Unit-I 2 Marks
Unit-I 2 Marks
com
UNIT-I
2 Marks
1. Define Maintenance.
Maintenance is the act of keeping something in good condition by checking or
repairing it regularly.
2. Define Repair.
Repair is the process of restoring something that is damaged or deteriorated or
broken, to good condition.
3. Define Rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation is the process of returning a building or an area to its previous
good conditions.
4. What are the two facets of maintenance?
The two facets of maintenance are
i) Prevention
ii) Repair
5. What are the causes of deterioration?
i) Deterioration due to corrosion
ii) Environmental effects
iii) Poor quality material used
iv) Quality of supervision
v) Design and construction flaws
6. Define physical inspection of damaged structure.
Some of the use full in formation may be obtained from the physical inspection of
damaged structure, like nature of distress, type of distress, extent damage and its
classification etc, their causes preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the
samples for laboratory testing and analysis, planning for in situ testing, special
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environmental effects which have not been considered at the design stage and
information on the loads acting on the existing structure at the time of damage may be,
obtained. To stop further damages, preventive measure necessary may be planned
which may warrent urgent execution.
7. How deterioration occurs due to corrosion?
loads and other live load moments. After selecting a suitable method of
repairs, and after considering all the ramifications of its application, the
last step is to prepare plans & specification and proceed with the work.
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12. What are the factors to be considered by the designer at the construction site.
Minimum and maximum temperatures
temperature cycles
exposure to ultra violet radiation
amount of moisture
wet/dry cycles
presence of aggressive chemicals
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
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14. Define the fixed percentage method of evaluating the strength of existing structure.
It is to assume that all members which have lost less than some
predetermined
% of their strength are still adequate and that all members which have lost more than
the strength are inadequate. It is usually from 15% onwards higher values are
applicable for piling % stiffness bearing plates etc.
15. Discuss about the design and construction errors leading to deterioration of a
structure.
Design of concrete structures governs the performance of concrete structures.
Well designed and detailed concrete structure will show less deterioration in comparison
with poorly designed and detailed concrete, in the similar condition. The beam-column
joints are particularly prone to defective concrete, if detailing and placing of
reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead to carbonation
depth reaching up to the reinforcement, thus, increasing the risk of corrosion of the
reinforcement.
17. What are the possible decisions that can be made after evaluating the strength of a
structure?
a. to permit deterioration to continue
b. to make measures to preserve the structure in its present condition
without strengthening
c. to strengthen the construction
d. if deterioration is exceptionally sever, to reconstruct or possibly abandon
it.
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18. How can we evaluate the strength of existing structure by stress analysis?
This method is to make detailed stress analysis of the structure, as it stands
including allowances for loss of section where it has occurred. This is more difficult &
expensive. Here also the first stop is to make preliminary analysis by fixed percentage
method and if it appears that major repairs will be required, the strength is reevaluated
based on detailed stress analysis, considering all contributions to such strength.
19. Define the load test method of evaluating the strength of existing structure.
Load tests may be required by the local building offered, but they should only be
performed where computation indicated that there is reasonable margin of safety
against collapse, lest the test bring the structure sown. Load test show strengths much
greater than computed strengths when performed on actual structures. When performed
on actual structures. In repair work every little bit of strength is important.
20. What are the possible decisions after finding a structure to be inadequate?
now
progressive.
if dormant no repair
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UNIT-II
2 Marks
1. How can use prevent the effect of freezing and thawing in concrete?
Concrete can be restricted from frost action, damage of the structure by
the entrainment of air. This entrainment of air is distributed through the cement paste
with spacing between bubbles of no more than about 0.4mm.
2. Write any two tests for assessment of frost damage?
The frost damage can be assessed by several ways:
i)
ii)
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Corrosion inhibitors
corrosion resisting steels
coatings for steel
Cathodic protection
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Shrinkage stresses
11. What are the types of cracks?
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
12. What changes occur, when hot rolled steel is heated to 500oc?
At temp of 500oc-600oc the yield stress is reduced to the order of the working
stress and the elastic modulus is reduced by one-third. Bars heated to this temp virtually
recover their normal temperature.
13. List out the various types of spalling?
i) General or destructive spalling
ii) Local spalling which is subdivided as
aggregate splitting
comer separations
surface spalling
Sloughing off
Anodic inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors
Mixed inhibitors
Dangerous & safe inhibitors
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UNIT III
2 Marks
1. What is expansive cement?
A slight change in volume on drying is known as expansion with time will prove to
be advantage for grouting purpose. This type of cement which suffers no overall change
in volume on drying is known as Expansive cement.
2. What is the action of shrink comb in expansive cement?
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Shrink comb grout acts like a Portland cement. It (shrinks) sets and hardens; it
develops a compressive strength of about 140kg/gm2 at 7days and 210kg/cm2 at 28
days.
3. List the various types of polymer concrete.
i) Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
ii) Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
iii) Polymer Concrete (PC)
iv) Partially impregnated and surface coat
v) Polymer Concrete.
vi) Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
Mehylmethacrylate (MINS)
Styretoc
Aerylonitrile
t-butyle slynene
5. Define polymer concrete.
Polymer concrete is a aggregate bound a polymer binder instead of Portland
cement as in conventional concrete pc is normally use to minimize voids volume
in aggregate mars. This can be achieve by properly grading and mixing of a to
attain the max density and (mixing) the aggregates to attain (maximum) minimum
void volume. The entrapped aggregated are prepacked and vibrated in a mould.
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They are either wax based or resin based. When coated in freshly laid concrete they
form a temporary film over the damp surface which stops wter evaporation and allows
sufficient moisture retention in concrete for curing
19) What are the uses of sealants
They are used to seal designed joints. They are formulated from synthetic rubbers or
polysulphides. The choice of a sealant depends on the location of the joint, its
movement capability and the function the sealant is expected to perform.
20)what are the uses of flooring
These are usually toppings based on metallic or non metallic aggregates which are
mixed with cement and placed over freshly laid concrete sub floor. These compounds
in high viscosity liquid, form mixed with recommended filters at site, are based on resins
and polymers such as epoxy, acrylic, polyuretheneor polysulphide.
UNIT lV
2 Marks
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In this process, the concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary concrete before
conveying through the delivery pipeline to the nozzle, at which point it is jetted by
compressed air, onto the work in the same way as that if mix process.
ii.
The wet process has been generally desired in favour of the dry mix process,
owing to the greater success of the latter.
6. What is shotcrete?
Shotcrete is a recent development on the similar principle of guniting for achieving
greater thickness with small coarse aggregate.
Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all times;
An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work;
The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the relevant
building regulations;
The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take risks to
achieve the date.
