Department of Electronics Engineering and

Technology
University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila

ELECTRONICS CIRCUIT DESIGN

Lab. Manual

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 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
DC Biasing and AC Gain Analysis of Common Emitter Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives
1. To understand the term biasing.
2. To do the DC biasing of a CE amplifier.
3. To do the DC and AC analysis of a CE amplifier.
Introduction
The AC and DC response of the system is required in order to design the transistor
amplifier of required specifications. The assistance of an external energy source is
required by the transistor for amplification. It cannot raise the level of the applied ac input
without external energy source. The externally provided energy source basically
improves the output ac power. Therefore, for an analysis or design of any electronic
transistor amplifier, both dc and ac components are required. We can apply the
superposition theorem to completely separate the investigation of the dc and ac response.
However, the choice of parameter required for designing or synthesis stage will affect the
ac response, and vice versa.
The dc level of operation of a transistor is controlled by a number of factors, including the
range of possible operating points on the device characteristics.
The important basic operations of transistors are as follow.

The term biasing appearing in the title of this lab is an all-inclusive term for the
application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of current and voltage. For transistor
amplifiers the resulting dc current and voltage establish an operating point on the
characteristics that define the region that will be employed for amplification of the
applied signal. The operating point of a transistor is also known as a quiescent point.
Temperature also affects the device operating point. The temperature basically changes
the device leakage current and the transistor current gain.
For the BJT to be biased in its linear or active operating region the base–emitter junction
must be forward biased (p-region voltage more positive) and the base–collector junction
must be reverse biased (n-region more positive), with the reverse-bias voltage being any
value within the maximum limits of the device. There are three regions of operation for a
transistor. These are linear, saturation and cut-off.
Linear-region operation:
Base–emitter junction forward biased
Base–collector junction reverse biased
Cutoff-region operation:
Base–emitter junction reverse biased
Saturation-region operation:
Base–emitter junction forward biased
Base–collector junction forward biased
There is different biasing of a common emitter amplifier, for e.g., fixed bias, voltage
divider bias, self-bias etc., but its assume that you already know them. Now let’s move to
the analysis of a common emitter amplifier.

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Theory:

DC Analysis of a Common-Emitter Amplifier

The Common-Emitter Amplifier is used to achieve high voltage gain and employs a bi-
junction transistor (BJT). A diagram of the common-emitter amplifier with voltage bias is
shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1 Common emitter amplifier circuit.

The AC voltage vin is provided by an audio source such as a microphone or an MP3

player. The resistance RL is the load resistance of the next amplifier stage, or could be the
resistance of an audio speaker. One purpose of C in is to prevent DC current from flowing
from Vcc to vin, and thus preventing damage to the audio source. Another purpose of C in is
to provide an AC short between vin and the base of the transistor, allowing AC current i in
to freely flow through the capacitor. The purpose of C out is to prevent DC current from
flowing from Vcc to vout. This will prevent damage to the audio speaker or it will prevent
DC loading effects on the next amplifier stage. Another purpose of C out is to provide an
AC short between the collector of the transistor and the load resistance, allowing AC
current iout to freely flow through the capacitor.

DC Analysis
For DC analysis, we can remove all capacitors, since there is no DC current through
them. The DC equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.2.

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 Fig.2 DC equivalent circuit of a common emitter amplifier.

About transistor amplifiers

When a transistor is operating as an amplifier, the DC current gain (hFE) is a given

constant value. The typical values for hFE range from 75 to 200, depending on the type of
BJT. For the 2N222, which is a very commonly used BJT hFE is typically about 120.
Another characteristic of a correctly operation transistor amplifier is that the base-emitter
voltage (VBE) is about 0.7 V. The resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider to provide a
stable base voltage. One can test to see if the voltage divider is working correctly by
removing the transistor and measuring the base voltage. A stable circuit is achieved if the
base voltage is about the same whether or not the transistor is in the circuit.
AC Analysis
For doing the AC analysis, do the following steps.

1. Kill all DC sources

2. Assume coupling capacitors are short circuit. The effect of these capacitors is to
set a lower cutoff frequency for the circuit.
3. Inspect the circuit. If you identify the circuit as a prototype circuit, you can
directly use the formulas for that circuit. Otherwise go to the step 4.
4. Replace the BJT with its small signal model.
5. Solve for voltage and current transfer functions and input and output impedances
(node voltage method is the best).
6. Compute the cutoff frequency of the amplifier circuit.
Note: The symbols with initials caps and subscript indicate the DC sources while the
other represents AC sources and gain.
AC analysis of a common emitter amplifier

To start the analysis, we kill all DC sources, combine R 1 and R2 into RB and replace the
BJT with its small signal model. The emitter is now common between input and output
AC signals. Examination of the circuit shows that:

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 Fig.3. Equivalent circuit for AC analysis.

The negative sign in Av indicates 180◦ phase shift between input and output. The circuit
has a large voltage gain but has medium value for input resistance. As with the emitter
follower circuit, the load can be configured in two ways: 1) R c is the load. Then Ro = ro
and the circuit has a reasonable current gain. 2) Load is placed in parallel to R c. In this
case, we need to ensure that RL≫ Rc. Little current will flow in RL and Ro and Ai values
are of not much use. The value of the AC current gain (h fe) is typically fairly close to the
DC current gain (hFE). The AC resistance of the base-emitter junction (r be) is calculated
from
rbe =0.025/IE, where IE = DC Emitter Current
The AC resistance of the base-emitter junction (rbe) is calculated from
rbe =(hfe+1) (0.025/IE), (9)
By Ohm’s law, the AC base current is
ibe =v in /rbe. (10)
The AC collector current is
ic= hfeib. (11)
The AC collector current is pulled through the parallel combination of R C and RL. So by
Ohm’s Law, the output voltage is
vout =ic (RC|| RL) (12)
By using this determine the AC voltage gain AV=vout/vin.

