pronalaenja informacija putem Interneta, jer je sve vei broj poslova koji
zahtevaju ovakvu sposobnost, i da li je potrebno da u tom sluaju i film bude
deo tog predmeta, jer mu se u okviru drugih predmeta ne posveuje dovoljno
panje. Evropska Komisija ve sprovodi akcije radi bezbednije upotrebe
Interneta. U Bavarskoj je medijska kompetentnost ve odavno deo kurikuluma
(Wrther 2). Kako u ostalom delu Nemake i dalje postoji veliki problem
medijske kompetentnosti nastavnika, navodi se nekoliko razloga za to: film kao
medij postoji odavno i vodi se neosnovana diskusija o poboljanju medijske
pedagogije; tradicija samih predmeta ne dozvoljava uvoenje neega novog;
filmski najkompetentniji strunjaci rade van kola i veliki je problem dovesti ih,
sa njima organizovati nastavu ili omoguiti da poduavaju nastavnike koji pred
ovim zaziru i plae se da bi mogli izgubiti svoj autoritet u modernom svetu
(Pfister 22). Nemci smatraju da svako moe gledati film, da u nastavi njihovog
maternjeg jezika postoje mnogo bitnije stvari i da nastava nemakog jezika tre-
ba da prui znanje iz knjievnosti, a ne i iz kulture filma, a pritom se zaboravlja
da je veliki broj knjiga u novije vreme ekranizovan i da bi i taj oblik interpretta-
cije literature trebalo ukljuiti u modernu nastavu. Izdavake kue u udbeni-
cima za strani jezik ili za nemaki kao strani jezik, nude veliki broj filmskih
referenci i tekstova koji se zasnivaju na poznavanju filmova i prie kroz sliku i
ton sa dodatnim materijalima (Schritte International, em, Studio D, Planet).

Namee se pitanje ta je sa obrazovnim ustanovama u naoj zemlji? U naim
kolama postoji problem nedovoljnog medijskog opismenjavanja upravo zbog
nedostatka savremenih tehnikih pomagala, pa je teko govoriti o filmu kao
posebnom predmetu. On ostaje deo postojeih nastavnih planova, ali se u
praksi nedovoljno primenjuje. Razlozi za to su mnogobrojni: duina filma ne
dozvoljava da se u obzir uzmu sve okolnosti i detalji; subjektivnost; filmovi se
gledaju samo da bi se ispunio as pred raspust ili neki praznik u celini, bez mo-
gunosti da se o njima diskutuje. Uloga filma u nastavi je da oplemeni sadraj,
da metodski obogati nastavu i za obradu svake teme bi se mogla nai sekvenca
u trajanju do 15 minuta koja bi uenicima pruila drugaiji pristup nastavnoj
jedinici (Sass 10). Uenici bi u tom sluaju bili motivisani za samostalno istrai-
vanje, odnosno, kako to Deromi Bruner kae, za uenje putem otkrivanja.
Filmovi mogu da usmere panju vee grupe uenika i mladih nego to to moe
knjievnost u modernom svetu, pa bi nastava mogla biti popularna, zabavna,
viestrana, rastereena, a kola bi mogla postati privlano mesto (Wrther, 2).
Filmovi omoguavaju da strani jezik ue u uionicu na autentian i prijemiv
nain i nude situacije u kojima se jezik najee koristi. Treba ih birati ciljano i
argumentovano predstavljati, a za to je neophodno filmsko opismenjavanje na-
stavnika. U svetu se odravaju seminari u trajnju od mesec dana do ak neko-
liko meseci i namenjeni su nastavnicima ili buduim nastavnicima stranih jezika
koji mogu aktivno da uestvuju u diskusijama, gledaju filmove, osmilja-vaju za-
datke za nastavu sa decom, ali i sami ue neto novo o korienju ovog medija.
Takvu novinu u pristupu nastavi trebalo bi uvesti i kod nas, najpre za slaviste iz
sveta, pa onda i za nae nastavnike stranog jezika koji bi se mogli baviti doma-
om kinematografijom, razlikama izmeu domae i strane, mogunostima nji-
hovog povezivanja i preoblikovanja za bolju interkulturnu razmenu srpskih ue-
nika u dijaspori i stranih uenika kod nas, pri emu bi uenici mogli da govore o
svom iskustvu i tako upotpune nastavu i daju podsticaje za dalja istraivanja.

Eksperiment

Film je kao celina subjektivna pojava, pa stoga nudi nepregledne reakcije,
odnosno rekonstrukcije sadraja i iskaza sa kojima treba raunati, ali i za koje se
treba pripremiti. Jedan od naina da se odabere film jeste da se najpre uradi
anketa iz koje bi se tano mogle precizirati potrebe uenika, a potom na njih
odgovori na najbolji mogui nain, uz voenje rauna o uzrastu uenika, pred-
znanju, motivaciji i interesovanjima. Eksperiment izveden 2002. godine u Nema-
koj pod pokroviteljstvom Ministarstva za obrazovanje, ene i mlade Rajnskofa-
lake oblasti, stalnih zastupnika najviih pokrajinskih vlasti za mlade, pokazao je
da je film pravi oblik socijalizacije dece i mladih i da su polazna razmiljanja bila

tana (Goehlnich 2002, 4). U ovom eksperimentu su uestvovali mladi od 12 do
16 godina. Glavni cilj eksperimenta bilo je uporeivanje starosnih granica za
gledanje filmova, odnosno utvrivanje moguih odstupanja od ve propisanih
granica. U SAD-u, Nemakoj, Engleskoj i jo nekim evropskim zemljama postoje
komisije koje utvruju starosne granice za gledanje filmova. Toga kod nas jo
nema, pa se na samom poetku javlja problem izbora filma, jer se moe desiti
da za isti film postoji nekoliko starosnih granica. Uvoenje komisije koja bi se, u
saglasnosti sa roditeljima, pedagozima i psiholozima, bavila ovom problemati-
kom, bio bi preduslov za prezentiranje filmova deci kolskog uzrasta. Samo bi u
tim uslovima bilo mogue utvrivanje reakcija dece na odgovarajui film i dono-
enje zakljuaka o uticaju pojedinih scena na njihov psiholoki razvoj. Ekspe-
riment je pokazao da se mladi priseaju scena i da ih uporeuju sa filmskim
scenama nalazei modus vivendi, odnosno reenja za nove situacije. Socijalno
poreklo je od velikog znaaja i polazna je taka za dalja ispitivanja i varijacije u
odnosu na klasne, nacionalne, pa ak i rasne razlike. Metode bi trebalo da stvo-
re okruenje u kome vie nee biti selektivnog razmiljanja, nego razmiljanja iz
nekoliko perspektiva, to je u interakcijskom pristupu filmu realnost.
Rezultati anketa sprovedenih pre ovog eksperimenta pokazale su vrednost
filma u kontekstu slobodnih aktivnosti, anrovske i razlike u interesovanjima
izmeu deaka i devojica. Zakljueno je da bi trebalo deci i mladima pribliiti
kultne filmove tako to bi, odreenim danima u mesecu, gledala sekvence tih
filmova kao uvod u obrade novih tematskih jedninica, ili kao obnavljanje ve
nauenog gradiva. Roditeljima bi trebalo objasniti sve prednosti filmskih proje-
kcija tokom asova, da se ne bi dogodilo da to izazove njihove negativne rea-
kcije. Pritom se svakako mora podvui razlika izmeu kvaliteta, naina gledanja
filmskih sadraja, ciljeva, usmerenog voenja i koncentrisanja na veoma vane
oblasti. Moglo se primetiti da animirane scene predstavljaju veoma bitan stilski
element koji privlai panju i da crtani film ne mora nuno biti i film za decu, jer
i ti filmovi koriste elemente koji nisu prilagoeni deci. Ako je potrebno iskoristiti
crtani film sa takvim scenama, bolje je prikazati scene koje privlae i pobuuju
panju dece, navodei ih da razmiljaju o njihovom dovravanju. Prikazivanjem
kratkih sekvenci mogu se postii mnogo vei uticaj i bolji rezultati. Scene mora-
ju biti odabrane sa ve utvrenim ciljem. Scene nasilja u filmovima moraju biti
filmski opravdane. U zavisnosti od uzrasta, deca mogu esto da ih prihvate kao
izmiljene, odnosno da naprave jasnu razliku izmeu stvarnosti i fikcije. Potre-
bno je ponuditi veliki spektar rodnih razlika, a zatim ih kritiki preispitati i, po
potrebi, odbaciti. Mladi smatraju da su nepobedivi junaci akcionih filmova pre-
vie savreni i da nisu dovoljno verodostojni. Ovaj detalj bi mogao odvui pa-
nju dece, pa ju je potrebno ponovo usmeriti na likove iji su unutranji konflikti
vidljivi i koji pokazuju oseanja, koji se bore sa svojim gubicima i neuspesima i
koji imaju hrabrosti da uprkos tome i dalje prate svoje snove. Takvi junaci

filmova su im mnogo blii, a u tom uzrastu je najneophodnije stvoriti identifika-
cionu sponu izmeu filmskih likova i mladih. Shodno tome, gledanje filmova bi
trebalo da postane neodvojiv deo savremene nastave jer mladima pomae da
govore o onome to su doiveli, izgrauje njihovu samosvest i budi motivaciju
da uestvuju u reavanju veoma bitnih drutvenih pitanja.
U eksperimentu koji je usledio nakon 2003. i 2004. godine, uesnici su bili
deca od 4 do 14 godina i praene su njihove reakcije (Goehlnich 2004, 6).
Utvreno je da je za decu predkolskog uzrasta veoma bitno koristiti scene i
slike junaka na velikom formatu jer pospeuju njihovu reminiscenciju, verba-
lizaciju oseanja kao to su radost i strah. Filmovi iziskuju aktivno uee dece u
nastavi i proiruju njihov aktivni renik zahvaljujui vebama koje slede kasnije,
omoguavaju verbalizaciju audiovizuelnog, pa su tako pogodni za bilo koji tip
uenika. Predkolska deca su ak u mogunosti da situacije iz nepoznatog
podneblja apstrahuju na sopstveno okruenje, a snani protagonisti im omogu-
avaju da scene sa mnogo emotivnog naboja prihvataju bez straha. Deca do
svoje este godine mogu bolje da prate pravolinijsko pripovedanje nego kom-
pleksne prie sa razliitim stepenom razvoja, posebno kada one nemaju
nikakvih dodirnih taaka sa njihovom okolinom. Ona mogu lake da se poisto-
vete sa junacima iz ekranizovanih bajki, dejih knjiga i animiranih filmova. Vie
im se dopadaju nestani i veseli junaci koji i dalje mogu da ispunjavaju zadatke
u zajednici. Za sedmogodinjake, pak, oni moraju biti odvani i portvovani za
druge, bez linog interesa. Primeeno je da je veina uspela da se distancira i da
razume problematine sadraje. Deca mogu lake da prepoznaju i prihvate ve
vieno, jer jo uvek nisu dosegla imaginarni nivo svesti na kome mogu da da
razlikuju fikciju od realnosti.
Pri anketiranju dece u naim kolama videli bismo verovatno sline reakcije
sa manje ili vie intenziteta, ali bi ovom eksperimentu trebalo dodati i kontrolnu
grupu koja bi nastavu imala u toku godine bez filmova, kako bi mogao biti
utvren uticaj filma na socijalni, kognitivni, moralni razvoj, sazrevanje i razvoj
sticanja medijskog iskustva, kao na prohteve dece, razmiljanja na razliite
teme o prijateljstvu, znaaju domaih filmova u njihovom razvoju i sadraju
animiranih filmova. Dolo se do zakljuka da sa italakom kompetentnou
raste i sigurnost u dekodiranju medijskih poruka. To bi trebalo istraiti i kod nas,
s obzirom na to da i dalje nemamo dovoljno razvijenu italaku kompetenstnost
kod deaka.

Znaaj i tehnike

U strunoj literaturi se navodi kada je korienje filmova u nastavi pro-
duktivno: kada elimo da ispriamo uzbudljivu priu, da zainteresujemo uenike
za strani jezik, da pruimo uvid u drugi svet, da prikaemo neoekivano i kada

hoemo da uenicima ponudimo temu za razgovor, razmiljanje i diskutovanje
o neemu novom i interesantnom (Sass 6). Postoje parametri koji pokazuju da
se samo 20 odsto auditivnih informacija moe sauvati, za razliku od vizuelnih,
koje doseu ak 50 odsto (Harms 247). Slike pokazuju realne odnose u prostoru
i vremenu, preslikavaju stvarnost i ponekad mogu biti identine sa njom, a logi-
ke slike ovakve informacije prenose iskljuivo putem simbola koji ne
predstavljaju dovoljno dobar izvor za dalje reprodukovanje. Ipak, ovim postu-
pkom se moe postii i kontraefekat ukoliko nema dubinske obrade podataka,
odnosno ukoliko nedostaje level of processing. Bitno je organizovati ovako
unete informacije na to bolji nain, odnosno daljim obraivanjem i intera-
kcijom kako bi razumevanje bilo utemeljeno, jer trajanje usvojenog znanja
zavisi od semantikog proticaja nauenog materijala. Ukoliko je razumevanje
dovoljno dobro, utoliko je i vea mogunost za prelazak gradiva u dugotrajnu
memoriju, za postizanje globalnog razumevanja, razumevanja detalja, podsti-
canje komunikacije i reprodukovanje teksta (Harms 248). Da bi se postigao ovaj
cilj, mora se razmiljati o tome ta ponuditi pre prezentacije, ta tokom i ta
nakon prezentacije filma?
Pre prezentacije je potrebno probuditi interesovanje za odreenu temu,
postaviti odreene hipoteze i konstruisati znaenja, pronai kljune pojmove,
dijaloge, asocijacije i informacije za istorijsku, tehniku i kulturnu pozadinu
filma i probuditi pasivni renik uenika. To se moe postii uz pomo naslova,
slika i asocijacija iz oblasti sa kojom su uenici ve upoznati i treba im dozvoliti
da sami daju predloge za naslove, ali i da na osnovu datih naslova razviju
asocijacije i tok dogaaja. Bitno je obratiti panju na socijalne forme. Mogue je
napraviti liste sa reima pomou kojih se mogu nai odgovarajui termini za
naslov. Preko naslova, teme, kratkog iseka ili slika mogue je pretpostaviti
sadraj filma, proiriti i aktivirati renik, pretpostaviti odnose meu likovima
filma, saznati jo neki podatak o kulturnim i hijerarhijskim odnosima u datoj
zemlji. Treba pronai to vei broj pasusa, slika, asopisa ili novina koje bi
odgovarale temi filma, a moe se poveriti i samim uenicima da pronau te
dodatne materijale i da se na taj nain i pre gledanja filma informiu o odre-
enoj temi koja bi bila u direktnoj vezi sa temom filma, a ne bi nuno proizilazila
iz njega. Od iseaka bi se mogli napraviti kolai i razglednice koje mogu ostati u
uionici ili se, pak, prodavati u humanitarne svrhe. Ako u uionici postoji
kompjuter, informacije o filmu se mogu pronai pretraivanjem pomou naslo-
va ili pojedinih kljunih rei. Jedan od oblika pripreme je i sakupljanje pitanja o
tome ta bi uenici hteli da znaju ili napraviti kvizove, emisije, skeeve. Uenici
dobijaju na prethodnom asu uloge i tekst koji treba da naue do sledeeg asa.
Na poetku asa predstavljaju ta su nauili, a kasnije to mogu da uporede sa
ulogama junaka iz filma. Otkrivanje razlika bi poboljalo kvalitet njihovih slede-
ih nastupa, interesovanje za glumu na stranom jeziku i omoguilo formiranje

dramske sekcije na stranom jeziku. Ako je film sniman na nekoliko mesta,
potrebno je prikazati ih na geografskim kartama kako bi uenici stekli bolji uvid
u geografski poloaj date zemlje, dijalekatske razlike i jezike varijetete. Pri
tome se uenici mogu podeliti u dve grupe. Jedna bi pokazivala mesta na karti,
dok bi druga beleila nazive mesta koja se pojavljuju u filmu, ali i simbole koji
mogu ukazivati na odreeni deo drave. Ako je film pak sniman u jednom
gradu, uenici se mogu osloniti na kartu grada koja bi ih pre poetka filma
podstakla na razmiljanje o prevoznim sredstvima i vremenu potrebnom da se
do odreenih mesta stigne. Tu se moe napraviti razlika izmeu domaih
prevoznih sredstava i stranih, mogu se otkriti sve prednosti i mane, kao izmeu
domaih i stranih filmova sa istom ili slinom tematikom.
Tokom gledanja filmske sekvence, potrebno je ispuniti odreene zadatke
pomou kojih se razvija aktivno gledanje, a zatim narativna i deskriptivna
kompetentnost. Prilikom prvog gledanja treba razvijati globalno razumevanje, a
prilikom svakog sledeeg koncentrisati se na to vie detalja do stvaranja
potpune slike. U ovom segmentu se mogu beleiti novi izrazi, okazionalizmi,
frazeologizmi i kolokacije iz svakodnevnog govora, kao i iz govora mladih koji
govore o ekonominosti, aktuelnosti i promenljivosti jezika, kao i o tome da je
potrebno gledati filmove na stranom jeziku da bismo bili u toku sa savremenim
jezikom i da bismo bili obaveteni o drutvenim, kulturnim i politikim dogaa-
njima koji se mogu samo tako posmatrati. Mogu se napraviti dve grupe. Jednoj
se prikazuje iskljuivo slika, a drugoj ton. Grupa koja gleda sliku bez tona
koncentrie se na pokrete, mesta, osobe, deavanja, boje, stvari i pokuava da
nae odreene simbole da bi uspostavila odnose. Mora identifikovati osobe i
mesta, uvrstiti objekte, teme i pojmove. Ona belei tok deavanja i kasnije ga
prikazuje drugoj grupi. Moe dobiti materijal u kojem treba da konstruie
mogue iskaze, da utvrdi njihovu verodostojnost na osnovu ponaanja glavnih
junaka, da uvidi kljuna deavanja. Treba napraviti materijal u kojem se
popunjavaju rei, reenice ili komentari iz filma. Tako se mogu obraivati
gramatike partije, raditi stilske vebe, uiti istorijski i geografski podaci,
konstruisati dijalozi, jer je u prvom planu komunikativna metoda. Druga grupa
ima tei zadatak jer mora da se koncentrie na boju i visinu glasa, dijaloge, novu
leksiku. Ona mora otkriti mesto deavanja, objekte i aktivnosti koji se pojavljuju
u sekvenci, imena, brojeve, glagole, boje, internacionalizme; bavi se slikovnim
materijalom koji nedostaje. Takav pristup je interesantniji jer se, nakon
gledanja i sluanja, razmenjuju podaci i rekonstruiu dogaaji. Uenici aktivno
uestvuju i drugoj grupi nude informacije koje joj nedostaju tako to sami
osmiljavaju nain pruanja informacija. To se moe deavati spontano i
direktno, a i ne mora. Na odreenim asovima je pak potrebno gledati i sluati
film. Tada je potrebno koncentrisati se na sve ve navedene detalje, ali se
pritom mogu napraviti liste sa svim dogaajima u filmu kada grupa treba da se

odlui za deavanja vezana samo za odreenu scenu i da pronae odgovore na
postavljena pitanja.
Nakon prezentacije filma ili njegove sekvence, potrebno je utvrditi nivo
razumevanja putem prepriavanja i apstrahovanja. Jedan od glavnih ciljeva je
utvrivanje usvojene leksike detaljnim opisivanjem sekvence ili pisanjem izve-
taja o njoj. Ovo se moe odvijati u obliku skea ili u formi intervjua gde mogu
biti naglaena i kontrastivna kulturna deavanja. Treba prepoznati kljune pro-
bleme u sekvenci i uporediti ih sa domaim deavanjima. Potrebno je sainiti
dodatni materijal koji prua dovoljno informacija o ovoj pozadini, ali uenici
mogu i sami da se pripreme i da na posebno organizovanom asu prezentuju
svoja istaivanja. To bi takoe mogla postati praksa u naim uslovima. U sklopu
ovakvog istraivanja moe se organizovati diskusija u kojoj bi jedna strana
predstavljala kulturna deavanja iz odreenog vremenskog perioda na doma-
im prostorima, druga na inostranim, a trea bi trebalo da otkrije slinosti i
razlike, odnosno da pronae zajedniki uzrok za razvoj deavanja. U cilju to
boljeg usvajanja leksike, mogu se napraviti ukrtene rei, diskusije o jezikim
sredstvima u sekvenci i strategije za razumevanje. Radi boljeg utvrivanja film-
ske radnje mogu se organizovati takmienja u kojima bi se postavljala pitanja o
osnovnim prilikama u datoj sekvenci.
U novije vreme pravi se sve vei broj sajtova na kojima se mogu nai detaljna
uputstva za obradu filma, dodatni materijali, impulsi za projekte i intervjue
stranaca sa slinim iskustvom. To moe poboljati nastavu jer su najpotrebnije
informacije ve date. Mogue je napraviti reklamu za neki produkt koji se
pojavljuje u sekvenci, ili nai postere sa glavnim junacima, predloge za kostime
koje bi uenici u svojim skeevima nosili. Mogunost je i snimanje filmova sa
slinom tematikom kao komplementarnih dodataka, moguih nastavaka filmova
ili odgovora na film. Na Internetu se mogu nai forumi koji se bave filmovima gde
nai uenici mogu postavljati pitanja na stranom jeziku. Cilj dodatnih aktivnosti je
oslobaanje uenika i omoguavanje da sami shvate potrebe za uenjem stranih
jezika. Nastavnik treba da motivie, ali uenici sami odluuju o pristupu daljim
aktivnostima. Tu se mogu iskoristiti i mape uma (mind maps), gde se u psiholo-
koj interakciji moe doi do veoma interesantnih podataka. Mape uma se mogu
koristiti izmeu dve sekvence za konstruisanje dogaaja, pretpostavki, moguih
promena u odnosima meu glavnim junacima, ali i za rekonstruisanje dogaaja.
U tom segmentu se uenici mogu podeliti u nekoliko grupa sa odreenim
zadacima ije e rezultate kasnije prezentovati.

Film i drutvo

Film ne pomae deci samo u reavanju i savladavanju svakodnevnih proble-
ma, ve i u sagledavanju pregleda istorijskih dogaaja (Rother 15). Treba voditi

rauna o nainu prezentovanja istorijskih injenica. U vreme II svetskog rata, na
primer, film je bio korien iskljuivo u propagandne svrhe. U modernoj nastavi
treba napraviti paralelu i deci zabraniti prihvatanje podataka kao takvih. Ona
moraju dalje proveravati, jer jedino tako su u mogunosti da razvijaju sopstve-
nu aktivnu svest. Sa takvim pristupom treba poeti veoma rano, naravno uz
voenje rauna o razvojnim stupnjevima deteta. Tako uenik moe shvatiti da
film moe govoriti i o njemu samom, kao i o drutvu u kome ivi. Kako bi se
uenik nauio toleranciji, potrebno je omoguiti mu gledanje filmova sa to
raznovrsnijom nacionalnom i rasnom pozadinom. Tako se, na primer, u
Nemakoj snimaju serije o Turcima koji su na privremenom radu u ovoj zemlji
(Trkisch fr Anfnger, Was guckst du?). Zahvaljujui takvim filmovima i
serijama, moe se stvoriti mnogo bolja sredina za odrastanje, razvoj i saradnju
dece razliitih kultura. Valter Bendamin kae da zahvaljujui filmu nastaje nova
oblast nae svesti i da ona predstavlja jedinu prizmu u kojoj se dananjem
oveku neposredno nudi sredina, prostori u kojima on ivi, u kojima obavlja
svoje poslove i nalazi zadovoljstvo. Uenicima treba ponuditi veliki broj mogu-
nosti, ali i radnji u kojima se mora raunati sa posledicama, i tako razvijati
njihova visprenost, oseaj za kolektiv, ali im ukazati i na to da u odreenim
situacijama moraju raunati sa posledicama. Pri tome treba voditi rauna i o
identifikaciji dece sa glavnim junacima i diskutovati o njihovim pozitivnim i
negativnim stranama. Pri izboru istorijskih filmova, treba voditi rauna o pojavi
komercijalizacije istorije. Istorijski filmovi moraju biti opravdani i polagati pravo
na proveru istorijske pozadine, ali u isto vreme treba da imaju umetniki
karakter da bi uenicima bili zanimljivi i da bi privukli njihovu panju kako bi bili
u stanju da se distanciraju od iste istorije, ali i istovremeno saznaju bitne
istorijske injenice. Najbitnije je da se pre gledanja stranog filma naprave mali
renici, odnosno asociogrami, koji e omoguiti lake praenje filma na
jezikom nivou. Treba ponuditi i kratak hronoloki pregled istorijskih dogaaja
radi boljeg razumevanja, to omoguuje neometano gledanje filmskog mate-
rijala. Po potrebi treba uvesti meni za osobe oteenog sluha, da bi uenici
odvojeno mogli da sluaju i gledaju film. Taj nain se kasnije moe iskoristiti za
diktate gde se ocenjuje upameno gradivo i sposobnost zapisivanja poznatog
teksta. Kako bi se pruila moderna slika o zemlji iji se jezik ui, potrebno je
poseivati inostrane kurseve, ne samo iz oblasti filmske umetnosti, ve i iz
kulture i istorije, na kojima se moe saznati mnogo novih informacija. Film
aktivira celokupan intelektualni ivot uenika, pruajui mu informacije o
kulturi, novim tendencijama, promenama u drutvu, sistemskim vrednostima,
nudei mu reenja za dalju aktuelizaciju i drutveni ivot, tj. potpunu pripremu
za boravak u inostranstvu. injenica je da se kultura se zasniva na tradiciji, ali
ona nije nepromenjiva datost, ve se moe i mora menjati, njome treba eksperi-
mentisati u cilju tolerancije i boljeg i efikasnijeg suivota razliitih naroda. U

modernom svetu u te svrhe postoje mnogi programi (npr. Nero-Pinnacle studio)
za kreiranje kvizova i podeavanje scena. Uloga uenika je, po svemu sudei,
aktivna, inicijativna, interaktivna i konstruktivna (Sass 9).

Prednosti kratkometranih filmova

Dok se kod dugometranih filmova preporuuje gledanje poetne i zavrne ili
reprezentativne scene, kratkometrani filmovi pruaju mogunost potpunog gle-
danja za mnogo manje vremena i cela poruka filma je smetena u samo nekoliko
minuta. U literaturi se pominje pogodnost kratkometranih filmova za hetero-
gene grupe uenika, jer se u njima krije velika mogunost odravanja panje i
pamenja podataka u kratkom vremenskom periodu. Velika prednost ove vrste
filmova je nonverbalna komunikacija koja se uenicima predoava kao deo svako-
dnevnog ivota koji treba razumeti i ije razlike poivaju na kulturnoj, drutvenoj,
a ponekad i politikoj osnovi. Uenicima se skree panja na sociolingvistiki
aspekt kratkometranih filmova, na neraskidivu spregu izmeu stranog jezika i
drugih socijalnih komponenti, ali im se ostavlja prostor za dalja razmiljanja koja
mogu formulisati u obliku pisma, dijaloga, kratkih skeeva u kojima produbljuju
svoj vokabular, poboljavaju svoje govorne i sposobnosti za pisanje.

Zakljuak

Bez obzira na to to je film stari medij, on tek u novije vreme dobija veoma
vanu ulogu u nastavi stranog jezika. Potrebno je da se i na naim prostorima
uradi neto po tom pitanju poevi od eksperimenata pa do kurseva i seminara
za nastavnike, bilo da je u pitanju primena dugometranog ili kratkometranog
filma. Nastavnicima, kao uesnicima ovih seminara, treba preneti inostrana
znanja, ali pritom i razvijati strategije za predstavljanje domaih filmova svetu.
Neke od moguih tehnika u nastavi stranog jezika navedene u ovom radu mogu
se koristiti za prikazivanje bilo kog stranog ili domaeg filma.

Literatura

Goehlnich, Birgit et al.Medienkompetenz und Jugendschutz (Kinder und
Jugendliche beurteilen die Wirkung von Kinofilmen), 2002.
<http://www.spio.de/media_content/330.pdf.> 2.12.2009.
Goehlnich, Birgit et al. (2004).Medienkompetenz und Jugendschutz.(Wie wirken
Kinofilme auf Kinder?), 2.12.2009 <http://www.spio.de/media-
_content/675.pdf>.

