Integrated Circuit:

It is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and passive components that are
irreparably joined together on a single crystal chip of silicon.
Classification:
1. Based on mode of operation
a. Digital ICs
b. Linear ICs
Digital ICs: Digital ICs are complete functioning logic networks that are equivalents of
basic transistor logic circuits.
Ex:- gates ,counters, multiplexers, demultiplexers, shift registers.
Linear ICs: Linear ICs are equivalents of discrete transistor networks, such as amplifiers,
filters, frequency multipliers, and modulators that often require additional external components
for satisfactory operation.
Note: Of all presently available linear ICs, the majority are operational amplifiers.
2. Based on fabrication
a. Monolithic ICs
b. Hybrid ICs
a. Monolithic ICs : In monolithic ICs all components (active and passive) are formed
simultaneously by a diffusion process. Then a metallization process is used in interconnecting these
components to form the desired circuit.
b. Hybrid ICs: In hybrid ICs, passive components (such as resistors and capacitors) and the
interconnections between them are formed on an insulating substrate. The substrate is used as a
chassis for the integrated components. Active components such as transistors and diodes as well
as monolithic integrated circuits, are then connected to form a complete circuit.
3. Based on number of components integrated on ICs
a. SSI <10 components
b. MSI <100 components
c. LSI >100 components
d. VLSI >1000 components

Integrated circuit Package types:
1. The flat pack
2. The metal can or transistor pack
3. The dual in line package or DIP


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Temperature Ranges



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THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER:
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high-gain amplifier usually consisting of one or
more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage. An
operational amplifier is available as a single integrated circuit package.
The operational amplifier is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac input
signals and was originally designed for computing such mathematical functions as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and integration. Thus the name operational amplifier stems from its
original use for these mathematical operations and is abbreviated to op-amp. With the addition of
suitable external feedback components, the modern day op-amp can be used for a variety of
applications, such as ac and dc signal amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators,
regulators, and others.




The basic amplifier used in Op-Amp is a differential amplifier.
Differential amplifier
Let us consider the emitter-biased circuit. Figure 1-1 shows two identical emitter biased circuits
in that transistor Q1 has the same characteristics as transistor Q2, RE1= RE2, RC1 =RC2, and the
magnitude of +VCC is equal to the magnitude of -VEE. Remember that the supply voltages +
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+VCC and -VEE are measured with respect to ground. To obtain a single circuit such as the one
in Figure 1-2, we should reconnect these two circuits as follows:
1. Reconnect +VCC supply voltages of the two circuits since the voltages are of the same
polarity and amplitude. Similarly, reconnect -VEE supply voltages.
2. Reconnect the emitter E1 of transistor Q1 to the emitter E2 of transistor Q2. (This reconnection
places RE1 in parallel with RE2)
3. Show the input signal vin1 applied to the base B1 of transistor Q1 and vin2 applied to the base
B2 of transistor Q2.
4. Label the voltage between the collectors C1 and C2 as v0. (The v0 is the output voltage.)


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DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS

The four differential amplifier configurations are the following:
1. Dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier
2. Dual-input, unbalanced-output differential amplifier
3. Single-input, balanced-output differential amplifier.
4. Single-input, unbalanced-output differential amplifier

DUAL-INPUT, BA LANCED-OUTPUT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
1. DC Analysis

The dc equivalent circuit can be obtained simply by reducing the input signals vin1 and vin2 to
zero. To determine the operating point values ICQ and VCEQ,


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AC Analysis:
To perform ac analysis to derive the expression for the voltage gain Ad and the input resistance
Ri of the differential amplifier shown in Figure 1-2:
1. Set the dc voltages + Vcc and -VEE at zero.
2. Substitute the small-signal T-equivalent models for the transistors.

Figure 1-4(a) shows the resulting ac equivalent circuit of the dual-input, balanced- output
differential amplifier.


(a) Voltage gain: The following should be noted about the circuit in Figure 1-4(a):
1. I
E1
=I
E2
; therefore, r
e1
= r
e2
. For this reason, the ac emitter resistance of transistor Q1
and Q2 is simply denoted by re.

2. The voltage across each collector resistor is shown out of phase by 180
0
with respect to
the input voltages v
in1
and v
in2
. This polarity assignment is in accordance with the
common-emitter configuration.
3. Note the assigned polarity of the output voltage v
0
. This polarity simply indicates that
the voltage at collector C
2
is assumed to be more positive with respect to that at collector
C
1
, even though both of them are negative with respect to ground.
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(b) Differential input resistance. Differential input resistance is defined as the equivalent
resistance that would be measured at either input terminal with the other terminal
grounded.