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LAB SESSION

Lab Task
Set up the above circuit of a common emitter amplifier for transistor 2N2222A and
determine the value of the specified parameters and record the result in tabular form.
Compute the voltage gain Av=vout/vin. Use the specified parameters.
 VBE = 0.7 V
 VCC = 9 V
 vin = 20 mV
 hFE = hfe = 100
 R1 = 2200Ω
 R2 = 2200Ω
 RC = 1000Ω
 RE = 1000Ω
 Cin=Cout=22µF, CB=100µF
Equipment and Materials

 Transistor curve tracer 1 Motorola 2N2222A NPN transistor (150 mA, 60 V) with
βDC = βAC
 Digital Multimeter
 Power supply, Digital storage oscilloscope
 Function generator
Experimental Procedure

1. Connect the above circuit for a common emitter amplifier.

2. Do the DC analysis of the circuit?
3. Do the AC analysis of a circuit?
4. Measure the value of the required current and voltages.
Observations

Table 1 For voltage gain analysis

VBE VCC hFE hfe R1

R2 IB IE RC VCE

Questions
1. What is the effect of introducing the bypass capacitor in a common emitter
voltage divider circuit?
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 2. Find the value of the input resistance Rin(base) in the figure below.

3. We can maximize the amplifier gain by

……………………………………….?
4. What do we mean by the loaded voltage gain of the amplifier?
5. An emitter-follower amplifier has an input impedance of 110 kΩ. The input
signal is 15mV.
The approximate output voltage is (common-collector)
………………………………….?

LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Why the proper biasing of a transistor is important?

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Conclusion /Summary

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2
DC Load Line Analysis of Transistor Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives:
1. To construct a maximum dissipation curve.
2. To construct a dc load line in CE amplifier.
3. To verify the predicted operating conditions of the amplifier.

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Introduction:
Transistor amplifier must be operated over the linear portion of their characteristics when
it is necessary to reproduce the input signal without distortion. It is therefore necessary to
choose carefully the operating point, the characteristics of the transistor, and the
associated circuit components in considering the design of a linear amplifier. In
transistors the operating point is determined by the currents chosen for collector, emitter
and base. Hence, in designing an amplifier, an engineer should consult the transistor
characteristic curves and other listed data.

Collector-dissipation Curves

Fig.1. Collector characteristics curve.

Fig.1. shown above is a typical family of collector characteristic curve for a transistor
connected in the common-emitter configuration. These curves show the behavior of the
transistor at 25°C ambient temperature, over a range of collector currents and voltages,
for specified values of base or bias currents. There is a certain restriction, however, on the
potions of the curve over which the transistor may be operated. This restriction relates to
the maximum collector dissipation permissible at the specified temperature level. For
example, a collector dissipation of 100mW when operating at an ambient temperature of
25°C. The permissible operating range may be shown in the manufacturer’s datasheets by
graphs superimposed on the family of collector curves. If the maximum dissipation is not
mentioned in the manufacturer’s data, the engineer can easily plot it on the family of
characteristics curve. The curve presents 100mW at every point; i.e., the coordinates of
every point on this curve are selected so that the product of
VCE × IC = 100mW (1)
For example, the 2V 50mA point satisfies this condition, as does the 10V 10mA point,
the curve is, of course, one branch of the hyperbola defined by above. The transistor must
be operated to the left of this curve.

DC Load Line:
The performance of the transistor amplifier can be predicted graphically by means of a
load line. The effect of an input on the output signal for specified operating conditions,
assuming no ac load, can then be determined from the load line.
Refer to the Fig.2 which shows the output circuit of a grounded-emitter amplifier. If V CC
and RL are known, the load line may be drawn through the two limiting points on the line:

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 Fig.2. DC Voltage in the output of a grounded-emitter amplifier.

(a) Maximum Saturation: on the collector

current axis.
(b) Absolute cutoff:
(IC = 0, VCE = VCC) on the collector voltage axis

Fig.3. Load line for specific values of RL and Vcc.

A numerical illustration will show how the coordinates of the limiting points are found. In
Fig. 2
VCC = 6 V and RL = 300 Ω. Now when VCE = 0, IC = 20 mA. When IC = 0, VCE = 6 V, the
line drawn through these points is shown in Fig. 3.
What would be the effect on the line of increasing or decreasing the value of R L, all other
conditions remaining equal? Again a numerical example will indicate the answer. First, if
RL is decreased in value to 100Ω, the load line (2) coordinates are:

And

IC = 0, VCC = 6V (3)
This line (2) has a common point with the load line 1, namely, V CC = 6, IC = 0, but lies
above it. Again if the value of R L is increased to say 1200 Ω, the coordinates of the load
line (3) are

And
IC = 0, VCE = 6V (5)

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 Fig.4. Load line drawn if the operating point Q and the load line are
known.

Load line 3 shares a common point with lines 1 and 2 but lies below line 1. Note that in
all three cases the load line is to the left of 100 mA maximum dissipation curve.
The general method of drawing the load line is clear as long as the values of RL and VCC
are known. Suppose the value of RL is not known, but the operating point of the
transistor amplifier is known. (The operating point may be defined by the quiescent
conditions of the amplifier, that is, by the dc values of VCE and IC with no signal
present).
If the operating point Q is VCE = 5.25 V, IC = 19 mA, and the supply voltage VCC = 10 V,
the load line is drawn through Q and through the point I C = 0, VCE = 10 V, as in Fig. 4.
Note that the load line intersects the collector mill ampere axis at the point V CE = 0, IC =
40 mA. The value of RL may now be found, for IC = VCC/RL when VCE = 0. Therefore

Substituting the values VCC = 10 V, IC = 40 mA in the above equation gives

A 250Ω collector load resistor would permit the amplifier to be operated at the required
point Q.