Harms, Michael. "Augen auf im Fremdsprachenunterricht psychologische und
didaktische Aspekte des Lernens mit Bildmedien." Grenzen berschreiten.
Menschen, Sprachen, Kulturen, Festschrift fr Inge C. Schwerdtfeger.Prir.
Duxa, S.; Hu, A. und Schment, B. Tbingen: Narr, 2005. 245 256.
Hickethier, Knut. Lexikon der Grundbegriffe der Film- und Fernsehsprache. Film-
und Fernsehsprache. Texte zur Entwicklung, Struktur und Analyse der Film-
und Fernsehsprache.Prir.Paech, Joachim Frankfurt a. M.-Berlin-Mnchen,
1978. 45-57.
Pfister, Andreas. Film-das vergessene Medium. Ein Pldoyer fr die Fimbildung
an Schulen, 2006. <http://www.nzz.ch/2006/09/26/se/articleEHLFF.-
print.html>.2.12.2009.
Rother, Rainer et al. "Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte."Film und Gesellschaft. 44.
31.oktobar
2005.<http://www1.bpb.de/publikationen/TV7MCR,0,0,Film_und_Gesellsch
aft.html>. 2.12.2009.
Sass, Anne. "Filme im Unterricht Sehen(d) lernen."Fremdsprache
Deutsch.Zeitschrift fr die Praxis des Deutschunterrichts 36 (5-14). Hueber
Verlag, 2005.
Warum Filmbildung? Seminar fr Filmwissenschaft, Universitt Zrich
<http://www.film.uzh.ch/download/Filmbildung.pdf> 2.12.2009.
Welke, Tina. Ein Pldoyer fr die Arbeit mit Kurzfilmen im Unterricht Deutsch
ald Fremdsprache Fremdsprache Deutsch.Zeitschrift fr die Praxis des
Deutschunterrichts 36 (21-26). Hueber Verlag, 2007.
Wrther, Matthias. Spielfilme im Unterricht.Didaktik, Anregungen, Hinweise
Mnchen: muk 2005. <http://www.mediaculture-online.de/fileadmin/-
bibliothek/woerther_spielfilme/woerther_spielfilme.pdf> 2.12.2009.

MOVIES IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSES

This paper aims to explain the function of using movies in the teaching of
foreign languages. It defines several possibilities how to present the movies and
also the positive and the negative aspects of watching the movies. The paper
presents watching movies as the fifth language competence, and also the
relationship between movie and social and historical aspects. Based on one
experiment in Germany, it is stated that it would be very effective to organize
some experiments here in order to provide media skills and to have better
insight into the level of reactions of young pupils and students.

Key Words: movie, society, competence, experiment

Razliiti struni prilozi / Miscellaneous


PRIKAZI / BOOK REVIEWS

Harald Vajnrih, LETA Umetnost i kritika
zaborava

Sandra Novkini, Univerzitet u Bihau

ovjek je po prirodi zaboravno bie. Zaboravnost je neto sa ime se ljudi
svakodnevno susreu (ako se radi o nekoj bezazlenoj zaboravnosti) ili pak
suoavaju (ako se radi o neem u to je uloen trud da se zapamti, a zaboravlje-
no je iz ovog ili onog razloga). Da bi se saznalo vie o aspektima zaborava,
potrebno je prema njima zauzetiodreeni stav. Knjiga LETA Umetnost i kritika
zaborava Haralda Vajnriha predstavlja kulturnohistorijsko razmatranje u kojem
se posebna panja posveuje umjetnosti ophoenja sa zaboravom, ali i neopho-
dna kritika zaborava. Djelo je sadrajno podijeljeno na deset dijelova: Jezik
zaborava; Smrtni i besmrtni zaborav; O duhovitosti zaboravnog uma; Prosveeni
zaborav; O rizicima seanja i zaborava; Nova snaga iz umetnosti pamenja; O
poeziji zaborava; Pravo na zaborav, mir posredstvom zaborava?; Auvic, i nikad
ne zaboraviti; Pohranjeno, dakle zaboravljeno, te bibliografija i podaci o
citiranim prevodima.
U prvom dijelu pod naslovom Jezik zaborava autor priu o zaboravu poinje
glagolom vergessen (zaboraviti), uz koji u njemakom jeziku ide bogata
porodica rijei (pripadajua imenica je das Vergessen, pridjev vergelich i tako
dalje). Slika zaborava odraena u jeziku postaje cjelovita pa se moe rei da se
zaborav modalizuje preko modalnih glagola, tj. prilagoava se razliitim situa-
cijama. Do izraaja dolazi i metaforika u rijeima ili spojevima rijei koje se tiu
zaborava.

1.

Tvrdei da je zaborav po svojoj prirodi mraan jer je sklonjen ili skriven u
dubini, pisackao argument navodi ustaljene opise zaborava kod poznatih imena
u knjievnosti kao to je naprimjer: mrani zaborav (iler), zaborav zamraen
oblacima (Pindar) ili zaborav zamraen maglom (Horhe Semprun). Nadalje
govori o Leti koja je kod Grk predstavljala ensko boanstvo koje sa
Mnemosinom, boginjom pamenja i majkom muz, tvori kontrast. Leta je i
rijeka iz Donjeg svijeta koja duama umrlih daje zaborav: U simbolici te

magine vode lei dubok smisao. Otre konture seanja na stvarnost rastvaraju
se u njenom mekom toku i na taj nain bivaju likvidirane. (24)
U drugom poglavlju Smrtni i besmrtni zaborav autor govori o umjetnosti
sjeanja i umjetnosti zaborava pozivajui se na neke od velikana koji su obiljeili
historiju ovjeanstva, kao to su: Simonid, Temistokle, Homer, Ovidije, Platon,
Avgustin i Dante. Pjesnik Simonid smatra se pronalazaem mnemotehnike koja
je shvaena kao umjetnost kadra da savlada zaborav. Politiar i vojskovoa
Temistokle tvrdio je da ga umetnost pamenja (ars memoriae) nimalo ne
zanima, ali da ga zato zanima umetnost zaborava (ars oblivionis). (33) Homer
je bio prvi grki pjesnik koji je zaboravu, pored pamenja, dao poasno mjesto u
knjievnosti (naroito u Odiseji). Kada se govori o zaboravu, nemogue je ne
spomenuti ljubavni zaborav pa je autor za primjer naveo svetilite Amor
Latheus (svetilite Letinog Amora) nazvanom po Leti, mitskoj rijeci zaborava, te
pjesnika Ovidija koji je u svojoj poeziji nudio lijek protiv ljubavi, a poznata je i
njegova aljiva, ujedno i pouna poema Remedia amoris. Transcedentalni zabo-
rav i zemaljsko sjeanje autor je obrazloio Platonovim i Avgustinovim razmi-
ljanjima o sjeanju i zaboravu.
Sjeanje i zaborav pred bogom i ljudima Vajnrih je objasnio Danteovim pje-
smama. Da bi izbjegao iskuenja zaborava, Dante se na kraju Vita Nuove zaklinje
da e u svome daljem ivotu podii knjievni spomenik u trajno sjeanje na
njegovu veliku ljubav Beatrie.
Trei dio O duhovitosti zaboravnog uma poinje pitanjem: Ima li jo mesta
u glavi?, na koje pisac pokuava odgovoriti pozivajui se na Vivesa, Rablea i
Montenja. Umjetnost pamenja je tokom cijelog srednjeg vijeka pa i duboko u
novo doba vaila za osnov cjelokupnog obrazovanja i vaspitanja. To se moe
vidjeti jo kod panskog humaniste Huana Luisa Vivesa kojeg zovu i
utemeljivaem moderne pedagogije ije ideje o uspjenom uenju poivaju na
pravilima stare mnemotehnike.

2.

Namjera mu je bila da se u ivotu uenika i studenta zaborav u korijenu
uniti. Da bi se to postiglo pamenje mora biti stalno uposleno.
Kao vjebu pamenja Vives preporuuje svakodnevno uenje odreenih
injenica napamet ak i ako to nije neophodno (84). Humorista i knjievni
fantazmagoriar, Fransoa Rable, napisao je najraskoniji groteskni roman
francuske knjievnosti. Protagonisti i glavni likovi ovog romana su Gargantua i
njegov sin Pantagruel, divovi tijelom,ali istovremeno i divovi pamenja.
Nekoliko kominih poglavlja romana posveeno je Gargantuinom vaspitanju.
Najprije ga vaspitavaju u skolastinom duhu to znai da je morao godinama
uitiobimno i dosadno kolsko gradivo napamet. Nakon toga na Gargantui je

isproban novi nastavni program, a u njegovu glavu je bilo potrebno useliti
humanizam. Trebalo je prije svega ukloniti sve ono to je Gargantua nauio u
skolastikom duhu pa novi uitelj svome ueniku daje dotad neisproban lijek
zaborava, emeriku, koja je u medicini jo od antike smatrana lijekom protiv
ludila. Nadalje se autor poziva na velikana francuske knjievnosti Miela de
Montenja koji je svojim Essais stvorio novi knjievni rod u kojem dolazi do
izraaja i novi nain miljenja, a zaborav je implicitno sadran u Montenjevoj
kritici pamenja. Pozivajui se na Servantesa, Uartea i Lesinga, Kordemua i
Helvecija, autor odgovara na pitanje Koliko je pamenja potrebno duhu?
Opisujui scenu iz besmrtnog romana Migela de Servantesa u kojoj visoki i
mravi vitez Don Kihot jae konja, a njegov mali i debeo titonoa Sano Pansa
jae magarca, autor citira i samog Servantesa Sa njima jae i pamenje, i to na
magarcu kao i zaborav, i to na konju (96). Vajnrih je miljenja da je psi-
holoko-medicinsko znanje kakvo dolazi do izraaja u knjievnom oblikovanju
likova Servantesovog romana, preuzeto od panskog ljekara i filozofa prirode
Huana Uartea koji igra znaajnu ulogu u kulturalnoj historiji pamenja i za-
borava. Kada se govori o Uarteu nemogue je ne spomenuti njemakog
prevodioca Lesinga koji je preveo Uarteovu knjigu Examen de ingenios na
njemaki jezik dajui joj naslov Prfung der Kpfe (Ispitivanje glav).
Filozof na iji se rad autor, takoer, poziva je francuski filozof eroa de
Kordemua koji je istraivao veze izmeu genija i pamenja. Autor se u ovom
dijelu poziva i na francuskog filozofa Kloda Adrijena Helvencija po ijem
uvjerenju se duh i pamenje mogu spojiti ako se pamenje podvrgne strogoj
disciplini, to jest ako ga duh oblikuje i uredi. Kako duh stvara ovaj red u
pamenju?

3.

Tako to upoljava panju koja, ve prema situaciji, posebno osvetljava as
ovo, as ono podruje pamenja.
Na taj nain, sa druge strane, ono to panja nije osvetlila tone u tamu
zaborava (112).
U etvrtom dijelu Prosveeni zaborav ukazujui na stavove Renea Dekarta,
Vajnrih objanjava vezu metode racionalnog miljenja sa pamenjem i
zaboravom. U misaonom procesu Dekart posebnu ulogu pripisuje volji tvrdei
da ideje i miljenja ne iezavaju sami od sebe, nego je za to zasluna snaga
volje. Prema tome, Dekartov metodski zaborav je voljni zaborav.
U dekartovski orjentisanom djelu Vernunftlehre (Uenje o umu), haleki
profesor Kristijan Tomazijus je iznio svoja razmiljanja o ulozi pamenja u
procesu miljenja.

Govorei o ureenim i neureenim iskustvima i o zaboravu, autor navodi
Dona Loka koji u svome djelu Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Ogled
o ljudskom razumu) izlae da svekoliko znanje potie od iskustva te da zaborav
ide uz pamenje kao defekt koji mu stalno prijeti. Vajnrih je zatim svoju
panju usmjerio na Voltera koji je u dubokoj starosti napisao kratak prozni
komad nazvan Aventure de la Mmoire (Memorijina avantura). Ovo djelo
predstavlja filozofsku basnu na poetku koje Volter ponavlja meusobno
suprotstavljena uenja o pamenju, uenja inativista kartezijanaca na jednoj
strani i senzualista lokovaca na drugoj.
U poglavlju etvrtog dijela naslovljenog Nita vie ne uiti napametautor se
osvrnuo na rad an aka Rusoa, pisca koji je toboe patio od zaboravnosti, a koji
je, kao to pokazuju njegove Ispovesti i Sanjarije usamljenog etaa, postao
jedan od velikih majstora autobiografije. Postavljajui pitanje: Zato ime
Lampe mora biti zaboravljeno? pisac, ustvari, opisuje ulogu vjernog sluge
filozofa Imanuela Kanta koji se zvao Martin Lampa te istie da

seanje na Lampea, podesnog posluitelja, moglo je, dakako, i smo
postati velika, preko svake mere muna distrakcija, koja koi nauni-
kovo razmiljanje, tako da je on, ako je uopte hteo da nastavi da filo-
zofira, morao najpre da zaboravi Lampeovo ime. (147)

Peti dio nazvan O rizicima seanja i zaborava autor poinje sa vjerno
ispripovjedanim zaboravljenim ljubovanjima akoma Kazanove. Slijedi Oda
zaboravukoju je napisao pruski kralj Fridrih II, poznatiji kao Fridrih Veliki, jo u
doba kad je bio princ prijestolonasljednik. Ono to ga je ponukalo da napie ovu
odu su neki ne ba ugodni momenti njegovog ivota koje je htio zaboraviti.

4.

Vajnrih se nadalje bavi sretnim i nesretnim sluajevima zaborava. Slijedi
mala kazuistika zaborava u obliku pri o devet sluajeva za koju je autor grau
uzeo iz razliitih narativnih rodova svjetske knjievnosti.
Prvi sluaj: Rasejani profesor (Valerius Maximus); drugi sluaj: Zaboravna
udovica iz Efeza (Petronije); trei sluaj: Zaplet u haremu, izazvan zaboravom
(1001 no); etvrti sluaj: Mutabor i nikako se ne smejte! (Hauf); peti sluaj:
Veliki nered kod malog Samsona (Hajne); esti sluaj: Hano Budenbrok staje
(Tomas Man); sedmi sluaj: mnemotehnika i letotehnika (Dr. Lurija); osmi sluaj:
hipermnezija i amnezija (Borhes); deveti sluaj: ime koje se mora zaboraviti
(Milan Kundera). etvrto poglavlje petog dijela nazvano je Vesti o pariskom
vakau u kojem autor pominje francuskog dramatiara Viktorijena Sardua

kojemu se inilo da bi vakanje kao tehnika zaborava moralo izazvati
podozrenje.
esti dio pod naslovom Nova snaga iz umetnosti pamenja, autor poinje
njemakim piscem Adalbertom fon amisoom koji je napisao pjesmu Das
Schlo Boncourt (Zamak Bonkur), ije stihove treba shvatiti kao poetski dijalog
sa zaboravom. Slijdee na to pisac eli ukazati je Geteov Faust, odnosno
mefistofelesovska umjetnost i Faustov zaborav. Stigavi na ivicu groba Faust
zaboravlja dogovor sa Mefistofelesom, a to bi onda bilo, kako Vajnrih istie,

najvea pobeda umetnosti zaborava koju bi Mefistofeles mogao da
uknjii a koja mu ipak ne donosi eljeni plen, Faustovu duu, jer i nebo
ima svoje umetnosti koje, ako svi znaci ne varaju, idu u prilog pamenju
a ne zaboravu. (228)

Autor se u nastavku osvre na jednu od najljepih pjesama o zaboravu
Fridriha Niea pod naslovom Sunce zahodi u kojoj je druga strofa Letina
strofa, iako se rijeka zaborava proirila u more. Osnovni princip Nieove
umjetnosti zaborava poiva na tome da se dotad vjerno uvanim sadrajima
pamenja oduzme motivacioni osnov te da se izgradi nova konkurentska moti-
vacija, uz iju bi se pomo pamenje nanovo organiziralo. Vajnrih nadalje govori
o nezadovoljenom i zadovoljenom zaboravu pozivajui se na psihoanalitiara
Sigmunda Frojda koji se, izmeu ostalog, koncentrie na one sluajeve u kojima
ga zaborav najvie udi: fenomen zaboravljanja imen. Autor u svojim daljim
razmatranjima izjednaava Frojdovo nesvjesno sa zaboravom, tanije sa
zaboravljenim. Razlog tome je to Frojd primarno govori o nesvjesnom, a tek
sekundarno o zaboravu ili o zaboravljenome.

5.

Sedmi dio svog djela autor je nazvao O poeziji zaborava u kojem je na prvo
mjesto stavio Stefana Malarmea ijem se poetskom zaboravu Vajnrih pribliio
najprije s teorijske strane budui da kod Malarmea zaborav uvijek ima i jeziku
primjesu.
Autor, zatim, citira Roea Dragonetija koji iz iskustava kakva nudi Malar-
meova poezija izvodi knjievni sud: Malarmeova poetika izvlai iz zaborava ono
to stvarima nedostaje, kako bi mu omoguila da zasija u reima. (258)
Poglavlje koje najveim dijelom govori o djelu Marsela Prusta, autor je nazvao
Poezija seanja iz dubine zaborava gdje istie da je Prustovu mnemopoetiku
mogue tumaiti kao sutu suprotnost Frojdove psihoanalize.
Pravo na zaborav, mir posredstvom zaborava naslov je osmog dijela u kojem
autor naglaava ulogu Luiija Pirandela, pisca romana, novela i pozorinih

komada, kod kojeg su drutveni aspekti motiva pamenja i zaborava jo
snanije naglaeni nego kod njegovog njemakog prethodnika amisoa. Vajnrih
dalje nastavlja sa italijanskim knjievnikom Leonardom aaom pojanjavajui
radnju aaove knjige Il teatro della memoria (Pozorite pamenja).
Autor je, kao i veina ljudi, miljenja da ratove treba zaboraviti da bi se
poelo iznova. Meu piscima koji su se u vremenu izmeu dva rata perom
borili da poslije kolapsa pamenja u Prvom ne uslijedi jo gora kulturalna
katastrofa Drugog svjetskog rata, Vajnrih na prvo mjesto stavlja ana irodua,
francuskog romansijera i scenskog autora. Ubrzo nakon Prvog svjetskog rata
irodu je postao svjestan problema amnezije u kojem je naao inspiraciju za
svoj roman Siegfried et le Limousin i pozorini komad Siegfried. Ova djela su
predstavljala znaajan zaokret u pristupu tematici pamenja i zaborava. Jedan
od sljedbenika irodua je i an Anuj koji je napisao dramu o amneziji Voyageur
sans bagage (Putnik bez prtljaga), a koja mu je donijela prvi veliki scenski
uspjeh. Kao jo jednog iroduovog sljedbenika, autor pominje an-Pol Sartra
kojeg ubraja u bjegunce od pamenja, aludirajui time na takozvani
egzistencijalizam koji je utemeljio Sartr 1943.
U poglavlju Oprotaj i zaborav posebno se osvrnuo na tvrdnju da Isus iz
Nazareta nije napisao ni retka iako je hrianstvo, kao i judaizam i islam, religija
knjige. S druge strane, Teodor Fontane napisao je roman Efi Brist koji,
dodue,nije jevanelje, ali je roman u kojem ima mnogo istine.
U tekstu svoje knjige Harald Vajnrih nadalje govori o dobu baroka koje je bilo
doba u kojem su nastala dragocjena djela umjetnosti i knjievnosti, ali i doba
mnogih ratova.

6.

U mirovnim ugovorima, na tragu uzora koje je dala jo antika, uobiajena je
bila klauzula koja nalae da se zaborave sve krivine ratne radnje.
Ta klauzula je izraavana u obliku formule amnestija i zaborav ili drugim
rijeima naloeni zaborav. U historijskim dramama Fridriha ilera ovaj
problem je poznat kao tragian. Govorei o ratu i popratnim ratnim pojavama,
autor je posebnu panju posvetio amnestiji, odnosno pomilovanju, koje se
moe shvatiti kao odozgo naloeni oprotaj i zaborav. Hajnrih fon Klajst
napisao je dramu u kojoj su prikazani djelimino historijski, djelimino
legendarni ratni dogaaji iz XVII vijeka u kojoj je on posredstvom pokretakih
snaga zaborava i oprotaja podigao radnju komada na visine istanane tragike
(320). Vajnrih se od ilera i Klajsta okree Pol Selan, pjesniku koji je u svom
ivotu, ali i u svom knjievnom djelu, iskusio napetost izmeu sjeanja i zabo-
rava o kojem govori i naslovna pjesma njegove prve zbirke Sand aus den Urnen
(Pjesak iz urni).

U devetom dijelu nazvanom Auvic, i nikad ne zaboraviti autor pie o
koncentracionim logorima, posebno Auvicu. Eli Vizel, jedini preivjeli iz te
jevrejske porodice i jedini svjedok koji je mogao da govori u njeno ime i u ime
hiljada ljudi pobijenih u koncentracionim logorima napisao je na francuskom
jeziku knjigu Nuit(No) u kojoj je opisao sve ono to su muitelji i ubice iz
Auvica i Buhenvalda uinili njegovom narodu, njegovoj porodici i njemu
samom. Sam Vizel nikada nee zaboraviti strahote koje je kao djeak preivio,
ali njegova knjiga ostaje kao podsjetnik drugim ljudima da nikad ne zaborave.
Vajnrih jo izdvaja Vizelov roman Loubli (Zaborav), koji bi se prije mogao
nazvati didaktikim esejem o pamenju i zaboravu nego romanom. Primo Levi i
Horhe Semprun (jedan Italijan, a drugi panac), preivjeli su holokaust i u svojim
knjigama napisali iskustva iz logora te kakav im je kraj bio namjenjen poslije
dugih godina patnje.
Za Artura Zamlera koji je takoer preivio holokaust,a koji je naslovni junak
romana Mr. Sammlers Planet (Planeta gospodina Zamlera), Sola Beloua,
Vajnrih kae da je sakuplja pria, zaboravlja pri. Opisujui Zamlera autor
dalje naglaava da

njegovo pamenje je tako ustrojeno da se u njemu zadravaju samo
kontingencije malih pria (stories), i to utoliko trajnije to su te prie
uvrnutije, to se vie upravo svojim uvrnutostima (oddities) zakvauju
za pamenje. To pravilo kod njega vai ak i za istoriju holokausta. (355)

7.

Autor ove knjige u nastavku se bavi italijanskim autorima iz XV vijekakoji su
esto pisali o umjetnosti zaborava, odgovarajui na pitanje ta se moe uiniti
da bi se sadraji pamenja koji su se uz pomo mnemotehnike uanili
duboko u dui ponovo izgnali iz nje. Smatrali su da je za to potrebna umjetnost,
a ta se umjetnost moe nauiti. Moda ipak, kako tvrdi pisac, nije neophodno
itati ono to su pisali italijanski autori prije vie od pet vijekova kako bismo se
uputili u mogunost brisanja pamenja. Dovoljno bi bilo paljivo proitati roman
Auslschung (Brisanje) austrijskog pisca Tomasa Bernharda.
Posljednje, deseto poglavlje ove knjige nosi naslov Pohranjeno, dakle
zaboravljeno govori o koristi i tetnosti informacija za ivot i moe li se neto
promijeniti odbacivanjem suvinih informacija.
Kao najbolji primjer za to autor se osvrnuo na jedan mali tekst, na kratku
priu koju je Hajnrih Bel objavio pod naslovom Odbaciva. Kada je rije o
problemima pamenja i zaboravljanja knjiga u nekoj biblioteci, autor navodi
kako je o tome razmiljao Horhe Luis Borhes koji je dugo vremena bio direktor
Argentinske nacionalne biblioteke u Buenos Airesu. Napisao je poznati prozni

tekst nazvan Vavilonska biblioteka. Ova biblioteka koju je izmislio Borhes ima
zapanjujue razmjere. Sadri ne samo sve postojee knjige, nego i sve one koje
se u budunosti mogu zamisliti. U djelima Horhea Luisa Borhesa mogu se nai
mnoga razmiljanja o prirodnim granicama pamenja i o tvrdoglavosti zabo-
rava. Govorei o oblivionizmu Vajnrih je miljenja da se oblivionizam u nauci
ne smije pobrkati sa falsifikacionizmom. Duhovne i drutvene nauke, kako
moraju da dre korak s vremenom, podvrgnute su jezikim pravilima naunog
oblivionizma. A kako kae autor, umjetnost je povezati jedno i drugo, dvije
protivrjenosti, dvije boginje: Mnemozinu i Letu.
U svojoj knjizi LETA Umetnost i kritika zaborava Harald Vajnrih nije imao
namjeru da daje definiciju rijei zaboraviti s obzirom na to da svaki ovjek
dobro zna ta ta rije znai. Kroz ovu knjigu tee Leta, rijeka zaborava, o emu
se raspravlja uz pomo mnogobrojnih primjera, prvenstveno iz oblasti knjie-
vnosti. Pisac posebnu panju posveuje mnogim priama u kojima najrazliitiji
autori govore o tome kako su se ljudi u svome ivotu ophodili,ali i nosili sa
zaboravom. Da li je zaborav dobar ili ne? Da li je poeljan ili ne?

8.

Kako se nositi sa neeljenim zaboravom, a kako pak to prije i lake
zaboraviti sve ono to ovjekovoj dui predstavlja balast?
Vajnrih je dao odgovore na ova i mnoga druga, moglo bi se slobodno rei,
svakodnevna pitanja o zaboravu, o umjetnosti pamenja,ali i zaboravljanja,onda
kada se eli stvoriti prostor za nova pamenja ili jednostavno rasteretiti dua od
optereujuih sjeanja.


PREVODI / TRANSLATIONS

Teorija i biografija: Drugi kao Neko

Adrian Frazier, NUI Galway

1.

Prije svega, moram estitati Aleksandri i Mariji na izboru teme tekue
konferencije
110
. Ona je vrhunski izazov poziv da se zagledamo u budunost, da
sebe preispitamo kao naunike i da se suoimo jedni s drugima kao ljudska bia.
Suoiti se sa drugim u odsustvu teorije, naravno, ne moe se ostvariti bez
promiljanja, bez razgovora i bez obostranog osjeaja odgovornosti zajednice i
odgovornosti pojedinca prema svom blinjem. Da smo, poput likova na pustoj
sceni Beketovih pozorinih komada, svjesni jedino injenice da na ovom mjestu
treba da se suoimo jedni s drugima, ne bismo svakako, u toku sljedeih
nekoliko dana, uoili u kolikoj mjeri saznanje o njoj moe narasti.
A Crna Gora nikako nije pusta scena. Gostima i domainima simpozijum mo-
e biti sveanost svojstvena ugodnom ivotu. Sveanost, tokom koje moemo
dijeliti jelo i pie, razgovorati, prije nego se u subotu oprostimo jedni od drugih.

2.

Za svakog od nas postoje trenuci u kojima smo sebi mogli rei Ja jesam
Drugi.
Septembra 1979. godine, sa svojih 29 godina, stigao sam u Nanjing, juni
glavni grad Kine. Bilo je to tri godine poslije smrti Mao Ce Tunga. Tek je poelo
suenje Odredu etvorke. Kina je izbacila sovjetske strunjake i dovela
amerike. Bio sam jedan od njih.
Sa enom, etvorogodinjim sinom i trogodinjom kerkom uao sam u sami
centar grada, odakle smo pokuavali da se ukrcamo u autobus kojim bismo se
vratili na Univerzitet. Uareno popodne. Ljudi su na sebi imali plave orceve,
majice bez rukava i papue na nogama skoro svi su bili isto obueni. Red za
autobus nije bio red, ve iroki, hirurki, talasasti presjek ovjeanstva koje
pokuava da se ulije kroz njegova uska vrata. Sa talasom ulismo se i mi u

110
Ovaj rad predstavljen je na estoj meunarodnoj konferenciji anglista, Lice drugog van
zahvata teorije, koja se odrala na Filozofskom fakultetu u Nikiu u periodu od 30. septembra do
2. oktrobra 2010. godine. (Prim. prev.)

autobus, do krova krcat. Bili smo izvanjci koje su mnogi u autobusu po prvi put
vidjeli, prve Nosonje, kako su zvali Evropljane. I naravno, gledali su znatieljno
u nas.
Pritisnuta ispred i o mene bila je mlada ena. Mogao sam osjetiti njene
grudi na mojim, kako udie i izdie, i noice njenog sina, kojeg je nosila visoko
na ramenu, oslonjenih na moje rame. Postiena, pokuavala je da mi se okrene
leima. U tom pokuaju, pak, okrenula je lice maliana tik uz moje. Obrazom mi
je okrznuo bradu. Malo je Kineza koji gaje malje na licu, osim veoma starih ljudi
sa dugim uiljenim, srebrnkasto crnim brkovima. Djeak je preplaeno vrisnuo,
jo jednom, pa jo jednom. Putnici me pogledae kao da sam mu naudio. Onima
oko mene pokuao sam izrazom lica da pokaem svoju nedunost, bezazlenost,
svoju bespomonu smetenost. Glavom sam signalizirao, Ne, ne, a onda se sjetih
da sam nauo da klimanje glavom nema ista znaenja kod Kineza.
U blizini je bio mladi sa naoarima. Pogledom je traio moj. Na engleskom
jeziku mora da je bio student smjeei se, objasnio je, Djeak kae: To je
duh, to je duh. Zaista smijeno! (Kasnije sam saznao da u Kini duhove opisuju
kao starce bijele koe sa bradama.)
ta si rekao strancu, drugi su upitali studenta engleskog jezika. A onda se i
oni poee smijuljiti.
Zi jin, yy, Do vienja, djeda, smijao se jedan, u trenutku kada se
vrata autobusa otvorie i svi izaosmo mlazom van.