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(c) Output resistance. Output resistance is defined as the equivalent resistance that would
be measured at either output terminal with respect to ground. Therefore, the output
resistance R
01
measured between collector C
1
and ground is equal to that of the collector
resistor R
C
. Similarly, the output resistance R
02
measured at collector C
2
with respect to
ground is equal to that of the collector resistor R
c
. Thus
R
01
= R
02
= R
C

FET DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
In the differential amplifier configurations just discussed we have used BJTs. But if we
require very high input resistance, we can use FETs instead. Fortunately, the voltage-gain
equations derived for these configurations using BJTs can also be used for configurations
using FETs, except for the following replacements:

For instance, the voltage gain of the JFET dual-input, balanced-output differential
amplifier obtained from Equation (1-12) is

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LEVEL TRANSLATOR:
From the results of the cascaded differential amplifier, the following observations can be made:
1. Because of the direct coupling, the dc level at the emitters rises from stage to stage. This
increase in dc level tends to shift the operating point of the succeeding stages and, therefore,
limits the output voltage swing and may even distort the output signal..
Therefore, the final stage should be included to shift the output dc level at the second stage down
to about zero volts to ground. Such a stage is referred to as a level translator or shifter.


The voltage at the junction will be zero by selecting proper values of R
1
and R
2
. Better results are
obtained by using an emitter follower either with a diode constant current bias or a current mirror
instead of the voltage divider, as shown in Figure 1-20(b) and (c), respectively.
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The output stage is generally a push-pull or push-pull complementary-symmetry pair.
Inverting and Non-inverting Inputs
In the differential amplifier circuit the non-inverting input because a positive voltage v
in1
acting
alone produces a positive output voltage. This can be seen from voltage-gain equation (1-1 1).
Similarly, the positive voltage v
in2
alone produces a negative output voltage; hence v
in2
is called
the inverting input [see Equation (1-11)]. Consequently, the base terminal B
1
to which v
in1
is
applied is referred to as the non-inverting input terminal, and the base terminal B
2
is called the
inverting input terminal.
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL


THE IDEAL OP-AMP
An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics:
1. Infinite voltage gain A.
2. Infinite input resistance R, so that almost any signal source can drive it and there is no loading
of the preceding stage.
3. Zero output resistance R, so that output can drive an infinite number of other devices.
4. Zero output voltage when input voltage is zero.
5. Infinite bandwidth so that any frequency signal from 0 to Hz can be amplified without
attenuation.
6. Infinite common-mode rejection ratio so that the output common-mode noise voltage is zero.
7. Infinite slew rate so that output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage
changes.
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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF AN OP-AMP
The output voltage is


Where A = large-signal voltage gain
v
id
= difference input voltage
v
1
= voltage at the non-inverting input terminal with respect to ground
v
2
= voltage at the inverting terminal with respect to ground



IDEAL VOLTAGE TRANSFER CURVE

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OPEN-LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS
1. Differential amplifier
2. Inverting amplifier
3. Non-inverting amplifier
The Differential Amplifier



The Inverting Amplifier
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The Non-inverting Amplifier








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BLOCK DIAGRAM REPRESENTATION OF FEEDBACK CONF1GURA TIONS
An op-amp that uses feedback is called a feedback amplifier. A closed-loop amplifier can be
represented by using two blocks, one for an op-amp and another for a feedback circuit. There are
four ways to connect these two blocks. These connections are classified according to whether the
voltage or current is fed back to the input in series or in parallel, as follows:
1. Voltage-series feedback
2. Voltage-shunt feedback
3. Current-series feedback
4. Current-shunt feedback




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VOLTAGE-SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
The schematic diagram of the voltage-series feedback amplifier is shown in Figure
4-2. The op-amp is represented by its schematic symbol, including its large-signal voltage gain
A, and the feedback circuit is composed of two resistors, R
1
and R
F
.

The circuit shown in Figure 4-2 is commonly known as a non-inverting amplifier with feedback
(or closed-loop non-inverting amplifier) because it uses feedback, and the input signal is applied
to the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp.


where v
in
= input voltage
v
f
= feedback voltage
v
id
= difference input voltage

it will be performed by computing closed-loop voltage gain, input and output resistances, and the
bandwidth.
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Equation (4-3) is important because it shows that the gain of the voltage- series feedback
amplifier is determined by the ratio of two resistors, R
F
, and R
1

Another interesting result can be obtained from Equation (4-3). As defined previously, the gain
of the feedback circuit (B) is the ratio of v
f
and v
0
. Referring to Figure 4-2, this gain is
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Finally, the closed-loop voltage gain AF can be expressed in terms of open- loop gain A and
feedback circuit gain B as follows. Rearranging Equation (4-2), we get

where AF = closed-loop voltage gain
A = open-loop voltage gain
B = gain of the feedback circuit
AB = loop gain
A one-line block diagram of Equation (4-6) is shown in Figure 4-3. This block diagram
illustrates a standard form for representing a system with feedback and also indicates the
relationship between different variables of the system. The block-diagram approach helps to
simplify the analysis of complex closed-loop networks, particularly if they are composed of non-
resistive feedback circuits.