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Buildings where chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead paint, dust
or fumes may be present will require specialized protective clothing, e.g.
9. Give a brief note on shoring and underpinning in demolition.
The demolition contractor has a legal obligation to show technical competence
when carrying out the work. When removing sections of the building which could have
leave other parts unsafe, adequate temporary supports and shoring etc. must be
provided.
10. What are the major factors in selecting a demolition procedure?
Majors factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate technique include:Safety of personnel and public
Working methods
Legislation applicable
Insurance cover
11.Give the categories of demolition techniques.
Demolition techniques may be categorized as:
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Balling machines generally comprise a drag-line type crawler chassis fitted with a
lattice crane jib. The demolition ball, with a steel anti-spin device, is suspended from the
lifting rope and swung by the drag rope.
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personnel and property from the fall of the structure itself and debris which may be
thrown up by the impact.
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UNIT V
2 Marks
1.What are the techniques required for repairing cracks?
Stiitching
Blanketing
External stressing
Grouting
Autogenous healing
2.Define stitching.
The tensile strength of a cracked concrete section can be restored by stitching in a
manner similar to sewing cloth.
3.What do you mean by blanketing?
This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated. The cracks should be
dormant unless they are opened up enough to put in a substantial paten in which case
the repair may be more property termed as Blanketing.
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6. What is overlay?
Overlays may be used to restore a spelling or disintegrated surface or to protect
the existing concrete from the attack of aggressive agents. Overlays used for this
purpose include concrete or mortar, bituminous compounds etc. Epoxies should be
used to bond the overlays to the existing concrete surface
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Unit I
16 marks
1. Describe the steps in the assessment procedure for evaluate damages in a structure.
The following steps may be necessary
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
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PHYSICAL
INSPECTION
MATERIAL
TESTS
STUDY OF
DOCUMENTS
ESTIMATE OF
LOAD ACTING
ESTIMATE OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS
DIAGNOIS
RETROSPECTIVEA
NALYSIS
NO
ESTIMATE OF
FUTURE USE
IS DIAGNASIS
CONFIRMED
ASSESSING OF STRUCTURAL
ADEQUACY
CHOICE OF COURSES OF
ACTION
LOAD TESTS
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iii)
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c) Load test
Third step is load test. Load tests may be required by the local building
offered, but they should only be performed where computation indicated that
there is reasonable margin of safety against collapse, lest the test bring the
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structure sown. Load test show strengths much greater than computed
strengths when performed on actual structures. When performed on actual
structures. In repair work every little bit of strength is important.
Accordingly the use of load test is recommended but with a full & clear
understanding of their limitations and range of applicability.
iv)Evaluate the need of repair
When the cause of the deterioration has been determined and the strength of the
existing structure has been checked, a decision must be made whether
a. to permit deterioration to continue
b. to make measures to preserve the structure in its present condition
without strengthening
c. to strengthen the construction
d. if deterioration is exceptionally sever, to reconstruct or possibly abandon
it.
These decisions are based on
a ) safety
b) economy &
c) appearance subject to various principles different decision may be
appropriate for different elements of same structure
now
progressive.
if dormant no repair
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Case b] Analysis shows that the strength of the structure currently is or sowty will be
in adequate
Either repair it or
Rebuild it or
Steps of Repair
loads and other live load moments. After selecting a suitable method of
repairs, and after considering all the ramifications of its application, the
last step is to prepare plans & specification and proceed with the work.
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Unit II
16 Marks
1. Explain in detail about quality assurance.
Quality assurance scheme is a management system which increases confident
that a material product of service will confirm to specify requirements.
Functions of quality assurance:
It outlines the commitment policies, designated responsibilities and requirements
of the owner. These are the implemented through quality assurance programme to
provide a meaning of controlling to predetermined requirements. These activities, which
influence quality.
In the manufacture of virtually every complex produce a quality assurance
scheme of one type or another is used.
Factors influencing Quality Assurance:
Depending upon the value of the product and methods used in the circumference
such scheme may themselves become extremely complex. So that it cannot in all
cases guarantee all the functional requirements illustrations.
The need of quality assurance:
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Design Procedure:
Recognition that a quality management system cannot compensate for conceptional
error or inadequate specifications. The system merely aims for consistent
application of procedures to meet the specification. A poor input could procedure a
consistently satisfactory, but quality control result.
Concern at the cost of introducing and maintain a management system without
reassurance of consequential benefits.
Doubts on the effectiveness of a quality management system t design. In particular
doubts that quality assurance procedures for manufacturing process may not be
appropriate for design service.
Standards or specifications:
Standards or specifications are used to define the important enteria, methods of
assessment or testing and levels of acceptance to satisfy the tested (component)
requirement.
They should of, if possible be expressed in performance terms according to
Newman however forms that proposals or performances type specifications for
concrete work of significance are totally unrealistic and thereby reflect the
unawareness that they can produce inferior results despite apparently acceptable
performance or appearance unless each step will be covered by the next step is
inspected as the proceed.
In connecting the specifications, notes that the only good specification t that which
requires only these things that need to be done make concrete suitable for its
purpose.
A good specification contains no requirements that can be ignored of lighted and is
one that omits by requirements that must be met.
It is not possible to write specification but possible to do so.
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Guarantees for the users including inabilities for faults, should be fully covered by
the contract and
In some cases, by the building (contract) control system or rather less desirably by
the law of torl.
3. Discuss in detail about the thermal properties of concrete.
The three important thermal properties of concrete are,
Thermal conductivity of concrete.
Co-efficient of thermal expansion and
Fire resistance.
Thermal character of concrete:
The process of hydration of cements materials releases heat which raises the
temperature of concrete. This heat mush eventually be lost to the atmosphere and
the cone temperature has to reach equilibrium with a long term atmosphere
conditions.
The atmospheric gradients may occur or develop in the concrete as the internal
temperature is raised above the surface temperature of the concrete member. This
surface temperature is dependent on the material in contract. The resulting
temperature will produce tensions in the surface and may be stiffness to cause
cracking.
The second effect operates as the mean temperature of the member am remain
move that of connecting members and the subsequent cooling will induce tensions.
Thermal conductivity of concrete:
Thermal conductivity of heat is the ability o the materials to conduct heat.
Heat is defined as the ratio of the ratio of the flow of heat to the atmospheric
gradient and this thermal conductivity is measured in Jules per second per square
meter.
The thermal conductivity of heat depend the composition with respect to the type of
aggregate amount of ass and moisture continent.
When the concrete is saturated the conductivity ranges from 1.4 and 3.6 m/sec.
The thermal conductivity various more rapidly in light wt one than heavy or normal
wt concrete.