3.

Ova epizoda podsjea na mizanscenu, tj. pozadinu, kako je zamilja Emanuel
Levinas. U svojoj kritici pretjeranog intelektualizma, Levinas istrauje etiki ivot
i nae opaanje koje transcendira tjelesno u prvobitnom susretu licem u lice sa
strancem. Da sumiram jednostavnijim jezikom, Levinas istie, ili postavlja
hipotezu istorijskog ili moda paradigmatskog susreta neijeg sopstvenog Ja i
njegovog Drugog.

Po prvi put ugledah Drugog na horizontu i pomislih, mogao bih ga ubiti,
ili Molim te, ne ubij me! Ali kada se suoismo, kako sagledah ogoljenu
sutinu njegovog lica, ili njenog lica, pomislih Ne mogu ga ubiti, Ne
mogu je silovati. Umjesto svega ovoga, otvara se mogunost postu-
panja prema Drugom kao prema susjedu; uistinu, ak i mnogo vie nego
takvom; kao prema posjetiocu iz krajnje neobinosti, Bojem izasla-
niku. [A.F. rezime/parafraza]
111

111
Emmanuel Levinas, Meaning and Sense, Basic Philosophical Writings, ed. Adriaan T.
Peperzak, Simon Critchley, and Robert Bernasconi (Indiana University Press: Bloomington &
Indianapolis, 1996), pp. 55-56.

Takav scenario je, oigledno, Levinas prihvatio od jednog drugog velikog
mislioca dvadesetog vijeka, Jevreja, Martina Bubera. Buber istie tri vrste
odnosa koje Ja moe ostvariti sa drugima: Ja/Ono, Ja/Vi i Ja/Ti.
112
Neko moe
drugoga tretirati kao stvar, kao sebi ravnog, ili kao bie koje je vie od stvari i
vie od sebi ravnoga, kao boanstvo.
Levinas i Buber nam mogu djelovati kao pogodni vodii ako se elimo suoiti
sa drugim u nedostatku teorije. Meutim, poput Mojsija, oni nas mogu dovesti
do cilja, ali ne i dalje od toga. Djelimino, moje opiranje dvojici teologa vrijednih
divljenja dolazi otuda, to oni ele da me konano privedu Obeanoj zemlji
Monoteizma, a ja ne vjerujem u teoriju da takvo mjesto postoji, ili jo bolje, ne
vjerujem u postojanje jedinstvenog boanskog bia. Ako elimo svetost, mora-
mo je, po mom miljenju, traiti u sopstvenom, prirodnom, odnosno fizikom
ivotu na zemlji.

4.

Nekada davno bio sam u situaciji vrlo slinoj onoj u kojoj je bio djeak iz
autobusa u Nanjingu. Kada sam imao tri ili moda dvije godine, majka me je
povela u robnu kuu u Seint Luisu, drava Misuri, da vidim Djeda Mraza. Dugo
vremena proveli smo ekajui, a kada je doao red na mene, podigli su me u
krilo gojaznog ovjeka u crvenom kostimu sa dugom sijedom bradom. Imao je
na sebi uobiajen kostim Djeda Mraza, ali i par slinica koje su rosile iz nozdrva.
Posegnuo sam da ga epam za bradu, samo da se uvjerim da je prava, ali
nedovoljno brzo. Djed Mraz je vidio ta namjeravam. Nije lako alkoholiaru da
zaradi koji dolar u Americi; nije htio dopustiti tamo nekom deritu iz srednje
klase da ga demaskira. Uz kljocaj, ujeo je moju siunu ruku, ne prejako tek
toliko da osjetim zube. Kriknuo sam prestraen i ogoren, i spentrao se s njega,
alei se majci da me je ujeo Djeda Mraz, Djed Mraz me je ujeo. Postiena,
ona tada ree: Kakvo blesavo djetence, obraajui se vie drugima oko nas
nego meni, Djed Mraz ne ujeda djecu.
Ali ovaj je ujedao. Bio je laan, svi oni lani su i opasni. I tako se, bojim se,
rodio mali ateista.

5.

Sada, meutim, na problem intelektualaca post-humanista nije problem
pretjeranog vjerovanja, ve prevelikog skepticizma. Nijesu samo Bog i Djeda
Mraz oni u koje ne vjerujemo. U mjeri u kojoj polaemo vjeru u Teoriju, ne
vjerujemo u Istinu, Stvarnost, u Samosvojnost, niti u Razum; ak ne vjerujemo

112
Martin Buber, I and Thou (Continuum: London, 2004)

ni u Nevjerovanje. Obraamo se jezikom uenih ljudi koji je nerazumljiv ne
samo obinim obrazovanim ljudima ve i naim kolegama iz drugih naunih
disciplina. Kada se pojasnimo i kada smo razgovjetni, nae kolege se dosauju i
nervira ih ono to imamo da kaemo.
Zato? Zato to je uznemirujue nepristojno je apsurdno je u instituciji
koja je posveena traganju za znanjem, posumnjati u postojanje samobitnosti
naih blinjih, optuiti ih da su naivni kada misle da istinski poznaju svoje oblasti
izuavanja. Ne doputamo mogunost dokaza. Ne nudimo prednost ovjenosti.
Ne slaemo se jedni s drugima oko toga ta je valjano a ta nije u oblasti rada
koja nam je zajednika.
Kao rezultat Teorije, status departmana za knjievnost, jezik i filozofiju opao
je u optem univerzitetskom obrazovanju.
113
Decenijama poto su zasnovane,
lekcije iz Teorije ponavljaju se ad nauseam, kao jevanelje; djecu ue da ih
recituju na kursevima na prvoj ili drugoj godini studija, kada mnoga od njih jo
nijesu dovoljno struna da itaju romane ili piu eseje. Umjesto Mateje, Marka,
Luke i Jovana, imamo Deridu, Fukoa, Lakana i Pola de Mana.

Bie nije jedinstveno,
Sve je Tekst,
Autori su fikcija koja ograniava znaenje tekstovima,
Istina je samo maska Moi, itd. itd.

Ono to u oima naih kolega uniava nae stanovite upravo je udaljavanje
od uobiajenih kanona u sticanju znanja, utemeljenih jo od Bekonovog djela
Novum Organum iz sedamnaestog vijeka. Slijedi osam metodskih pravila koje
smo prevazili:

1. Stvarni svijet je najvaniji predmet izuavanja (u suprotnosti sa
metafizikim podrujem). Moe se priblino opaziti ulima i mjeriti
instrumentima.
2. Jedino vrijedne hipoteze su one koje se mogu opovrgnuti.
3. Da bi hipoteza bila znaajna, mora postojati dokaz relevantan njenoj
potvrdi.
4. Eksperimenti moraju biti takvi da ih mogu ponoviti struni saradnici, i sa
istim rezultatima.
5. Zakljuci moraju biti izreeni jednostavnim rjenikom.
6. Kontradiktornost je greka u dokazivanju.
7. Arhiva znaajna za demonstraciju treba biti ouvana.
8. Dokazi za i protiv izvedenog zakljuka jasno moraju biti prezentovani.

113
Michele Lamont, How Professors Think (Harvard UP: Cambridge, 2010).

Nije nikakva novost to su se teoretiari, od osamdesetih godina prolog
vijeka, u velikom skeptikom zaokretu humanistikih nauka, okrenuli protiv
veine ovih pravila.

Teoretiari su likovali u paradoksu, teei uvidima iji se status nalazi
negdje izmeu vica, misticizma i nihilizma.
Teoretiari su dobrovoljno prikrivali misli nejasnim jezikom i tako
nepotrebno opstruirali mlade u traganju za razumijevanjem.
Mi/Oni pokazivali smo/ pokazivali su nezainteresovanost za svijet kakav
jeste, ili za obinog ovjeka koji ga nastanjuje, za njegove potrebe, njegove boli.
Mi/Oni nijesmo/nijesu napisali testove kojima bi nai zakljuci mogli da
potvrde svoju ispravnost ili neispravnost.
Mi/Oni odustali smo/su od potrage za malim istinama, te
pojednostavljeno, ponovo i nanovo, proklamovali da ne postoji samo Jedna
Istina.

Iako je kraj dvadesetog vijeka bio period intelektualaca skeptika i relativista,
kao paradoks, ovaj je period takoe bio i period idolopoklonstva. Mlade ljude
su primorali da lakovjerno budu ono to Bekon naziva Idolima teatra.
114
Da bi
ih omalovaio, on je naunike na visokim poloajima okarakterisao kao zvijezde
na sceni, a njihove sisteme kao dramske postavke, gdje ti sistemi nisu u
mogunosti da na ovome svijetu prikau valjanost svojih naela. Takvi sistemi
ne bi proli na prvom testiranju objektivnosti. Oni nisu bili valjani.

6.

Iz ove slijepe ulice u koju nas vodi Teorija, mogao bi nas izvui Levinas bar sa
pola puta, kada prihvata stvarnost, odnosno postojanje, drugih ljudi. Ovakvo
prihvatanje je centralno u njegovoj misli. Za graane republike znanja, solipsi-
zam je karakterna mana. Kakve god da je epistemoloke opravdanosti, tek se iz
najobinije utivosti pokazuje potreba za stalnim naglaavanjem da moemo
biti svjesni jedino sopstvene ideje o prisustvu drugih energija.
Pored toga, Levinas daje dirljive opise pojavnog Drugog. Drugo je ogolje-
no, drhtavo, nesretno, bespomono, ranjivo.
115
Lik iz svoje ogoljeno-
sti ponizno moli; u svom pogledu trai od nas razumijevanje. On istie kao
problem situaciju u kojoj, kada zaposjednemo dio zemlje, kada zasluimo svoje
mjesto pod suncem, mogli bismo tada iz nepanje ili otvoreno i samoopra-
vdano tlaiti ili izgladnjivati druge, protjerati ih u zemlje treeg svijeta,

114
Francis Bacon, Novumorganum ; with other parts of the great instauration (Open Court:
Chicago, 1994).
115
Levinas, Basic Writings, Emmanuel Levinas, The Levinas Reader (Blackwell: Oxford, 2002), 83.

egzile, nainiti od njih stradalnike i u svemu tome nai sebi utoite.
116
Ovakva
Levinasova fenomenoloka deskriptivnost u objanjavanju direktnog susreta
Sebe i Drugog dirljiva je i od neprocjenljivog znaaja za istoriju ljudskog roda.
No, ve u svojoj kritici pretjeranog intelektualizma, Levinas prekomjerno
intelektualizira. Ne postoje odreeni drugi individualci u njegovom Drugom.
On se sam otvoreno ne pojavljuje kao lice Samosvojnog sebe. Oito je da
jednostavno razumjeti drutvo i etiku u smislu binarnosti, u smislu Ja i Drugi,
znai da treba reducirati ostale, kojih je mnogo, na samo jednog Apstraktnog
Drugog, a sve pojedine sebe na samo jedno Sebe.
Levinas ak zadivljujue senzibilno tvrdi da u traganju za potpunom spozna-
jom drugaijeg ili drugog, mi negiramo tu osobu i intelektualno je ubijamo.
Postoji vrijeme kada ne treba teoretisati i kada treba dii ruke od pravljenja
opteg pojma ili koncepta, zarad kontinuirane otvorenosti iskustvu. Intimnost,
na primjer, zahtijeva odnos prema partneru koji je ne-pojmljiv i ne-sa-
driv.
117
Linost nije uistinu tema. Linost nije niti koncept vie je poput prie,
ili vie pria, ili pak jo bolje, izvor je mnogih naracija.
Samo to nam Levinas ne pria prie. On kritikuje reduktivnost nae panje
prema drugom, ali na jedan reduktivan nain, onaj za kojim ostaje samo trag
jevrejskog Boga. On nam govori da su naini naeg razumijevanja drugog u
okvirima njegove istorije, njegovog okruenja i obiaja, neko bi dodao, takoe i
njegovog tijela i lica, ono to on govori i ono to ostavlja neizgovorenim, pa i
ono to drugi izjavljuju o njegovom ivotu. Meutim, prema Levinasu, ono to
izmie ovakvim nainima razumijevanja upravo je ono to ini samosvojnost
drugog, njegovo bie. Spoznati (Drugog) na horizontu Opteg Bitisanja znai
negirati postojanje takve osobe.
118
Ovaj korak u Levinasovom razmiljanju
umnogome ponitava traganje naeg specifino prirodnog bia za natprirodnim
biem.
Kada se nalazim u onom autobusu u Nanjingu i mladi student engleskog je-
zika me ne vidi samo kao weiguoren, doslovce, kao osobu koja je iz neke va-
njske drave, izvanjca; ve najjednostavnije kao osobu a ne duha, ili ve kao i-
vi izvor svjesnosti o odijeljenom postojanju; tada sam zahvalan na potvrdi ono-
ga to Samjuel Donson naziva jedinstvenost stanja ovjeka: a to bi bila inje-
nica da smo svi podstaknuti istim motivima, svi zavarani istim zabludama, svi
pokrenuti nadom, ometeni opasnou, zapleteni udnjom i zavedeni uici-ma.
Shvatio je da zajedno dijelimo ono to Karl Marks naziva naim postojanje vrste.
Pa i moj drugar iz Kine, koji takoe gleda na mene kao na odreeni primjer
ovjenosti u okvirima mog dolaska iz nekada neprijateljski raspoloenog naro-
da, spreman, otvoren da uim od njegove kulture kako je to biti usamljen; ta to

116
Emmanuel Levinas, The Levinas Reader (Blackwell: Oxford, 2002), 82.
117
Levinas, Basic Philosophical Writings, 1-2.
118
Ibid., 9

znai biti otac na neki nain osiroene porodice, ostavljen na milost i nemilost
mnogobrojne nacije. Otuda on see ka meni, u mojoj specifinosti, ispred svih u
tom autobusu i nudi mi njihovu gostoljubivost, koju ja je prihvatam sa
olakanjem i zahvalnou.

7.

U bogatstvu proznog stila Emanuela Levinasa nalazimo njenost, osjeajnost,
brigu, sabranost, uvjerljivost i promiljanje mnoge vrle atribute , ali vidimo i
neto prikriveno. Zbog ega ovaj ovjek govori o drugom kao drhtavom, kao da
govori o udovici, siroetu, strancu? Zato se njegovom arhetipskom susretu sa
Drugim mora prilaziti sa tolikom potitenou i brigom?
Ne znam mnogo o ivotu Emanuela Levinasa (1906-1995)... Znam da je
Jevrej, roen u Litvaniji 1906. godine, da se preselio 1923. u Francusku, a da je
u periodu od 1928. do 1929. bio Huserlov student u Njemakoj. Zatim se
prikljuio francuskoj vojsci za vrijeme Drugog svjetskog rata. Bio je ratni
zarobljenik u toku nacistike okupacije Francuske. Njegova supruga i djeca su u
skrovitu izbjegli holokaust. Poslije rata je postao direktor Izraelske orijentalne
kole i objavio znaajna tumaenja Biblije, uz velika djela iz etike i metafizike.
Na osnovu ovih neznatnih i neadekvatnih injenica, primamljivo je nagaati
da li Levinas kada govori o Drugom kao drhtavom, poniznom i moleivom
pogledu u lice snanoga, zamilja, u stvari, izbjeglog Litvanca koji se suoio sa
Rusom, ili lana Pokreta otpora koji sanja o milosru jednog od lanova Gesta-
poa, i kako se taj san obistinjuje. Zbog ega se Gestapovac smilovao? Mogue
zbog jednog jedinog susreta licem u lice. Poslije Drugog svjetskog rata, kada
Levinas pie o udnji bia za mjestom pod suncem koja moe prognati druge u
pusto, nije teko sjetiti se Palestine, iako nijesam naiao u Levinasovim spisima
ni na jednog Palestinca poimenice, niti na bilo kakav opis borbe u istorijskoj
Obeanoj zemlji.
Moda bi ipak bilo bolje da jesam. Nije lako shvatiti kakva je pria u pozadini
ovog ovjeka.

8.

Za one koji trae izlaz iz slijepe ulice Teorije, postoje dva potencijalno korisna
teoretiara kasnog dvadesetog vijeka, a to su: Alasder Mekintajer i arls Tejlor,
pragmatini filozofi iji je prijedlog narativni koncept o sebi. U djelu Nakon
vrline, Mekintajer pie,


Ja samo ono to bi opravdano mogli drugi da misle da jesam u toku
ivota, iz prie koja poinje od mog roenja do smrti: Ja sam predmet
istorije koja je samo moja i niija vie, sa sebi svojstvenim znaenjem.
119

Kritiari istiu da ba kao to je Teorija skeptina prema redukciji naracije na
jedno jedino znaenje, ona isto tako zna da jedno jedino iskustvo moe biti
predstavljeno vie nego jednom naracijom. Otuda, skepticizam, relativizam i
mnogosrtukost nijesu uspjeno zatieni narativnim konceptom o sebi.
120
Ali
ova dva filozofa sigurno nisu tako naivna da tvrde kako svako bie ima ili donosi
samo jednu priu, ili da ta pria o sebi ima samo jednu interpretaciju, ili pak, da
je potrebna bilo kakva interpretacija. Oni samo pokuavaju da smjeste
autonomiju, ozbiljnost i odgovornost u okvir neke osobe.
Ve iz naziva Tejlorove knjige moe se vidjeti ta se predlae Izvori samo-
svojnosti: uspostavljanje savremenog identiteta.
121
Bie ne samo da ima svoje
izvore (klasne, nasljedne, istorijske, edukacijske, polne, itd.), ve je ovjek sam
po sebi izvor, a bie se deava u progresivnom toku. Do neiskorjenjivog stepena
ima svoju slobodu iako ona nije uvijek upranjavana da pronae djeli svog
identiteta, da ispuni priu koju eli. Ovo nije puko psihotino stanje, u kojem se
bie otima od principa stvarnosti, ve javno dostignue koje zahtijeva praksu i
volju. Odgovarajui Nieu, filozof Aleksandar Nehemas razvio je 1987. godine
isti ovakav pristup linosti u svom djelu ivot kao knjievnost u kom se pokazuje
da je prihvatanje izvjesnog stepena neistine uslov ivota i istiu da, pored svega,
postoje naini na koji neko moe postati ono to jeste.
122
Ostvarivanje
identiteta znai ovladavanje stilom samosvojne naracije.
Djelimino autorski stvoreno bie, prirodno, mora biti ivotno djelo. Ali bie
ima mnogo raniji izvor.

9.

Udovoljite mi jo posljednjim autobiografskim ekskursusom, odnosno
raspravom. Znaajno je testirati ideje na osnovu iskustva.
Upravo prije mog dolaska u Crnu Goru, u na dom je pristigla novoroena
kerka. Prole zime, osam ili deset nedjelja po saznanju da je u drugom stanju,
moja supruga Kliodna osjetila je prve leprave pokrete unutar materice. Ovo
iskustvo je u engleskom jeziku poznato kao oivljavanje. ivi u suprotnosti je sa

119
Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Duckworth: London, 1993), 217
120
Parafraza rijei Maxa Saundersa, u Self Impression: Life Writing, Autobiografiction, and the
Forms of Modern Literature (Oxford: OUP, 2010), 508.
121
Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge University
Press: Cambridge, 1989
122
Alexander Nehamas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1987).

mrtvim: obdaren ivotom, postaje nadahnut sobom. Ovo su proste injenice,
profane ali i duboke. Kliodna je sve vie bivala svjesna postojanja drugog u sebi.
Njoj i neroenom dijetetu razlikovali su se, na primjer, periodi spavanja i
budnosti.
Sluaj je htio da Kliodna ima u svojoj anamnezi bolest ili stanje preekla-
mpsije. Ovo je slabo shvaeno ali veoma ozbiljno stanje. Majino tijelo iznenada
razvija imunoloku reakciju na placentu i odbacuje bebu kao strano tijelo. Jedini
lijek za nastalu toksemiju je brz poroaj carskim rezom; u suprotnom majka
umire. Majinsko tijelo izgovara fatalnim naglaavanjem da ovo nije dio njega;
neto je drugo, neto ino.
Krajem avgusta Kliodna je imala estok napad preeklampsije. ivimo u blizini
univerzitetske bolnice i beba je bezbjedno stigla na svijet, mada sedam nedjelja
ranije. Zdrava beba, ali majuna mrvica teka samo 1.7 kilograma. Kliodnu su,
opet, morali da smjeste na odjeljenje intenzivne njege, na nekoliko dana, tako
da nije mogla vidjeti svoju bebu. Iako jo uvijek bolesna sa jenjavajuim
simptomima preeklampsije, udjela je za djetetom i postajala sve potitenija.
Konano, dozvolili su mi da je u kolicima odvedem do dijela intenzivne njege za
nedonoad, gdje je malena Dilija, naa ki, leala u inkubatoru. Kako je Kliodna
netremice gledala dijete, suze su lile slobodno niz lice, suze radosnice. A onda
mi se obratila, Opipaj mi grudi Tako su vrste. Njene grudi su nabrekle i
ukrutile se. Mlijeko curkom lilo je iz njih i okvasilo spavaicu.
Ono to je fascinirajue ovdje, u kontekstu naih promiljanja, jeste da nije
bilo nikakvog fizikog kontakta izmeu majke i djeteta, niti podsticanja grudi
samo pogled na dijete i uzburkanost majinskog osjeaja. Pogledaj je, rekla je
Kliodna, ima tako duge prstie, tako dugake noice. Kako je lijepa. I zaista,
mala Dilija tek to je izala iz materice, koja je po svim pravilima trebalo da joj
bude utoite za bar jo dva mjeseca ve je posjedovala sopstvenu linost sa
osobinama koje e donekle oblikovati njenu sudbinu.
Ve je bila izvorite sveg bia koje joj valja oblikovati, neto novo to nikada
ranije nije postojalo, i sa budunou koja je van domaaja nae imaginacije,
nae kontrole ili nae potpune zatite. Ljudsko bie.

10.

Kada se kritiari teorijske orijentacije pozivaju na temu ivotnog ispisivanja,
bila to biografija ili autobiografija, obino insistiraju na tome da se ispisano
lino nikako ne moe podudarati u potpunosti sa linim proivljenim osjea-
jem.
123
Ko je ikada rekao da tekst i osoba, ili tekst i njegova interpretacija jesu,
ili mogu biti potpuno isti? Od krucijalne vanosti nije injenica da se predstava i

123
Saunders, Self Impression, 528

stvarnost ne mogu savreno podudarati, ve je to stepen do kojeg neka
interpretacija moe biti odgovarajua osobi. Dok jedna, potpuna istina nije
mogua ili ak, nije poeljna, mi moemo teiti postizanju malih preciznosti;
moemo ivjeti u neprijateljstvu sa neistinom; moemo ispraviti svoje greke
kada otkrijemo takve neistine; moemo biti to poteniji jedni prema drugima, i
ponuditi pravdu, ali pravdu bez maa u ruci. Djelotvoran biografski nain
spoznavanja, ukljuuje napor da se imaginativnim putem prodre u ono to
moe biti poznato kao onostrano mjesto, onostrano vrijeme i onostrani ivot.
124

Neminovno se javljaju problemi u pokuaju da se pie o sebi ili drugima.
Levinas, kako je objanjeno ranije, podstie jednu od najpotpunijih primjedbi
biografskom nainu upoznavanja. On vjeruje da kad jednom spoznamo sve
dostupne injenice o nekoj osobi, njegovo bie je upravo ono to nam izmie;
samosvojno bie lei u nespoznatom ostatku, nepristupano i beskonano.
Samo, nije li ovo djelimino pitanje tehnike? Ne bi li se ko potrudio da pie o
sebi ili drugome na nain kojim e konstruiui naraciju sauvati od injenica
misteriju bia o kojem pie, i podstai itaoevu pozornost na ono to takva
naracija kod njih pokree i u kom obimu?
Virdinija Vulf piscima savjetuje da razmotre sebe i svoju kompleksnu
subjektivnost prije nego se upuste u stvaranje naracije:

Nou odlazite u krevet, zbunjeni zapletenou svojih emocija. U samo
jednom danu hiljade ideja palo vam je na pamet: hiljade emocija su se
suoile, sukobile i rasprile u zapanjujuem meteu. Pa ipak, dozvolja-
vate piscima da vam podmetnu samo jednu verziju svega toga, jednu
sliku gospoe Braun, koja nema nikakve slinosti sa onom iznena-
ujuom pojavom.
125

Stvarni ljudski ivot je, uistinu, iznenaujua i nepredvidiva pojava,
djelimino shvatljiva i djelom neshvatljiva.
Ovo je jedna od kljunih razlika izmeu umjetnosti prozne knjievnosti i
umjetnosti pisanja biografije. Razliku je fino artikulisao Robert Luis Stivenson u
pismu nauniku Edmundu Gosu:

124
Peter France and William St Clair, eds., Mapping Lives: The Uses of Biography (pub for British
Academy by Oxford: OUP, 2002), 17.
125
Virginia Woolf, A Womans Essays: Selected Essays, Volume 1, ed. Rachel Bowlby
(Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1992). 86.

Naravno da [biografija] nikad nije tako svrena kao to moe biti neki
truli roman; uvijek ima i mora uvijek imati u sebi one neizljeive
neloginosti ivota I tek tu, zabava poinje
126

Veina proznih djela povode se optim osjeajem dopadanja prema ivotu i
u suprotnosti su sa njegovom osobenou, a to znai da se povode vjero-
vatnou. itaoci su stanovita da je greka ako u romanu naiu na neto
nevjerovatno; mana je ako nije postignuta jedinstvenost; mana romana je ako
njegov svretak ne odgovara uvodnom dijelu. U biografiji, meutim, efekat
realnosti postie se silovitim naputanjem kliea u pisanju i stereotipa u
likovima. Ti kvaliteti se postiu strogim obraanjem panje na dokumentovane
injenice, na mjesta, vremenski tok, viestrane take gledita, do samog izbora
rijenika koji je u prolosti bio u upotrebi i tona kojim su se rijei izgovarale.
Uvijek kada bi pisac nekog djela, koje nije prozno, bio u iskuenju da neto
promijeni da bi pria bila bolja, tj. da vie slii romanu; doao bi u situaciju da ga
uini manje stvarnim, manje istinitim, manje interesantnim. Individualni ivoti
su romanse nevjerovatnoe. Samo se grupe povode vjerovatnoom.
Postoje biografi koji su bili sauesnici u ubistvu glavnog lika, biografi nalik
onima koje je Oskar Vajld imao na umu kada je razmiljao da svaki velikan
danas ima svoje sljedbenike i da uvijek postoji jedan Juda koji biljei biografije.
Biografija moe biti puki pokuaj da se zaradi koji dinar od neije smrti, tako to
e se ivotopis neke poznate linosti ili politiara prvi pojaviti u tampi.
Krajnje mjerodavan duh, u kom treba pisati o drugom, upravo je poniznost.
Jer, neiji je ivot predat vama u ruke, ili ste ga se domogli bez iije dozvole.
Planirate da itavom svijetu objavite do toga trenutka tajnu priu te osobe.
Strahovita je to odgovornost. ak i preminuli dovoljno su ivi da istu trpe. ivjeli
su da bi stvorili ime. Od roenja do smrti bili su izvor neega sasvim novog
svijetu,nepredvidivo porijeklo ponaanja. Nainili su sebe predmetom istorije
koja je samo njihova i niija vie, koja je imala i jo uvijek ima svoje posebno
znaenje. U skladu sa zakonom pokojnika ne smijemo lano predstavljati, ali je
vrlo vano ta se pie u tampanoj verziji o preminuloj osobi. Ona moe biti
predmet ogovaranja, poniena, ne mora joj se odati duno potovanje. Oigle-
dno je pogreno zamiljati da bismo umjeli bolje ivjeti i pisati ako bismo se
nali u tuim uslovima i stanjima. Da nije mogue sugerisati stilom i naracijom
ono to je kod drugih nenadoknadivo ili razumom nepojmljivo, iznevjerio bi se
tematski subjekat. Kada bismo uspjeno pridobili panju italaca neodoljivim
interesovanjem,
127
kako to kae Samjuel Donson, vjerovatno ne bismo u ulozi

126
Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson, vol. 8 (Yale University Press: London and New Haven, 1994-
95), p. 104; quoted in Mapping Lives by Miranda Seymour, p. 253.
127
Johnson, Rambler, n. 60, On biography.

pisca bili neuspjeni ondje gdje treba zadovoljiti dvostruku obavezu, prema
subjektu kao i prema itaocima.
Privodei kraju refleksije o sagledavanju drugoh u odsustvu teorije, moram
pokuati da kratko poentiram. Zaista govoriti o Sebi i o Drugom sa velikim
poetnim slovima S i D, znai upustiti se u metafiziko istraivanje i neminovno
se muiti sumnjom. Ali, pokuaj da se ispria istina o linom iskustvu ili da se
istrai neija posebna priroda, znai upustiti se u novi plan kojim moemo
zakoraiti ka potpunijem poznavanju ivota na zemlji, onakvom kakav moe biti
zanimljiv i od koristi ljudskom rodu.
Prije zakljuka moram se takoe pobrinuti da pojasnim ono o emu ne
govorim. Ne bi bilo poeljno da se svi odreknemo savremenih oblika istraivanja
kojima smo ovladali, te da ponemo pisati biografije jedni drugih, nae i
biografije naih blinjih. Biografija sama po sebi ovisi o svom zdravlju i zdravoj
filozofiji, istoriji, knjievnoj analizi, drutvenim naukama, itd. Moja se kritika
Teorije uveliko zasniva na jednoj pojmovnoj cjelini iz sedamdesetih i osamde-
setih godina prolog vijeka, koja se vodi pod istim imenom i moe se danas pro-
nai u mnogim antologijama i kratkim pregledima. Oekuje se od nas da mora-
mo ponavljati i primjenjivati takve ideje na sve predmete naih ogleda umjesto
teorijskog preispitivanja nas samih, u kojem ponovo oivljavamo preanje isto-
rijske modele teorijskih ogleda, ili kojima bismo davali primjedbe jedni drugima
i na raun osjetljivog svijeta. Kao to istiem realnost svijeta i drugih ljudi nasu-
prot skepticizmu Teorije i metafizikom nihilistikom zaokretu, isto bih tako mo-
gao istai stvarnost poezije, romana, besjede, nekog kulturnog pokreta, konce-
pta koji se prenosi sa jedne osobe na drugu ili sa jednog mjesta na neko drugo.
Mogu je i jedan konaan nain sumiranja poente ako kaem da ako je zapa-
dnjaka filozofija proireni razgovor izmeu Platona i Aristotela, onda je moda
vrijeme da se kao intelektualci humanisti pozovemo na Aristotelovo naelo ra-
sprave. Zavriu njegovim rijeima: Svi ljudi po prirodi imaju elju za sazna-
njem. Nagovjetaj se da uoiti u oduevljenju kada saznajemo ulima; jer osim
svoje korisnosti, ona su voljena zbog samih sebe.
128

Zar ne bismo mogli rei isto i za na ljudski rod, naa blinja ljudska stvore-
nja? Bez obzira na njihovu upotrebljivost, voljeni su zbog njih samih.