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Difference Input Voltage Ideally Zero:

Equation (4-7b) says that the voltage at the non-inverting input terminal of an op-amp is
approximately equal to that at the inverting input terminal provided that A is very large. This
concept is useful in the analysis of closed-loop op-amp circuits. For example, ideal closed-loop
voltage gain Equation (4-3) can be obtained using the preceding results as follows. In the circuit
of Figure 4-2,

Input Resistance with Feedback :
Figure 4-4 shows a voltage-series feedback amplifier with the op-amp equivalent circuit. In this
circuit R
i
is the input resistance (open loop) of the op-amp, and R
iF
is the input resistance of the
amplifier with feedback. The input resistance with feedback is defined as
R
iF
=v
in
/i
in
=v
in
/(v
id
/R
i
)

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Output Resistance with Feedback :
Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback amplifier from the
output terminal as shown in Figure 4-5. This resistance can be obtained by using Thevenins
theorem for dependent sources. Specifically, to find output resistance with feedback R
oF
, reduce
independent source v
in
to zero, apply an external voltage v
o
, and then calculate the resulting
current i
o
. In short, the R0F is defined as follows: R
oF
=v
o
/i
o

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Bandwidth with Feedback :
The bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the band (range) of frequencies for which the gain
remains constant.

The frequency at which the gain equals 1 is known as the unity gainbandwidth (UGB). The
relationship between the break frequencyf
0
, open-loop voltage gain A, bandwidth with feedback
f
F
, and the closed-loop gain A
F
can be established as follows. Since for an op-amp with a single
break frequencyf
0
, the gain-bandwidth product is constant, and equal to the unity gain bandwidth
(UGB), we can write,
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Equation (4-lOd) indicates that the bandwidth of the noninverting amplifier with feedback,fF, is
equal to its bandwidth without feedbackqf0, times (1 + AB).
Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback :
In an op-amp when the input is zero, the output is also expected to be zero. However, because of
the effect of input offset voltage and current, the output is significantly larger, a result in large
part of very high open-loop gain. Since with feedback the gain of the non-inverting amplifier
changes from A to A/(1 + AB) [Equation (4-6)1, the total output offset voltage with feedback
must also be 1/(1 + AB) times the voltage without feedback. That is,

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Voltage Follower :
The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1. When
the non-inverting amplifier is configured for unity gain, it is called a voltage follower because
the output voltage is equal to and in phase with the input. In other words, in the voltage follower
the output follows the input. Since the voltage follower is a special case of the non-inverting
amplifier, all the formulas developed for the latter are indeed applicable to the former except that
the gain of the feedback circuit is 1 (B =1). The applicable formulas are

The voltage follower is also called a non-inverting buffer because, when placed between two
networks, it removes the loading on the first network.
VOLTAGE-SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER:
Figure 4-8 shows the voltage-shunt feedback amplifier using an op-amp. The input voltage
drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well as inverted output signal is also applied to
the inverting input via the feedback resistor RF. This arrangement forms a negative feedback
because any increase in the output signal results in a feedback signal into the inverting input,
causing a decrease in the output signal.


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Closed-Loop Voltage Gain :
The closed-loop voltage gain AF of the voltage-shunt feedback amplifier can be obtained by
writing Kirchhoffs current equation at the input node v
2
(see Figure 4-8) as follows:

Since the internal gain A of the op-amp is very large (ideally infinity), AR
1
>> R
1
+ R
F
. This
means that Equation (4-13) can be rewritten as

This equation shows that the gain of the inverting amplifier is set by selecting a ratio of feedback
resistance R
F
to the input resistance R
1
. Let us now rewrite Equation (4-13) in the feedback form
of Equation (4-6), for a couple of reasons. First, it facilitates analysis of the inverting amplifier
with feedback. Second, it helps compare and contrast inverting and non-inverting amplifier
configurations, as we shall soon see. To begin with, we divide both numerator and denominator
of Equation (4-13) by (R
1
+ R
F
):
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A comparison of Equation (4-15) with the feedback Equation (4-6) indicates that, in addition to
the phase inversion (-sign), the closed-loop gain of the inverting amplifier is K times the closed-
loop gain of the non-inverting amplifier, where K <1.
The one-line block diagram of the inverting amplifier with feedback is shown in Figure 4-9. The
reason for the block diagram is twofold: (1) to facilitate the analysis of the inverting amplifier,
and (2) to express the performance equations in the same form as those for the non-inverting
amplifier.