Thermal expansion of concrete:
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In the next 30 minutes a temperature inside reaches 400 oC, the cement matrix
converts to QuickTime causing disintegration of concrete. The reinforcing steel
loses the ensile capacity at such temperature. Deflection of beams and slab
increases beyond this limit.
Beyond one hour of fire, as the concrete disintegrates, the exposed steel expands,
more rapidly than the surrounding concrete causing buckling, loss of bond to
adjacent conc.
The thermal conductivity of any concrete can be calculated from
K = Km (2m-m2)+km k2 (1-m)2 / K2M +Km (1-m)
K
=
conductivity of aggregate
Km
conductivity of motor
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In some industrial application such as aluminum plants and brick works the cone
Disruption (of beam) from disparity of expansion and resulting thermal stresses.
Alteration of aggregate.
Change of the bond bet aggregate and paste.
Other effects on cone due to temperature.
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Behavior of fire:
Failure in a fire occurs either through the spread of fire from the compartment or
through structural failure of a member or assembly of members.
Structural failure of a member most frequently occurs when the temperature of the
steel reduces the yield stress to the working stress.
The length of time of this fire occurs depend upon the severity of fire, the thermal
conductivity of the protecting concrete and weather spalling of the protection covers.
5. Explain the various corrosion protection methods.
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A safe inhibitor is defined as one which reduces the total corrosion with out in
erecting area; while dangerous inhibitors produce increased rates can be due to the
lack of sufficient inhibitors to prevent complete protection or the presence of
crevices into which the inhibitor does not rapidly diffuse.
Anodic inhibitors are generally dangerous except sodium benzoate.
Cathode inhibitors are generally safe, but since sulphate is an exception.
Classification of inhibitors:
Somewhat a different classification based on the actions of such as,
Barrier layer formation.
Neutralization and,
Savaging.
These represent processes by way of which the passivation is achieved it is
interested to note that the barrier layer formation is generally best achieved by
simply completely coating steel with a well curved low water cement paste which
needs to extra admixture at all.
Corrosion resisting steel:
In mid steel, the corrosion is not sufficiently or corrosion is not sufficiently or
significantly affected by composing, grade or level or stresses. Hence substitute
steels for corrosion resistance will have a significantly different compaction.
Based on some atmosphere, corrosion weathering, steels of correct type were
tested in concrete. They did not perform well in most content containing chloride it
is observed that the weathering steel corrode in similar concrete to those can
corrosion at high yield strength steel. Although the total amount of corrosion less
than would occur on high yield steel under similar conditions, deep localized pitting
developed, which could be more structurally weakened.
Stainless steel pipe has been used special applications especially as flames in
precast members, but generally not expect use as a substitute for wild steel any
case, stainless steel should not concrete involving under corrosion resistant.
Stainless steels contains relatively lower content of chloride levels, there was a
based in a delayed time to cracking relative to that for high strength steels, but this
was offset by irregular pitting corrosion. Very high corrosion resistance was shown
by austenitic stainless steels in all the environments in which they were tested, but
the observation of some very high pitting in the preserve of chlorides lead to the
warming the corrosion susceptibility was not evaluated in the test programme.
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Coating of steel:
Coatings are sometimes considered as for mild steel is to be embedded in concrete
exposed to advise corrosive condition.
There are both benefits and disadvantages to their use and any benefit can only be
optimized by carefully considering the specific job. The more obvious of those
considerations are,
Do the expected service life and structure exposure warrant coating of the steel.
If coating is desirable, is a field of job read or may the coating be applied prior to
fabrications of the reinforcing, for the structure.
Do transportation and subsequent lubrication pose a significant danger to the
coating.
In view of the exposure conditions, is the choice of coating dictated by these
condition rather than adoption of other measures.
Groups of coating:
Organic coating:
Organic coatings include coal tar enamel epoxy, asphalt, chlorinated rubber, vinyl,
phenolic, neoprene and methane.
Out of these, epoxy group is appeared to have the best potential for use.
Epoxy coatings:
Epoxy coatings provided excellent corrosion protection of prestressing steel.
The epoxies are wear resistance.
Epoxies are used to protect the steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete of
bridge. Decks from rapid corrosion. This corrosion is caused by the chlorides ions
from the most commonly applied deicing salts, sodium chloride and calcium
chloride.
Results obtained from epoxy and polyvinyl chloride coatings, if properly applied
could be expected to adequately protect steel reinforcing bass from corrosion.
However only the epoxy coated bars had acceptable bond and creep
characteristics when embedded in concrete.
The power epoxy coatings overall performed better than the liquid epoxies and four
epoxy coatings were identified as promoting materials to be used on reinforcing
steel bass embedded in concrete of experienced bridges.
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The epoxy coat acts (as) to isolate the steel bass from contact with oxygen,
moisture and chloride. However, at damaged point on the cost corrosion may
commence such damage exists on the bar coupled to uncoated steel the
performance of such bar is still considered to be satisfactory, but not as good as
when all bar is coated.
The slab specimen showed little differ on crack width, spacing, deflections or
ultimate strength for coated and un-coat bar. The slab containing epoxy-coated bar
generally failed to flexure rather than in bond at approximately 4% lower loads than
with uncoated bar.
The beam specimen in which (flexural type loads here applied to the reinforcing bar
splitting occurred along the reinforcing bass, but failure was primarily by either pull
out or yielding of the embedded steel.
Organic coatings other than epoxy have occasionally been used. In Germany PVC
has been used on welded wire fabric.
Metallic coating:
Metallic coatings re capable of providing protections to the black steel on one of two
ways.
Metals with a more negative corrosion potential than steel such as zinc, and
cadmium, provide sacrificial protection to the steel embedded in concrete, although
the development of passivating products on the coating is of significance in the
longer time steels and alloys with a less negative corrosion potential (more able)
than the bar steel, such as nickel and stainless steel, protect the reinforcement only
as long as the coating is un broken since the bar steel is anodic to the coating. The
steel is protected by such metals simply by encapsulation.
Metallic coating is limited to galvanizing material.
Coating of metals under mass exposure conditions, as in the presence of conditions
zinc coating does not always provide increased protection.
Cadmium suffers from a cost disadvantage when compared to zinc and the
derivatives are slightly toxic.
Other coatings:
Zinc coating.
Zinc coating is used where longer life protection is desired than can be provide by
usual methods of coating it is not a permanent protection, however and in moist,
tropical climates the galvanized coating itself is usually protected with a good-
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quality paint. Galvanizing is also useful for subaqueous exposure, where it gives
fairly good protection.
For structural work, it is customary to specify zinc coating by the hot-dip process
(galvanizing), because the resulting coating is thicker than that applied by there
processes such as the radioing, electroplating or spraying.