Prevela Gordana Vukovi

128
The Works of Aristotle. Ed. W. David Ross. 12 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon, 1908), vol 1, p. 980 a21

Mo jezika: ta je to, ko je ima i kako se
razvila?
129

Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomski, W. Tecumseh Fitch

Razumijevanje jezike moi zahtijeva znatnu interdisciplinarnu saradnju.
Smatramo da bi tekui razvoj u lingvistici mogao biti povezan sa radom u evolu-
tivnoj biologiji, antropologiji, psihologiji i neurologiji. Potrebno je napraviti
razliku izmeu jezike moi u irokom smislu (FLB) i u uem smislu (FLN). FLB
ukljuuje senzomotorni sistem, konceptualno-namjerni sistem i raunarske
mehanizme za rekurzije, obezbjeujuci kapacitet da se proizvede beskonaan
niz izraza iz konanog skupa elemenata. Hipotetiemo da FLN jedino ukljuuje
rekurziju i da je jedina jedinstvena komponenta jezike moi. Dalje, tvrdimo da
se FLN moda razvio iz drugih razloga sem jezikih, otuda komparativne studije
mogu traiti dokaze takvih raunanja izvan domena komunikacije (na primjer
broj, navigacija i socijalni odnosi). Da je Marsovac poastvovao nau planetu
posjetom, bio bi zapanjen jednom izvanrednom slinou meu zemaljskim
biima i kljunom razlikom. to se tie slinosti, on bi primijetio da su sva iva
bia dizajnirana na bazi visoko ouvanih razvojnih sistema koji itaju jedan
(skoro) univerzalni jezik u osnovnim parovima DNK. Kao takav, ivot je sreen
hijerarhijski sa osnovom od diskretnih jedinica koje se ne mogu mijeati (kodovi
i, u najveem dijelu, geni) i koje su sposobne za kombinovanje da bi stvorile sve
kompleksnije i praktino bezgranine varijacije vrsta i individualnih organizama.
Nasuprot tome, on bi uoio odsustvo univerzalnog koda komunikacije (Slika 1).
Kada bi na Marsovac naturalista bio minuciozan, mogao bi primijetiti da se
mo koja se zaokuplja ljudskom komunikacijom pojavljuje kao znatno razliita
od iste kod drugih ivih bia; mogao bi dalje primijetiti da se ljudska jezika mo
pojavljuje organizovana kao genetiki kod hijerarhijska, rekurzivna i praktino
beskonana to se tie obima izraza. Sa ovim djeliima u rukama, ovaj Marsovac
bi mogao poeti da se pita kako se genetiki kod tako izmijenio da proizvodi
ogroman broj meusobno nerazumljivih komunikacijskih sistema meu
vrstama, dok istovremeno odrava jasnou razumijevanja u okviru datih vrsta.

129
Naslov originalnog teksta: The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did it
Evolve? Author(s): Marc D. Hauser, Noam Chomski, W. Tecumseh Fitch.
Source: Science, New Series, Vol. 298, No. 5598 (Nov. 22, 2002), pp. 15691579.
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Susreo bi se sanekim od kljunih problema kojiukljuuju pitanje jezikog razvoja
i naina kako su ljudi stekli mo jezika.
U istraivanju problema jezike evolucije, vano je razdvojiti pitanja koja se
tiu jezika kao komunikacijskog sistema i pitanja koja se tiu prorauna u osnovi
ovog sistema, kao to su ona koja su u osnovi rekurzije. Kao to tvrdimo u
daljem tekstu, mnoge otre debate u ovom polju su lansirane bez uspjeha kada
je rije o razlikovanju ovih problema. Prema jednom stanovitu, pitanja koja se
tiu apstraktnih raunarskih mehanizama razlikuju se od onih koja se tiu
komunikacije, ovo poslednje usmjereno je na probleme u interfejsu izmeu
apstraktnih prorauna kao i senzomotorinog i konceptualno-namjernog
interfejsa. Ovo stanovite se ne bi, naravno, trebalo uzeti kao tvrdnja protiv
veze izmeu prorauna i komunikacije. Mogue je, kako diskutujemo u daljem
tekstu, da su kljune raunarske sposobnosti nastale iz nekih drugih razloga a
ne komunikacijskih, ali, poto su dokazale da su korisne u komunikaciji,
promijenjene su zbog ogranienja nametnutih i na periferiji (npr. ono to
moemo uti i rei ili vidjeti i signalizirati, brzina kojom sluni korteks moe
obraditi brze temporalne i centralne promjene) i na centralnijim nivoima (npr.
konceptualne i kognitivne strukure, pragmatizam, ogranienja memorije).

Slika 1. ivotinjsko kraljevstvo je dizajnirano na bazi visoko ouvanih razvojnih
sistema koji itaju gotovo univerzalni jezik kodiran u osnovnim parovima DNK. Ovaj
sistem je prikazan lijevo u smislu filogenetikog drveta. Nasuprot tome, ivotinje
nemaju univerzalni kod komunikacije, to je prikazano na desnoj strani nepove-
zanim ivotinjskim grupama. ( Ilustrovao John Yanson).

Najmanje tri teoretska pitanja presijecaju debatu o razvoju jezika. Jedan od
najstarijih problema meu teoretiarima je zajednika nasuprot jedinstvenoj
distinkciji. Najnoviji komentatori se slau da, iako pele pleu, ptice pjevaju i
impanze roku, ovi sistemi komunikacije se kvalitativno razlikuju od ljudskog

jezika. Naroito, ivotinjski komunikacijski sistemi nemaju bogatu ekspresivnu i
otvorenu snagu ljudskog jezika (baziranu na ljudskoj sposobnosti rekurzije).
Evolutivna zagonetka, stoga, lei u razrjeavanju toga kako smo odatle doli
ovdje, s obzirom na oigledni diskontinuitet. Drugo pitanje tie se sljedeeg: da
li je jezika evolucija bila postepena nasuprot neravnomjernoj; ovo se razlikuje
od prvog pitanja zato to je kvalitativni diskontinuitet izmeu postojeih vrsta
mogao da se razvije postepeno, ne ukljuujui diskontinuitete tokom ljudske
evolucije. Konano, pitanje kontinuiteta nasuprot egzaptaciji (obiljeje koje je
korisno organizmu, ali koje nije nastalo kao adaptacija za svoju sadanju
funkciju, ve je kasnije izabrano za nju) vrti se oko problema da li je ljudski jezik
evoluirao postepenim proirenjem postojeih komunikacijskih sistema, ili da li
su vani aspekti jezika egzaptovani (odvojeni) daleko od svojih prethodnih
adaptivnih funkcija (npr. prostorno ili numeriko rasuivanje, makijavelisticki
socijalni planovi, sredstva za izradu).
Istraivai su usvojili ekstremne ili srednje pozicije to se tie ovih bazinih
nezavisnih pitanja, to vodi velikoj raznolikosti mimoilazeih stanovita o evolu-
ciji jezika u savremenoj knjievnosti. Ipak, u nastanku je konsenzus o tome da
je, iako ljudi i ivotinje dijele raznovrsne vane raunske i perceptivne resurse,
dolo do znatne evolutivne pregradnje otkad smo se razdvojili od zajednikog
pretka prije nekih 6 miliona godina. Empirijski izazov je u tome da se odredi ta
je naslijeeno nepromijenjeno u odnosu na ovog zajednikog pretka, ta je bilo
podvrgnuto sitnim modifikacijama, i taje kvalitativno novo. Dodatni evolutivni
izazov je u tome da se odredi kakav je selektivni pritisakdoveo do adaptivnih
promjena tokom vremena i da se razumiju razna ogranienja koja su kanalisala
ovaj evolutivni proces. Odgovaranje ovih pitanja zahtijeva kolaborativni napor
meu lingvistima, biolozima, psiholozima i antropolozima.
Jedan od ciljeva ovog eseja jeste da promovie jau vezu izmeu biologije i
lingvistike, identifikujui take dodira i slaganja meu oblastima. Iako je interdi-
sciplinarni brak inaugurisan prije vie od 50 godina, jos uvijek nije konzumiran.
Nadamo se da emo unaprijediti ovaj cilj, prvenstveno pomaui da se razjasni
biolingvistika perspektiva jezika i njegove evolucije. Zatim, prikazujemo neke
obeavajue empirijske pristupe jezikoj moi, sa posebnim osvrtom na kompa-
rativni rad sa neljudskim ivotinjama, i zakljuujemo sa diskusijom o tome kako
istraga moe profitabilno napredovati, naglaavajui neke izrazite probleme.
Ne pokuavamo da budemo sveobuhvatni u naoj pokrivenosti relevantnih
ili interesantnih tema i problema, niti je na cilj da prikaemo istoriju oblasti. Mi
se fokusiramo na teme koje ine vanu vezu izmeu empirijskih podataka i teo-
retskih pozicija o prirodi jezike moi. Vjerujemo da, ako su istraivanjaproble-
ma jezike evolucije u progresu, potrebno nam je jasno objanjenje raunskih
zahtjeva za jezik, uloga evolutivne teorije u testiranju hipoteze o evoluciji
karaktera i produktivna razmjena izmeu lingvista i biologa.

Definisanje cilja: dva smisla jezike moi

Rije jezik ima veoma razliita znaenja u razliitim kontekstima i disciplina-
ma. U neformalnoj upotrebi jezik se shvata kao kulturoloki specifini komuni-
kacijski sistem (engleski, Navaho, itd.). U vrstama modernih jezika koje nas
ovdje zanimaju, termin jezik se koristi prilino razliito da se ukae na internu
komponentu uma/mozga (ponekad se zove interni jezik ili I-jezik). Pretposta-
vljamo da je ovo primarni objekat interesovanja za studiju evolucije i funkcije
jezike moi. Ipak, ova bioloki i individualno zasnovana upotreba i dalje osta-
vlja dosta otvorenog za interpretaciju (i pogrena tumaenja). Na primjer, neu-
rologija moe upitati: Koje komponente ljudskog nervnog sistema se regrutuju
u upotrebi jezika u njegovom najirem znaenju? Zbog toga to bilo koji aspekt
saznanja izgleda, u principu, dostupan jeziku, najiri odgovor na ovo pitanje je,
vjerovatno, njegova veina (nervnog sistema). ak i na aspekte emocija i sazna-
nja koji nijesu lako verbalizovani, mogu uticati lingvistiki zasnovani misaoni
procesi. Stoga, ova koncepcija je preiroka da bi bila od koristi. Mi stoga opisu-
jemo dvakoncepta jezike moi, jedan iri i inkluzivniji, i drugi ogranieniji i ui.
Mo jezika iroki smisao (FLB). FLB ukljuuje interni raunski sistem (FLN,
ispod) u kombinaciji sa dva druga interna organska sistema, koja zovemo senzo-
motorni i konceptualno-namjerni. Uprkos debati o preciznoj prirodi ovih siste-
ma i o tome da li se oni sutinski dijele sa drugim kimenjacima ili su jedinstve-
no adaptirani za potrebe jezika, smatramo neospornim postojanje biolokog
kapaciteta ljudskih bia koji nam dozvoljava (ili ne, na primjer impanzama) da
ubrzo savladamo bilo koji ljudski jezik bez eksplicitnih instrukcija. FLB ukljuuje
ovaj kapacitet, ali iskljuuje druge interne organske sisteme koji su neophodni,
ali ne i dovoljni za jezik ( npr. memorija, disanje, varenje, cirkulacija, itd.).
Mo jezika uismisao (FLN). FLN je sam apstraktni lingvistiki raunski si-
stem, nezavisan od drugih sistema sa kojima je u interakciji ili interfejsu. FLN je
komponenta FLB-a i mehanizmi koji su mu u osnovi su neka vrsta podseta onih
koji su u osnovi FLB.
Drugi su se sloili sa potrebom za ogranienim smislom jezika ali i predloili
razna ocrtavanja. Na primjer, Liberman i njegovi saradnici su tvrdili da su senzo-
motorni sistemi posebno adaptirani za jezik, i stoga bi trebalo da se smatraju
dijelom FLN. Postoji takoe i duga tradicija miljenja da su konceptualno-
namjerni sistemi unutranji dio jezika u uem smislu. U ovom lanku ostavljamo
ova pitanja otvorenim, skreui panju na FLN kao to smo upravo definisali, ali
ostavljajui mogunost za dalja empirijska istraivanja.
Interna arhitektura FLN-a, tako zamiljena, tema je novog istraivanja i deba-
te. Bez prejudiciranja problema, mi emo, zbog konkretnosti, usvojiti osobeni
koncept ove arhitekture. Pretpostavljamo, stavljajui na stranu precizne
mehanizme, da je kljuna komponenta FLN-a raunski sistem (ue polje sinta-

kse) koji proizvodi unutranje prikaze i ocrtava ih u senzomotorni interfejs fono-
lokim sistemom, i u konceptualno-namjerni interfejs (formalnim) semantikim
sistemom; prisvajanje alternativa koje su predloene ne bi materijalno modifi-
kovalo nastajuu diskusiju. Svi pristupi se slau da je sr FLN-a rekurzija, pripisa-
na uem polju sintakse u konceptu koji je upravo naveden. FLN uzima odreeni
set elemenata i proizvodi potencijalno beskonani niz izolovanih izraza. Ova
sposobnost FLN-a proizvodi izolovanu beskonanost (svojstvo koje takoe kara-
kterie prirodne brojeve). Svaki od ovih izolovanih izraza se onda prenosi na
senzomotorni i konceptualno-namjerni sistem, koji procesuira i elaborira ove
informacije u upotrebi jezika. Svaki izraz je, u ovom smislu, uparivanje zvuka i
znaenja. Priznato je ve hiljadama godina da je jezik, u osnovi, sistem zvuno-
znaenjskih veza; potencijalna beskonanost ovog sistema je bila eksplicitno
priznata od strane Galileja, Dekarta i filozofa gramatiara iz XVII vijeka i njiho-
vih naslednika, posebno Fon Humbolta. Jedan od ciljeva studije FLN-a i, ire,
FLB-a jeste da otkriju kako mo jezika zadovoljava ove bazine i sutinske
uslove.
Jezgro svojine izolovane beskonanosti je intuitivno poznato svakom kori-
sniku jezika. Reenice se grade od izolovanih jedinica: postoje reenice od 6 i od
7 rijei, ali ne i od 6, 5 rijei. Ne postoje najdue reenice (bilo koja reenica
uzeta u obzir moe biti skovana, na primjer, ugraivanjem u nju Meri misli
da), i ne postoji neproizvoljna gornja granica duine reenice. U tom pogledu,
jezik je direktno analogan prirodnim brojevima (vidjetiispod).
U najmanju ruku, onda, FLN ukljuuje kapacitet rekurzije. Postoje mnogi
unutranji organski faktori, izvan FLN-a ili FLB-a, koji nameu praktine granice
upotrebi sistema. Na primjer, kapacitet plua namee granice duini stvarnih
izgovorenih reenica, dok radna memorija namee granice kompleksnosti ree-
nica ako se eli da one budu razumljive. Druga ogranienja na primjer formi-
ranje koncepta ili brzina motorike proizvodnje predstavljaju aspekte FLB-a,
koji imaju svoje evolutivne istorije i moda su igrali ulogu u evoluciji kapaciteta
FLN-a. Pored toga, ovjek moe profitabilno istraivati evoluciju FLN-a bez
poetne brige za ove ograniavajue aspekte FLB-a. Ovo je razjanjeno
zapaanjem da, iako su mnogi aspekti FLB-a zajedniki sa drugim kimenjacima,
jezgro rekurzivnog aspekta FLN-a trenutno nema analogije u ivotinjskoj
komunikaciji i vjerovatno ni u drugim domenima. Ovo gledite, stoga, pred-
stavlja najdublji izazov za komparativni evolutivni pristup jeziku. Vjerujemo da
istraivanja ovog kapaciteta treba da ukljuuju druge domene van komunikacije
(npr. broj, socijalni odnosi, navigacija).
Odredivi razlike izmeu FLB-a i FLN-a i teorijske razlike date gore, moemo
definisati istraivaki prostor. On identifikuje probleme koji se tiu evolucije
senzomotornih sistema, konceptualno-namjernih sistema i FLN-a. Komparativni

pristup, na koji emo prei, obezbjeuje okvir za postavljanje pitanja o svakoj
od ovih komponenti jezike moi.

Komparativni pristup jezikoj evoluciji

Empirijsku studiju jezike evolucije karakteriu brojna problematina mjesta.
Lingvistiko ponaanje se ne okamenjuje i duga tradicija analize fosila lobanje i
modanih kostura ili kalupa doveli su do konsenzusa o evoluciji jezika.
Prilagodljiviji i, mislimo, moniji pristup problemima jezike evolucije se
obezbjeuje komparativnim metodom, koji koristi empirijske podatke od ivih
bia da ocrta detaljne interferencije sa izumrlim precima. Komparativni metod
je bio osnovno sredstvo koje je koristio Darvin da analizira evolutivni fenomen i
nastavlja da igra centralnu ulogu kroz modernu evolutivnu biologiju. Iako su
naunici koji su zainteresovani za jeziku evoluciju esto ignorisali komparativne
podatke u cjelosti ili su se fokusirali iskljuivo na podatke od neljudskih primata,
tekua miljenja u neurologiji, molekularnoj bilogiji i razvojnoj biologiji indici--
raju da su mnogi aspekti nervne i razvojne funkcije veoma ouvani, ohrabrujui
rastezanje komparativne metode na sve kimenjake (i moda i preko toga). Iz
vie razloga, detaljno u daljem tekstu, vjerujemo da bi komparativni metod
trebalo da igra kljunu ulogu u buduim diskusijama o jezikoj evoluciji.
Sveobuhvatna briga u studiji jezike evolucije tie se pitanja da li su posebne
komponente jezike moi evoluirale specijalno za ljudski jezik i, stoga su
(proirenjem), jedinstvene za ljude. Logino, tvrdnja ljudske jedinstvenosti mora
biti zasnovana na podacima koji indiciraju odsustvo osobina u neljudskim
ivotinjama i, da bi bila ozbiljno shvaena, mora imati znatno tijelo kompara.-
tivnih podataka. Konkretnije, ako istraziva jezike evolucije eli da tvrdi da je
osobina evoluirala jedino u ljudima za funkciju jezikog procesa, podaci koji
indiciraju da nijedna ivotinja nema ovu naroitu osobinu su potrebni.
Iako ova linija rasuivanja moe izgledati oigledna, zauujue je za oso-
binu da se esto smatra kao jedinstveno ljudska prije nego to su dostupni
odgovarajui komparativni podaci. Poznati primjer je kategorijska percepcija,
koja je, kad je otkrivena, izgledalasasvim prikladno podeena za detalje ljudskog
govora tako da predstavlja jedinstvenu ljudsku adaptaciju. Prolo je odreeno
vrijeme prije nego to su isti osnovni perceptivni diskontinuiteti otkriveni kod
cincile i makaka, i ak kod ptica, to je dovelo do suprotnog zaklju-ka da je
perceptivna osnova za kategorijsku percepciju karakteristika primiti-vnih
kimenjaka, koja je evoluirala za slunu obradu, suprotno od specifine govorne
obrade. Stoga, bazina i neuklonjiva uloga komparativnog istraivanja jezike
evolucije jeste ova prosta i sutinski negativna: osobina prisutna u neljudskim
ivotinjama nije evoluirala naroito za ljudski jezik, iako moe biti dio jezike
moi i igrati intimnu ulogu u jezikom procesu. Mogue je, naravno, da je

osobina evoluirala kod neljudskih ivotinja i ljudi nezavisno, prije kao analog
nego kao homolog. Postoji vjerovatnoa da je osobina evoluirala za jezik ljudi ali
je evoluirala iz nekog drugog razloga u komparativnoj ivotinjskoj grupi. U
sluajevima gdje je komparativna grupa neljudskih primata i, moda, naroito
impanze, vjerodostojnost ovog evolutivnog scenarija je slabija. U svakom
sluaju, komparativni podaci su od kljunog znaaja za ovaj sud.
Uprkos krucijalnoj ulozi homologije u komparativnoj biologiji, homologne
osobine nijesu jedini relevantni izvor evolutivnih podataka. Konvergentna
evolucija slinih znakova u dva razliita ogranka, koji se nazivaju analogijama ili
homeoplazama, moe jednako otkrivati. Naroito sline (ali ne nehomologne)
strukture ljudskih oktopodskih oiju otkrivaju stroga ogranienja postavljena
zakonima optike i nepredvienosti razvoja organa sposobnog za fokusiranje
otre slike na list receptora. Detaljne analogije izmeu djelova oka kimenjaka i
glavonoaca takoe obezbjeuju nezavisne dokaze da je svaka komponenta
adaptacija za stvaranje slike, oblikovane prirodnom selekcijom. Dalje, otkrie,
da naroite konzervativne genetike kaskade lee u osnovi razvoja takvih
analognih struktura, obezbjeuje vaan uvid u naine kojima razvojni mehani-
zmi mogu kanalisati evoluciju. Stoga, iako potencijalno zbunjujue za takso-
nome (tj. one koji se bave poreenjem slinih pojava u jednom ili u raznim
jezicima koje slue kao osnova za klasifikovanje jezikih pojava i samih jezika),
analogije obezbjeuju kritine podatke o adaptaciji pod fizikim i razvojnim
ogranienjima. Odreuji komparativnu mreu u irem smislu, uspjenije e
otkriti vee regularnosti u evoluciji, pomaui da se naglasi uloga ogranienja u
jezikoj evoluciji.
Analogija koja je prepoznata kao naroito relevantna za jezik je akvizicija
(sticanje) pjesme kod ptica. Nasuprot neljudskim primatima, kod kojih je
proizvodnja vokalizacija tipinih za vrste u veoj mjeri uroena, veina ptica
pjevaica ui pjesme specifine za svoju vrstu, sluajui pripadnike svoje vrste, i
one razvijaju krajnje aberantnu pjesmu ako su liene takvog iskustva. Tekua
istraivanja pjesme ptica otkrivaju detaljne i intrigantne paralele sa govorom.
Na primjer, mnoge ptice pjevaice prolaze kroz kritian period u razvoju posle
kojeg proizvode defektne pjesme koje nikolika koliina akustinog inputa ne
moe izlijeiti, to podsjea na tekoe koje odrasli ljudi imaju u potpunom
savladavanju novih jezika. Dalje, i paralelno sa fazom brbljanja i vokalizovanja ili
signalizovanja kod djece, mlade ptice prolaze kroz fazu razvoja pjesme u kojoj
spontano proizvode amorfne verzije pjesme odraslih, nazvane potpjesma ili
brbljanje. Iako su mehanizmi koji su u osnovi akvizicije pjesme ptica i ljudskog
jezika isti analozia ne homolozi, njihove sutinske komponente dijele duboko
ouvane nervne i razvojne osnove: veina aspekata neuropsihologije i razvoja
ukljuujuiregulatorne i strukturalne gene, kao i tipove nerava i nervnih
predajnika zajedniki su svim kimenjacima. Da su takve bliske paralele

evoluirale ukazuje i postojanje vanih ogranienja u vezi sa tim kako mozak
kimenjaka moe akvizirati velike rjenike kompleksnih nauenih zvukova.
Takva ogranienja mogu esencijalno primorati prirodnu selekciju da doe do
istog rjeenja u vie navrata kada se suoi sa slinim problemima.

Testiranje hipoteze o evoluciji jezike moi

Dobivi definicije jezike moi, zajedno sa komparativnim okvirom, moemo
razlikovati nekoliko vjerodostojnih hipoteza o evoluciji njenih raznih kompo-
nenti. Ovdjesugeriemo dvije hipoteze koje obuhvataju raznovrsnost miljenja
meu modernim naunicima, prikljuujui im i nau.
Hipoteza 1: FLB je striktno homologna ivotinjskoj komunikaciji. Ova
hipoteza tvrdi da homolozi FLB-a, ukljuujui FLN, postoje (moda u manje
razvijenoj ili drukijemodifikovanoj formi) u neljudskim ivotinjama. Ovo je
istorijski popularna hipoteza van lingvistike i bliskih polja, i bila je branjena od
strane nekih istraivaa u govornim naukama. Prema ovoj hipotezi, ljudski FLB
je sastavljen od istih funkcionalnih komponenti koje su u osnovi komunikacije
drugih vrsta.
Hipoteza 2: FLB je izvedena, jedinstveno ljudska adaptacija za jezik. Prema
ovoj hipotezi, FLB je veoma kompleksna adaptacija za jezik, rame uz rame sa
okom kimenjaka, i mnoge njene bitne komponente se mogu posmatrati kao
individualne osobine koje su podvrgnute selekciji i usavrene u skorijoj ljudskoj
evolutivnoj istoriji. ini se da ovo predstavlja nultu hipotezu za mnoge naunike
koji ozbiljno shvataju kompleksnost jezika. Argument poinje pretpostavkom da
je FLB, u cjelini, veoma kompleksan, da slui funkciji komunikacije sa zavidnom
efikasnou i da ima neuklonjivu genetiku komponentu. Zbog toga to je
prirodna selekcija jedini poznati bioloki mehanizam sposoban da proizvede
takve funkcionalne komplekse, proponenti ovog stanovita zakljuuju da je
prirodna selekcija igrala vanu ulogu u oblikovanju mnogih aspekata FLB-a,
ukljuujui FLN i, dalje, da su mnogi od njih neuporedivi sa neljudskim ivoti-
njama. Iako homologni mehanizmi mogu postojati u drugim ivotinjama,
ljudske verzije su modifikovane prirodnom selekcijom do takvog nivoa da se
mogu s razlogom smatrati kao da sainjavaju nove osobine, moda egzaptovane
iz drugih konteksta (npr. socijalne inteligencije, sredstava za izradu).
Hipoteza 3: Jedino je FLN jedinstveno ljudski. Na osnovu podataka iskazanih
ispod, hipotetiemo da je veina, ako ne i sav, FLN baziran na mehanizmima
koje dijelimo sa neljudskim ivotinjama (kao to je tvreno u prvoj hipotezi ).
Nasuprot tome, mi sugeriemo da je FLN raunski mehanizam rekurzije
skorije evoluirao i da je jedinstven naoj vrsti. Prema ovoj hipotezi, veina
kompleksnosti manifestovane u jeziku potie od kompleksnosti u perifernim
komponentama FLB-a, naroito onih koje su u osnovi senzomotornog (govor ili

znak) i koceptualno-namjernog interfejsa, u kombinaciji sa sociokuturalnim i
komunikacijskim nepredvienostima. Tako FLB u cjelini ima jednu drevnu
evolutivnu istoriju, datirajui mnogo ranije od pojave jezika, i komparativna
analiza je neophodna da bi se shvatio ovaj kompleksni sistem. Za razliku od
toga, prema skorijim lingvistikim teorijama, prorauni koji su u osnovi FLN-a
mogu biti prilino ogranieni. U stvari, mi u ovoj hipotezi predlaemo da FLN
obuhvata jedino glavne raunske komponente rekurzije kako se one pojavljuju
u uem polju sintakse i mapiranju interfejsa. Ako je FLN zaista ovako ogranien,
ova hipoteza ima zanimljiv efekat ponitavanja pojedinih argumenta, i tako
vraa FLN u status adaptacije otvorene za pitanja. Proponenti ideje da je FLN
adaptacija bi stoga trebalo da obezbijede dodatne podatke ili argumente da
podre ovo stanovite.
Dostupni komparativni podaci o sistemima ivotinjske komunikacije sugeriu
da se jezika mo u cjelini oslanja na neke jedinstveno ljudske kapacitete koji su
skorije evoluirali u toku priblino 6 miliona godina, otkad smo se odvojili od
naeg pretka slinog impanzi. Trea hipoteza, u svojoj najjaoj formi, sugerie
da jedino FLN spada u ovu kategoriju. Prema ovoj hipotezi, FLB sadri iroki
spektar kognitivnih i konceptualnih mehanizama koje dijelimo sa drugim
vrstama, ali samo oni mehanizmi koji su u osnovi FLN-a naroito njegovog
kapaciteta za izolovanu beskonanost jedinstveno su ljudski. Ova hipoteza
sugerie da se sve periferne komponente FLB-a dijele sa drugim ivotinjama, sa
razlikama prije u koliini nego u vrsti. ta je jedinstveno za nau vrstuprilino je
specifino za FLN i ukljuuje njegove interne operacije kao iinterfejs sa drugim
interno-organskim sistemima FLB-a.
Svaka od ovih hipoteza je vjerodostojna do nekog nivoa. Naposletku, one se
mogu razlikovati samo u empirijskim podacima, od kojih je veina sada
nedostupna. Prije nego pregledamo neke relevantne podatke, ukratko razma-
tramo neke kljune razlike izmeu njih. Sa komparativno evolutivnog stanovi-
ta, vano je pitanje da li su lingvistiki prethodnici bili ukljueni u komunikaciju
ili neto drugo. Proponenti i prve i druge hipoteze uspostavljaju direktnu kore-
spondenciju, uz korijene sa modifikacijom, izmeu neke osobine ukljuene u
FLB kod ljudi i sline osobine kod druge vrste; ove hipoteze se razlikuju u tome
da li su prethodnici funkcionisali u komunikaciji.

