Indian Geography PDF
Indian Geography PDF
Indian Geography PDF
pdf
02.IG.Rock System.pdf
03.IG.Himalayas.pdf
04.IG.Divisions Himalayas.pdf
05.IG.Major Passes.pdf
06.IG.Ganga Plains.pdf
07.IG.Peninsular Plateau.pdf
08.IG.Peninsular Hills.pdf
09.IG.Coastal Plains.pdf
10.IG.Indian Islands.pdf
11.IG.Drainage Pattern.pdf
12.IG.Indian River System.pdf
13.IG.Indus River System.pdf
14.IG.Ganga River System.pdf
15.IG.Him vs Pen Rivers.pdf
16.IG.East flowing Peninsular Rivers.pdf
17.IG.West flowing Peninsular Rivers.pdf
18.IG.Indian Monsoons-ITCZ.pdf
19.IG.Monsoons-Jet Theory.pdf
20.IG.Monsoons-Tibet-Somali.pdf
21.IG.Monsoons-Pics.pdf
22.IG.Western Disturbances.pdf
23.IG.Indian Climate.pdf
24.IG.Winter,Summer.pdf
25.IG.Rainy.pdf
26.IG.Climate Classification.pdf
27.IG.Natural Vegetation.pdf
28.IG.Soils-Loamy,Clayey.pdf
29.IG.Soil Formation.pdf
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In this post: Indian Geography: India Geographical Extent, Frontiers Border with
Neighbors.
East-West Extent of Main Land India 68 7' east to 97 25' east longitude
(Including Pak occupied Kashmir-POK):
South-North Extent of Main Land India: 8 4' north to 37 6' north latitude
Locational Extent:
The southernmost point of the country is the Pygmalion Point or Indira Point is
located at 6 45' N latitude.
East-west width from the Rann of Kachachh to Arunachal Pradesh is 2,933 km.
With an area of 32,87,263 sq km, India is the seventh largest country of the world.
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India accounts for about 2.4 per cent of the total surface area of the world.
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country dividing it into two
latitudinal halves.
The area to the north of Tropic of Cancer is nearly twice the area which lies to the
south of it.
South of 22 north latitude, the country tapers off over 800 km into the Indian Ocean
as a peninsula.
The earth moves [rotation and revolution] around its axis through 360 in 24 hours.
Thus, a difference of 1 longitude will make a difference of 4 minutes in time.
Therefore the difference of local time between western-most point and eastern-most
point is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2 hours.
The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer) is twice the area of tropical part.
But India has always been treated as a tropical country for two different reasons
physical and cultural.
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Its climate is dominated by the tropical monsoons and the temperate air masses are
blocked by Himalayas.
Entire area south of the Himalayas is essentially tropical from climatic point of view:
Although the night temperatures in Winter at several places in North India may come
down to the level of those prevailing in temperate lands, yet clear skies and intense
insolation raise the day temperatures to a tropical level.
Settlements, diseases, agricultural and primary economic activities are all tropical in
nature.
India's Frontiers
Data from Ministry Of Home Affairs (Department Of Border Management)
India has 15106.7 Km of land border running through 92 districts in 17 States and
a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197
Indian islands] touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
Barring Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Delhi and Haryana, all other
States in the country have one or more international borders or a coastline and can
be regarded as frontline States from the point of view of border management.
India's longest border is with BANGLADESH while the shortest border is with
Afghanistan.
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This is the second longest border of India, next only to its border with Bangladesh.
Five Indian states, namely Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh touch the Indian boundary with China.
The Sino-Indian border is generally divided into three sectors namely : (i) the Western
sector, (ii) the Middle sector, and (iii) the Eastern sector.
Separates Jammu and Kashmir state of India from the Sinkiang (Xinjiang) province of
China.
The western sector boundary is largely the outcome of the British policy towards the
state of Jammu and Kashmir.
China claims the Aksai Chin district, the Changmo valley, Pangong Tso and the
Sponggar Tso area of north-east Ladakh as well as a strip of about 5,000 sq km
down the entire length of eastern Ladakh.
China also claims a part of Huza-Gilgit area in North Kashmir (ceded to it in 1963 by
Pakistan).
Two Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand touch this border.
The 1,140 km long boundary between India and China runs from the eastern limit of
Bhutan to a point near Talu-Pass at the trijunction of India, Tibet and Myanmar.
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This line is usually referred to as the Mc Mahon Line after Sir Henry Mc Mahon,
then foreign secretary of British India, who negotiated the boundary agreement
between Great Britain and Tibet at Shimla accord in 1913-14.
Five states of India, namely Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and
Sikkim touch the Nepalese border with India. The border is a porous one with
unrestricted movement of goods and people between Indian and Nepal.
Major portion of Indo-Nepalese border runs in the east-west direction almost along
the foothill of the Shiwalik Range.
Quite peaceful border and there is no boundary dispute between the two countries.