To derive the ideal closed-loop gain, we can use Equation (4-15) as follows. If AB>> 1, then
(1+AB)= AB and

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Inverting Input Terminal at Virtual Ground:
Refer again to the inverting amplifier of Figure 4-8. In this figure, the non-inverting terminal is
grounded, and the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal via resistor R1. The difference
input voltage is ideally zero; that is, the voltage at the inverting terminal (v
2
,) is approximately
equal to that at the non-inverting terminal (v
1
). In other words, the inverting terminal voltage v
2

is approximately at ground potential. Therefore, the inverting terminal is said to be at virtual
ground. This concept is extremely useful in the analysis of closed-loop inverting amplifier
circuits. For example, ideal closed- loop gain Equation (4-14)1 can be obtained using the virtual-
ground concept as follows:

Input Resistance with Feedback :
The easiest method of finding the input resistance is to Millerize the feedback resistor R
F
; that is,
split R
F
into its two Miller components as shown in Figure 4-10.
In the circuit of Figure 4-10, the input resistance with feedback R
iF
=(R
1
+R
F
/(1+A))(Ri)

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Output Resistance with Feedback :
The output resistance with feedback R
oF
is the resistance measured at the output terminal of the
feedback amplifier. The output resistance of the non-inverting amplifier was obtained by using
Thevenins theorem, and we can do the same for the inverting amplifier. Thvenins equivalent
circuit for R
0F
of the inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 4-11. Note that this Thvenins
equivalent circuit is exactly the same as that for non-inverting amplifier (Figure 4-5) because the
output resistance R
0F
of the inverting amplifier must be identical to that of the non-inverting
amplifier [Equation (4-9b)].


Bandwidth with Feedback :
As mentioned previously, the gain bandwidth product of a single break frequency op-amp is
always constant.
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Total Output Offset Voltage with Feedback :

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Note that the V
ooT
equation for the inverting amplifier is the same as that for the noninverting
amplifier. This is because, when the input signal v
in
is reduced to zero, both inverting and non-
inverting amplifiers result in the same circuit.
Current-to-voltage Converter:
Let us reconsider the ideal voltage-gain Equation (4-14) of the inverting amplifier,


Inverter:
If we need an output signal equal in amplitude but opposite in phase to that of the input signal,
we can use the inverter. The inverting amplifier of Figure 4-8 works as an inverter if R
1
= R
F
.
Since the inverter is a special case of the inverting amplifier, all the equations developed for the
inverting amplifier are also applicable here. The equations can be applied by merely substituting
(A/2) for (1 + AB), since B = 1/2.
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DIFFEREPETIA L AMPLIFIERS:
1. Differential amplifier with one op-amp
2. Differential amplifier with two op-amps
3. Differential amplifier with three op-amps
Differential Amplifier with One Op-Amp
Figure 4-14 shows the differential amplifier with one op-amp. We will analyze this circuit by
deriving voltage gain and input resistance. A close examination of

Figure 4-14 reveals that differential amplifier is a combination of inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers.
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Voltage gain: The circuit in Figure 4-14 has two inputs, v
x
and v
y
; we will, therefore, use the
superposition theorem in order to establish the relationship between inputs and output. When v
y

= 0 V. the configuration becomes an inverting amplifier; hence the output due to v
x
only is


Input resistance: The input resistance R
iF
of the differential amplifier is the resistance
determined looking into either one of the two input terminals with the other grounded. Therefore,
with v
y
= 0 V, the circuit in Figure 4-14 is an inverting amplifier the input resistance of which is
R
iFx
=R
1

Similarly, with v
x
=0 V. the differential amplifier of Figure 4-14 becomes a non-inverting
amplifier whose input resistance can then be written as
R
iFy
=R
2
+R
3


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Differential Amplifier with Two Op-Amps:
Voltage gain: A close examination of the circuit of Figure 4-16 shows that it is composed of two
stages: (1) the non-inverting amplifier, and (2) the differential amplifier with unequal gains. By
finding the gain of these two stages, we can obtain the overall gain of the circuit as follows:
The output v
z
of the first stage is