Empirijski problem Primjeri

Vokalna imitacija i pronalazak

FLB senzomotorni sistem

Poduavanje studija pjesme ptica,
analiza vokalnih dijalekata kod kitova,
spontana imitacija vjetaki stvorenih
zvukova kod delfina.

Neuropsihologija sistema akcije i
percepcije

Diskriminacija zvunih obrazaca ujeziku

Ogranienja nametnuta anatomijom
vokalnog trakta

Biomehanika zvune proizvodnje

Modaliteti jezike prozvodnje i
percepcije

Teorija uma, pripisivanje mentalnih
stanja

Kapacitet za sticanje nelingvistikih
konceptualnnih predstava

Referentni vokalni signali

Imitacija kao racionalni namjerni sistem

Voljna kontrola znakovne proizvodnje
kao dokaz namjerne komunikacije

Studije koje procjenjuju da li odrazni
neuroni, koji obezbjeuju najvaniju
podlogu za sistem akcije i percepcije,
mogu posluiti gestikularnoj i (moda)
vokalnoj imitaciji.

Studija operantnog uslovljavanja
prototipa efekta magneta kod makaka
i vorka.

Studije vokalnog trakta i formantne
disperzije kod ptica i primata.

Studije zvune proizvodnje kod
primata, ukljuujui ulogu
mandibularne oscilacije.

Kros-modalna percepcija i znakovni
jezik kod ljudi nasuprot unimodalnoj
komunikaciji kod ivotinja.

FLB konceptualno-namjerni sistem

Studije distinkcije izmeu gledanja i
znanja kod impanzi.

Studije rezus majmuna i koncept
objekta ili vrste.

Studije vokalizacija kod primata koji se
koriste za zatvaranje predatora, hrane
i socijalnih veza.

Komparativne studije impanzi i
ljudske djece koje sugeriu da samo
ovi drugi uitavaju namjeru u akciju, i
tako izdvajaju neposmatranu
racionalnu namjeru.

Komparativne studije koje istrauju
odnos izmeu znakovne proizvodnje i
kompozicije socijalne publike.


Spontani i trenirani metodi dizajnirani da
otkriju ogranienja pri uenju pravila

Znakovni ili vjetaki jezik kod treniranih
majmuna i delfina

Modeli jezike moi koji pokuavaju da
otkriju neophodne i dovoljnemehanizme

Eksperimenti sa ivotinjama koji istrauju
prirodu i sastav predstavljanja broja

Zajedniki mehnizmi u razliitim
kognitivnim domenima
FLN rekurzija

Studije o serijskom redoslijedu uenja i
gramatike konanih stanja kod
tamarina i makaka.

Studije koje istauju redoslijed simbola
i otvorene kombinatorne manipulacije.

Modeli teorije igre u uenju jezika,
reference i univerzalne gramatike.

Studije operantnog uslovljavanja za
utvrivanjeda li neljudski primati mogu
predstaviti broj, ukljuujui osobine
kao to su ordinalnost i kardinalnost,
koristei takva predstavljanja u
kombinaciji sa matematikim
operandima (npr. sabiranje, dijeljenje).

Evolucija muzikog procesa i strukture,
ukljuujui analize funkcije mozga i
komparativne studije muzike
percepcije.
Tabela 1. Primjer empirijskih pristupa razumijevanju evolucije jezike moi,
ukljuujui i komponente u irokom (FLB) i uskom (FLN) smislu.

Iako su mnogi aspekti FLB-a skloni da nastanu na ovaj nain, glavno pitanje
za ove hipoteze jeste da li niz postupnih modifikacija moe u krajnjoj liniji
dovesti do kapaciteta jezika za beskonanu produktivnost. Uprkos neospornom
postojanju velike zajednike baze homolognih mehanizama ukljuenih u FLB,
minorne modifikacije ovog temeljnog sistema se ine neadekvatnima za
proizvodnju fundamentalne razlike izolovane beskonanosti izmeu jezika i
svih poznatih formi ivotinjske komunikacije. Ova tvrdnja je razlog vie zato
sumnjamo da trea hipotezamoe biti produktivan nain za karakterisanje
problema jezike evolucije.
Primarno pitanje koje razdvaja drugu i treu hipotezu jeste da li jedinstveno
ljudski kapaciteti FLN-a konstituiu adaptaciju. Stanovite izraeno drugom
hipotezom, naroito teza da je FLN posebno veoma evoluirana adaptacija, dalo
je mnogo entuzijazma u skorije vrijeme, naroito evolutivnim psiholozima.
Sada, ipak, vidimo malo razloga da vjerujemo bilo da FLN moe biti ralanjen u
mnogo nezavisnih ali interaktivnih osobina, svaka sa svojom nezavisnom
evolutivnom istorijom, bilo da je svaka od ovih osobina mogla biti oblikovana

pod velikim uticajem prirodne selekcije, s obzirom na njihovu slabu vezu sa
komunikativnom efikasnou (povrina fenotipine funkcije na kojoj je,
pretpostavljamo, selekcija dejstvovala).
Smatramo da postoji mogunost da su odreeni posebni aspekti jezike
moi kao umeci izmeu lunih krakova nusprodukti ve postojeih ograni-
enja, prije nego finalni proizvodi istorije prirodne selekcije. Ova vjerovatnoa,
koja otvara vrata drugim empirijskim crtama ispitivanja, savreno je kompati-
bilna sa naom vrstom podrkom adaptacionistikog programa. Zaista, slijedi
direktno iz osnovnog pojma da je adaptacija tegoban proces na koji se poziva
jedino kada alternativna objanjenja omanu. Pitanje nije u vezi sa tim da li je
FLN u cjelosti adaptibilan. Dozvoljavajui nam da komuniciramo uz bezgranine
varijetete misli, rekurzija je oito adaptibilno raunanje. Pitanje je da su li
naroite komponente funkcije FLN-a adaptacije za jezik, na koje se posebno
djeluje prirodnom selekcijom ili, ak i ire, da li je FLN evoluirao iz drugih
razloga sem komunikacije.
Postoji analogija koja moe razjasniti ovu distinkciju. Stablo i grane drveta su
najblia optimalna rjeenja za obezbjeivanje individualnih listova drveta sa
pristupom suncu. Za bunje i manje drvee iroki spektar formi (koje se ire,
sferni, sa vie stabljika itd.) obezbjeuju dobra rjeenja za ovaj problem. Za
veoma visoku sumu baldahinovog drveta veina ovih formi je nemogua zbog
raznih ogranienja postavljenih osobinama celuloze i problemima snabdijevanja
vodom i hranom sve do najviih listova. Neki aspekti ovakvog drveta su iste
adaptacije kanalisane ovim ogranienjima; drugi (npr. naglo razvijanje cjevica
za snabdijevanje vodom u vruim danima, sklonost da budu sruene u
uraganima) su vjerovatno nezaobilazni nusprodukti ovakvih ogranienja.
Skoranji rad na FLN-u sugerie mogunost da makar usko sintaksike
komponente zadovoljavaju uslove veoma efikasnog raunanja do nivoa koji se
ranije nije oekivao. Stoga, FLN moe priblino biti opciono rijeenje problema
povezivanja senzomotornog i konceptualno-namjernog sistema. Drugim rijei-
ma, proizvodni procesi jezikog sistema mogu obezbjeivati najblie optimalno
rjeenje koje zadovoljava uslove interfejsa sa FLB-om. Mnogi detalji jezika koji
su tradicionalni fokus lingvistike studije (npr. postojanje nieg sloja, Wh-
pokret, postojanje reenica poput batenskih staza) mogu predstavljati nuspro-
dukte ovog rjeenja, proizvedene automatski neuralnim ili raunskim ogranie-
njima i strukturom FLB-a komponenete koje lee izvan FLN-a. ak su i novi
kapaciteti poput rekurzijeimplementirani u isti tip neuralnog tkiva kao to je
ostatak mozga i tako su ogranieni biofizikim, razvojnim i raunskim faktorima
koji su zajedniki sa drugim kimenjacima. Trea hipoteza otvara mogunost da
strukturalni detalji FLN-a mogu rezultirati iz takvih ve postojeih ogranienja,
prije nego od direktnog oblikovanja prirodnom selekcijom koja je ciljana
posebno na komunikaciju. Ukoliko se ovo pokae kao istinito, takvi strukturalni

detalji nijesu, striktno govorei, adaptacije uopte. Ova hipoteza i alternativni
selekcionistiki prikaz su odrivi i mogu eventualno biti testirani zajedno sa
komparativnom podacima.

Komparativni dokazi za jeziku mo

Studija jezike evolucije se ubrzala u proloj deceniji. Mi ovdje nudimo veo-
ma selektivan pregled samo pojedinih studija, naglaavajui dejstvo ivotinja
koje izgleda posebno relevantno za hipoteze istaknute iznad; mnogi propusti su
bili neophodni zbog prostora i mi vrsto vjerujemo da e velika raznolikost
metoda i perspektiva naposletku obezbijediti najbogatije odgovore na problem
jezike evolucije. Iz ovog razloga, predstavljamo iri primjer ponuda oblasti u
tabeli 1.
Koliko je specijalan govor? Komparativna studija senzomotornog sistema.
Poevi od ranih radova o percepciji govora, postoji tradicija smatranja govora
posebnim. Tako bazirana na jedinstveno ljudskim mehanizmima, adaptiranim za
govornu percepciju i/ili proizvodnju, ova perspektiva je stimulisala snaan pro-
gram istraivanja koji prouava percepciju govora kod ivotinja i, skorije, proizvo-
dnju govora. Iznenaujue, ovo istraivanje je proizvelo malo dokaza za jedinstve-
no ljudske mehanizme specifine za govor, uprkos stalnoj tenji za pretpo-
stavkom jedinstvenosti ak i u odsustvu relevantnih podataka o ivotinjama.
Na strani percepcije, na primjer, mnoge vrste pokazuju impresivnu sposo-
bnost za razlikovanje i generalizaciju govornih zvukova, koristei formante kao
kritine razlikovne signale. Ovi podaci obezbjeuju dokaze ne samo o katego-
rijskoj percepciji, ve i o sposobnosti da se razlikuju prototipski egzemplari (pri-
mjeri) razliitih fonema. Dalje, u odsustvu treniranja, neljudski primati mogu
razlikovati reenice iz dva razliita jezika na osnovu ritmikih razlika meu njima.
Na strani proizvodnje, ptice i neljudski primatiprirodno proizvode i percipi-
raju formante vokalizacijama specifinim za svoju vrstu. Rezultati su takoe
bacili svjetlo na diskusije o jedinstveno ljudskoj strukturi vokalnog trakta i neo-
bino sputenog grkljana kod naih vrsta, jer novi dokazi pokazuju da nekoliko
drugih vrsta sisara takoe ima sputen grkljan. Zbog toga to neljudske vrste
nemaju govornu sposobnost, sputeni grkljan oito ima nefonetske funkcije;
jedna mogunost jeste preuveliavanje oigledne veliine. Iako ova osobita
anatomska modifikacija nesumnjivo igra vanu ulogu u govornoj proizvodnji
kod dananjih ljudi, ne mora znaiti da je isprva evoluirala za ovu funkciju.
Sputeni grkljan tako moe biti primjer klasine darvinske preadaptacije.
Mnogi fenomeni u percepciji ljudskog govorajos nijesu istraenikod ivotinja
( npr. Mekgurkov efekat, iluzija u kojoj slog percipiran od govoree glave
predstavlja interakciju izmeu vienog artikularnog gesta i sluanog drukijeg
sloga). Ipak, dostupni podaci sugeriu mnogo jai kontinuitet izmeu ivotinja i

ljudi u pogledu govora nego to se ranije vjerovalo. Tvrdimo da tako hipoteza
kontinuiteta zasluuje status nulte hipoteze, to mora biti odbijeno od strane
komparativnog rada prije nego to bilo kakva tvrdnja o jedinstvenosti moe biti
provjerena. Za sada, ova nulta hipoteza o nestvarno novim osobina-ma u
domenu govora ini se na mjestu.
Postoji, ipak, upeatljiva sposobnost vezana za govor kojoj nije posveeno
dovoljno panje: ljudski kapacitet za vokalnu imitaciju. Imitacija je oigledno
neophodna komponenta ljudskog kapaciteta za uenje zajednikog i arbitrarnog
leksikona, to je samo po sebi centralno za jeziki kapacitet. Stoga, kapacitet za
imitaciju je bio krucijalni preduslov FLB-a kao komunikacijskog sistema. Vokalna
imitacija i uenje nijesu jedinstveno ljudski. Bogati multimodalni imitacijski
kapaciteti su vieni kod drugih sisara (delfina) i kod nekih ptica (papagaja), tj.
veinom ptica pjevaica koje pokazuju veoma razvijen kapacitet za vokalnu
imitaciju. Iznenaujue je da majmuni ne pokazuju dovoljno dokaza o imitaciji
putem vizualizacije, sa impanzama koje pokazuju neto bolje kapacitete. Ono
to je jo upeatljivije jeste virtuelno odsustvo dokaza o vokalnoj imitaciji kod
majmuna. Na primjer, intenzivno trenirane impanze nesposobne su za uenje
bilo ega sem nekoliko slabo artikulisanih izgovorenih rijei, dok papagaji mogu
brzo da savladaju veliki vokalni repertoar. S obzirom na njihove vokalizacije,
malo je ubjedljivih studija vokalnih dijalekata kod primata, na taj nain suge-
riui da oni nemaju vokalni imitacijski kapacitet. Dokazi za spontanu vizuelno-
manuelnu imitaciju kod impanzi nijesu mnogo jai, iako uz stalno
treniranjemogu nauiti nekoliko stotina znakova rukama. Dalje, ak i u
sluajevima kada suneljudske ivotinje sposobne za imitaciju u jednom
modalitetu (npr. Kopi-ranje pjesme kod ptica pjevaica), jedino su delfini i ljudi
sposobni za imitaciju u multiplim modalitetima. Odvajanje od inputa
specifinog za odreeni modalitet moe predstavljati bitnu promjenu u
neuronskoj organizaciji, koja utie ne samo na imitaciju ve takoe i na
komunikaciju; jedino ljudi mogu izgubiti jedan modalitet (npr. sluh) i
nadomjestiti ovaj defekt komunikacijom uz kompletnu kompetentnost u
drugom modalitetu (npr. znakovi).
Naa diskusija o granicama nije zamiljena sa tenjom da umanji impresivna
dostignua majmuna, ve da naglasi koliko razliiti mehanizmi u osnovi proizvo-
dnje gestova kod ljudi i neljudskih primata, bilo vokalno izraeni ili signalizovani,
mogu biti. Uostalom, prosjeni maturant zna do 60 000 rijei, vokabular dostignut
uz malo napora, pogotovo kada se uporedi sa herkulovskim naporima posve-
enim treniranju ivotinja. Ukratko, impresivna sposobnost bilo kojeg ljudskog
djeteta za vokalnu imitaciju predstavlja novi kapacitet koji je evoluirao u naoj
skorijoj evolutivnoj istoriji, neko vrijeme nakon odvajanja od naeg impanzolikog
pretka. Postojanje analoga u udaljeno srodnim vrstama, kao to su ptice i velike
ribe, sugerie znatni potencijal za detaljnu komparativnu studiju vokalne imita-

cije. Ipak, postoje potencijalne zamke koje se moraju izbjei, naroito s obzirom
na istraivanja neurobiolokih podloga imitacije. Na primjer, iako su majmun
makak i ovjek opremljeni takozvanim odraznim neuronima u premotoru korte-
ksa koji reaguju i kada individua dejstvuje na odreeni nain i kada ista individua
vidi nekog da dejstvuje na taj isti nain, ovi neuroni nijesu dovoljni za imitaciju
kod makaka, kao to mnogi pretpostavljaju. Kao to je pomenuto, ne postoje
uvjerljivi dokazi vokalne ili vizuelne imitacije kod majmuna. Kao posljedica toga,
dok studije neuroimidinga (snimanja neurona) nastavljaju da istrauju neuralne
baze imitacije kod ljudi, vano je razdvojiti neophodne od dovoljnih neuralnih ko-
relata imitacije. Ovo je posebno vano s obzirom na injenicu da neki skoriji po-
kuaji modeliranja jezike evolucije poinju hipotetikim organizmom koji je opre-
mljen sposobnou za imitaciju i intencionalnost, nasuprot otkrivanju kako su uo-
pte ovi mehanizmi evoluirali. Ako se eli dublje evolutivno istraivanje, ono koje
datira sve do impanzolikog pretka, onda moramo objasniti kako su i zato ove
sposobnosti nastale od pralana vrste koji nije posjedovao takve sposobnosti
(Slika 2).
Konceptualno-namjerni sistemi nelingvistikih ivotinja. iroki spektar studija
indicira da neljudski sisari i ptice imaju bogate konceptualne predstave.
Iznenaujue je, ipak, da postoje neslaganja izmeu konceptualnih sposobnosti
ivotinja i komunikacijskog sastava njihovih vokalnih i vizuelnih znakova. Na
primjer, iako razne vrste neljudskih primata imaju pristup bogatom znanju o
tome ko je sa kim povezan, kao i ko je dominantan a ko potinjen, njihove
vokalizacije samo grubo izraavaju takve kompleksnosti.


Slika 2. Distribucija imitacije u ivotinjskom carstvu je nejednaka. Neke ivotinje kao
ptice pjevaice, delfini i ljudi su razvili izvrsne sposobnosti za imitaciju; druge
ivotinje, kao to su majmuni, ili nemaju sposobnosti ili ih imaju u relativno
osiromaenoj formi.

Studije koje koriste klasine trenane pristupe, kao i metode koje koriste
spontane sposobnosti, otkrivaju da ivotinje ue i koriste iroki spektar apstra-
ktnih koncepata, ukljuujui sredstvo, boju, geometrijske odnose, hranu i broj.
to je jo kontroverznije, ali znatno relevantno za intencionalne aspekte jezika i
uslove pogodne upotrebe, neke studije tvrde da ivotinje imaju teoriju uma,
ukljuujui svijest o sebi i sposobnost da predstave uvjerenja i elje drugih la-
nova grupe. Na strani pozitivne podrke, skorije studije impanzi sugeriu da
one prepoznaju perceptivni akt gledanja kao zamjenu za mentalno stanje
znanja. Ove studije sugeriu da makar impanze, ali ne i druge neljudske ivo-
tinje, imaju osnovnu teoriju uma. Na strani negativne podrke, druge studije
sugeriu da ak i impanze nemaju teoriju uma, ne uspijevajui, na primjer, da
diferenciraju neznalice od obrazovanih individua s obzirom na intencionalnu
komunikaciju. Zbog toga to ovi eksperimenti koriste razliite metode i bazirani
su na maloj veliini uzorka, nije mogue sada izvui bilo kakve vrste zakljuke o
prisustvu ili odsustvu atribucije mentalnog stanja kod ivotinja. Nezavisno od
toga kako e se ova kontroverza rijeiti, ipak, najbolji dokazi referentne
komunikacije kod ivotinja ne dolaze od impanzi ve od raznih vrsta majmuna i
ptica, vrsta za koje nema uvjerljivih dokaza za teoriju uma.

Slika 3. Ljudske i neljudske ivotinje ispoljavaju sposobnost da izraunaju brojnost,
ukljuujui malu preciznu kvanifikaciju broja i veliku priblinu procjenu broja. Ljudi
mogu biti jedinstveni, ipak, u sposobnosti da pokau otvorene precizne kvantifi-

kacione vjetine sa velikim brojevima, ukljuujui listu cijelih brojeva. Paralelno sa
jezikom moi, naa sposobnost za broj oslanja se na rekurzivno raunanje.

Klasine studije alarm-poziva kod majmuna verveta, sada su udruene sa vie
drugih, tj. ukljuuju i druge vrste (makak, Dajana majmuni, jedna vrsta mungosa,
prerijski psi, kokoke) i razliite komunikacijske kontekste (socijalne veze, hranu,
meugrupnu agresiju). Iz ovih studija moemo izvui pet glavnih taaka relevan-
tnih za nau analizu jezike moi. Prvo, individue proizvode akustino distinktivne
pozive kao odgovor na funkcionalno vane kontekste, ukljuujui detekciju preda-
tora i otkrie hrane. Drugo, akustina morfologija znakova, iako proizvoljna u smi-
slu njenog povezivanja sa odreenim kontekstom, dovoljna je da omogui
sluaocima da reaguju na odgovarajui nain, bez zahtijevanja bilo koje druge
kontekstualne informacije. Tree, broj takvih signala u repertoaru je mali, ograni-
en na objekte i dogaaje doivljene u sadanjosti, bez dokaza o kreativnoj proi-
zvodnji novih zvukova za nove situacije. etvrto, akustina morfologija poziva je
fiksna, pojavljuje se rano u razvoju, sa iskustvom koje jedino igra ulogu u preradi
niza objekata ili dogaaja koji izazivaju takve pozive. Peto, ne postoje dokazi o
tome da je zvanje intencionalno u smislu svijesti o uzimanju u obzir ta druge
individue vjeruju ili ele.
Rane interpretacije ovog rada sugerisale su da kada ivotinje vokalizuju, one
se funkcionalno obraaju objektima i dogaajima sa kojima su se susrele. Kao
takvi, alarmni pozivi kod vervet majmuna i pozivi za hranu kod rezus majmuna,
bili su interpretirani kao slini rijeima, sa pozivaima koji ukazuju na razliite
vrste predatora ili razliite vrste hrane. Skorije diskusije su znatno oslabile ovu
interpretaciju, sugeriui da ako je signal uopte referentan, to je u umu slu-
aoca koji moe izdvojiti informaciju o trenutnom kontekstu onoga koji signa-
lizira iz akustine strukture samog poziva. Uprkos ovom dokazu da ivotinje mo-
gu da izdvoje informaciju iz signala, postoji vie razloga zato su dodatni dokazi
potrebni prije nego se takvi signali budu mogli smatrati prethodnicima ili
homolozima ljudskih rijei.
Grubo govorei, moemo misliti o odreenom ljudskom jeziku tako kao da
se sastoji od rijei i raunskih procedura (pravila) za konstruisanje izraza iz njih.
Raunski sistem ima rekurzivnu osobinu, istaknutu ranije, to moe biti posebno
ljudsko svojstvo. Ipak, kljuni aspekti rijei takoe mogu biti samo ljudski. Prije
svega, postoje kvalitativne razlike u skali i nainu uenja, to sugerie da su
ukljueni prilino razliiti mehanizmi; kao to je iskazano gore, ne postoje doka-
zi za vokalnu imitaciju kod neljudskih primata.Iako ljudska djeca mogu koristiti
mehanizme opteg domena da naue i prisjete se rijei, stopa po kojoj djeca
grade leksikon je veoma razliita od neljudskih primata da se mora zamisliti
mogunost posebno evoluiranog mehanizma. tavie, za razliku od najboljih
ivotinjskih primjera o navodnim referentnim signalima, veina rijei ljudskog

jezika se ne povezuje sa posebnim funkcijama (npr. krici upozorenja, objava za
hranu) ali moe biti povezana virtuelno sa bilo kojim konceptom koji ovjek
moze zamisliti. Takve upotrebe su esto vrlo nejasne i odvojene od ovdje i sada
(od mjesta i vremena). ak i za najprostije rijei, obino ne postoji direktna veza
izmeu rijei i stvari, ako se stvar smatra nezavisnom u umu. Bez produbljivanja
ove materije ovdje, izgleda da mnoga elementarna svojstva rijei ukljuujui
ona koja ulaze u referentnost imaju samo slabe analoge ili homologe u priro-
dnim ivotinjskim komunikacijskim sistemima, sa samo blago boljim dokazima
od trenanih studija sa majmunima i delfinima. Budua istraivanja moraju
stoga obezbijediti jau potporu za prethodnu poziciju, ili umjesto toga moraju
napustiti ovu hipotezu, tvrdei da je ova komponenta FLB-a (konceptualno-
namjerna) takoe jedinstveno ljudska.
Izolovana beskonanost i ogranienja u uenju. Podaci sumirani do sada,
iako daleko od kompletnih, obezbjeuju globalnu podrku za poziciju kontinui-
teta izmeu ljudi i drugih ivotinja u uslovima FLB-a. Ipak, jo nijesmo istakli
pitanje za koje mnogi smatraju da lei u srcu jezika: njegov kapacitet za bezgra-
ninu izraajnu mo, to je obuhvaeno terminom izolovana beskonanost. ini
se relativno jasno, poslije skoro vijeka intenzivnog istraivanja o ivotinjskoj
komunikaciji, da nijedna druga vrsta sem ljudi nema komparabilan kapacitet za
rekombinaciju znaenjskih jedinica u neogranien spektar veih struktura, gdje
se svaka razlikuje sistematino u znaenju. Ipak, malo napretka je napravljeno u
identifikaciji specifinih kapaciteta koji nedostaju drugim ivotinjama.
Astronomska raznovrsnost reenica koje bilo koji korisnik prirodnog jezika
moe proizvesti i razumjeti ima vanu implikaciju u uenju jezika, drugo je
najbitnije pitanje u razvojnoj psihologiji. Dijete je izloeno samo maloj proporciji
moguih reenica u svom jeziku, tako ograniavajui svoju bazu podataka za
konstrukciju generalnije verzije tog jezika u svom umu ili mozgu. Ova taka ima
logine implikacije u bilo kojem sistemu koji pokuava da ui prirodni jezik na
osnovu ogranienih podataka. Odmah je oigledno da s obzirom na konani niz
podataka, postoji beskonano mnogo teorija konzistentnih sa njim ali nekonzi-
stentnih jedna s drugom. U sadanjem sluaju, u principu ima beskonano
mnogo ciljnih sistema (potencijalnih I-jezika) konzistentnih sa podacima iz isku-
stva, i ukoliko istraivaki prostor i mehanizmi uenja nijesu ogranieni, selekci-
ja meu njima je nemogua. Verziju ovog problema je formalizovao Gold, dok
ju je skorije i rigoroznije istraio Novak sa kolegama. Nijedan poznati opti me-
hanizam uenja ne moe nauiti prirodni jezik samo na bazi pozitivnih ili nega-
tivnih dokaza, i perspektive za pronalaenje bilo kojeg takvog ureaja neza-
visnog domena izgledaju prilino zamagljeno. Tekoa ovog problema vodi do
hipoteze da bez obzira na to to je sistem odgovoran on ipak mora biti
pristrasan ili ogranien na odreeni nain. Takva ogranienja se u istoriji
nazivaju unutranje dispozicije, zajedno sa onima koje su u osnovi jezika, a koje