Predicting Amplifier Operation from the Load Line:

From the load line it is now possible to predict the manner in which collector current will
vary with changes in the base current. The intersection of the load line with any of the
family of collector curves may serve as operating point. The best operating point selected
in the last example, VCE = 5.25 V, IC = 19 mA, lies on the intersection of the load line
with the IB = 0.3 mA characteristic curve. This means the base current of 0.3 mA will
cause a current of 19 mA to flow in the collector circuit of 2N649 transistor. The
transistor operates from a 10V source with load resistance of 250Ω, connected in the
grounded emitter configuration in Fig. (3). What would be the effect on the collector
current of increasing the base current in this circuit to, say, 0.4 mA? The answer is
obtained by noting the point at which the load line intersects the 0.4mA characteristic. In
this case IC = 26 mA, an increase of 7 mA, and V CE = 3.5 V, if IB is reduced to 0.2 mA, a

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 decrease of 7 mA, and VCE = 7.0 V. For the operating point and the circuit chosen, we see
that changes in collector current are linearly related to changes in base current between
base current limits of 0.1 to 0.3 mA.
From the load line also we can find the current gain for the amplifier. We previously
defined current gain as the ratio of output-current change to input-current change. That is,

In the example cited we see that

∆I out = 26 − 12 = 14 mA (9)
∆Iin = 0.4 − 0.2 = 0.2 mA (10)
Substituting in the above Eq, we find

Saturation Point:
The saturation current is the maximum possible current through the transistor and occurs
at the point where the voltage across the collector is minimum.
Cutoff Voltage:
The cutoff voltage is the maximum possible voltage across the collector and occurs at
zero collectors current.
Summary:
1. The family of average collector characteristics is shown in Fig.1. It shows how
collector current IC varies with base current IB and the collector voltage VCE, in a
specific transistor operating at a specified temperature. For the graph to be useful,
the maximum dissipation curve of the transistor must be drawn on collector
characteristics.
2. A dc load line is a straight line drawn on the family of characteristic curves.
Amplifier performance may be predicted from this line. To draw the load line, it is
assumed that VCC and RL are known. The end points of the line may be calculated
as follows:
3. The coordinates of the point on the collector current axis are: V CE = 0 and IC =
VCC/RL;
4. The coordinates of the point on the collector voltage axis are: V CE = VCC and IC =
0. For DC load line analysis of a transistor , we need to find the saturation current
and cutoff voltage.

LAB SESSION

Lab Task:

Set up the circuit for DC load line analysis for transistor 2N2222A and draw the collector
characteristic curves.

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Equipment and Materials:

 Transistor curve tracer 1 Motorola 2N3904 NPN transistor (150 mA, 60 V) with
βdc = βAC
 Load Resistance RL
 Digital Multimeter
 Power supply, Digital storage oscilloscope
 Function generator

Experimental Procedure:

1. Consider the circuit diagram shown above.

2. Use an appropriate value of RC and VCC. Ground the emitter.

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3. Draw the corresponding load-line. Determine and record an appropriate "Q" point
along the load line for "midpoint biasing" that is a good approximation for
operation as a minimum distortion amplifier.
4. Specify ICQ, VCEQ, and IBQ for your Q point.
5. Determine and record βdc, βAC, and roc using graphical techniques and Equations,
described above.
6. Finally, determine and record the value of ib required to switch the BJT from
cutoff to saturation along the load-line determined above.

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Observations:

Table No.1

Load Line Value Computed Load Line Value Measured

IB , uA IC , mA VCE , V IB , uA IC , mA VCE , V VBE , V
10 10
15 15
20 20
25 25
30 30

Operating Points Collector Current Gain Collector voltage Gain =

=∆ I c /∆ I B ∆ V CE /∆ V BE
Q1 (_____uA)
Q2 (_____uA)
Q3 (_____uA)

Questions:

1. What is the importance of transistor Q point in amplifier’s operation?

2. In which region the transistor operates for doing the DC load line analysis?
3. Why stabilization of operating point is needed?
4. What is the difference between an AC load line and a DC load line
analysis?

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 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: How would you determine the Q point to be in the middle of the DC LL?
Discuss. What are applications for load line analysis?

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Conclusion /Summary

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Analysis of Common Emitter Amplifier Impedance, Power and
Phase Relationship

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PRE LAB TASK
Objectives:

1. To measure the voltage, current, and power gain of a common emitter amplifier
2. To measure the input and output impedance of a common emitter amplifier
3. To observe with an oscilloscope, the phase of the input and output signal voltages
in a common emitter amplifier.

Introduction:

The strength of a weak signal can be enhanced with the help of an electronic circuit
known as amplifier. The important requirement of any amplifier is to just enhance the
magnitude of the signal while keeping its shape same so that there would be no distortion
in the signal source. One of the device used for amplification is transistor. The important
requirement while using transistor as an amplifier is to choose a proper device
configuration. The proper device configuration ensures the proper transistor biasing,
which is required to get the desired Q-point.
Then the signal source is applied as an input to the amplifier and the achieved gain is
calculated.

Fig.1. Common emitter amplifier.

During the ac analysis of the circuit the capacitors are replaced with ac short circuits. It
can be easily seen from Fig.1 that by replacing the capacitors with ac shorts the circuit
input terminals are the transistor base and emitter while the collector and the emitter
forms the output terminals.
The emitter terminal is common to both input and output, that’s why the circuit
configuration is named as Common Emitter (CE).
The voltage waveforms for the CE circuit is shown in Fig. 1. One can observe the phase
difference between the input and output waveforms. There is a 180o phase shift between
the input and output waveforms. The reason behind this is as V S increases in a positive
direction, the transistor base emitter voltage VBE increase. The increase in VBE raises the
level of the collector current IC, which increases the drop across Rc thus reducing the level
of the VC. The changing level of VC is coupled through the capacitor to the output, thus
producing the ac output voltage Vo. Thus the positive increase in V S increase the output
voltage Vo in the negative direction. Similarly, When VS changes in a negative direction,
the resultant output voltage produced a positive going output. The circuit in Fig. 2 shows
the input impedance (Zi) and output impedance (ZO) of the common emitter amplifier.
The transistor input and output impedances can cause voltage division of the circuit. So,
the transistor input impedance Zi and output impedance ZO are important parameters.
Similarly, the voltage amplification (AV), or voltage gain of any transistor circuit depends

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 on the transistor parameters and on the values of the collector resistance R C and load
resistance RL.
The figure shown below is a Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier.