Cathodic protection:
Corrosion in equals environments or in damp soil is primarily electro chemical in
nature and is due is a current passing from anodic areas of the metal into solution
and returning to the metal at cathode areas. This type of corrosion can be
prevented by impressing a countercurrent on the metal in a sufficient amount to
neutralize the aggressive electric currents.
Cathode protection, which consists of the electrical connections of the soon finial
anode to the structure to be protected, serves this function by neutralizing the
corroding current and forming layers of insoluble reaction products on the new
cathode areas.
In structural applications, cathode application of buried steel (pipe or piling) for
protection of the submerged portions of mass structure such as piling and bracing
for protecting lock and gates, for the interior of water tanks and for the exterior of
burried tanks.
Cathode protection however will not prevent corrosion of structure unless the metal to
be protected is sorrows by an electrolyte such a swatter or damp soil and is ineffective
in protecting structural elements above the water line or in very dry soil in cathode
protection, the effects of the induced currents on adjacent structures may be damaged
unless they are adequately bonded to the new system or other means of protections are
provided.
Unit III
16 Marks
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Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine foundations or the cement is
used for grouting the prestressed concrete ducts, if it shrinks, the purpose for which the
grout is used will be some extent defeated. This has been a reason for such type of
cement which will shrinks while hardening and there affect
As a matter of fact, a slight change in volume on drying is known as expansion
with time will prove to be advantage for grouting purpose. This type of cement which
suffers no overall change in volume on drying is known as Expansive cement
Cement of this type has been developed by using expanding agent.
This type of cement is manufactured by adding sulpho-aluminates clinker with 100 parts
of Portland cement and is parts of stabilizer.
Types of expansion cement
One types of expansive cements is known as Shrinkage compensating cement
This cement when used in concrete with restrained expansion includes compressive
stresses which approximately offset the tensile stresses induced by shrinkage self
Stressing cement. This cement is used in concrete is used in concrete induces
significant comp stresses after the drying shrinkage was occurred. The induced comp
stresses only compensate the shrinkage but also give sort of prestressing effect in the
tensile zone of a flexural member mixing a expansive cement
Normally graded 10mm size mixed with balanced quantity of special binding Shrink
komb is mixed in a mechanical mixer, has the capacity 200 /140can used to mix 4 bags
of grout.
For proper batching of water 10 and cans and a 500c.c measure should used. To obtain
maximum advantage the quantity of mixing water should minimum. Mixing should be
done for minimum 3 minutes to obtain a good grout of uniform consistency. Depending
upon the size of the opening, a small grout can be is used provided it is thoroughly
compacted.
Placing and compaction
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The grout should be poured through holes in the base plate up to 10 to 20 mm below
the surface, property spread compacted by rodding and vibration.
Curing
The grout should not dry out where external restraint is provided in the form of
formwork, the top opening and all stray openings should be covered with wet sack at
least for 7 days.
Properties
Shrink komb grout acts like a Portland cement
It (shrinks) sets and hardens; it develops a compressive strength of about 140kg/gm2 at
7days and 210kg/cm2 at 28 days.
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density manpower is diffused through a open cell and polymerized by using radiation,
application of heat or by chemical initiation.
Types of manomers used are:
Mehylmethacrylate (MINS)
Styretoc
Aerylonitrile
t-butyle slynene
Otherthromoplastic monover
The amount of manomer that are loaded into a core specimen is limited by the
amount of water and air that has occupied the total void space.
It is necessary be know the concentration of water and air void in the system to
determine the rate of monomer penetration.
To obtain the maximum manomer loading in concrete, by the removal of water and
air(void) from the cone by vacuum or thermal drying.
The elimination of entrapped air towards the center of the specimen during
soaking which will otherwise prevent total or max manomer loading.
The application of pressure is another technique to reduce manomer loading time.
Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
Polymer cement concrete is made by mixing cement, aggregates, water &monomer
The manomers that are used pcc are
Polymer styrene
Epoxy Stryence
Futrans
Vinylidene Chloride
The monomers mixed pcc are used distillation units for water desalination plants.
However it is reported that on epoxy resin produced a concrete the showed same
superior characterizes ordinary concrete.
Polymer Concrete
Polymer concrete is a aggregate bound a polymer binder instead of Portland cement as
in conventional concrete pc is normally use to minimize voids volume in aggregate
mars. This can be achieve by properly grading and mixing of a to attain the max density
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and (mixing) the aggregates to attain (maximum) minimum void volume. The entrapped
aggregated are prepacked and vibrated in a mould.
Manomer is the diffused up through the aggregates and polymerization initialized by
radiation or chemical means.
A silence coupling agent is added to the manomer to improve the bond strength
between the polymer resins are used then no polymerization is required
Uses of PC
During curing Portland cement form mineral voids. Water can be entrapped in these
voids which are freezing can readily attack the concrete. Also alkaline Portland cement
is easily attached by chemically aggressive materials which results in rapid
determination, there as using polymers can compact chemical attack.
The strength of concrete with dc is as high as 1410kg/cm2 with a short curing period.
The use of Fibrous polymer cone beans provides a high strength
Pc is visco-elasitc in nature and it will fail under restrained comp loading at stress levels
which is greater than of the ultimate strength.
PC beams are more effective than concrete beam of usual steel reinforcement
percentage such because utilize steel region of high tensile stress.
Polymer partially impregnated
Polymer partially impregnated or coated in dep(CID) and surface coated (SC) control
partially polymer impregnated concrete is used to in the strength of concrete
Partially impregnated concrete is sufficient in situations there the major required surface
persistent against chemical and mechanical attacks.
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Procedure B:
In procedure B the dried concrete specimen is placed in an air tight container
and subjected to vacuum pressure of 2mm mercury for two hour
After removing the vacuum, the special are soaked in the mother sulphur at
atmosphere pressure for another half hour. The specimen is taken out, wiped clean
and cooled to room temperature about one hour. The specimen is weight and the
weight of sulphur impregnated is determined.
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It has found that the elastic property of sulphur infiltrated concrete has been
generally improved *by)100% and also sulphur- infiltrated concrete showed a high
resistance to freezing and when the moist cured concrete was disintegrated after
about 40 cycle sulphur impregnated concrete is found be in fairly good conditions.
Water supply tanks, sedimentation tanks, well casings, septic tanks, sanitary
tanks
3. Agricultural application
Grain storage bins, silos, water tanks, pipes linings for underground pits and
irrigation channels
4. Housing applications
Mosque domes, shelters, sheds, domed structure, precast housing elements, wall
panels, sandwich panels, corrugated roofing sheets.