nazivamo univerzalnom gramatikom. Iako su ovi specifini termini energino
odbacivani od strane mnogih istraivaa i priroda odreenih ogranienja meha-
nizama ljudskog (ili ivotinjskog) uenja trenutno je neobjanjena, u postojanje
nekih takvih ogranienja ne moe se ozbiljno sumnjati. Sa druge strane, druga
ogranienja kod ivotinja mora da su prevaziena u nekom trenutku u ljudskoj
evoluciji na raun nae sposobnosti da steknemo neogranienu klasu genera-
tivnih sistema koji ukljuuju sve prirodne jezike. Priroda ovih poslednjih ograni-
enja je u skorije vrijeme postala meta empirijskog rada. Mi se ovdje fokusira-
mo na prirodu predstave broja i uenja pravila kod neljudskih ivotinja i ljudske
djece, od kojih oboje mogu biti ispitani nezavisno od komunikacije i obezbijediti
nagovjetaje o prirodi ogranienja u FLN-u.
Vie od 50 godina, istraivanja koja koriste klasine trenane studije, pokazu-
ju da ivotinje mogu predstaviti broj, i to paljivom kontrolom razliitihzabuna.
U tipinom eksperimentu, pacov ili golub se trenira da pritisne polugu X puta da
bi dobio nagradu u hrani. Rezultati pokazuju da ivotinje mogu pogoditi zadati
broj u usko podudarnoj sredini, sa standardnom devijacijom koja se poveava
sa magnitudom. Dok se zadati broj poveava sa magnitudom, isto tako povea-
vaju se i varijacije oko sredine. Ovi rezultati su doveli do ideje da ivotinje, uklju-
ujui ljudsku djecu i odrasle, mogu predstaviti broj priblino kao magnitudu sa
skalarnim varijabilitetom. Sposobnost razlikovanja brojeva je ograniena u
ovom sistemu Veberovim zakonom, uz veu sposobnost razlikovanja meu ma-
lim brojevima nego meu veim (drei odstojanje izmeu konstantnih parova)
i meu brojevima koji su dalji (npr. 7 nasuprot 8 je tee od 7 nasuprot 12). Pri-
blini smisao broja je praen drugim preciznim mehanizmom koji je ogra-nien
na vrijednosti manje od 4 ali tano razlikuje 1 od 2, 2 od 3 i 3 od 4; ovaj drugi
sistem izgleda da se regrutuje u kontekstu praenja objekta i limitiran je ograni-
enjima radne memorije. Direktno relevantno tekuoj diskusiji jeste da ivotinje
mogu biti trenirane da razumiju znaenje odreenog broja rijei i arapskih
brojevnih znakova. Ipak, ove studije otkrivaju zapanjujue razlike u nainu kako
ljudska djeca i ivotinje ue listu cijelih brojeva i obezbjeuju nam dalje dokaze
da ivotinje nemaju sposobnost da stvaraju otvorene generativne sisteme.
Bojsen i Matsuzava su trenirali impanze da mapiraju odreeni broj objekata
na jedan arapski broj, da ispravno poreaju takve brojke u silazeem ili uzlaze-
em nizu i da indiciraju zbir dvije brojke. Na primjer, Bojsen pokazuje da
impanza koja gleda dvije pomorande smjetene u jednoj kutiji i druge dvije
smjetene u drugoj, bira tanu sumu od etiri iz postrojavanja od tri karte, od
kojih je svaka sa razliitom arapskom brojkom. Izvrenje impanzi moe sugeri-
sati da je njihovo predstavljanje broja slino naem. Blii uvid u nain kako su
ove impanze stekle ovakve kompetencije upuuje na to da se format i sadraj
njihovih brojanih predstava razlikuju fundamentalno od onih kod ljudske dje-
ce. Posebno, ove impanze su zahtijevale hiljade trenanih proba, a esto i

godine, da naue listu cijelih brojeva do 9, bez dokaza o ahaiskustvu koje svako
ljudsko dijete od priblino 3, 5 godine naui. Ljudsko dijete koje je nauilo bro-
jeve 1, 2 i 3 (i ponekad 4) nastavlja da ui sve ostale; on ili ona shvataju ideju da
je lista cijelih brojeva sastavljena na bazi sukcesivne funkcije. Za impanze,
nasuprot tome, svaki broj na listi cijelih brojeva zahtijeva istu koliinu vremena
za uenje. U sutini, iako su impanze koje razumiju arapske brojke impresivne,
to razumijevanje se podudara sa njihovim razumijevanjem drugih simbola i nji-
hovih referentnih svojstava: sistem izgleda nikad ne preuzima otvoreno gene-
rativno svojstvo ljudskog jezika. Ovo ogranienje, ipak, moe otkriti zanimljiv
kapric okruenja kod uenja djeteta i razliku od trenanog reima ivotinja
djeca tipino prvo naue proizvoljnu listu simbola (1, 2, 3, 4) i kasnije naue
precizno znaenje takvih rijei; majmuni i papagaji, s druge strane, ueni su
znaenjima jedno po jedno bez uenja liste. Kako je Keri tvrdio, ovo moe
predstavljati fundamentalnu razliku u iskustvu, to je hipoteza koja moe biti
testirana tako to e se ivotinje prvo trenirati sa proizvoljnom rednom listom.
Druga mogua limitacija klase struktura koje se ue tie se vrsta statistikih
interferencijakoje ivotinje mogu izraunati. Rani radovi u raunskoj lingvistici
sugerisali su da moemo profitabilno misliti o jeziku kao sistemu pravila
smjetenih unutar hijerarhije rastue kompleksnosti. Na najniem stepenu,
hijerarhije su sistemi pravila koji su ogranieni na lokalne zavisnosti, potkate-
goriju takozvanih gramatika svrenih stanja. Uprkos njihovoj privlanoj
jednostavnosti, takvi sistemi pravila su neadekvatni da osvoje ijedan ljudski
jezik. Prirodni jezici idu mimo isto lokalne strukture ukljuujui kapacitet za
rekurzivno ugraivanje fraza unutar fraza, to moe dovesti do statistikih
regularnosti koje su odvojene proizvoljnim brojem rijei ili fraza. Takve udaljene
hijerarhijske veze nalaze se u svim prirodnim jezicima za koje je, u najmanju
ruku, neophodna frazalno-strukturna gramatika. Osnovna opservacija moderne
generativne lingvistike jeste da gramatika mora ukljuivati takve sposobnosti,
da bi se osvojio prirodni jezik (Slika 3).
Skorije studije sugeriu da kapacitet za raunanje trazitivnih vjerovatnoa
primjer uloge na najniem stepenu hijerarhije moe biti dostupan ljudskoj
dje-ci a obezbijediti mehanizam za segmentiranje rijei iz trajnog akustikog
izvora. Naroito, poslije upoznavanja sa kontinuitetnim slijedom slogova u
kombinaciji suglasnik-samoglasnik (CV), gdje posebni trigrami (tri CV-a u redu,
koji se smatraju rijeima u ovom kontekstu) imaju veliku vjerovatnou
pojavljivanja unutar korpusa, djeca su prije sposobna da razlikuju ove trigrame
od drugih nepoznatih. Iako ova sposobnost moe obezbijediti mehanizme za
segmentaciju rijei, oigledno je da to nije mehanizam koji je evoluirao
jedinstveno kod ljudi ili za jezik: isto raunanje je spontano dostupno ljudskoj
djeci za vizuelne slije-dove i tonalne melodije, kao i neljudskim primatima (pin

tamarini) koji su testi-rani istim metodama i podsticajima. Slino tome, na isti
nain na koji ljudska djeca pokazuju sposobnost za raunanje algebarskih
pravila koja funkcioniu preko odredjenih CV redova, tako i pin tamarini mogu
to isto, ponovo pokazu-jui da kapacitet da se otkriju apstraktna pravila na
lokalnom nivou nije jedin-stveno za ljude i gotovo sigurnonije evoluirao
naroito za jezik.
Fic i Hauzersu nedavno kompletirali studiju komparacije uenja gramatike
svrenog stanja i frazalno-strukturalne gramatike kod odraslih ljudi i tamarina,
koristei iste subjekte i metode kao studije gore navedene. Testirano frazalno-
strukturalno pravilo bilo je AnBn, gdje su A i B predstavljeni jednim setom od
osam razliitih CV-a. Stoga je pravilo specifikovalo i set konzistentnih veza (n iz
A mora prethoditi n iz B) i set nekonzistentnih veza; ovi poslednji se sastoje od
ruenja reda (B znakovi prethode A znakovima) ili od pravljenja obrazaca
(alternacije A i B kao to su ABAB). Rezultati su pokazali da odrasli ljudi brzo ue
ovo pravilo implicitno, razlikujui konzistentne i nekonzistentne veze. Tamarini,
nasuprot tome, nijesu proli tri eksperimentalna testa njihove sposobnosti da
ue ovu gramatiku, ali su brzo savladali varijantu svrenog stanja (ABn) imple-
mentiranu sa istim stimulacijama i uslovima testiranja. Ovo upuuje na injeni-
cu da tamarini imaju ogranien kapacitet uenja tipa dalekih hijerarhijskih zavi-
snosti neophodnih za dostignue klase frazalno-strukturalne gramatike. Ako je
to tano, ovo ogranienje bi postavilo nekoliko restrikcija na njihov kapacitet da
ue bilo koji prirodni ljudski jezik. Trenutno je nejasno da li se ovo
ogranienjeodnosi na druge ivotinje i da li je slino i kod ljudi na razliitim
nivoima razvoja. Pored toga, takvi eksperimenti obezbjeuju empirijski pristup
istraivanju kljunih razlika izmeu ljudi i ivotinja koje su relevantne za FLN.
Na pregled je skrenuo panju na znaaj ivotinjskih podataka za teorije o
ljudima, ali ova razmjena ne treba da bude jednosmjerna. Kako istraivaki
program koji smo skicirali bude napredovao, uopteniji principi o kognitivnoj
evoluciji mogu da se pojave. Na primjer, pretpostavimo da usvojimo koncepiju
tree hipoteze, radikalno pojednostavljujui, da su sistemi interfejsa senzo-
motorni i konceptualno-namjerni dati i da je inovacija koja je dala doprinos
jezikoj moi bila evolucija raunskog sistema koji ih povezuje. Raunski sistem
mora konstruisati beskonani niz unutranjih izraza iz konanih izvora konce-
ptualno-namjernog sistema i obezbijediti sredstva za njihovu eksternalizaciju i
interpretaciju na senzomotornom kraju. Moemo sad pitati do kog nivoa je
raunski sistem optimalan, udovoljavajui prirodnim uslovima efikasnog rau-
nanja kao to je minimalno istraivanje i neodustajanje. Do nivoa do kojeg ovo
moe biti postignuto, biemo u mogunosti da idemo preko (tekih i dalje
dalekih) dostignua u nalaenju principa jezike moi, do razumijevanja razloga
iz kojih mo slijedi ove odreene principe, a ne neke druge. Mi bismo onda
razumjeli zato su jezici odreene klase dostini, dok su drugi zamiljeni jezici

nemogui za uenje i usvajanje. Takav progres ne bi samo otvorio vrata mnogo
jednostavnijem i empirijski prilagodljivijem pristupu jezikoj moi, ve bi takoe
mogao biti generalnije primjenljiv u domenima mimo jezika u irokom spektru
vrsta moda posebno u domenu spacijalne navigacije i traganja za hranom,
gdje su problemi optimalne potrage relevantni. Na primjer, elegantne studije o
insektima, pticama i primatima otkrivaju esto potragu za hranom uz optimalnu
strategiju, onu koja ukljuuje minimalnu razdaljinu, prisjeanje na istraene
lokacije i vrste dobijenih objekata. Jedino nakon usaglaenog interdisciplinarnog
napada na probleme jezike evolucije, paralelno sa 40 godina istraivanja
potrage za hranom, mi emo nauiti da li su takve slinosti vie nego vjetake.

Zakljuci

Zakljuujemo iznosei tri stavke. Prvo, praktini razlozi: lingvisti i biolozi,
zajedno sa istraivaima u relevantnim granama psihologije i antropologije,
mogu napraviti korak dalje od neproduktivne teorijske debate do kolaborativni-
jeg, empirijski fokusiranijeg i komparativnijeg programa istraivanja iji je cilj
otkrivanja i zajednikih (homolognih ili analognih) i jedinstvenih komponenti
jezike moi. Drugo, iako smo tvrdili da veina, ako ne i cijeli FLB, jeste zajedni-
ki sa drugim vrstama, ovo predstavlja probnu hipotezu, pogodnu za testiranje i
kojoj treba dalje empirijsko istraivanje. Konano, vjerujemo da bi komparativni
pristup lako doveo do novih uvida o zajednikim i izvedenim svojstvima, tako
proizvodei novu hipotezu koja se bavi evolutivnim silama koje su dovele do
stvaranja jezike moi. Posebno, iako smo rekli relativno malo o ulozi prirodne
selekcije u oblikovanju projektovanih funkcija FLN-a, mi sugeriemo, uzimajui u
obzir da je FLN evoluirao zbog drugih razloga a ne zbog jezika, da su
komparativna vrata otvorena na nov i (mi smatramo) uzbudljiv nain.
Komparativni rad se generalno fokusira na ivotinjsku komunikaciju ili
kapacitet za uenje ljudski stvorenog jezika. Ako, ipak, neko zauzima tezu da je
rekurzija evoluirala da rijei druge raunske probleme, kao to su navigacija,
kvantifikacija broja ili socijalne veze, onda je mogue da druge ivotinje imaju
takve sposobnosti, ali nai istraivaki napori su bili usmjereni naprevie usko
istraivako polje. Ako pronaemo dokaze za rekurziju kod ivotinja, ali u
nekomunikativnom domenu, onda smo blie tanom odreivanju mehanizama
koji su u osnovi ove sposobnosti i selektivnih pritisaka koji su doveli do toga.
Ovo otkrie, zauzvrat, otvorilo bi vrata drugom paketu zagonetki: Zato su ljudi,
a ne druge ivotinje, preuzeli mo nad rekurzijom da stvaraju otvorene i
bezgranine sisteme komunikacije? Zato na sistem rekurzije funkcionie preko
ireg ranga elemenata ili inputa (npr. brojevi, rijei) nego kod drugih ivotinja?
Jedna mogunost, konzistentna sa tekuim miljenjem u kognitivnim naukama,

jeste da rekurzija kod ivotinja predstavlja modularni sistem dizajniran za
posebnu funkciju (npr. navigaciju) i neprobojan u odnosu na druge sisteme.
Tokom evolucije, modularni i veoma specifian za domen, sistem rekurzije je
moda postao probojan i uopten za domen. Ovo je prokrilo put ljudima,
moda jedinstveno, da primijene mo rekurzije na druge probleme. Ova pro-
mjena specifinosti u optost za domen je moda voena posebnim selektivnim
pritiscima, jedinstvenim za nau evolutivnu prolost, ili kao posljedica (nus-
produkt) drugih vrsta neuralnih reorganizacija. Kako bilo, ovo su hipoteze otvo-
rene za testiranje, refren koji naglaava vanost komparativnih pristupajezikoj
moi.

Prevela Nataa Jovovi


INTERVJUI / INTERVIEWS

Moving Us Beyond Formulas: An Interview
with Craig S. Womack

Marija Kneevi, University of Montenegro

Craig S. Womack is a Muskogee Creek and Cherokee writer and scholar. He is one of
the leading authorities in the field of Native American studies, who has significantly
altered methodologies of approaching Native American literature. He is the author of
numerous books of literary criticism and cultural studies. Best known among them are
Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism (1999) and Art as Performance, Story
as Criticism (2009). He is co-author of American Indian Literary Nationalism (2007)
and Reasoning Together: The Native Critics Collective (2008). He is also the author of
the novel Drowning in Fire (2001). Presently he teaches at the English Department of
Emory University.

MK. Your novel Drowning in Fire is much acclaimed for illustrating Creek
worldviews. Can you tell us a little bit about your background? How has it
influenced your writing and your perspective on literature?

CW. My parents were both born in Oklahoma, my father in Weleetka, my
mother in Haskell. When they were young their families moved to California.
They have been there a long time. My dad remembers being on the train and
the porter walking by and announcing the end of World War II. Both my
paternal and maternal grandfathers had some experience working in the oil
fields in Oklahoma. When they first came to California they did agricultural
work in the San Joaquin valley, then both my grandfathers ended up working
for Standard Oil refinery. While many of my relatives moved back and forth
between Oklahoma and California, my parents family stayed in California. I
was raised in a little oil refinery town in the Bay Area, Martinez, California.
Unlike the way most people might imagine the San Francisco Bay Area, it was
rural. There were a large number of people from Oklahoma everywhere out
there. Our next door neighbors and lifelong friends were from Tishomingo,
Oklahoma. Besides Oklahomans, many of my friends growing up in Martinez
were from Italian and Portuguese families whod immigrated to the Bay Area.
My best friends were kids whose parents were cattle farmers with ranches in
the hills between the bays; they and their parents spoke Portuguese. Given my

background, I suppose it might seem curious to some that I would eventually
write books that are so intensely Creek in their focus. Yet my grandparents
talked all the time about Oklahoma, especially about farming there and the
conditions of rural life, and, of course, they visited Oklahoma as well, so it was
always a vivid place to me by virtue of hearing a great deal about it and,
occasionally, going there. When people live away, they keep in touch with a
particular landscape and their families back home by trying to remember it in
stories. It very well might be that the fact that I grew up somewhere else gave
me more interest in the Creek world than if I had been raised in the middle of
it. Drowning in Fire, originally, was a novel about both California and Oklahoma
experience, but it got long and confusing with too many characters who didnt
get developed well enough. Eventually, I focused only on the Oklahoma
portions of the novel in order to get it under control. The fact that I began it by
trying to concentrate on both California and Oklahoma was part of the reason it
took so long, ten years, for me to complete it. Many of those years were spent
trying to make the two geographies work together, and I finally gave up which
made the book much more viable when I turned my attention exclusively to my
parents home state.

MK. In your 1999 monograph Red on Red: Native American Literary
Separatism you propose an inquiry into the effect that pan-tribalism has had on
Native cultures. Has anything been done in this regard?

CW. I dont know if there is a book solely on the topic of pan-tribalism, but I
would say that virtually every work on Native American life, in one way or
another, touches on the topic. We humans conceptualize ourselves in relation
to others, and tribes, I would say, understand themselves in relation to other
tribes, as well as a host of other peoples. The topic is especially important in
terms of my own interests in tribally-specific studies because if a person hopes
to understand, Creeks, for example, she wont grasp the entire picture if she
doesnt know anything about the other southeastern tribes and the larger
history of tribal peoples in the United States. This is why I say virtually all works
about Native peoples are about pan-tribalism. As a movement, it has
manifested itself in a number of ways, all of which have been written about:
boarding schools, pow wows, political movements, religious life, and so on.

MK. Native people find their identity in their relation to the land. Is it also
true of contemporary communities? And how does this relation work in the
contemporary world?

CW. Identity exists in land for any people in the world, and this is no less
true for tribes. In the United States, tribes have often suffered by virtue of
being understood mostly as cultures rather than governments with jurisdictions
over particular geographies. It is important to remember that tribes are
governments and governments are tied to land. Contemporary tribes run
modern governments that provide services for their citizens. One of their
significant challenges is retaining the integrity of their land base which is always
in danger given the political environment of the United States. A hopeful
possibility for tribal recovery, in my opinion, is regaining and relearning and
remaking connections to home land bases.

MK. Being traditional is usually understood as pertaining to past values.
However, in Red on Red you say that traditionalism is anything that is useful to
Indian people in retaining their values and worldviews, no matter how much it
deviates from what people did one or two hundred years ago. Could you give
us some examples?

CW. Well, in Creek country two constants that have survived over time are
the Indian Baptist and Methodist churches and the Creek ceremonial grounds.
While much has changed many things remain in terms of cultural beliefs and
practices. My friend and colleague, Arnold Krupat, in Red Matters: Native
American Studies (2002), who cites the statement you have just alluded to,
objects to my phrase no matter how much it deviates, and I suppose he is
right. There is always a negotiation going on in which cultures test how much
they can change and still be true to their core values before the compromises,
or innovations, reach a point of being no longer acceptable. This negotiation is
a matter of communal mediation and a dynamic process. Certain things can
change, and a culture can still have a strong sense of its distinctive identity. The
criteria for this varies, I think, among individuals. When I go to some Creek
churches, for example, I am deeply disappointed when they no longer sing any
songs in the Creek language; in fact, its kind of heart breaking for me because
Im a musician and music is the fundamental aspect of what worship means for
me. Creek hymns are so distinctive that I feel something is lost when they are
no longer sung, and it seems a sad choice when people could simply choose to
continue including them at worship services. So, maybe, for me personally,
thats an instance of things changing too much; though, for others, they might
see Christian faith itself as being a core part of their identity and hymns as
meaningful whichever language they might be sung in. Singing in Creek,
however, connects me to some profound part of my past that is worth

continuing. Im interested in ways that Christianity can convey a strong sense
of being Creek as much as a strong sense of being Christian; I value both, and
Id rather see the distinctively Creek parts retained at church, so people know
theyve walked into a Creek church as soon as they come in the door, rather
than a white church. Creek Christianity itself is an example of an adaptation of a
deep cultural change that came about from contact with Europeans that also
instituted a profound Creek tradition, the Creek Christian churches.

MK. There is a huge vital polemics on what Native American literature is.
There are many who see it as yet another discourse of subverting the dominant
western narrative. Louis Owens defines Native writing asfrontier writing, a
discourse of the unrepresentable other. Vizenor speaks of post-indian
perspectives.How do you see it and what would major objectives of Native
American literature be today?

CW. Im not sure I know what the major objectives of Native American
literature are, and I distrust singular proclamations like if I were to say the
main objective is to subvert dominant western narrative. In my own writing, I
havent felt all that compelled to concentrate on dominant western narratives,
even in order to subvert them although my stories, intersect, inevitably, with
western discourse. I suspect one of the objectives of Native American
literature, like other literatures, is to be artful, at least I hope thats an
objective. I think I have felt many different impulses over the years as far as my
objectives go. In Red on Red, I wanted to convey something about the realities
of Creek government and how such an awareness might contribute to readings
of Creek literature. In Drowning in Fire (2001), I hoped to concentrate on a
whole body of disparate family stories I had inherited about Oklahoma and
figure out if they could be shaped into some kind of cohesive narrative. That
work too continued my interest in Creek government, especially in regards to a
group of Creeks who resisted Oklahoma statehood and had captured my
imagination. Instead of a coming-of-age story about an individual protagonist; I
endeavored to think about what it might mean for a nation to come of age. In
Reasoning Together (2008), I had a small part in bringing together a group of
young Native literary critics who I felt hadnt received adequate attention yet
and chose to join them myself in a concerted effort to figure out what Native
thinkers should be, or could be, writing about. In American Indian Literary
Nationalism (2006), I attempted to intervene in a debate that had occurred in
our field concerning the meaning of cultural hybridity and postmodern theory
in relation to issues of tribal sovereignty. In retrospect, looking at that book,
and other work I have authored, I would like to turn, in the future, away from

the aggressive posture I have taken in the past and consider how non-violent
communication might open up conversation instead of closing it down since
our world already has too much violence, verbal and otherwise. I would like to
encourage, rather than discourage, peoples interest in Native literature. In Art
as Performance, Story as Criticism (2009), I tried, more radically than I had ever
done before, to destabilize the boundaries between fiction and criticism. So,
even by only looking at my own work, much less the entire field of Native
literature, I cannot claim the same major objective for each book.

MK. One of the most important concepts in Native American culture is that
of relations and community. Contemporary Native novels abound with the
motives that stress the importance of community. Also, in Red on Red you
argue that Native authors should think about their writing within the context of
their tribes, or communities, that they cannot escape their worldviews, and
that it is how they achieve their literary sovereignty. Yet, does this tribally-
specific approach pose threats to a united voice of the native peoples
resistance?

CW. No, it doesnt. I have a hard time imagining a united voice for resistance
if people dont have a secure place in their own communities, whatever they
may be. It seems to me a person can understand his or her own history in order
to further understand the history of others. While some people might read or
understand their own history in order to isolate themselves, it doesnt seem to
me that is the only way to read it. So, delving into ones own culture doesnt
weaken united fronts; I rather suspect it strengthens them. A study of particular
Native movements might suggest that many Native leaders who led strong
united indigenous fronts supported such efforts by working within their own
tribes, their own communities.

MK. In Red on Red you suggest that Native literature cannot be read
applying conventional or postmodern criticism but should be approached
through Native intellectual and cultural traditions. How can outsiders, like me,
read your literature since we cannot have a Native perspective? What should
we be looking for? Some native authors and critics (like Elizabeth Cook Lynn, in
her essay Who Stole Native American Studies? or Devon A. Miheusah, in her
book So You Want to Write About American Indians?) seem rather discouraging
in this respect.


CW. First, it is well worth noting that I never say that postmodern theory
cannot be applied to Native literature. In fact, one of the opening sentences of
my first book reads, there are a number of legitimate approaches to
analyzing Native literary production. Some of these, I will argue in this book, are
more effective than others; nonetheless, Red on Red is merely a point on this
spectrum, not the spectrum itself. I do not believe in a critical approach that
preempts or cancels out all those that came before it (Red on Red, 2).
As to how outsiders, who cannot have a Native perspective, should read the
literature, I think the best way to read it, inevitably the only way, is through
whatever lens you do have. If a persons strongest area of expertise, for
example, is in eastern European literature, than I would recommend reading
Native literature in relation to ones strengths, comparing it to eastern
European literature, rather than ones weaknesses, that is tribal subjects one
knows little about. I dont see how or why Native literature can only be
understood by insiders. Literature doesnt work that way. I would like to give an
example. In Elvira Pulitanos interesting collection Transatlantic Voices:
Interpretations of Native North American Literatures (2007), contributor
Simone Pellerin has an essay entitled Clowns, Indians, and Poodles:
Spectacular Others in Louis Owenss I Hear the Train. In this piece, Pellerin
writes about the way Choctaw-Cherokee writer Louis Owens depicts French
people in stereotypical and essentialized terms that Owenss himself does not
accept as an appropriate theoretical framework when such depictions are
applied to Indians. Because of her experiences as a translator of Native fiction
into French, and other aspects of her experience as a French citizen who has
thought through questions of Euro and American relations creatively, Pellerin
seems well-placed to critique Owenss seeming complicity with stereotyping. In
this case, I think it might be argued that Pellerins carefully considered French
background provides important insights into Native American, even Choctaw,
literature. I would say, then, that a person would be well-served by analyzing
Native American literature according to whatever his or her critical strengths
are. I reject neither the possibility of outsider nor the possibility of tribal
approaches to Native American literature. In some cases I might wish critics
would give me a similar break, those critics who have claimed that tribal
viewpoints are impossible because of issues of hybridity. If European
viewpoints are possible, it seems to me that tribal viewpoints are as well.
I havent read Devon Mihesuahs book, so I cant comment there. I read
Cook-Lynn, perhaps, differently than you. I dont think her work implies that
non-Natives should not read or write about Native literature. I think she
cares very much how they approach Native literature which, of course, is a
much different thing than suggesting they shouldnt approach it at all. What I
see as her very important contribution to the field is an exploration of the ways

some of the central concerns of Native American studies treaties, sovereignty,
tribal government, federal Indian law and policy, for example could also be
applied to Native literary studies. While I think it would be a mistake to say that
all Native American fiction must be about policy (or other Native studies
topics), I feel that it makes a very compelling argument to say that at this
particular historical juncture it could be a boon to both aesthetics and political
aims to hope for many more that do engage these subjects. I have never
accepted the argument that political content diminishes the creativity of art,
and, in fact, a number of cases can be cited in regards to art whose politics
enhances its artfulness. A major point I take from Cook-Lynn is that there has
been an over emphasis on individuality and identity to the exclusion of artful
approaches focused on the larger community writers and critics have
elevated the fate of individuals over the fate of nations. Cook-Lynn has
occasionally discredited her own arguments because of the attacks she has
published on individual Indian writers such as Adrian Louis and Sherman Alexie
which seem mean and unreasonable, yet her claims about the importance of
topics like sovereignty in relation to Native literature remain very powerful it
seems to me.
If Im going to mount a critique, however, Id rather point to the faults of my
own work. While Ive made a case for the validity of non-Native contributions
to the field, an overall tone that I have created has, in fact, discouraged some
readers to borrow your term. I would rather encourage people than discourage
them, and Im looking for ways to write criticism that is rigorous and grounded
in the reality that some things need to be challenged and, at the same time, is
compassionate. My work has sometimes failed at balancing passion and
compassion. Im finding that to do so requires a different critical language than
what Ive had at my disposal. Im looking for the right words to mount an all out
effort to wage peace in criticism, as well as ways to fight a good fight against
clichs and truisms. But it takes more than words, it requires action. To that
end, Ive invited people Ive had the strongest disagreements with to speak at
Emory, and Im engaged in work with them in which we try to listen to, rather
than debate, one another. Ive also written two experimental critical articles,
one on images of same sex desire in the poetry of Joy Harjo, another on my
personal credo regarding criticism, in which I search for an appropriate
language to wage peace which I find to be a rigorous, demanding critical
challenge. Its an experiment, and Im not very good at it, but I have a
philosophy about all of this if some of the courses you teach, and the articles
and books you write, dont fail, youre not taking enough risks.
MK. Oral tradition has a strong and multifunctional presence in
contemporary native communities. Various Native literary texts are trying to
transport the meaning and function of storytelling into their written works. Do

you think oral tradition can be translated into a text? What texts of this kind do
you consider most successful?