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Input resistance: The input resistance R
IF
of the differential amplifier is the resistance
determined looking into either one of the two non-inverting input terminals with the other
grounded (see Figure 4-16). Note, however, that the first stage (A1) is a non-inverting amplifier;
therefore [from Equation (4-8)j, its input resistance is

Differential Amplifier with Three Op-Amps:
Voltage gain: The differential op-amp of Figure 4-17 consists of two stages. The first stage is
composed of op-amps A
1
and A
2
, while the second stage is formed by op-amp A
3
. Therefore, to
find the overall voltage gain A
D
of the amplifier, the voltage gain of each stage must be
determined. To begin with, the first stage can be viewed as two separate differential amplifiers,
as shown in Figure 4-18. The output voltages of these differential amplifiers can be found by
applying the superposition theorem. For Figure 4-18(a),

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Input resistance: The input resistance R
iF
of the differential amplifier in Figure 4-17 is the same
as the input resistance of the first stage, that is, the resistance determined at input v
x
and v
y
,
looking into the circuit with the other terminal grounded.
In Figure 4-18a, for instance, when v
t
, is reduced to zero, that is, when v
y,
is grounded, the circuit
is a non-inverting amplifier. Applying the concepts developed for the non-inverting amplifier,
the input resistance determined at input v
x
is

Similarly, the input resistance determined at input v
y
will be the same as that given in Equation
(4-32).





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DC and AC characteristics:
DC characteristics of Op-Amp
1. INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE
Input offset voltage Vio is the differential input voltage that exists between two input terminals
of an op-amp without any external inputs applied. In other words, it is the amount of the input
voltage that should be applied between two input terminals in order to force the output voltage to
zero. Let us denote the output offset voltage due to input offset voltage Vio as Voo. The output
offset voltage Voo is caused by mismatching between two input terminals. Even though all the
components are integrated on the same chip, it is not possible to have two transistors in the input
differential amplifier stage with exactly the same characteristics. This means that the collector
currents in these two transistors are not equal, which causes a differential output voltage from the
first stage. The output of first stage is amplified by following stages and possibly aggravated by
more mismatching in them.

Offset-Voltage Compensating Network Design
The op-amp with offset-voltage compensating network is shown in Figure 5-3. The
compensating network consists of potentiometer R
a
and resistors R
b
and R
e
.

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To establish a relationship between Vio, supply voltages, and the compensating components, first
Thevenize the circuit, looking back into R
a
from point T. The maximum Thevenins equivalent
resistance Rmax, occurs when the wiper is at the center of the Potentiometer, as shown in Figure.


Supply voltages V
CC
and -V
EE
are equal in magnitude therefore; let us denote their magnitude by
voltage V. Thus V
max
= V.

where V2 has been expressed as a function of
maximum Thevenins voltage Vmax and maximum Thevenins resistance, But the maximum
value of V2 can be equal to Vio since V1 V2 = Vio. Thus Equation (5-1) becomes

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Assume R
b
> R
max
> R
c
, where R
max
= R
a
/4. Using this assumption R
max
+R
b
+R
c
=R
b

Therefore

Let us now examine the effect of Vio in amplifiers with feedback. The non-inverting and
inverting amplifiers with feedback are shown in Figure. To determine the effect of Vio, in each
case, we have to reduce the input voltage v
in
to zero.

With vin reduced to zero, the circuits of both non-inverting and inverting amplifiers are the same
as the circuit in Figure. The internal resistance Rin of the input signal voltage is negligibly small.
In the figure, the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground; therefore, assume voltage
V1 at input terminal to be zero. The voltageV2 at the inverting input terminal can be determined
by applying the voltage-divider rule:

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Compensated non-inverting amplifier with feedback
2 .I NPUT BI AS CURRENT
An input bias cuent I
B
is defined as the average of the two input bias currents, I
B1
and I
B2
, as
shown in Figure that is,

Obtaining the expression for the output offset voltage caused by the input
bias current I
B
in the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers and then devise some scheme to
eliminate or minimize it.

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In the figure, the input bias currents 81 and 1 are flowing into the non-inverting and inverting
input leads, respectively. The non-inverting terminal is connected to ground; therefore, the
voltage V
1
= 0 V. The controlled voltage source A Vio =0 V since Vio= 0 V is assumed. With
output resistance Ro is negligibly small, the right end of R
F
is essentially at ground potential; that
is, resistors R
1
, and R
F
are in parallel and the bias current I, flows through them. Therefore, the
voltage at the inverting terminal is

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3. INPUT OFFSET CURRENT


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SVRR: It is defined as the

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CMRR

AC CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMP
Two major sources are responsible for capacitive effects on op-amp.

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SLEW RATE: It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to time,usually
specified in V/s

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