5. Rural energy application
Biogas digesters, biogas holders, incinerators and panels for solar energy collectors
6. Permanent formwork
For reinforced or prestressed concrete column beams, slabs
Materials used in ferrocement
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Skeletal steel
To form the skeleton of the structure skeletal steel is often used in the form
of welded wires or a simple grid of steel wires, rods or strands
Steel fibre:
Commonly used fibre
Round fibres are used diameter 0.25 to0.75mm
ii.
iii.
Asbestos fibre:
Mineral fibre
Tensile strength of asbestos varies between 560 to 980 N\mm2
Higher flexural strength
iv.
Carbon fibre:
Very high tensile strength 2110 to2815 N/mm2 and Youngs
modulus
Very high modulus of elasticity and flexural strength
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Good durability
v.
Glass fibre:
Very high tensile strength 1020 to 4080N / mm 2
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Fibres aligned parallel to the applied load offered more tensile strength and toughness
than randomly distributed or perpendicular fibres
5) Workability & compaction of concrete
Steel fibre decreases the workability considerably
Poor workability is non-uniform distribution of fibres. The workability & compaction
standard of the mix is improved through increased water/cement ratio or by the use of
some kind of water reducing admixtures.
6) Size of coarse aggregate
Maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10 mm, to avoid
appreciable reduction in strength of the composite
Application
Overlays of air field, road pavements, industrial flooring, bridge decks, canal lining ,
explosive resistant structures refractory linings
Fabrication of precast products like pipes boats, beams, staircase steps, wall panels,
manhole covers
Advantages:
Good resistance towards corrosion
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Disadvantage:
High cost
Low shear strength
Low ductility
Susceptibility to stress rupture effect
Advantages of Ferrocement:
Favorable tensile property
High ductility
High resistance to cracking width and crack opening
Ability to undergo large deflection
Improved impact resistance and toughtness
Good fire resistance
Good impermeability
Low strength to weight rate
Low maintainance cost
Mechanical properties:
Homogeneous,isotropic properties in two directions because of two way action,
high tensile strength and a high modulus of rupture.Its tensile strength can be of the
same order as its compressive strength.High reinforcement ratio in both tension and
compression and in both directions.Large specific surface of reinforcement which is
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one to two orders of magnitude that of reinforced concrete.Its elongation upto failure
under tension or its deflection at maximum load increases with anincrease in the
number of mesh layers used.Its ductility increases with the volume fraction and specific
surface of reinforcement.Two dimensional reinforcement and better resistance towards
punching shear as well as resistance to impact compared to reinforced concrete.
Construction method:
Skeletal armature method
Closed mould method
Integral mould method
Open mould method
1.Skeletal armature method
In this method a framework of reinforcing bars is constructed to which a layer of
meshes is applied.Next mortar is applied on one side and forced through the mesh until
a slight excess appears on the other side
The skeletal framework of reinforcing bars can assume any shape based on
requirement.The diameter of the steel bars depends on the size of the structure.
skeletal steel is cut to a specified length and bent to suit the shape
Advantage:
No elaborate form material required
Easy to patch up the whole area from both slides
Good penetration
Easy to repair when damaged
Disadvantage:
Time consuming
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Application of mortar from one side may be difficult for a thick mesh
system
Galvanic corrosion may develop between the mesh and skeletal stee
2. Closed mould method
in this method several mesh or mesh and rod compination are held together in position
against the surface of the mould. Motar is applied from the open side. The mould either
remains a permanent part of the structure or can be removed and reused. In this
method a thin layer of mortar is placed first and allowed to settle over which the mesh is
placed an dthe second layer of mortar poured. This procedure is repeated until require
numbers of layers are placed
3. Integrated mould method
This method involves a semi rigid framework. An integral mould may be formed using
foam material such as polystyrene as the core. Mortar is poured from both sides of
mould. The mould is left inside the ferro cement itself
4. Open mould method
Used for boat building. The open mould is made of lattice wood or some other suitable
material and stiffened by ribs. The mortar is applied through one side only. To facilitate
mould removal the mould is covered with release agent or entirely covered with
poltethylene sheets
Unit-4
16 Marks
1.. Briefly explain about vacuum concrete.
High water cement ratio is harmful to the overall quality of concrete, where as low
water-cement ratio does not give enough workability for concrete to be compacted
hundred percent.
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Generally higher workability and higher strength or very low workability and
higher strength do not go hand in hand.
Now, vacuum process of concreting enables to meet this conflicting demand and
this process helps a high workable concrete to get high strength.
Vacuum Concrete:- Only about half of the water added in concrete goes into
chemical combination and the remaining water is used to make concrete workable.
After laying concrete, water which was making concreting workable is extracted
by a special method known as vacuum method. This water left in this concrete is only
that which is to go in chemical combination and hence resulting concrete become very
strong.
Manufacturing Process:
General arrangement for vacuum concrete. Process
The equipment essentially consists of:iv.
vacuum pump
v.
vi.
filtering mat
The filtering consists of a backing piece with a rubber seal all round the periphery
A sheet of expanded metal and then a sheet of wire gauge also forms a part of filtering
mat.
The mat of the suction mat is connected to the vacuum pump. When the vacuum
pump operates, suction is created with in the boundary of the suction mat and the
excess water is sucked from the concrete through the fine wire gauge.
At least one face of the concrete must be open to the atmosphere to create
difference of pressure. The contraction of concrete caused by the loss of water must be
vibrated.
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The vacuum processing can be carried out either from the top surface or from the
side surface. There will be only nominal difference in the efficiency of the top processing
or side processing.
2.. Explain in detail about Gunite.
Gunite can be defined as mortar conveyed through a hose and pneumatically
projected at a high velocity on to a surface.
The development of this method is by the introduction of course aggregation and
the reduction of cement makes the process economical.
Guniting was first introduced in 1900 and this process is mostly used for
pneumatically application old mortar of less thickness.
Shotcrete is a recent development on the similar principle of guniting for
achieving greater thickness with small coarse aggregate.
There are two process in use, namely;Wet mix process in use, namely
Dry mix process and the dry mix process is more successful.
Dry mix process;The dry mix process consists of a number of stages and calls for some specified
plant.
General arrangement of apparatus in gunite system.
The stages involved in the dry mix process
i.
ii.
The cement/ sand mixture is fed into a, special air pressurized mechanical
feeder termed as Gun.
iii.
The mixture is metered into the delivery hose by a feed wheel or distributor
with in the gun.
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iv.
v.
The web motor is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the surface of
the gunited.
In this process, the concrete is mixed with water as for ordinary concrete before
conveying through the delivery pipeline to the nozzle, at which point it is jetted
by compressed air, onto the work in the same way as that if mix process.
ii.