CW. Not only do I think the oral tradition can be translated into texts, but I
think the oral tradition is partially created out of texts, and the opposite is also
true texts have an inherent relationship to verbal traditions. These traditions
are profoundly inter-dependent. You ask if they can be translated, but the
reality is that they are constantly in the process of translating each other, even
when were not aware of that process. The consciousness of storytellers the
world over are profoundly shaped by written texts. In most parts of the world,
writing has affected human consciousness for many years, and this seems true
to me in regards to tribal societies in the United States. In a significant number
of cases storytellers incorporate stories they have read into their oral tradition.
Many Native American writers have read more oral tradition stories than heard
them.
I like Percy Bullchilds book The Sun Came Down: The History of the World as
My Blackfeet Elders Told It (1985) which is a collection of Blackfeet, or Southern
Peigan, stories about the beginnings of the Blackfeet world and its institutions. I
appreciate the fullness of the collection, a relatively complete telling of a
mythical cycle rather than the story fragments we often see in ethnographic
works that depend on a relationship between a Native informant and his or her
academic recorder. Some of the collections that have some artistic merit, I
think, are single-authored books like the Bullchild work in which the writer has
not only considerable skills as a storyteller but as a writer who can apply some
of the techniques of accomplished written narration.
I keep waiting for a book that focuses on oral stories about Native treaties,
governments, federal law, policy, social, and political movements. There are a
significant number of stories, for example, that surround treaty making and
what the transaction meant to the various parties involved. I remember hearing
these when I taught in Blackfoot country in Canada. When books focus only on
the talking animal stories, they miss most of the content of oral tradition.
Perhaps only a fraction of a percent has even been represented in these books.
I see some of this inclusion, however, in the Native histories that incorporate
oral interviews as part of their historical sources, for example, the important
study of the generations leading up to 1960s and 1970s Native activism, Like a
Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (1997),
authored by Robert Warrior and Paul Chaat Smith, which references quotes
and stories from people they interviewed who participated in protests or were
part of the history leading up to them. Its a shame that nobody talks about that
book, and others like it, as an example of oral tradition. Some of the more

interesting collections of oral tradition have been these Native histories that
include oral interviews as part of their source materials.
In terms of novels, I think the most innovative American Indian novel written
thus far is Ray Young Bears Black Eagle Child: The Facepaint Narratives (1996).
It combines oral stories about Mesquakie cosmology with the narrators
experiences with mind-altering drugs and college life in the 1960s in California,
all narrated in the form of a huge epic poem, a tradition that in the west, of
course, suggests its own kind of orality. Its the kind of book that, if there were
any justice in the world, people would remember centuries from now.
A great scholar of Ojibway oral tradition, who frequently challenges the
parameters of that tradition and his own writing, is Basil Johnston. In Indian
School Days (1988) he rejects monolithic treatments of Indian boarding schools
as places of oppression, writing about the complex nature of his educational
experience at Spanish, Ontario, and the dynamic of the boarding school there
that changed significantly even just during his own years of schooling. Crazy
Dave (2002) is a book about Johnstons childhood community and how it
reacted to one of his relatives who suffered from Downs syndrome, an
important statement about how communal viewpoints and stories are created.
His more obvious work of oral tradition, The Manitous: The Spiritual World of
the Ojibway (1995), like the Bullchild book, benefits from its single authorship
and the authors use of the techniques of fiction narration to create a fully
developed world that challenges the fragmentation of many ethnographic
collections.
One of the most unusual works of oral tradition is Alexander Poseys The Fus
Fixico Letters, written at the beginning of the twentieth century but not
published as a complete collection until 1993 and edited by Daniel F. Littlefield,
Poseys biographer. I have a chapter on these letters in Red on Red, and an
article I co-authored with the Seminole academic Timothy Petete on the
tradition of dialect writing in Studies in American Indian Literatures, volume
18.4, pp. 1-41 (available online by googling ASAIL).
Because Ive already written so much about these Ill be brief. The Fus Fixico
Letters are an elaborate literary scam. Alexander Posey, the editor of the
Eufaula Indian Journal, pretended to write letters to the editor of the paper
which was, of course, himself, and he published them under the pseudonym
Fus Fixico. In the letters Fus Fixico and his friends comment on the politics of
approaching statehood and the break up of tribal governments in Indian
Territory which is soon to become the state of Oklahoma. Its basic format is a
report on overheard oral stories. It is the most ingenious combination of fiction
and non-fiction viewpoints I know of in American Indian letters.
In reference to your question Im not altogether certain what I consider as
successful examples of oral tradition (and I must admit I often find myself

drawn to things that are unsuccessful rather than successful). It seems to me
that one of the things stories and their tellers have to do is hold the attention
of their audiences. The ones I have mentioned have held my attention over the
years.

MK. When reading native literary texts, it seems a kind of tendency within
criticism either to search for the traces of oral tradition or for the tricksters.
Tricksterish liminal and ungraspable figures are frequent in both Native myths
and contemporary literature, and for some time trickster seemed to be popular
and an avoidable figure in criticism. But, in Reasoning Together you say that no
tribe has the word trickster in their language. Could you explain this to us?

CW. Well, my point probably isnt a very profound one. The term trickster
originates in academic studies of indigenous traditions rather than the
traditions themselves. This, in and of itself, of course, does not invalidate the
term. Im not necessarily against things simply because they originate in the
academy or western discourse both of which contribute significantly to
various traditions I celebrate. When compared to the description of tricksters
that have emerged in the academic fields of anthropology, literature, and
cultural studies, Native cultures, in fact, have literary characters that behave
much in the way described and so do cultures all over the world, including
European ones (Norse traditions, for example). Ive expressed some concerns
with the way in which employing the term trickster can sometimes be a
means of avoiding historical and cultural particulars. On the other hand, the
term has some advantages as a kind of lingua franca that gives us a basic
vocabulary that allows us to talk with one another by establishing some
common understandings. Im interested in art, and art is always in danger of
becoming clichd and losing its deviant edge. Talking too much about trickster,
or coyote, ironically enough, can become a clich instead of a form of deviance.
Im especially concerned when people use terms like trickster as a way of
simply avoiding their homework discussions of history, material realities,
politics, cultural particulars, and so on. Trickster is neither a term that should be
automatically disparaged or automatically encouraged because of its supposed
inherent subversive powers. It depends how it is used. Occasionally, tricksters
in Native American writing feel like those cue cards they hold up for studio
audiences of live television shows that say laugh now.


MK. Despite the tragic history of your people, humor seems to be an integral
part of Native literature. This comes as a surpriseto a reader who is not familiar
with your culture. How does humor function in your work?

CW. I find it difficult to abstract about humor because it usually gets pretty
boring and not at all funny. Humor seems to depend, very much, on things
concrete and sensory. Having said that, I think my writing fits into the genre of
comedy more than any other. Even the things I intend to be serious usually
wind up funny. When Im writing in rage mode, as has occasionally occurred
when a critic or writer angered me, the humor is frightened away, and Im
trying to learn that this is a danger sign that I should recognize as a warning of
entering into a form of terminal discourse writing that shuts down
communication instead of opening it up. In regards to my more healthy writing,
however, sometimes people read me passages Ive written that they tell me are
funny, and I meant them to be serious, but they still came out comic. Its a
mode I naturally gravitate toward, but I know very little about how it works.
The poet Emily Dickinson said, tell the truth but tell it slant. I think if you pick
certain very concrete details, then refract them through unusual angles, it will
often end up funny. The quickest way to kill humor, of course, is trying to be
humorous, so I often feel disinclined to think about it.

MK. In Reasoning Together you state one shocking but simple fact that it
was only after Foucaults The History of Sexuality was translated in English that
Native Americans were given freedom to practice their religion. Yet, at the
same time, indigenous religions became popularized and their artifacts became
objects of commercialization, so that it turns out that when the native peoples
wants to pursue their rights they risk complying with the stereotypes. Could
you explain this paradoxical situation?

CW. My introduction to Reasoning Together contains a time line in which I
juxtapose disparate events, often unrelated, for ironic effect and also to give a
small sense of what went on in the world at the same time many Native
American theoretical works were published thus the unlikely pairing of the
translation of Foucault and the passage of federal legislation on behalf of
American Indian religious freedom. To say a bit more, a serious concern in the
development of theory is whether or not contemporary theorists, especially in
the realm of postcolonial studies, which one might expect to demonstrate
some interest in indigenous peoples in the Americas, have had Indians on their
radar screens at all. I think a problem has been the way in which tribes dont fit
well in the postcolonial model. Im teaching Frantz Fanons The Wretched of the

Earth (1963) this semester. Fanons model is built on the potentialities (and the
pitfalls) of independence which is defined in a very particular way the
colonizing nation being overturned and the establishment of a new government
on a national basis with authority over the various tribes and ethnicities in the
regions of the newly independent nation. In the United States, where tribes
constitute something around one half of one percent of the total population,
significantly down from one hundred percent at the time of contact, there is no
likelihood that tribes will overthrow the government of the United States and
establish a united governing body of indigenous representation that rules over
all ethnicities in the country. Tribes have established governments, but they
exist within the boundaries and the framework of the U.S. government and are
defined by U.S. court decisions and legislated by the United States congress.
Fanon has no model for this in The Wretched of the Earth that is for legally
recognized Native nations that exists within the boundaries and jurisdiction and
control of a larger nation, and I think the U.S. tribal nation has not fit easily into
the parameters of postcolonial studies either. This is not for the reason that
some Native intellectuals have claimed who have said that postcolonial studies
is irrelevant to tribes because tribes are still under colonial rule. Anyone who
has even dabbled in postcolonial studies knows that the field analyzes the
ongoing conditions of colonialism. This is a good reason, it seems to me, to read
theory before denouncing it. A bigger problem, I think, might be that the tribal
nation in the United States does not fit the model of third world liberation that
weve seen in Africa, and other places, where independence has meant
something different than what the U.S. Supreme Court defined as domestic
dependent nationhood, as a principle applying to tribes, in the Marshall trilogy
of decisions in the late 1820s and early 1830s.
To change topics, part of your question, perhaps more directly related to
what you asked me, has to do with religion. To clarify, I would say that
American dominant culture had a fascination with Native religion long before
the American Indian Freedom of Religion Act in 1978 or the translation of
Foucault into English in the 1970s. If I understand your question correctly, you
wonder about a paradox involving the co-optation and commercialization of
Native religion and whether or not Native religious practitioners are affected by
a certain kind of degradation of Native religion because of these practices. The
answer is, yes, they are affected. It is impossible to give a single account,
however, of how they protect themselves from these abuses. They use
whatever is at their disposal to maintain the integrity of their religionthey
exercise jurisdiction, to the best of their ability, over their beliefs. Communal
negotiations over religious beliefs and practices is a constant, ongoing concern I
would say.

In Native literary writings, three authors come to mind who protested some
of the ways in which certain popular culture figures had borrowed from Native
religion in inappropriate ways. In the late 1970s first Leslie Silko, then Geary
Hobson, published essays. Silkos is called An Old Time Indian Attack
Conducted in Two Parts, and Hobsons is titled The Rise of the White Shaman
as a New Version of Cultural Imperialism. In the early 1990s Wendy Rose
published The Great Pretenders: Further Reflections on White Shamanism.
Each essay is different, but they deal with abuse how a person can go from
respecting Native culture to appropriating it, particularly in terms of crossing
boundaries in which artists might view themselves as becoming Indian or
having Indian experiences through non-Indian performances of certain kinds of
rituals. These Native American essay writers, for example, contest the abuses of
poets who think that their art is so transcendent it will give them experiences in
which they escape their own backgrounds of race, class, gender, and so on, and
completely identify with an Other, a form of empathy taken to its most logical
extreme. The writers of the white shaman essays have opposed this form of
becoming which makes spirituality universally accessible by ignoring or
simplifying many of the realities of those the seeker hopes to identify with.

MK. Various recent contemporary theories can find a lot of support in native
conceptions of existence, ecocriticism, in the first place, but also feminist
theory and queer theory in their fight against the traditional morality and
pathology of the contemporary world. Gay or queer personas have a strong
presence in native literature (like Josh and Jimmy in your novel Drowning in
Fire, there are a lot of gay characters in Louise Erdrichs novels, in Silkos
Almanac of the Dead, for example). What is their position or role in native
communities and cultures?

CW. To my way of thinking, this is like asking what is the role of gays and
lesbians in Europe? The only possible answer is that there have been as many
roles as there have been gay and lesbian individuals. Lots of people,
nonetheless, have written books on this that assume to know what Indians
think about queer people, the special roles theyve had, and so on. Those
authors are much smarter than I am I have no idea. Instead Ive tried to focus
on gay and lesbian individuals, like the characters you mention in Drowning in
Fire, or on authors like Beth Brant and some of the characters in her fiction in
my recent book Art as Performance, Story as Criticism). The advantages of
fiction, I suppose, are that a queer character can do anything I can make up for
him or her rather than having to fit some special role defined in an academic
study. I dont see how anyone can formulate a summary statement about the

roles of gay, lesbian, and queer people in Native cultures. I am as suspicious of
claims that all Indians like queer people, and they have had wonderful social
and ceremonial roles, as I would be of claims that all Indians hate them and
have tried to drive them from their communities.

MK. When reading about the importance of storytelling in your cultures, and
the importance of words, especially from texts such as N. Scott Momadays
inspiring essay about the story The Arrowmaker, one understands that in the
native conception of existence words have the same existential value and
power as all other beings in a delicately woven net of life. I tend to believe that
overcoming the idea that words are only referential can help us out of the
postmodern vicious circle of thought.

CW. Im not sure what the postmodern vicious circle of thought might be.
One book I know is titled Reclaiming Identity: Realist Theory and the
Predicament of Postmodernism (2000), edited by Paula Moya and Michael
Haimes-Garcia. Its subtitle that references the predicament of post-
modernism has to do with the difficulty of making normative truth claims in
reference to the relativism of postmodern theory. Its contributors try to
conceptualize a framework in which claims can be evaluated as true or false in
relation to a set of criteria to judge them which they call epistemic status, a
term which has to do with factors like race, class, gender, and economic
conditions in the material world. The book tackles this idea of cultural and
linguistic relativism. Im not sure I detect a question in the statement youve
posed, but Ill respond to the comment. I have tried to address this issue of
whether or not there is something beyond signification in my essay at the end
of Reasoning Together: The Native Critics Collective. In short, I believe that
possibilities for word essences exist at the imaginative level. This also comes
up, in a different way, in relation to whether or not something like a Creek
canon of literature can exist, as Arnold Krupat points out in Red Matters,
when, after five hundred years of contact, Creek literature and American
literature are deeply interdependent. My answer is of course a Creek canon
can exist like American literature, it can exist to whatever degree people are
willing to imagine its existence!

MK. Native American theory is a story in the making, it is a process taking
place right now, as you said in Reasoning Together. How much has been
achieved in its construction so far? What do you understand by Native
American theory? Do you think that, like every other theory, it may endanger

the life of Native American literature in particular and Native American studies
in general, rendering them to the status of subject? (You say that that Native
American theory should be a materialist criticism with difference: it makes
[religious] matters a central concern. Yet, if I am not wrong, religion is not
naively understood in your work. It is rather identified as a set of core values in
relation to which one can identify. Thus, Native American theory would rather
be a holistic approach to life.)

CW. I would be highly suspicious of advocating for some master narrative
along the lines of Native American theory. On the other hand, I would be
derelict of my responsibilities if I avoided the intellectual challenge of
understanding and formulating Native American theories, emphasis on the
plural. Theory is relevant in relation to where and when it will be implemented
or studied, who its for, what its own aims are, and a host of other factors that
are part of a community negotiation in which advocates of theory try to
convince those who are affected by it that it is of some worth. There is no
universal template for theory, a one size fits all. Still I think we should actively
study ways to link theory and activism, and, in general, I think these two realms
have been kept separate more than is healthy in relation to the need to be
thoughtful about activism and to take action in theory. Im concerned about
certain kinds of theory that simply provide us excuses for never doing anything.
I wouldnt say that armchair theorizing is always irrelevant, but I would say that
given the very serious challenges our world faces I want some theories that also
strategize ways to take action.

MK. What events or periods do you find most important in the creation of
the Native American canon?

CW. I dont know which events are the most important, or how to
hierarchize them quite that way. I think its interesting that in my own lifetime I
can see some changes. When I started out in graduate school in the early
nineties, the focus of Native literary studies was on identity issues in fiction and
poetry, the study of the protagonists of Native novels, especially in terms of
their recovery of Native traditions, and the analysis of the relationship between
the creative work and traditional tribal cultures. In the late 1990s, however,
trends shifted in two important ways: 1) the study of works from earlier time
periods, especially the nineteenth century, and greater attention to the
historical contexts of the literature, 2) the turn toward non-fiction in Native
literary studies. Although this has not completely solved the problem of simply
searching Native works for evidence of Native traditions, ceremonies,

languages, and worldviews, it has helped open us up toward issues of diversity
and complexity and deviance that have the potential of moving us beyond
formulas about Indians which ignore difference.


ANOTIRANE BIBLIOGRAFIJE / ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Anotirane bibliografije naunih radova u vezi
sa temom uenja i usvajanja leksike L2

Jelena Drljevi, Univerzitet u Beogradu

Apstrakt: U ovom radu predstavljene su anotirane bibliografije naunih radova koje
objedinjuje zajednika tema: uenje, usvajanje i didaktika leksike drugog jezika (L2).
Autor rada je napravio izbor od 17 naunih radova (knjiga, lanaka i prirunika), dao
kratak sie i kritiki osvrt za svaki ponaosob.
Ovim pregledom italac stie uvid u najnovija istraivanja na polju prouavanja
razliitih aspekata leksike L2: odreivanje i selekciju leksikog obima, formalno i
kontekstualizovano poduavanje leksike, definisanje leksike kompetencije, ulogu
maternjeg jezika u usvajanju leksike L2 i mnoge druge.

Kljune rei: uenje leksike L2, usvajanje leksike L2, didaktika leksike L2, leksika
kompetencija

Barrett, Martyn. Vocabulary in Language Acquisition.Concise Encyclopedia
of Educational Linguistics. Ed. Spolsky Bernard. Oxford: Elsevier Science,
Pergamon, 1999. 244 248.
Tema ovog rada jeste usvajanje leksike engleskog kao maternjeg jezika.
Pozivajui se na dosadanja empirijska istraivanja, autor iznosi podatke vezane
za usvajanje vokabulara do este godine ivota. U prvom delu rada predstavljen
je redosled kategorija rei koje dete usvaja tokom druge godine ivota. Tu su
rei koje se odnose na emotivna stanja, vlastita imena, prostorno smetanje
predmeta, odsustvo ili prisustvo nekog objekta. Autor istie da se ovakva
kategorizacija odvija paralelno sa postojanjem kognitivnih aktivnosti najranijeg
doba. Veliki deo rada posveen je promenama u upotrebi pojedinih rei i ovde
se izdvaja nekoliko raznorodnih stadijuma: dekontekstualizacija tokom koje
dete izmeta neku re iz dotadanjeg pojedinanog konteksta u ire pa ak i
neodgovarajue kontekste, ekstenzija znaenja rei i mnogo vie prisutna
hiperekstenzija na sline predmete, napor u usvajanju i povezivanju imena sa
predmetom. Posebno se podvlae individualne razlike u ovom ranom usvajanju
vokabulara i upuuje se poziv da se vre dalja istraivanja na ovom polju. U
tekstu nisu zanemareni ni problemi koji se pojavljuju u vezi sa uenjem i
pravilnom upotrebom glagola koji oznaavaju mentalna stanja kao to su znati,

pretpostaviti ili misliti, a iscrpno je obraena i tema redosleda usvajanja linih
zamenica, predloga, prideva kao i strategija u uenju i razaznavanju novih rei
koje deca sprovode od najranijeg doba. U zakljunom delu se iznose podaci
velike studije kojom je obuhvaeno 1803 ispitanika uzrasta od 8 do 30 meseci.
Upotrebom posebnih CDI (Communicative Development Inventories) instru-
menata koji sadre ek liste rei dolo se do broja rei koje deca s obzirom na
uzrast mogu da produkuju i razumeju. Ipak, autor zadrava sumnju u vezi sa
verodostojnou broja rei koje je mogue razumeti i govori da je istraivanje
ove promenljive dalo subjektivne i manje kontrolisane rezultate jer je izvreno u
prirodnom, porodinom okruenju a ne u laboratoriji. Ovaj rad predstavlja okvir
i prua opte smernice za dalja istraivanja u oblasti usvajanja leksike. Ujedno,
na objektivan nain iznosi rezultate pojedinih istraivanja i obiluje primerima
koji oslikavaju konkretne jezike promene koje e biti od koristi buduim
istraivaima.

Cameron, Lynne. Measuring vocabulary size in English as an additional
language.Language Teaching Research 6.2 (2002): 145 173.
U lanku se iznose rezultati studije sluaja iji je osnovni cilj bio da ispita
obim vokabulara kao jednog od aspekata razvoja leksike kompetencije. Studija
je sprovedena u jednoj srednjoj koli u Engleskoj a ciljnu grupu su inili uenici,
pripadnici etnikih manjina ili izbeglikih grupa.
Okosnicu i povod cele studije predstavlja injenica o gotovo nepostojanju
empirijskih istraivanja koja bi ispitala razvoj drugog jezika (L2), u ovom sluaju
engleskog na teritoriji Engleske. Veoma su interesantni podaci o politikim
razlozima za nepostojanje javnih diskusija o jezikim nivoima drugog jezika kod
ovakve grupe uenika.
Studija se sastojala iz dva dela. Najpre je ista grupa ispitanika radila dve vrste
testova: test za utvrivanje nivoa znanja jezika i da/ne test. Prvi test se pokazao
kao pouzdaniji pa je iskorien i u drugom delu istraivanja. Rezultati drugog,
zavrnog dela studije, pokazuju izvesni nedostatak u znanju na odreenim
jezikim nivoima i to kod uenika koji u Engleskoj ive due od 10 godina.
Doprinos ove studije za dalji tok istraivanja razvoja drugog jezika u
multietnikim zajednicama je viestruk: dokazano je da test za utvrivanje
nivoa jezikog znanja predstavlja optimalno pedagoko sredstvo i da je u stanju
da prui korisne podatke o individualnom razvoju drugog jezika koji mogu da
pomognu u nastavi. Utvreno je da mogui razlozi za nedovoljno jeziko znanje
na odreenim nivoima lee u prirodi okruenja u kojem se ui, kao i u
nedovoljnoj podrci jezikom razvoju kod ove specifine ciljne grupe.
U zavrnom delu rada autorka upuuje poziv nastavnicima koji predaju drugi
jezik da se obuavaju, kao i da treba shvatiti da je razvoj drugog jezika stalni
proces u okviru obaveznog kolovanja.

Ovaj rad iznosi ubedljive argumente koji jasno definiu problem, koji e
ubrzo bezmalo biti prisutan svuda u svetu: organizacija nastave, praenje
razvoja i unapreenje kompetencija drugog jezika, ali ne daju uputstva za
njegovo konano razreenje.

Cowie, Anthony Paul. Lexicology.Concise Encyclopedia of Educational
Linguistics. Ed. Spolsky Bernard. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Pergamon, 1999. 349
353.
Ovaj lanak se bavi istraivanjima na polju primenjene leksikologije i iznosi
rezultate engleskih leksikografa koji su, analizirajui engleski jezik, pokuali da
odgovore na potrebe uenika ovog jezika kao stranog. Iako su u radu svi primeri
vezani za engleski jezik, oni se mogu bez sumnje primeniti i na ostale jezike.
Autor struno obrauje etiri oblasti koje svedoe o napretku, interesovanju i
dostignuima koja su postignuta krajem dvadesetog veka u leksikologiji i
leksikografiji. Prvo poglavlje se bavi gramatikom u jednojezikim renicima i,
pored navoenja uobiajenih gramatikih obeleja koja prate svaku leksemu u
reniku, posebnu panju zauzima razmiljanje o konstrukcijama, funkcijama i
vrstama reenica koje prate odreene glagole. Drugo poglavlje se bavi razvojem
paradigmatske dimenzije leksema od osamdesetih godina do danas. Ovde se
posebno istie sistematsko ureivanje pojedinih renika engleskog jezika u
pogledu navoenja hiponima i antonima, kao i unoenja posebnih simbola u
cilju to potpunijeg predstavljanja jedne paradigme. Autor ne zaboravlja da
istakne ni vanost idiomatskih renika. Podvlai i upozorava da je istraivanje i
otkrivanje gramatikih i leksikih kolokacija engleskog jezika jo uvek nedo-
voljno istraeno podruje i da se ono mora negovati i uvati. U zavrnom delu
se istie uloga kompjutera u obradi velikih korpusa autentinog materijala.
Autor nas podsea na dosadanja otkria na ovom polju leksikih istraivanja,
ne izostavljajui doprinos velikih programa kakav je Cobuild kao i novih resursa
za pohranjivanje dragocenih podataka poput Britanskog nacionalnog korpusa.

Crossley, Scott, Salsbury Thomas and McNamara Danielle. Measuring L2
Lexical Growth Using Hypernymic Relationships.Language Learning 59.2
(2009): 307 334, http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.proxy.kobson.-
nb.rs:2048/journal/.15 arch 2010.
Polazei uopteno od leksikog znanja kao jednog od kljunih faktora za
razumevanje naina usvajanja jezika, autor ve na poetku svog rada skree
panju na jedan od aspekata ovog znanja hiperonimske odnose izmeu rei, i
za njih dokazuje da se razvijaju uporedo sa kognitivnim razvojem svakog
pojedinca.

Ovim radom autor prikazuje rezultate longitudinalne, jednogodinje studije
iji je cilj bio da istrai da li uenici stranog jezika razvijaju znanje o
hiperonimima u skladu sa generalnim razvojem leksike. Ukoliko se to znanje
razvija, postavlja se pitanje kako se ta pozitivna promena odraava na usvajanje
leksikih mrea. Ciljnu grupu ovog istraivanja predstavljalo je est odraslih
uenika engleskog kao drugog jezika, dok je za korpus analize uzeta
transkripcija spontanog govora ispitanika. Kao metod za merenje razvoja
poznavanja hiperonima, autor odabira kompjutersku, leksiku bazu podataka
WordNet koja predstavlja referentni sistem inspirisan psiholingvistikim
teorijama leksikog procesiranja.
Autor oekuje, a na kraju studije se to i dokazuje, da se paralelno sa
razvojem leksikog znanja razvija i nivo poznavanja hiperonima i to na slian
nain kao i u maternjem jeziku. Ovakav rezultat, prema miljenju autora, govori
i u prilog pretpostavci o razvoju apstraktnih jezikih vetina.
Ohrabrujui rezultati ovog istraivanja mogu da postanu korisna osnova za
budua istraivanja iz oblasti uenja i dubinskog usvajanja leksike.

De la Fuente, Mria. Classroom L2 vocabulary acquisition: investigating the
role of pedagogical tasks and form-focused instruction. Language Teaching
Research 10.3 (2006): 263295.
Ovim radom autorka je obradila sledee teme: znaaj i prednost asova
stranog jezika koji se baziraju na posebnim zadacima odnosno aktivnostima
(task-based language learning) u odnosu na tradicionalno koncipiran as
stranog jezika koji se sastoji iz prezentacije, vebe i produkcije (presentation,
practise, production), znaaj obogaivanja nastave leksike stranog jezika
eksplicitnim objanjenjima u vezi sa morfologijom rei (focus on forms) u
odnosu na prezentovanje iskljuivo znaenja rei (focus on meaning).
U prvom teorijskom delu, autorka iznosi rezultate dosadanjih istraivanja
fokusirajui se posebno na razmiljanja i zakljuke vodeih svetskih lingvista i
metodiara nastave stranog jezika. Ovaj deo rada odgovara na pitanja da li
leksike aktivnosti treba da ukljue i instrukcije i objanjenja u vezi sa formom
rei. Autorka se, u sluaju pozitivnog odgovora, dalje pita u kom trenutku to
treba uiniti, da li ovakva objanjenja treba da budu planirana ili spontana i koje
su razlike ovako koncipirane nastave stranog jezika u odnosu na ostale
pedagoke pristupe.
Drugi, praktini deo rada, posveen je eksperimentu iji su ispitanici bili
uenici panskog kao stranog jezika. Cilj ovog eksperimenta bio je da se
odgovori na sledea pitanja da li je task-based language learning nastava
efikasnija od tradicionalne nastave stranog jezika u promovisanju morfolokih
aspekata rei u okviru nastave leksike, i da li postoje pozitivne implikacije u

uenju morfologije stranih rei usled pruanja formalnih objanjenja na kraju
leksikih aktivnosti.
Ovo istraivanje kao i sam rad iznosi vredne naune podatke i rezultate,
otvarajui nova pitanja i inei odlinu osnovu za budue studije iz oblasti
uenja, usvajanja i nastave leksike stranog jezika.