The Indo-Pakistan boundary is the result of partition of the country in 1947 under
the Radcliffe award of which Sir Cyril Radcliffe was the chairman.
Jammu and Kashmir, Sir Creek are the major disputed regions.
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This boundary has been determined under the Radcliffe Award which divided the
erstwhile province of Bengal into two parts.
India-Myanmar Boundary
This boundary runs roughly along the watershed between the Brahmaputra and
Ayeyarwady [Irrawaddy].
It passes through thickly forested regions, with Mizo Hills, Manipur and Nagaland on
the Indian side and Chin Hills, Naga Hills and Kachin state on the Myanmar side.
India and Sri Lanka are separated from each other by a narrow and shallow sea
called Palk Strait.
Dhanushkodi on the Tamil Nadu coast in India is only 32 km away from Talaimanar
in Jaffna peninsula in Sri Lanka. These two points are joined by a group of islets
forming Adam's Bridge.
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In this post: Archaean Rock System, Archaean Gneisses and Schists, Dharwar System,
Purana Rock System, Cuddapah System, Vindhyan System, Dravidian Rock System,
Carboniferous rocks, Carboniferous Coal, Aryan Rock System, Gondwana System,
Gondwana Coal, Jurassic System, Deccan Trap, Tertiary System etc..
2.
3.
4.
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Rocks formed due to solidification of molten magma the earths surface was very
hot then.
Known as the Basement Complex [They are the oldest and forms the base for new
layers]
Azoic or unfossiliferous,
Formation period ranges from 4 billion years ago to 1 billion years ago.
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Economically the most important rocks because they possess valuable minerals
like high grade iron-ore, manganese, copper, lead, gold, etc.
Includes two divisions: the Cuddapah System and the Vindhyan System.
Cuddapah System
These rocks contain ores of iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel, etc.
This system derives its name from the great Vindhyan mountains.
Mostly Unfossiliferous.
The Vindhayan system have diamond bearing regions from which Panna and
Golconda diamonds have been mined.
Found in the Extra Peninsular region (Himalayas and Ganga plain) and are very
rare in Peninsular India. [The name Dravidian doesnt mean they are found in South
India]
Abundant fossils.
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The Carboniferous rocks (350 million years) comprise mainly of limestone, shale and
quartzite.
Carboniferous in geology means coal bearing. [most of the coal found in India is not
of Carboniferous period; High quality coal of Great Lakes Region-USA, U.K and
Ruhr region is Carboniferous coal].
Gondwana System
The Gondwana System [derives its name Gonds, the most primitive people of
Telangana and Andhra Pradesh]
They are deposits laid down in synclinal troughs on ancient plateau surface.
Fresh water and sediments accumulated in these trough and terrestrial plants and
animals thrived.
Gondwana Coal
Gondwana coal is much younger than the Carboniferous coal and hence its carbon
content is low.
They have rich deposits of iron ore, copper, uranium and antimony also.
Jurassic System
The marine transgression in the latter part of the Jurassic gave rise to thick series of
shallow water deposits in Rajasthan and in Kuchchh.
Another transgression on the east coast of the Peninsula is found between Guntur
and Rajahmundry.
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Deccan Trap
Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India from the end of the
Cretaceous till the beginning of the Eocene gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
These volcanic deposits have flat top and steep sides and therefore called trap
meaning a stair or step in Swedish.
The process of weathering and erosion (denudation) since millions of years has
reduced the Deccan Trap to almost half of its original size.
Thickness of the Deccan Traps is 3,000 metres along the west which is reduced to
600-800 metres towards the south, 800 metres in Kuchchh and only 150 metres at
the eastern limit.
The weathering of these rocks for a long time has given birth to black cotton soil
known as regur.
Found in
Inter-trappean
beds
Present
Layers of
volcanic ash
Present
Very rare to
Present
Malwa
absent
Maharashtra and
Saurashtra
Present
Very rare to
absent
Tertiary System
The tertiary is the most significant period in India's geological history because the
Himalayas were born and India's present form came into being in this period.
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In his post: Major Physical Divisions of India Himalayas - Himalayan Ranges: Shiwaliks or
outer Himalayas, Lesser or Middle Himalayas, Greater Himalayas, Trans-Himalayas or
Tibetan Himalayas and Eastern Hills or Purvanchal.
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Peninsular Plateau
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Includes the entire south India, central India, Aravalis, Rajmahal hills, Meghalaya
plateau, Kuchchh-Kathiawar region (Gujarat) etc..
Himalayas
Includes the Himalayas, Purvanchal and their extensions Arakan Yoma (Myanmar)
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands (but we will consider these as islands only).
Indo-Gangetic Plain
Most youthful, monotonous [lack of change or variety] region prone to tectonic forces.
Coastal Plains
Indian Islands
Andaman and Nicobar islands Continuation of Arakan Yoma. Has active volcanoes
and is tectonically active.