The wet process has been generally desired in favour of the dry mix process,
owing to the greater success of the latter.
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The demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type of work to
be offered;
Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all times;
An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work;
The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the relevant
building regulations;
The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take risks to
achieve the date.
Preliminary Considerations
Demolition operations are the subject of strict legal controls - there is a substantial body
of legislation and a great deal of case law relating to such operations. There may also
be some regulations which impose additional restrictions: for example, action against
nuisance such as noise and dust. The BSI Code of Practice for Demolition BS 6187
exerts further influence, in that if the demolition contractor does not observe the
recommendation of the Code, this may well influence a Court's decision as to his liability
in any legal proceedings.
General Site Provisions
A. Plant and Equipment
Must only be operated by skilled operators and must be regularly serviced.
B. Protective Clothing
Buildings where chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead paint, dust
or fumes may be present will require specialized protective clothing, e.g.
respirators, helmets, goggles, footwear, gloves, etc. Projecting nails, pieces of
metal, etc. resulting from demolition can cause accidents.
C. Shoring and Underpinning
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A method statement showing how the demolition work is to be carried out should be
prepared and the contractors should appoint a "competent person" to supervise the
demolition work.
The strategy will need to take into account the method of construction used for the
original building and its proximity to other buildings, structures and the general public.
These factors, together with location, the cost and availability of tipping and disposal
and the desirability and economics of reuse, must be taken into account in the
development of an appropriate strategy for the demolition of a structure.
Building Information
Information on buildings in terms of "as built" drawings and structural details may often
be unavailable or unreliable, and consequently some investigative site and desk work
may be necessary, both to ascertain the way in which the building was originally
constructed, and to identify the stresses and strains which exist within it.
In order to plan the most efficient method of demolition, it is important to have a full
understanding of the method of construction and the stress patterns imposed upon the
building. Failure to do so may result in risks to the safety of both those involved in the
demolition and those in close proximity to the site.
Selecting Appropriate Techniques
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Majors factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate technique include:Safety of personnel and public
Working methods
Legislation applicable
Insurance cover
Preliminary Aspects Prior to Site Demolition Work
Method statement
A detailed health and safety method statement, produced before work starts, is
essential for safe working. It should include a full risk assessment, identify
problems and their solutions, and form a reference for the site supervision.
The method statement should be easy to understand, agreed by and known to all
levels of management and supervision, and should include such matters as:-
Details and design of any temporary supporting structures to be used during the
demolition process;
Arrangements for the protection of personnel and the public and the exclusion of
unauthorized persons, with details of areas outside the site boundaries that may
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Details of the removal or making safe of electrical, gas and other services and
drains;
Details of the methods for detailing with flammable materials and gases which
may have been retained or deposited as residue in process machinery, pipework
or storage;
Arrangements for the control of site transport used for the removal of demolition
debris.
The choice of demolition technique will depend on the nature of the building or structure
and its environment. Risks to the public, operatives involved in the demolition process
and adjacent structures and buildings should be considered.
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the working area. The cabs of all machines should be strong enough to protect the
operator against the fall of debris. In particular, the windscreen and rooflight should be
of shatterproof material and guarded by a grille of steel bars or a substantial mesh.
A. Balling Machine
Balling machines generally comprise a drag-line type crawler chassis fitted with a
lattice crane jib. The demolition ball, with a steel anti-spin device, is suspended
from the lifting rope and swung by the drag rope.
Balling should only carried out by skilled operatives under the control of
experienced supervisors using well maintained machines adequate for the
proposed duty and standing on a firm, level base.
The manufacturer should be consulted before a machine is used for balling to
establish any restrictions on the type or length of jib or the weight of the ball.
Balling operations subject cranes to dynamic stresses and wear, and the ball chosen
should have the minimum weight necessary for effective use. In many cases, demolition
balls of quite light weight will be adequate.
Floors should be demolished by dropping the ball on the highest remaining floor and
allowing the debris to fall inside the building. The debris should be removed regularly to
prevent excessive weight accumulating on the lower floors.
Walls or columns can be demolished either by swinging the ball in line with the
stationary jib, using the drag rope, or by slewing the jib. The ball should not swung by
derricking the jib.
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Building over 21m high should not normally be demolished by rope pulling.
E. Impact Hammer and Nibblers
Impact hammers normally have a track- or wheel- mounted chassis, an
articulated boom, and a heavy duty pick vibrated by hydraulic or pneumatic
power to demolish concrete or masonry.
Nibblers use a rotating action to snap brittle materials such as concrete or masonry. In
either case, material should be removed from the top of walls or columns in courses not
greater than 600mm in depth, steel reinforcement should be cut separately as
necessary.
Figure 5: Nibblers
Pre-Weakening
Buildings and structures normally have structural elements designed to carry safely the
loading likely to be imposed during their life.
As a preliminary to a deliberate controlled collapse, after loads such as furnishings,
plant and machinery have been removed, the demolition contractor may be able to
weaken some structural elements and remove those new redundant. This preweakening is essentially a planned exercise and must be preceded by an analysis of its
possible effects on the structure until it collapses, to ensure that the structural integrity
of the building is not jeopardized accidentally. Insufficient information and planning
relating to the structure may result in dangerous and unsafe work.
Deliberate Controlled Collapse
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Methodology
In order to demolish a building safely, blasters must map out each element of the
implosion ahead of time. The first step is to examine architectural blueprints of the
building, if they can be located, to determine how the building is put together. Next, the
blaster crew tours the building (several times), jotting down notes about the support
structure on each floor. Once they have gathered all the raw data they need, the
blasters hammer out a plan of attack. Drawing from past experiences with similar
buildings, they decide what explosives to use, where to position them in the building and
how to time their detonations. In some cases, the blasters may develop 3 D
computer model of the structure so they can test out their plan ahead of time in a virtual
world.
The main challenge in bringing a building down is controlling which way it falls.
Ideally, a blasting crew will be able to tumble the building over on one side, into a
parking lot or other open area. This sort of blast is the easiest to execute, and it is
generally the safest way to go. Tipping a building over is something like felling a tree. To
topple the building to the north, the blasters detonate explosives on the north side of the
building first, in the same way you would chop into a tree from the north side if you
wanted it to fall in that direction. Blasters may also secure steel cables to support
columns in the building, so that they are pulled a certain way as they crumble.
Sometimes, though, a building is surrounded by structures that must be preserved. In
this case, the blasters proceed with a true implosion, demolishing the building so that it
collapses straight down into its own footprint (the total area at the base of the building).
This feat requires such skill that only a handful of demolition companies in the world will
attempt it.