Diadori, Pierangela, Palermo Massimo and Troncarelli Donatella. Manuale di
didattica dellitaliano L2. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni, 2009. 149 152.
U okviru sveobuhvatnog didaktikog prirunika za italijanski kao drugi jezik
(L2), autori se u posebnom poglavlju bave leksikom kompetencijom poku-
avajui da je definiu kako tradicionalnim putem, u opoziciji prema gramatikoj
kompetenciji, tako i kroz savete Evropskog referentnog okvira (ERO) koji pre-
cizno opisuje oekivanu leksiku kompetenciju na odreenim jezikim nivoima.
Obraena su takoe i pitanja koja se tiu nedoumica o broju rei koje
odrasla obrazovana osoba treba da poseduje sa posebnom zadrkom na
osnovnom reniku (vocabolario di base) koji sadri najfrekventnije lekseme i
koga je potom mogue jo preciznije podeliti na dodatne leksike oblasti.
Autori ne zaboravljaju da pomenu i ostala svojstva koja kvalitativno odreu-
ju jednu re pa se tako govori o razliitim semantikim, morfoloko-deriva-
cionim i sintaksikim aspektima rei. Podseaju da izbor i broj rei koji jedan
nastavni plan treba da ponudi,zavise pre svega od potreba uenika i cilja
odreenog jezikog kursa.
Osnovni doprinos ovog poglavlja je to to na integrisan nain razmatra i
definie leksiku kompetenciju i povezuju je sa ostalim kompetencijama o
kojima govori ERO. U tekstu se iznose definicije i pojedinih osnovnih jezikih
pojmova, a u radu moemo nai i veoma vane reference koje upuuju na
naune doprinose iz ove oblasti.

Kidd, Evan, Lieven Elena and Tomasello Michael. Lexical frequency and
exemplar-based learning effects in language acquisition: evidence from
sentential complements.Language Sciences 32.1 (2010):132 142.
Studija trojice autora dokazuje kako je ovladavanje pojedinim, ak i
sloenim, sintaksikim konstrukcijama usko povezano sa poznavanjem leksike i
posebno uslovljeno pojavom visokofrekventnih glagola koji su prisutni u
specifinim reenikim konstrukcijama.
U centralnom delu ovog rada predstavljen je eksperiment koji je ukljuio
ezdeset ispitanika, uzrasta od etiri do est godina. Zadatak ispitanika je bio da
prvo ponove a potom sami opiu slike koristei sintaksiku konstrukciju sa
sentencijalno finitnim komplementizatorima, u okviru kojih se pojavljuju parovi

glagola od kojih je jedan visoko frekventan a drugi izrazito niske frekventnosti
za oekivano znanje pomenutog uzrasta.
Cilj eksperimenta je bio da prui dodatni dokaz o tome kako je usvajanje
jezika povezano pa ak i veoma ogranieno poznavanjem leksike i da se to
odnosi i na sloene sluajeve kao to je usvajanje reeninih komplementi-
zatora. Takoe, eksperiment je potvrdio i znaaj uenja jezika putem primera
(exemplar-based learning), budui da je jezika delatnost ispitanika pokazala
prisustvo visokofrenkventnog glagolskog komplementizatora to think koji nije
bio ponuen u parovima glagola.
Autori izvode zakljuak da leksika frekventnost i uenje putem primera
imaju kljunu ulogu u usvajanju sentencijalno finitnih komplementizatora.
Na veoma objektivan nain, koristei se preciznim naunim izrazom, autori
ovim radom, na primeru posebnog sintaksikog sluaja, doprinose podua-
vanju, uenju i aktivnom korienju leksike u cilju globalnog savladavanja jezika,
u ovom sluaju engleskog. Vano je istai da se nauno iskustvo trojice autora
moe primeniti u poduavanju svih stranih jezika.

Lewis, Michael. The Lexical Approach. The State of ELT and a Way Forward.
London: Commercial Colour Press, 1999. 115 -132.
Ovim delom autor postavlja temelje i razrauje principe Leksikog pristupa
(The Lexical Approach) u uenju jezika, istiui najvredniju stranu ovog pristupa
uveano interesovanje za prirodu leksike i njen mogui doprinos pedagogiji
jezika.
Sedmo poglavlje ove knjige obrauje temu leksike u poduavanju jezika. Na
samom poetku se daje pregled kljunih ideja koje govore u prilog neopho-
dnosti centralizovanja leksike u nastavnom silabusu od samog poetka uenja
jezika. Autor se ovde pre svega zadrava na razmatranju gotovo veite dihoto-
mije izmeu uenja gramatike i leksike, zamenjujui je konceptom kontinuiteta
ova dva bitna jezika aspekta. U daljem tekstu se ispituje jo jedna dihotomija:
ona koja postoji izmeu sistematskog, planiranog predavanja i uenja leksike,
za koju autor kae da se nije ba pokazala mnogo prisutnom u dananjoj nastavi
engleskog jezika; i usputnog uenja ili nasuminog proveravanja vokabulara za
koje autor smatra da je bolje izbegavati. Veliku panju privlai autorovo insisti-
ranje na kolokacijama, kao najmonijem organizacionom principu i jedinom efi-
kasnom nainu pamenja novih rei.
Najinteresantniji deo ovog poglavlja, i uopte veeg dela knjige, predstavlja
autorova zainteresovanost i definisanje termina chunk. Ovaj termin se ukratko
odnosi na poseban nain smetanja rei u memoriju i potom tenog korienja
unapred spojenih leksikih jedinica koje se kombinuju u jezikoj produkciji
(chunking).

Veoma je korisno i potpuno inovativno autorovo razmiljanje i pregled
tipova leksikih vebi. Ovde se insistira na uvoenju i uvebavanju velikog broja
rei koje je neophodno gramatikalizovati, pa se stoga predlau i vebe usavra-
vanja sposobnosti gramatikalizacije.
U zavrnom delu ovog poglavlja govori se o uvoenju obavezne obuke ue-
nika da pravilno koriste renike koji u okviru Leksikog pristupa predstavljaju
glavni resurs.
Ova knjiga predstavlja bez sumnje osnovu za osavremenjivanje nastave
leksike stranog jezika jer smelo istie drugaije prioritete i prua mogunost za
radikalnu reorganizaciju tradicionalnih naina poduavanja.

Lo Duca, Maria. Sillabo di italiano L2. Roma: Carocci editore, 2006. 161 169
Silabus italijanskog kao drugog jezika predstavlja sveobuhvatnu, vie-
funkcionalnu i iznad svega korisnu bazu za didaktiko programiranje kursa
italijanskog jezika. Ovo delo nastalo je usled specifine potrebe da se organizuju
kursevi jezika za privremene strane studente, goste Univerziteta u Padovi. Iako
je delo namenjeno specifinoj ciljnoj grupi i pre svega uenju drugog a ne
stranog jezika, mnoge njegove delove je mogue konsultovati i iskoristiti i u
kreiranju kurseva stranog jezika.
U posebnom poglavlju o leksici i leksikoj semantici istie se da je ovo
najotvorenija komponenta lingvistike kompetencije i samim tim programiranje
na ovom polju veoma je oteano, a ponekad i sasvim nemogue. Pa ipak,
autorka daje sistematinu i veoma iscrpnu listu rei koje bi trebalo usvojiti na tri
jezika nivoa (nivo A, nivo B, nivo C). Grupe rei se uvode kako po morfolokim
osobenostima tako i po semantikim odlikama i kontekstualnim upotrebama.
Predvieno je da se na svakom jezikom nivou usvajaju raznovrsna leksika
polja, a ne izostaje ni uvoenje leksikih jedinica u parovima ili grupama rei,
koji obrazuju homonime, sinonime, antonime ili hiponime.
Vrednost ovog dela lei u njegovoj sistematinosti, sveobuhvatnosti i pre
svega primenjivosti u kontekstu poduavanja italijanskog jezika, a bez sumnje bi
vredelo isprobati ovako koncipiran silabus i u nastavi ostalih stranih ili drugih
jezika.

Marello, Carla and Corda Alessandra. Lessico. Insegnarlo e impararlo.
Perugia: Guerra Edizioni, 2004.
Ovaj teorijsko-praktini prirunik nastaje iz elje da se panja tokom asova
nastave italijanskog, kao stranog jezika, vie usmeri na uenje i poduavanje
vokabulara. Eksplicitno se navode ve isprobane metode i naglaava verovanje
da se leksika najefikasnije ui i usvaja u posebnim situacijama, odnosno u vezi

sa nekim kontekstom. Predlau se naini uenja novih rei kroz itanje, pisanje,
sluanje i razgovor, kao i kroz zadatke i aktivnosti sa visokim nivoom interakcije
koja direktno utie na motivaciju uenika.
Autorke se u svom delu obraaju istovremeno uenicima, dajui im korisne
savete o savladavanju novih rei i strategijama uspenog uenja i usvajanja
vokabulara stranog jezika; i nastavnicima, pruajui detaljne podatke o obimu,
vrsti i kriterijumima selekcije leksike, glotodidaktikim metodama i nainima
uvoenja novih rei, ciljevima poduavanja leksike i nainima postizanja trajnih
rezultata.
Jedno poglavlje knjige je posveeno viestrukim mogunostima upotrebe
jednojezikih i dvojezikih renika u nastavi poduavanja leksike, ali i proble-
mima koji mogu da se jave kod uenika usled njihovog konsultovanja.
U poslednjem poglavlju nalaze se aktivnosti, saveti i razni tipovi vebanja
koje nastavnik moe da koristi u uionici. U ovom delu prirunika kroz aktivnosti
se dobijaju detaljni podaci o formalnom aspektu rei ne zanemarujui ni
leksikografsko-enciklopedijsku komponentu kao ni ogromne prednosti infor-
matikih programa, lingvistikih baza i elektronskih korpusa italijanskog jezika.
Ova knjiga bi trebalo da se uvrsti u obaveznu literaturu prilikom obuke
nastavnika italijanskog jezika i postane neizostavni resurs za pripremu vebanja
u nastavi leksike.

Meara, Paul. Lexis: Acquisition.Concise Encyclopedia of Educational
Linguistics. Ed. Spolsky Bernard. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Pergamon, 1999. 565
567.
Autor ovim radom pokuava da s jedne strane podseti na dosadanja
dostignua na polju usvajanja leksike, a sa druge strane da odgovori na dva
kljuna pitanja: koje strategije koriste uenici u usvajanju leksike i ta se deava
kada je re jednom usvojena, odnosno kako se postie njena krajnja integracija
u leksiki resurs pojedinca.
U okviru prvog pitanja ispituju se dve uoptene strategije uenja i usvajanja
rei: svesna i nesvesna. Autor teksta najpre iznosi neke od aktuelnih tehnika
svesnog usvajanja vokabulara kao to su: uenje rei uz pomo vizuelnih
renika, uenje rei u kontekstu (na primer tehnikom razmiljanja naglas,
odnosno pogaanja znaenja). Ova tehnika se izdvaja kao veoma bitna, budui
da je dokazano da nijedan kurs jezika ne moe da pokrije svu predvienu
leksiku samo formalnim instrukcijama.
Panja se potom usmerava na nesvesno ili sluajno usvajanje leksike i istie
se da su ovakva dostignua u oblasti usvajanja maternjeg jezika dragocena i
primenjiva i na polju usvajanja stranog jezika, koji oskudeva gotovo u potpu-
nosti ovakvom vrstom naunog istraivanja. Odgovarajui na pitanje kako se

postie krajnja integracija rei u leksiki resurs pojedinca, autor istie da su
dosadanja objanjenja u vezi sa strukturom leksike maternjeg jezika i podelom
na pasivni i aktivni vokabular prevaziene i veoma uoptene. Odgovore na ovo
pitanje treba, prema miljenju autora, traiti u pojedinim nezavrenim
istraivanjima o mogunostima i funkcijama ljudskog mozga.

Milanovi, Maja. Uenje i usvajanje leksike. Primenjena lingvistika 5
(2004): 134 139.
Osnovna tema ovog rada jeste prikaz kljunih etapa u uenju leksike
maternjeg i kasnije stranog jezika. U okviru poglavlja o savladavanju leksike
maternjeg jezika autorka se posebno zadrava na kritinom periodu izmeu
druge i sedme godine, kada se maternji jezik ui i usvaja poput hodanja, dakle
uslovljen je pre svega razvojem ljudskih bia. Posle ovog perioda uenje postaje
sve tee (autorka ovde podsea na Viktora, divljeg deaka iz Averona, i Dini,
devojicu koju je otac drao u podrumu dugi niz godina, onemoguivi joj na taj
nain prirodno usvajanje jezika).
U poglavlju o uenju leksike stranog jezika pravi se odmah razlika izmeu
uenja u formalnom kontekstu, za koji je izmeu ostalog tipino i ispravljanje
greaka; i neformalnog okvira, gde do ispravljanja greke verovatno nee doi,
osim ako je neka re pogreno odabrana i utie na tok i razumljivost
konverzacije.
Autorka se bavi i pitanjima odabira leksike koju treba predavati, nainom
predavanja, obraanjem panje na postojanje aktivnog i pasivnog vokabulara,
posebno istiui znaaj tehnike otkrivanja (discovery techniques) kao alterna-
tivnog naina prezentovanja znaenja rei.
U zakljunom delu je naglaeno da bi poduavanje vokabulara trebalo da
bude deo nastavnog plana i programa, koji e biti posebno prouen i ciljano
pripremljen.
Ovaj rad moe da bude veoma koristan onima koje se tek uputaju u
prouavanje pomenute tematike, jer na gotovo informativni nain obrauje i
povezuje osnovne etape u uenju i usvajanju leksike dva manje ili vie razliita
jezika koda: maternjeg i stranog jezika.

Nation, Paul. Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Ova knjiga predstavlja jedan od najiscrpnijih resursa marljivo skupljenih
teorijskih i empirijskih podataka u vezi sa oblau uenja i poduavanja leksike.
Jedan od ciljeva, veoma ambicioznih, jeste i da prui pedagoke savete kako
nastavnicima tako i uenicima. Uenicima pomae jer opisuje brojne strategije

uenja koje su proizale iz rezultata dosadanjih eksperimenata, istraivakog
rada ili studija sluaja. Nastavnicima, s druge strane, prua dragocene savete o
najuspenijim metodama poduavanja rei i kolokacija, razvoju leksike unutar
etiri osnovne jezike vetine, pravljenju programa i strategija za poduavanje
strune terminologije, izradi testova za proveru nauene leksike, kreiranju
posebnih kurseva za razvoj ovog znaajnog aspekta jezika.
Autor se obraa i naunicima tradicionalnog gramatikog, odnosno gramati-
ko-prevodnog usmerenja, kao i strunjacima za usvajanje stranog jezika.
Prikazuje savremene naune tendencije, a poseban napor ulae da odgovori na
pitanje: ta tano znai znati neku re.
Ovo delo moe posebno koristiti studentima postdiplomcima ili dokto-
rantima, i trebalo bi da bude prihvaeno kao osnovna referenca za budui rad u
oblasti uenja i poduavanja vokabulara.

Pavii Taka, Vinja. Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Foreign Language
Acquisition. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters LTD, 2008. 4 24.
U prvom poglavlju knjige autorka ispituje faktore koji utiu na uenje i
usvajanje vokabulara stranog jezika. Na samom poetku su veoma sistematino
obraene brojne definicije rei, obuhvatajui ortografsku i semantiku define-
ciju, a navode se ak i definicije pojedinih priznatih meunarodnih lingvista kao
to su Bloomfield, McCarthy i Carter. Na kraju ovog uvodnog dela se naglaava
da je leksike jedinice teko posmatrati izolovane jedne od drugih, zbog
raznovrsnih semantikih, sintagmatskih ili kolokacijskih povezanosti.
Sluei se jasnim i preciznim tabelarnim prikazom, autorka nam predstavlja
razne leksike faktore koji olakavaju, oteavaju ili nejasno utiu na uenje i
usvajanje leksike. Autorka potom prelazi i mnogo puta se u daljem tekstu vraa
na ispitivanje uticaja maternjeg ili nekog drugog jezika na ciljni jezik.
Obraena je detaljno i uloga memorije u uenju i usvajanju leksike i u tom
smislu predstavljene su neke od strategija koje olakavaju transfer nauenog
materijala u dugoronu memoriju. Pominje se i mentalni leksikon kao struktui-
rani i organizovani sistem koji ljudima omoguava da izraze ono to ele, a u
vezi sa ovom temom autorka ispituje i ovekove sposobnosti i kapacitete pri
usvajanju, pohranjivanju i produkciji novih rei.
Veoma je korisna i diskusija o preporuenom obimu i vrsti leksikog inputa.
Nisu preskoene ni teme individualnih osobina uenika i omiljenih stilova
uenja, koji direktno utiu na uspenost u usvajanju i produkciji nove leksike.
Autorka obrauje i ostale, bitne i uvek prisutne faktore koji e uticati na dugo-
rono zadravanje pomenute materije: ulogu nastavnika i strategije u podua-
vanju leksike, nain prezentacije novih rei, ponavljanje i konsolidovanje pre-
enih rei.

Knjiga se moe zbog svoje sveobuhvatnosti, sistematinosti i lakoe itanja
preporuiti svima koji se ire bave temom usvajanja stranog jezika i zbog toga bi
je trebalo svrstati u nezaobilaznu strunu literaturu u ovoj oblasti primenjene
lingvistike.

Read, John. Research in teaching vocabulary.Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics 24 (2004): 146 161.
Ovaj lanak predstavlja kritiki osvrt na znaajne naune doprinose iz oblasti
poduavanja leksike stranog jezika od 1999. godine do danas. U tom smislu je
veoma koristan jer sa jedne strane iznosi rezultate dosadanjih istraivanja na
polju ove interesantne i do skoro zanemarene oblasti, a sa druge strane po prvi
put se usko bavi razlikom izmeu sluajnog, usputnog i sponatanog uenja
leksike i programiranog uenja u institucionalizovanim okvirima.
Autor ne zanemaruje uspenost indirektnog usvajanja leksike kroz izvoenje
brojnih aktivnosti koje su sastavni deo svakog jezikog uenja i poduavanja, ali
se posebno zadrava na sistematinom uenju ove materije. Predlae kao
najbolje reenje ukljuivanje komplementarnih aktivnosti koje bi obuhvatile oba
naina usvajanja novih rei. Rad pokuava da odgovori i na pitanje kako na
najbolji nain uvrstiti visokofrekventne rei u obavezni korpus jezikog kursa, a
poseban se znaaj daje reima koje e ui u govorni vokabular. Navode se, tako-
e, i imena metodiara koji su ispitivali uspenost u produkciji i upotrebi novih
rei stranog jezika u vezi sa uestalou korienja renika, a posebno je dra-
gocen podatak da trenutno postoji nedovoljan broj istraivanja koja mogu da
prue rezultate o metodama predstavljanja i uvebavanja vokabulara u uionici.
Autor nas u zakljunom delu rada podsea na nove mogunosti savladavanja
L2 vokabulara korienjem elektronskih renika i posebno hiperlinkova, koji
obezbeuju pojavljivanje glosa, odnosno dodatnih objanjenja vezanih za
odreene lekseme, ija pojava ne prekida proces itanja.
lanak predstavlja odlino polazite za dalja istraivanja posebno u oblasti
prezentovanja i poduavanja leksike u uionici.

Schmitt, Norbert. Instructed second language vocabulary
learning.Language Teaching Research 12.3 (2008): 329 363.
lanak predstavlja pregled aktuelnih istraivanja iz oblasti uenja leksike
stranog jezika. Autor se u vie navrata poziva na delo Paula Nationa podseajui
da je za uspeno izvoenje procesa uenja i usvajanja leksike neophodna
saradnja izmeu etiri uesnika: studenta, nastavnika, autora materijala iz kojeg
se ui i istraivaa. Na istom mestu dodaje i da uspeno ovladavanje jednom
rei podrazumeva istovremeno poimanje etiri aspekta uenja: shvatanje i

produkciju znaenja rei, fokusiranje na formalno uenje rei i rad na razvoju
tene upotrebe rei.
Velika panja je posveena i odreivanju obima poznavanja leksike jednog
jezika kako bi se konverzacija i itanje odvijali nesmetano. Ovde autor precizno
iznosi stavove raznih priznatih naunika, a poziva se i na ostale izvore koji se
bave ovim problemom: Evropski referentni okvir, Britanski nacionalni korpus i
ostali.
Veoma su interesantna i korisna autorova razmiljanja o raznim aspektima
znanja jedne rei i ovde on pravi jasnu distinkciju izmeu poznavanja znaenja i
oblika rei sa jedne strane, i potekoa poduavanja kontekstualnih aspekata
rei sa druge strane: kolokacije, registar, frekvencija i sl.
Potanko su ispitana i pitanja vezana za vanost isticanja morfolokih aspe-
kata rei i ulogu maternjeg jezika u uenju leksike stranog jezika. Napravljen je i
sistematian pregled dosadanjih istraivanja o delotvornim i manje uspenim
metodama uenja leksike, a istie se i znaaj frazeolokih renika u uveanju
ukupne leksike kompetencije uenika.
Kao i u mnogim ranijim radovima, i u ovom se radu velika panja posveuje
definisanju razlika i isticanju vanosti primenjivanja kako planiranog tako i
spontanog uenja rei.
Ovaj rad predstavlja savren mozaik rezultata dosadanjih istraivanja,
aktuelnih razmiljanja i najnovijih tokova u oblasti uenja leksike stranog jezika.
Podsea da prouavanja ovog aspekta uenja jezika jaa, i istie da uspean
program uenja leksike mora biti dugoroan i mora prepoznati neophodnost
razvoja leksike kompetencije.

Scholfield, Phil. Vocabulary: Second Language Pedagogy.Concise
Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics. Ed. Spolsky Bernard. Oxford: Elsevier
Science, Pergamon, 1999. 678 682.
Centralnu temu ovog rada ine pedagoki aspekti u uenju i usvajanju
leksike. Autor na samom poetku iznosi da je pitanje vokabulara u poduavanju
stranih jezika dugo vremena bila zanemarivana tema, izoptena iz okvira
profesionalnog razmatranja i strune diskusije, a da se od 90-ih godina panja s
punim pravom usmerava na stvaranje i unapreenje leksikih silabusa.
Rad razmatra sve kljune aspekte poduavanja vokabulara: kriterijume u
selekciji vokabulara u poetnom uenju engleskog ili nekog drugog stranog
jezika, uslove pod kojima je mogue ograniiti broj obaveznih rei na jednom
kursu, frekventnost rei kao bitnu kariku u osmiljavanju silabusa, inioce koji
utiu na uspenost i broj usvojenih rei. U vezi sa brojem rei koje uenik ui i
usvaja u stranom jeziku, posebno se naglaava vanost tzv. filtriranja rei koje
se odnosi na smiljenu selekciju i ponavljanje onih rei koje e se ili ponavljati u

narednim didaktikim jedinicama, ili za koje se pretpostavlja da e svakako
pripadati aktivnom leksikom resursu.
Predstavljanje znaenja novih rei jeste jo jedan izazov na koji autor
pokuava da odgovori. S tim u vezi definie tri naina prezentovanja znaenja
nove rei: nelingvistiki naini su obino u vezi sa mimikom, pokazivanjem ili vi-
zuelnim predstavljanjem rei. Prevoenje je i dalje popularan i prilino korien
nain predstavljanja novih rei iako je vie puta osporavan u okviru novih di-
daktikih metoda. Objanjavanje rei putem ciljnog jezika korienjem sino-
nima, antonima ili parafraziranjem moe biti viefunkcionalno jer istovremeno
aktivira i jeziku produkciju. Na interesantan i ubedljiv nain se govori o predno-
stima i manama unapred uvoenog vokabulara, a veoma su korisni i saveti koje
autor daje u vezi sa reavanjem problema zaboravljanja novih rei i podsticanja
rada na vetinama pogaanja, istraivanja konteksta ili parafraziranja.
Ovaj rad bez sumnje moe da koristi svim nastavnicima stranog jezika jer
podsea na pedagoku stranu samo jednog, revalorizovanog aspekta jezikog
poduavanja.

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exemplar-based learning effects in language acquisition: evidence from
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London: Commercial Colour, 1999. 115 -132.
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Guerra Edizioni, 2004.
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Ed. Spolsky Bernard. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Pergamon, 1999. 565 567.
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134 139.
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Science, Pergamon, 1999. 678 682.

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF RESEARCH SOURCES ON THE TOPIC OF LEARNING AND
ACQUISITION OF L2 VOCABULARY

The paper reports on annotated bibliographies of scientific works on
common subjects such as learning, adopting and second language (L2) lexicon
didactic. The author picked out 17 scientific papers (books, articles and guides),
presented short summaries and critical reviews on each of them.
Through overview of the various scientific contributions, the reader is able
to get an insight into the latest scientific surveys in the field of studying of
lexicons different aspects like determining and selection of the lexicon volume,
formal and contextual teaching of lexicon, defining lexicon competency, role of
native language in adopting second language (L2) lexicon et al.

Key Words: second language (L2) lexicon learning, second language (L2)
lexicon adopting, second language (L2) lexicon didactic, lexicon competency


UPUTSTVO AUTORIMA

Potovani autori,

Prilikom pisanja i predaje rada molimo da se rukovodite sljedeim uputstvima:
Radovi se predaju u elektronskoj formi u Word formatu, na adresu
[email protected].
Obim lanka ograniite na maksimalno 7000 rijei ukljuujui naslov, vae ime i
ime institucije, spisak bibliografskih referenci, apstrakte na 2 jezika, naslov na jeziku
prevoda apstrakta i kljune rijei na oba jezika.
Na poetku rada daje se apstrakt(do 300 rijei) i do 10 kljunih rijei na jeziku
na kojem je pisan rad. Isti podaci ispisuju se na kraju teksta na jednom od svjetskih
jezika (engleskom, njemakom, francuskom, ruskom).
Formatiranje teksta svedite na minimum ili se korisitite jednostavnom opcijom
Normal koju nudi Word program (ukljuujui naslove i podnaslove).
Podnaslove odvojite sa dva prazna reda od prethodnog pasusa, odnosno
jednim redom od narednog pasusa.
Grafike sadraje molimo ne slati zasebno, ve ih ukljuiti u tekst kao
integrisanu sliku.
Isticanje u tekstu vri se iskljuivo upotrebom kurziva (italics), a nikako
polucrnim (boldovanim) fontom, navodnicima, podvlaenjem, s p a c i o n i r a n j e m,
verzalom (ALL CAPS), i slino.
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da u radu ne mijeate razliite tipove navodnika. Polunavodnike (m) koristimo jedino
unutar navodnika.
Citat koji je dui od tri reda vaeg kucanog teksta upiite kao posebni pasus.
Molimo citirajte na jeziku na kojem je napisan va tekst. Originalni tekt unesite
u fus-noti.
Izostavljanje originalnog teksta unutar citata oznaava se sa tri take unutar
uglastih zagrada [].
Iako to va kompjuterski program ponekad ne radi, molimo vas da pravite
razliku izmeu crte ( ) i crtice ( - ).
Bibliografske reference navoditi po MLA obrascu (MLA Citation Style).

Detaljnije uputstvo nalazi se na adresi www.ff.ac.me.

Ureivaki odbor


INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Dear authors,

While writing and preparing your paper for the submission, please respect the
following instruction:
Submit your paper electronically in a Word format, to the following address:
[email protected]
The length of your work must not exceed 7000 words, including the title, your
name and the name of your institution, the list of references, two abstracts (in 2
languages) and key words.
AnAbstract (up to 300 words) and up to 10 key words precede the paper and
are written in the language in which the paper is written. The same information is
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repeated at the end of the text.
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please use the option Normal your Word provides under the title Style.
Subtitles should be separated by two empty lines from the text preceding it,
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Emphasis is provided exclusively by the use of italics, and not by bold letters,
quotation marks, s p a c i n g, ALL CAPS, etc.
Use double quotations marks consistently and asrequired by the norms of the
language in which the paper is written. Use single quotations marks (m) only within
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Quotations longer than three lines of your typed paper should be inserted as a
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Avoiding parts of original text within quotation should be marked by the
following sign: [].
Please make difference between dash and hyphen!
Use MLA citation style for bibliographical references.

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FOLIA linguistic et litteraria : asopis za nauku o jeziku i
knjievnosti / urednik Marija Kneevi. 2010, br. 1- . Niki
(Danila Bojovia bb) : Filozofski fakultet, Institut za jezik i
knjievnost, 2010 (Niki : Kolo). 25 cm

Godinje.
ISSN 1800-8542 = Folia linguistica at linguistica at litteraria
(Niki)
COBISS.CG-ID 17541392

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