Fig.2. Basic common emitter amplifier.

A voltage divider circuitry is biased at the base while the emitter is biased through an
emitter resistor. As the emitter is common to both the input and output loops, so the input
signal is applied at the base while the output signal is taken from the collector. The
capacitor C2 is used to prevent degenerative feedback which keeps the emitter at AC
ground because the emitter is bypassed by C2. Common emitter amplifiers give the
inverted output and can have a very high gain. However, the gain may vary widely from
one transistor to another as it’s a function of both temperature and bias current. \

Theory:

Input impedance:

The input impedance of an amplifier is defined as a ratio of its input signal voltage
to that of input signal current.

The input impedance of a common emitter amplifier can be increased by providing a

degenerative feedback to the input circuit. It could be done if the emitter resistance is
unbypassed. The input signal current would be less in the circuit because of degeneration
which increases the impedance.
Output impedance:

The output impedance can be determined by the addition of a potentiometer to the output
circuit. The detail procedure of measuring the output impedance is presented in the
experiment procedure.
Power gain:

The ratio of output to input signal power is defined as power gain. Output and input
power can be calculated when the input and output signal voltages and impedances are
known. The power gain is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
Power gain = 10 log Pout/Pin (2)
Phase Relations:

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 In the common emitter amplifier, the output signal is 180 ◦ out of phase with the input
signal voltage.

Summary:
1. The input impedance is defined as
Rin = Vin/Iin
2. The output impedance may be measured experimentally by connecting the
rheostat as a variable load in the collector circuit. The output resistance is adjusted
until the load voltage equals one half the no load voltage. The resistance of
rheostat then equals the output impedance of the amplifier.
3. The power gain is usually expressed in decibels.
4. There is a phase difference of 180◦ between the input and output signal voltages of
a common emitter amplifier.

LAB SESSION

Lab Task
Measure the voltage, power gain and input and output impedance of a common emitter
amplifier and record the result in tabular form.
Equipment and Materials:

 Transistor curve tracer 1 Motorola 2N2222A NPN transistor (150 mA, 60 V) with
βdc = βAC

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  Different ½ W resistors, 1000Ω, 1200Ω,6800Ω,10KΩ, 18KΩ
 Electrolytic capacitors, 10µF, 100µF
 Digital Multimeter
 Power supply, Digital storage oscilloscope
 Function generator
 SPST switch, 2W potentiometer

Experimental Procedure:

Construct the circuit as shown below.

Fig.2. Circuit diagram.

1. Turn the trainer on and adjust the positive power supply of the circuit to +15V.
Generate an output signal of 1kHz by adjusting the frequency control knob.
2. Measure and record the DC voltages on the emitter, base, and collector.
3. Adjust the value of the potentiometer (Pot.) R1 to get the required output voltage
Vo i.e., 2 Vrms. Measure the AC voltage V i’ going into the voltage divider
circuitry, which consists of both R2 and R3. Record your measurement
4. Use the voltage divider formula to calculate the input voltage Vi of this circuit.
Vi = Vi’ [R3 /(R2R3)]
Record your calculation. e
5. Calculate the voltage gain by using the formula.
Av = Vo / Vi
6. Now replace the resistor R2 and R3 with the 100k pot. Turn the knob on the
100kW pot fully counterclockwise. Adjust the value of R1 so the output is 2 Vrms.

Then adjust the value of the 100kW pot until the output is 1V rms.
7. Measure the resistance between terminals 1 and 2 of the 100kΩ pot by turning the
trainer power off. Record the measurement
8. Now replace the resistor R8 with the 100kΩ pot. Turn your trainer on and insert
the resistors R2 and R3 in the main circuit. pot. Disconnect the wire connecting the
100kΩ pot to ground.
9. Adjust R1, the 1kΩ pot, so that the output measures 2 Vrms. By connecting the
ground wire to the 100kΩ pot, adjust the pot so that the output is 2 Vrms. Measure

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 the resistance between pins 1 and 2 of the pot by turning the trainer power off.
Record the measurement Note: Current Gain is the ratio of output current to input
current. Output current is Vo/ RL and the input current is Vi/Zi.
10. Calculate the output current by using the value of V o and the value of load
resistance RL to calculate the output current Io.
11. Calculate the input current by using the value of Vi and the value of input
impedance Zi.
12. Use the above calculated values of Io and Ii and calculate and record the current
gain Ai.
13. Use the value of voltage gain (AV) measured above and the current gain to
calculate the power gain. The formula for power gain is as follow:
14. AP = AV x Ai Record your gain calculation AP.
Observations and Calculations:
Table 1. Common emitter amplifier impedance and power measurements

V p-p Gain
Steps VAC Iin Rin Rout Power
VAC Vout Vx/VACVBC
/ Vin mA Ω Ω gain(dB)
2-7

Phase Relationship:

Output Graph paper

Questions:
1. A CE amplifier having a voltage gain of 20, an input impedance of 500Ω and an
output impedance of 100Ω. The power gain of this amplifier is _______________
2. The rms voltage at the collector is 2.3V without load. When a 250Ω load is
connected across the output, the rms voltage is 1.10V. The output impedance is
_______________.
3. The decibel power gain in (1) is_______________.

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LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Observe two cycles of the output waveform. Draw them in proper time
phase with the input and Discuss.

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Q2: Does the output impedance of a common emitter amplifier remains

constant? Confirm your answer.

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Conclusion /Summary:

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

Trouble shooting of Common Emitter Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK
Objectives
1. To do a dynamic test, to trouble shoot a non-operational CE amplifier.
2. Measure the dc voltages and resistance in a normally working amplifier and the
defective one and draw inferences to find the nature of the trouble.