Blasters approach each project a little differently, but the basic idea is to think of
the building as a collection of separate towers. The blasters set the explosives so that
each "tower" falls toward the center of the building, in roughly the same way that they
would set the explosives to topple a single structure to the side. When the explosives
are detonated in the right order, the toppling towers crash against each other, and all of
the rubble collects at the center of the building. Another option is to detonate the
columns at the center of the building before the other columns so that the building's
sides fall inward.
According to Brent Blanchard, an implosion expert with the demolition consulting firm
Protect documentation services virtually every building in the world is unique. And for
any given building, there is any number of ways a blasting crew might bring it down.
Blanchard notes the demolition of the
Hayes Homes, a 10-building housing project in Newark, New Jersey, which was
demolished in three separate phases over the course of three years. "A different
blasting firm performed each phase," Blanchard says, "and although all of the buildings
were identical, each blaster chose a slightly different type of explosive and loaded
varying numbers of support columns. They even brought the buildings down in different
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special repairs so that troops occupying the buildings after special repairs will have toilet
facilities )
Based on the recommendations of the Board, the GOC-in-C S.C. vide letter
No:300050/97/2/2(wks) dated 25.10.1997 accepted necessity and accorded Admin
Approval for the special repairs at an estimated cost of 42.05 lakhs. The Admin
Approval included the demolition of old buildings also as recommended by the Board.
32 weeks time was given for completion of work. Based on the sanction a contract
agreement was concluded for Rs.43.45 lakhs by CE(Fys) Hyd zone vide CA No:
CE(Fys)/ Hyd / Sec / 16 of 97-98. In addition, the following works were also executed to
bring the buildings into use.
Amount
1.CWE(S)/SEC-E/M/25
of 97-98
16.63 lakhs
Augmentation of external
electrical, water supply,
sewage disposal etc (capital
work)
2. HQ ASA letter
No:4045/OTM/Q3W
dt.1.12.97 and CA No:
35/ASA/SEC/SR/97-98
3.97 lakhs
Repairs to Temporary
Buildings T.12 (Revenue
work)
HQ ASA letter
No:4045/OTM/Q3w(i)
dt.3.12.97
3.20 lakhs
Repairs to Temporary
Buildings T.12-1 (Revenue
work)
3. HQASA letter
No:4093/Q3 dt.9.5.98
80,000
Total:24.60
lakhs
Thus a total sum of Rs.68.05 lakhs (43.45 + 24.60 lakhs) was spent on the buildings in
order to make them habitable. The work was completed in all respects in Jan 99 and
GE(S) Secunderabad vide his letter No:2311/254/E2 dated 28.1.99 requested the
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station HQrs to instruct the users concerned to take over the accommodation from
MES.
The RAO MES Secunderabad, during review of the GEs accounts found it curious that
a huge sum of Rs.68 lakhs was spent on barracks lying vacant for almost 10 years and
therefore probed the matter from the GE/CWE records. The detailed examination of the
records brought out the following interesting facts:
1. HQrs convening order dated 4.6.97 to assess the requirement of special repairs
to the unused barracks which ultimately resulted in spending of more than 68
lakhs on unused barracks was only a sequel to the proposal to establish an Army
Dental College at Secunderabad to be run by a regimental institution viz., Army
Welfare Education Society (AWES).
2. As the project involved considerable expenditure, it was proposed to house the
college initially in the unused barracks by carrying out special repairs and shift to
permanent location later.
3. The cost, time and all other aspects involved in the matter were brought in the
CWE Secunderabad Engineers appreciation dated 19.5.97 (copy enclosed as
Annexure - A)
4. The need to reappropriate the land & buildings for use by the Army Dental
College was clearly brought out by the Engineering Appreciation report of CWE.
5. The necessary reappropriation sanction was also called for from Station HQrs by
CWE Secunderabad vide their letter No:24225/17/E2 dated 28.10.97
immediately after issue of Admin Approval dated 25.x.97 for which no action was
taken by the Admin Authorities.
6. Neither the Board proceedings nor the Admin Approval and other subsequent
sanctions brought out the purpose of the whole exercise thus effectively
concealing the matter from audit.
In the light of the above findings, the RAO(MES) Secunderabad placed the entire
expenditure under objection and reported the matter to CDA Secunderabad for further
necessary action
Unit-5
16 Marks
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c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Stitching
External stressing
Blanketing
Overlays
Grouting
Autogenous healing
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I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
In bending members it is possible to stitch one side of the crack but this should be the
tension side of the section where movement is originating.
If the member is in a state of axial tension then a symmetrical placement of the dogs is
a must.
vi. If the stitching is to supplement the strength of the existing section, the
deformation must be compatible. The dogs must be grouted with a non-shrink or
expandable mortar so that they have a tight fit thus the movement of the crack will
cause the simultaneous stressing of both old and new sections. The holes for the legs
of the dogs should be filled with grout.
vii.
The dogs are thin and long and to cannot take much of compressive force. The
dogs must be stiffened and strengthened by encasement in an overlay or some similar
means.
Instead of steel rods or flats used us dogs, the same be replaced with ferrocement
which is made effective using chicken mesh or chicken mesh in conjunction with welded
mesh as the case may be, Employment of cement mortar 1:2 or 1:2:5 with a water
cement ratio of 0.45 is recommended for protecting the steel reinforcement mesh.
EXTERNAL STRESSING
Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be arrested by
removing these stresses. Further the cracks can be closed by including a compressive
force sufficient to over come the tension a residual compression.
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The compressive force is applied by using the prestressing wires or rods. The principle
is similar to stitching except that the stitches are tensioned. But additional anchorages
are to be provided for prestressing wires.
The compressive force also may be applied wedging (ie) opening the Crack and filling it
with an expanding mortar, by jack and grouting or by actually driving wedges.
BLANKETING
Blanketing is similar to routing and sealing on a large scale and applicable for sealing
both active and dormant cracks and joints.
Type of Blanket joints
i.
Where an elastic sealant is used, the serial is one wheel returns to original shape when
the externally induced stress is proved.
ii.
This similar to the sealant chase of a Sealant except that the bon breaker is omitted and
the sealant is bonded to the as well as to the side of the chase. The sealant is mastic
rather than a compore. I with elastic properties. They are used where the anticipated
movements are small.
iii.
iv.
OVERLAYS
Overlays are used to seal cracks. They are useful and desirable where the are large
numbers of cracks and treatment of individual defect would be expensive.
i.
ii.
GROUTING
Grouting can be performed in a similar manner as the injection of an epoxy. However
the use of an epoxy is the better solution except where considerations for the resistance
of cold weather prevent such use in which case grouting is the comparable alternative.
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An alternative and better method is to drill down the length of the crack and grout it so
as to form a key. This is applicable only when the cracks runs approximately in a
straight line and are inaccessible at one end.