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Introduction Theory
How to Trouble Shooting a CE Amplifier?
Label the schematic with proper dc and signal voltages. You should have a complete
knowledge of circuit voltages and current so that you can identify an error.
Instability:
Construct the circuit. Set the appropriate power supply voltage and turn it on. Connect
one channel of the oscilloscope to monitor the output of the amplifier. Check the circuit
for oscillations. The oscillations must be stopped before proceeding further. Incorrect
circuit designing, poor circuit layout and feedback along the conductor from the power
supply can lead to amplifier instability. A decoupling capacitor of 0.01µf can be
connected from the positive supply to ground to stabilize an unstable amplifier. When
both a positive-negative supply is used, connect capacitor from each supply line to
ground. If the circuit is still unstable, connect a small shunt capacitor from the transistor
collector terminal to ground, or between collector and base.

Fig.1. Common Emitter with correct voltages indication.

Fig.2. CE with decoupling capacitors and shunt resistors.

Measurements of DC Voltage:
Measure the dc voltage level at all transistor terminals after ensuring the stability of the
circuit. Use a digital Multimeter (DMM) to correctly measure the dc voltages. The
measured dc voltage levels should indicate that
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 1. The emitter base junction should be forward biased and the base emitter voltage
must be 0.7 V.
2. The possible variations in VCB may range from approximately half the supply
voltage to full battery voltage.
Interpretations from DC voltage measurements:
DC voltage readings will give indication about the proper/improper transistor biasing in
the circuit by drawing inferences. To show this, assume certain abnormal voltages in the
circuit shown in Fig.3 and analyze the possible cause.
1. The voltage across the capacitor equals the supply voltage i.e., VC = VCC = +15V.
The possible cause could be an open emitter and base circuit, short emitter circuit
or base directly connected to ground.
2. No voltage across the capacitor i.e., V C = 0V. It could be because of an open
collector circuit or collector short-circuited to ground.
3. The collector and emitter voltage becomes equal i.e., VE = VC. The possible cause
of the trouble is short-circuited collector to emitter.
4. Zero emitter voltage i.e., VE = 0V. Possible troubles include, no current following
in the emitter or the emitter being short-circuited to ground.

Fig.3. Equivalent DC for CE amplifier.

Dynamic test:
After satisfactory dc levels are obtained, one can proceed further for dynamic test. The
dynamic signal-tracing method can be used to determine if there is no signal at the output
terminals of the amplifier for a specified signal input. For this follow the procedure given
below. Inject a sinewave signal into the input terminals of the amplifier (no larger than
the amplifier can handle) and observed at specified terminals with the help of an
oscilloscope. If the observed signal is normal, move the probe of the oscilloscope to point
B (base) of the amplifier. The sine-wave signal at this point should be approximately the
same as at the input terminals. If there is no signal at the base, two things might be
possible. The capacitor C1 is open or the base terminal is short circuited to ground. To
tackle the open capacitor problem, insert a 0-1µf capacitor across C 1 and observe the
output signal with oscilloscope. If an output signal appears, this indicates that the
capacitor is open. If no signal appears at output terminals, the oscilloscope probe is
connected to the base, to check the condition of a short circuit. To determine whether the
capacitor C2 is open or not, one can do the signal tracing. To determine this, assume that
the input circuit and the capacitor C1 is working properly, but there is no signal at the
output terminals of the amplifier. Connect the oscilloscope probe directly to the collector

24
 of transistor. If normal signal appears at the collector, but do not exists at the output
terminals, we know that C2 is open.

Resistance Measurements:
To measure the value of the resistance in any circuit, power is always turned off. This
analysis is helpful in determining the defective components. Determine the value of the
resistances at different terminals like base B to G, emitter E to G and from collector C to
G. The resistance from collector C to ground G would be the sum of R C, R1 and R2. The
value of these resistances is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig.4. Resistance measurements in transistor circuit.

The errors mostly found in calculating the value of the resistor is an open circuit. The
error can be spotted very easily. For e.g., if the measured resistance between any two
terminals of the transistor is infinite (∞), then either the resistance is open, or the
connection wiring is open. So, the resistance and continuity checks will reveal the defect.

LAB SESSION

Lab Task
Make a common emitter amplifier, and using troubleshooting methods determine if the
circuit is working properly or not. Troubleshoot the circuit to find the error.

Equipment and Materials:

 DC power supply
 DMM Function generator
 560 Ω, 1 kΩ, 8.2 kΩ, 18 kΩ resistors
 25µF, 100µF capacitors  2N2222 transistor

25
Experimental Procedure
Dynamic Check of Amplifier Operation

1. The first step was to take the schematic from Fig.1, and solves to find the base
voltage, emitter voltage, load voltage, emitter current, collector current, collector
voltage, and collector to emitter voltage.
2. Next connect the circuit in Fig.1, and for the input, put in a 30mV p-p wave from
the function generator into the input. The function generator’s amplitude could not
go as low as 30mV, so we put in a 5k potentiometer in between the function
generator and the capacitor to lower the incoming voltage
3. We then used the oscilloscope to measure the voltage of the input voltage, base
voltage,
a) collector voltage, and output voltage in peak to peak value to record into Table 1.
b) From the results, we were able to determine that the amplifier operation was good,
and recorded that into Table 1.

1. Next, we removed C1 from the circuit, and again measured the input, base,
a) collector and output voltages of the circuit to record into Table 1 (step 3.
b) From the measurements we took with the oscilloscope, we could conclude that the
amplifier operation was bad, and recorded that into Table 1.
1. We next put C1 back into the circuit and then took out C3 (see Fig. 1) and
measured the input, base, collector and output voltages of the circuit to record into
Table 1 (step 4). From the information gathered, we could tell that the operation
of the amplifier was bad, and recorded that into Table 1

Measurement of DC Voltage

2. For the next part of the lab, we estimated what the dc voltages at the base,
collector, and emitter using the 5 step process. We had already calculated what the
voltages would be at the beginning of the lab, so we copied those down into Table
2 under Voltage (normal), calculated values.
3. We next disconnected the function generator from the circuit and measured the
DC voltage at the emitter, base, and collector to record into Table 2 under Voltage
(normal), measured values.
4. Next, we calculated what the base, collector, and emitter voltages would look like
if the emitter was open (not connected to the next part of the circuit). We knew the
values of the base and emitter should stay relatively the same because nothing had
changed in the first part of the circuit. We knew the collector voltage should be

26
 around 9V because since the connection to the emitter was broken, no current was
flowing, which meant no voltage drop, so the voltage should stay at 9V.

1. We then broke the circuit between the resistor and the emitter and measured the
voltage at the base, collector, and emitter to record into Table 1 under Voltage
(emitter open), measured values.
2. Next, calculate what the emitter, base, and collector voltages would be if the base
were open. We knew the emitter value should be 0, because in the 5 step process,
3. VE = VB - 0.7, but there was no voltage to subtract from, so the emitter would be
0V. The base voltage we knew to be 4, because of the collector to
emitter voltage. Because of this, we knew the entire voltage supply would be read
on the collector, because none of the voltage is going through the transistor.
4. We then reconnected the emitter to the circuit and disconnected the base from the
circuit and measured the base, emitter, and collector voltages to record into Table
2 under Voltage (base open), measured values.
5. We next calculated what the base, emitter, and collector voltages would be if the
collector was open. We knew that because the collector was open, the collector
and emitter voltages should be close to 0. Base should be around 0.7 V because
VE = VB - 0.7, so VB = VE + 0.7, and the base voltage should be 0.7 V.
6. We then reconnected the base to the circuit, and disconnected the emitter from the
rest of the circuit. We measured the base, collector, and emitter voltages and
recorded them into Table 2 under Voltage (collector open), measured values.

Resistance Measurements

1. We disconnected the DC power supply from the circuit, and estimated the
resistance of the emitter, base, and collector to ground. From the emitter to
ground, we knew it should be around 560Ω, because there was only 1 resistor
between the emitter and ground.
2. From the base to ground, there’s only 1 resistor, the 8.2kΩ resistor, so the
resistance should be around 8.2k Ω.
3. From the collector to ground, we would assume the resistance to be infinite,
because with no power in the circuit, the transistor is off, and the resistance should
be infinite.
4. We then measured the actual resistances from the emitter, base, and collector to
ground, and recorded them into Table 3, next to the estimated values

27
Troubleshooting the CE Amplifier:

We then insert some “trouble” into our amplifier. We first disconnected the function
generator and measured the DC voltage at the collector, base, and emitter. The first thing
we noticed was that the collector voltage was around 9V, which we knew meant that
either the base or emitter was open. We next measured the emitter voltage, and because it
was not 0, we knew that it was the base that was open, not the emitter. We were able to
successfully troubleshoot the circuit to find that the base was open in our common emitter
circuit.

Questions:

1. Why is a dynamic test of an amplifier’s operation more meaningful than static dc

voltage and resistance checks?
2. Compare the estimated and measured voltages in Table 2 for an amplifier
operating normally. Explain and discrepancies Interpret and explain the voltages
at the elements of the transistor with the emitter open (Table 2).
3. Is an understanding of the operation of a transistor amplifier helpful in
troubleshooting it?
4. Why?
5. How the frequency response gets affected by the coupling capacitors C1 and C2?
6. Discuss the effect of removing RE on amplifier’s performance?
7. Discuss the effect of removing bypass capacitor CE on input impedance?

28
 LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Why is it preferable to use the low-power-ohms function of a digital

Multimeter rather than the conventional ohm’s function of a VOM in measuring
resistance in the external circuit of a transistor amplifier?

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Conclusion /Summary

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Design of a Common Emitter Amplifier with given Specifications
AV=75 and f =1kHz
PRE LAB TASK
Objectives

1. To design Common Emitter Amplifier using transistor 2N3904, with the given
specifications.
2. To implement the designed CE Amplifier.
Introduction
Theory

A common emitter amplifier is typically used as a voltage amplifier and is considered as

one of the most commonly used topology of bipolar junction transistors (BJT). The
circuit shown in Fig.1 shows the common emitter amplifier. The base terminal of the
transistor serves as an input while the collector terminal serves as an output. Emitter
being common to both terminals may be tied to ground reference or a power supply rail.
Common emitter amplifiers have a very high gain and it produces an output voltage with
180◦ phase change. The amplifier’s gain depends on both temperature and bias current.

30
 Other problems associated with the circuit are the low input dynamic range imposed by
the small-signal limit; there is high distortion if this limit is exceeded and the transistor
ceases to behave like its small-signal model. One common way of alleviating these issues
is with the use of negative feedback, which is usually implemented with emitter
degeneration. Emitter degeneration refers to the addition of a small resistor (or any
impedance) between the emitter and the common signal source (e.g., the ground reference
or a power supply rail). This impedance RE reduces the overall trans conductance GM = gm
of the circuit by a factor of gmRE + 1, which makes the voltage gain.

Fig.1. Circuit diagram for common emitter amplifier design.

So the voltage gain depends almost exclusively on the ratio of the resistors R C/RE rather
than the transistor's intrinsic and unpredictable characteristics. The distortion and stability
characteristics of the circuit are thus improved at the expense of a reduction in gain.
Design Rules
 Select the base-emitter voltage always between 0.6-0.7 V for silicon transistors.
 The current amplification β of the transistor is large (typically 100-300).
 We assume IC ≈ IE.
 Also we take ICRC = ICRE.
 Select VCC such that VCC ≤ VCEO.
 Select VCE such that VCC/3 ≤ VCE ≤ VCC/2.
 Select a nominal value of IC< 10 mA.
 Calculate RC such that:

 Calculate IB and IE.  Select I0 = 25 IB = IR2  Calculate R2.

 Calculate R1.
 Now calculate Rg as:

So
RE′ = RE − Rg
 For bypass capacitor (input coupling capacitor), select XC<<RE′ for the frequency
of operation. From here calculate C1.
 For coupling capacitor, select XCE<< R1 || R2 or XCE<< RB. From this calculate CE.
 For output coupling capacitor, select XC2<< RL || RC. From this calculate C2.

31
Draw The Circuit Diagram:

LAB SESSION

Lab Task
Design the CE Amplifier of the given specification and implement the circuit in
lab and record the values in table.