The grout key functions prevent relative transverse movements of the sections of
concrete adjacent to the crack. It also prevents leakage through the crack.
AUTOGENOUS HEALING
The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within autogenous healing. This is used
for sealing dormant cracks such as precast units cracked in handling of cracks
developed during the precast pilling sealing of cracks in water hands and sealing of
cracks results of temporary conditions. This effect also provides some increase in
strength of concrete damaged by vibration during setting and concrete disrupted due
and thawing.
The by which healing is the calcinations of and the Calcium Hydroxide in cement paste
by CO in the surrounding air and the resulting: CaCo and Ca (OH) crystals precipitate
accumulate and grow out the cracks. The crystals interlace and twine producing a
mechanical bending which is supplemented by a chemical bonding between adjacent
crystals and being cry Is and the surfaces of paste and aggregates. As a result some of
the strength is restored across the cracked section and the crack is sealed.
Jacketing
Pneumatically applied mortar or Concrete (guniting/shot circuiting.
Prepacked concrete
Replacement for concrete
Dry pack
Over lays
Epoxy resins
Protective surface treatments
JACKETING
Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing member by
encasing it in a new concrete. This method is useful for protection of section against
further deterioration by providing additional to in member.
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hand together cracked portions. Once hardened, this compound will not melt, flow or
bleed. Care should be taken to place the epoxy within the pot life period after mixing.
PROTECTIVE SURFACE COATINGS
During of concrete can be substantially improved by preventive maintenance in the form
of weather proofing surface treatments. These treatments are used to seal the concrete
surface ad to inhibit the intrusion of moisture or chemicals. Materials used for this
purpose include.
Oils such as linseed oils, petroleum etc.
Silicones used to seal concrete and masonry structures against moisture.
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II.
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were both short of design distance by 27.2 mm at the level of the top of the dam. The
right side of gate bay No 1 was leaning 47.6 mm into the opening and the left side of
bay No 8 was leaning by 23.8 mm, also into the opening. The operational deficiencies in
the bridge were overcome by shortening the expansion joints. The problems with the
gats were fixed by shortening the two end gates and by building out to vertical the gate
sealing strips in the adjacent monoliths.
No other remedial work was undertaken and it was recognized that the structure,
even after 40 years, may continue to grow and that further corrections may be needed.
No conclusion could be drawn as to the stage reached in the expansion process or as
to the potential for continued expansion.
Val de la Mare dam in Jersey. Channel Islands, is a mass concrete dam
completed in 1962. The layout of the dam is shown in Fig. 8.10. In 1971, upstream
movement of 6 to 13 mm was noticed in the crest walkway in some blocks, and
darkening and damp patches, accompanied by surface cracking, were observed on the
downstream faces of the same blocks. After an extensive investigation, lasting three
years, it was confirmed that alkali-silica reaction was occurring and that some blocks
were much more severely affected than other. It was concluded that, although the
aggregate throughout the dam was somewhat reactive, the worst reaction was
occurring in sections built in the course of a three-month period. During this period
cement with unusually high alkali content was used.
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deck. A survey of the worst affected areas showed that cover to reinforcement was less
than that required by 1985 standards and that potentials indicated a high probability of
active corrosion. Chlorides up to 5 per cent free chloride ion by weight of cement were
found and even at depths up to 150 mm chloride contents of 1 to 2 per cent existed.
Carbonation was found to be relatively low (3 to 5 mm).
As a first step in the repair process, the cause of the trouble was diverted by
modifying the deck drainage system, re-waterproofing the verges and the central
median and installing asphaltic joints over the piers. The trestle repairs were put out to
tender with all quantities billed and repair materials and methods specified. The two
concrete repair materials used were (i) a flow able concrete with 16 mm aggregate and
containing a plasticizer and a shrinkage-compensating additive, to be cast against forms
in heights up to 1.5m, and (ii) a patching mortar to be applied b rendering, for areas less
than .01 m2. Laboratory and field trials were carried out. The octagonal piers were
repaired first and to avoid overstress only three faces were tackled at one time. The
specified sequence was:
i.
ii.
iii.
Replace any reinforcement which had lost over 10 per cent of effective
area.
iv.
v.
Coat all steel with an inhibiting primer if it would have less than 15 mm of
cover after reinstatement.
vi.
vii.
viii.
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As the reinforcement was very congested, small pneumatic hammers were used
for breaking out the concrete. The only reinforcement that needed to be replaced was
stirrups in the cross-head and this was done by hooking bars around the top and bottom
corner bars. Two types of formwork were used on the piers. The simpler form consisted
of plywood planks, strap-banded together, which was readily adapted to the variations
in the existing sections. A rigid glass fibre form did not have this advantage and allowed
grout loss.
Work on the cross-heads was limited by the fact that there were areas of repair
which were directly under bearings. Load had to be transferred from the bearing by
using jacking beams before bread-out was started. The break out was shaped so that
air would not be trapped when the repair concrete was poured.
To maintain control of the ingredients, when many small pours were necessary,
the repair material was supplied pre-mixed in 50 kg bags and only water had to be
added at the site. Each batch was tested for flow and cube strength. As the work
continued from summer to winter, the strength was specified at two different
temperatures: at 20C, 35 Mpa at 24 hours and 50 Mpa at 72 hours; at 5C, 15 Mpa at
24 hours and 35 Mpa at 72 hours. The requirement of early strength at low temperature
was included to allow rapid repairs, but in the event was not required. Formwork was
left in place for 38 hours and after striping the repairs were sprayed with curing
compound or wrapped in polythene sheeting until seven days old.
After repair, the trestles were coated with a water resisting compound, either a
lilane or a quartz sand cement slurry mix. Because of the limitations on the extent of the
break-out, it was not certain that all the chloride contamination had been removed, but
the repairs ensured that leaking from the deck had been slowed down by reinstating the
reinforcement in dense, highly alkaline concrete; the permeability of the existing
concrete had been reduced by coating. Inspection of the repairs has continued.
The repairs outlined show all the essentials for this sort of work, which was
carried out on this job with careful attention to the control of materials and procedures.
There must, however, be some doubt about the effectiveness of coating reinforcement
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which is to finish with less than 15 m of cover. When a coat is applied, the part of the
bar adjacent to the end of the coating may be in a more dangerous condition than it was
before, since a local corrosion cell can be set up at this point. It would seem on this job
that the necessary cover of more than 15 mm could have been provided at all repairs
and this would, in our view, have been the preferred procedure. It is doubtful, also,
whether the curing process used after the removal of the forms was effective or
necessary. If any further curing was required it would have been better to have used
water sprays.