 AV = 75
 VCC = 10 V
 f = 1000 Hz
 VCE = 5V
 β = 150
 IC= 4.58 mA
 R1=1.2kΩ

Equipment and Materials:

 Capacitors – values determined by design calculations

 Power supply
 Function generator
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
 Resistors of different value
 Capacitors
 Digital Multimeter
 Transistors 2N3904

32
 Experimental Procedure:
1. Follow the procedure given in design rules step by step to get the common emitter
amplifier of required specifications.
2. Verify the results obtained with calculations to the one obtained by using the
specific parameter values with the help of the oscilloscope.
3. Record the results in tabular form.

Observations

Table 1
Common Emitter Amplifier

DC Voltages AC Voltages

Frequency
IC (mA) VBE (V) VCE (V) VE (V) Input Vp-p Output Vp-p AV
(Hz)

Questions
1. The voltage gain of the amplifier is 50. When CE is opened the gain of the
amplifier should _______________
2. If R1 and R2 are respectively 22kΩ and 4.7kΩ, RE=100Ω, and Vcc is +10V,
the dc base bias current (IB) will be _______________. Use β=100
3. In an audio amplifier the collector to base must be _______________

33
LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What is the purpose of CE in Fig.1? What happens to ac amplifier gain

when it is removed?

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Q2: What is the effect on the amplifier performance gain? Discuss.

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Conclusion /Summary

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EXPERIMENT No. 06

Analysis of Input/output Impedance, power Gain and Phase

Relation of Emitter Follower Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives:
1. To measure the voltage, current, and power gain of the emitter follower amplifier
2. To measure the input and output impedance of the emitter follower amplifier
3. To observe with an oscilloscope, the phase of the input and output signal voltages
in an emitter follower amplifier.
Introduction:

Consider the emitter follower circuit shown in the figure below. It is called an emitter
follower because the output terminal (the emitter) follows the input (the base) except by a
diode drop voltage. The output voltage Vout (in this case coinciding with VE) is a replica
of the input voltage, except for the diode voltage 0.6 V to 0.7 V. The input voltage V in
must stay at 0.6 V or more, otherwise the transistor will be off and the output will stay at
ground. By connecting the emitter resistor RE to a negative voltage supply, one can allow
negative input voltages as well. This circuit performs the function of impedance
transformation over a wide range of frequencies with voltage gain close to unity. In
addition to that, the emitter follower increases the output level of the signal. Since the
output voltage across the emitter load can never exceed the input voltage to base as
emitter-base junction would become back biased. Common collector state has a low
output resistance, the circuit suitable to serve as buffer or isolating amplifier or couple to
a load with large current demands.
Characteristics of CC Amplifier:

1. Higher current gain.

2. Voltage gain of approximately unity.
3. No current or voltage phase shift.
4. High input impedance.
5. Low output impedance.

35
 Fig.1 Emitter Follower Circuit.

Theory:

Impedance and Gain:

A mathematical analysis of a CC amplifier, operating in the linear mode, leads to rather

complex equations from which voltage gain, current gain, power gain, and input and
output impedance may be calculated. However, the following approximate equations can
be given as a basis for design.
Av=1
Ai=1/1-α
Ap=1/1-α
Input resistance Rin=RL/1-α
Output resistance Rout= re+(1-α) (RG + rb)
In above equation re and rb are the emitter and base resistances, respectively, in the T
equivalent model of a transistor; that is, they are two of the T parameters. RG is the
internal resistance of the signal source. The approximate formulas are valid only for the
circuits from which the formulas were derived and are based on certain assumptions
which relate to such typical values of T parameters as
rb=500Ω
re=30Ω
Rc=1.5MΩ
α=0.975
It should be noted further that the input resistance of the common-collector stage will be
affected not only by α and RL but also by any resistance which connects to the base.
Thus, if R1 is a low- valued resistance, its shunting effect on the circuit will affect Rin.
The voltage gains and input and output impedances of the emitter-follower amplifier may
be determined by the methods previously employed in the common emitter and common
base amplifiers.
Power gain:
The ratio of output to input signal power is defined as power gain. Output and input
power can be calculated when the input and output signal voltages and impedances are
known. The power gain is usually expressed in decibels (dB).
Power gain = 10 log Pout/Pin
Gain is never better than unity, however, the power gain may be calculated from the
experimentally determined values of Rin, Rout, vin and vout. Thus

Pin (power in) = (vin)² /Rin=(iin)²Rin

36
 Pout (power out) = (vout)²/Rout=(iout)²Rout
Power gain=Pout/Pin

Phase Relations:
In the emitter follower amplifier, the output signal is in phase with the input signal
voltage. The fact that the phase of the output signal in the emitter follows the phase of
input signal gives rise to the name ‘emitter follower’.
Summary

1. Common-collector transistor amplifiers are so-called because the input and output
voltage points share the collector lead of the transistor in common with each
other, not considering any power supplies.
2. The common-collector amplifier is also known as an emitter-follower.
3. The output voltage on a common-collector amplifier will be in phase with the
input voltage, making the common-collector a non-inverting amplifier circuit.
4. The current gain of a common-collector amplifier is equal to β plus 1. The voltage
gain is approximately equal to 1 (in practice, just a little bit less).
5. A Darlington pair is a pair of transistors “piggybacked” on one another so that the
emitter of one feeds current to the base of the other in common-collector form.
The result is an overall current gain equal to the product (multiplication) of their
individual common collector current gains (β plus 1).

37
LAB SESSION
Lab task
Measure the voltage, power gain, input and output impedance of an emitter follower
amplifier and record the result in tabular form. Assume capacitors are infinite.
Equipment and Materials

 NPN transistors BC107

 Resistors 15KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 4.7KΩ/470 KΩ
 Capacitors 22 µF, 100µF
 Digital Multimeter
 Power supply, Digital storage oscilloscope
 Function generator
 Bread board
 Potentiometer 500Ω, three SPST switches

Experimental Procedure

Voltage Gain:

1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. 4. Open S1 and S3. Close S1. Set AF generator at
zero output. Connect an oscilloscope across points DF and adjust it for proper
viewing. The oscilloscope will be used to measure the peak-to-peak value of the
signal at specified points in the circuit.
2. Close S3. Slowly bring up the gain of the AF generator until a 150mV undistorted
signal appears across the points DF in the emitter circuit. With the scope measure
vout. Record it in Table.
3. Measure and record the input signal voltage vin (points A and C). Compute and
record the voltage gain.
Input Impedance:

1. Open switch S1. Increase AF generator output until vin is at same level as in step
3. With the oscilloscope measure and record the signal voltage vab across points
AB. Compute the input base signal current i in by substituting vab in the formula.
iin=vab/Rab Show your computation. Record iin in Table.

38
 2. Compute the input resistance Rin. Compute also the input power. Record the
result in Table 1.
Output Impedance:

1. Close switch S1. Reduce AF generator output until vout measures 100mV. S2 is
still open. Measure and record the output voltage vout across points DF.
2. Close switch S2. The load resistor is now in the circuit. Adjust RL until the output
voltage with load is one-half the value of vout measured in step 6. Record vout/2.
Open S2. Measure and record the resistance of R L. This is the value of the output
impedance.
3. Compute also the output power. Record this wattage in Table 2.
Power Gain:

1. Compute and record power gain using the formula. Ap=Pout/Pin

Observations
Table 1

Vout (V) Vin (V) Gain=vout/vin Vab (V) (Iin)²Rin

Table 2

Vout (V) Vout/2 (V) RL=Rout Vout²/Rout Power gain

Table 3

Input (Waveform)

Output(Waveform)

39
 Fig.4.

Questions

1. Why CC amplifier is known as emitter follower?

2. Mention the applications of CC amplifier?
3. What are the differences between CE, CB and CC amplifier?

40
LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: Observe two cycles of the output waveform. Draw them in proper time
phase with the input and Discuss.

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Q2: Is the output impedance of a emitter follower amplifier is a fixed quantity?

Confirm your answer.
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Conclusion/Summary
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41
 EXPERIMENT No. 07

Design and Implementation of Cascade Common Emitter

Amplifier

PRE LAB TASK

Objectives:
1. To design the Cascaded Common Emitter Amplifier with the given specifications.
2. To implement the designed CE Amplifier stages.
Introduction Theory:
A single stage of amplification is not enough for a particular application. The overall gain
can be increased by using more than one stage, so when two amplifiers are connected in
such a way that the output signal of the first serves as the input signal to the second, the
amplifiers are said to be connected in cascade. The most common cascade arrangement is
the common-emitter RC coupled cascade amplifier. Common-emitter amplifier exhibits
high voltage, high current and high power gains, so they are very familiar than other
configurations. Multistage amplifiers can be used either to increase the overall small
signal voltage gain, or to provide an overall voltage gain greater than 1, with a very low
output resistance. Fig. 1 shows an RC-coupled cascaded amplifier. Capacitors C 1 and C2
couple the signal into Q1 and Q2, respectively. C3 is used for coupling the signal from Q 2
to its load. If the operation of coupled amplifiers is considered, a complicating factor
appears. The addition of a second stage may alter the characteristics of the first stage and
thus affect the level of signal fed to the second stage.
To compute the overall gain of the amplifier, it is easier to calculate unloaded voltage
gain for each stage, then including the loading effect by computing voltage dividers for
the output resistance and input resistance of the following stage. The cascaded common
emitter amplifier is shown in Fig.1.

Fig.1. RC Coupled Cascaded Common Emitter Amplifier.

42
Design Rules:

The first step is to estimate the DC bias currents and voltages for the design using the
simplified large signal BJT models. Next we use the simplified small signal parameter
transistor model to estimate the AC voltage gain. Compare this estimate against the
approximate calculation described above, as well as the computed gain. Calculate the
current gain, input resistance, voltage gain, load resistances of both the stages. Each stage
gain depends largely on the ratio of the collector resistance to the (un bypassed) emitter
resistance. Calculate the overall resistance, overall current gain, overall input resistances
and the overall voltage gain of the cascaded amplifier system.

Applications:
Cascaded amplifier finds applications in
1. Tuned RF amplifier circuits
2. Wideband amplifiers
3. TV circuits
4. Used for isolation between input and output

LAB SESSION:
Equipment and Materials

 Power supply: Variable regulated low -voltage high current dc source.

 Function generator
 Equipment: Digital Multimeter;; curve tracer.
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
 Resistors of different value
 Capacitors
 Transistors BC107

Experimental Procedure
1. Follow the procedure given in design rules step by step to get the cascaded
common emitter amplifier of required specifications.
2. Select the base current by appropriately choosing the value of beta and the
collector current Ic.
3. Calculate the value of the emitter current. Calculate the corresponding emitter
voltage and the required resistance value.
4. Find out the values of the coupling and bypass capacitors.
5. Find out the value of the resistances RC1 and RC2.
6. Verify the results obtained with calculations to the one obtained by using the
specific parameter values with the help of the oscilloscope. Record the results in
tabular form.

43
Observations:
Stage No 1
Table 1

Vin (Vp-p) Vout (Vp-p) Gain=Vout/Vin

Stage No 2
Table 2

Vin (Vp-p) Vout (Vp-p) Gain=Vout/Vin

Waveform
Table 3

Input (Waveform)

STAGE NO I
Output(Waveform)

STAGE NO 2
Output(Waveform)

44
Questions:
1. Why the total gain is not the product of the individual (separated) stages
gain in the configuration settings of the cascaded common emitter
amplifier?
2. Which two amplifiers are mostly combined together in a cascaded common
emitter configuration?
3. What the common emitter amplifier stage does?
4. What is the effect on the input resistance of a cascaded common emitter
amplifier?
5. What is the effect on the current gain of a cascaded common emitter
amplifier?

45
LAB REPORT
Discussion of Results

Q1: What do you observe from the output resistance of the cascaded common
emitter amplifier? From which stage does it resemble? Discuss.
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Conclusion /Summary

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