Type of Topography
Extent in %
10.7
18.6
27.7
Plains
43
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Himalayan Ranges
The ranges are separated by deep valleys creating a highly dissected topography [(of
a plateau or upland) divided by a number of deep valleys].
The southern slopes have steep gradients and northern slopes have comparatively
gentler slopes. [Scaling Mount Everest is less hectic from the northern side. But China
puts restrictions so climbers take the steeper southern slopes from Nepal]
Most of the Himalayan ranges fall in India, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern slopes
are partly situated in Tibet (trans-Himalayas) while the western extremity lies in
Pakistan, Afghanistan and Central Asia.
Himalayas between Tibet and Ganga Plain is a succession of three parallel ranges.
Shiwalik Range
Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra
valley.
The southern slopes are steep while the northern slopes are gentle.
The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than
15 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
They are almost unbroken chain of low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is
occupied by the valley of the Tista River and Raidak River.
Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick forests but
the forest cover decreases towards west from Nepal (The quantum of rainfall
decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks and Ganga Plains).
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The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost
devoid of forest cover. These slopes are highly dissected by seasonal streams called
Chos.
Valleys are part of synclines and hills are part of anticlines or antisynclines.
Shiwaliks were formed last of all the ranges (2-20 million years ago).
The Shiwaliks are consolidated sands, gravels and conglomerate deposits [Alluvial
fans] which were brought by the rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
These deposits were folded and hardened due to compression offered by the
northward movement of Indian plate.
Name of Shiwaliks
Jammu Region
Jammu Hills
Arunachal Pradesh
Uttarakhand
Nepal
Shiwalik Hills were formed by the accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone, silt,
gravel, debris etc.).
These conglomerates, in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed the courses of the
rivers draining from the higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed temporary
lakes.
With passage of time, these temporary lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were well settled at the bottom of the lakes.
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When the rivers were able to cut their courses through the lakes filled with
conglomerate deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving behind plains called
duns or doons in the west and duars in the east.
Dehra Dun in Uttarakhand is the best example [75 km long and 15-20 km wide]
Kotah, Patli Kothri, Chumbi, Kyarda, Chaukhamba, Udhampur and Kotli are other
important duns.
In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Greater Himalayas in the north.
Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and about 2400 km in length.
Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above sea level and are snow covered throughout
the year.
Lower Himalayas have steep, bare southern slopes [steep slopes prevents soil
formation] and more gentle, forest covered northern slopes.
In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag
Tibba ranges.
East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills
represent the lower Himalayas.
Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital,
Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are located here.
Important ranges of Lesser Himalayas
The Pir Panjal Range
Region
Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the
south of Kashmir Valley)
Himachal Pradesh
Nepal
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The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range.
It extends from the Jhelum river to the upper Beas river for over 300 km.
Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal
Pass (2,835 m).
The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the Chenab cut through the range.
Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing
through Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and Shimla.
Important Valleys
Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies the valley of
Kashmir. (average elevation is 1,585 m above mean sea level)
The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits],
fluvial [river action] and glacial deposits. {Fluvial Landforms, Glacial Landforms}
Jehlum River meanders through these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir Panjal
through which it drains. (Kashmir is like a basin with very few outlets)
In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and extends from
the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to the south of Beas.
On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the upper course of the Ravi is transverse
valley.
In contrast, transverse streams cut valleys parallel to the slope (along the dip).
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Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and an average width of about 25 km.
The folds in this range are asymmetrical with steep south slope and gentle north
slope giving 'hog back (a long, steep hill or mountain ridge)' topography.
This mountain arc convexes to the south just like the other two.
Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north-west
and the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world, most of which remain
under perpetual snow.
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Region
Everest
Sagarmatha (The Goddess Nepal
of the Sky)
Chomlungma
(Mother
of China (Tibet)
the World)
Mount Everest was first located by George Everest, the then Surveyor General of
India in 1841 and in 1852 it was established as the highest peak of the world by the
Great Trigonometrical Survey of India.
The passes because they are generally higher than 4,570 m above sea level and are
snowbound for most of the year.
State
Jammu and Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
1. Bara Lacha La
2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting Shimla with
Gartok in Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand
1. Thaga La
2. Niti Pass
3. Lipu Lekh
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Sikkim
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1. Nathu La
2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near
Darjeeling) with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386
m)]
The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the Karakoram are the main ranges.
The average width of this region is 40 km at the extremities and about 225 km in the
central part.
The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range which is in The Zaskar Range.
North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a few
peaks of this range attain heights of over 6000 metres.
The northern most range of the Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great
Karakoram Range also known as the Krishnagiri range.
Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range
with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It is the abode of some of the
greatest glaciers of the world outside the polar regions.
Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 metre above sea level. K2 (8,611 m)[Godwin
Austen or Qogir] is the second highest peak in the world and the highest peak in the
Indian Union.
The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of the Karakoram Range. It has been
dissected into a number of plains and mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi
Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang Chenmo]
Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the southward extension of Himalayas running
along the north-eastern edge of India.
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At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a
series of comparatively low hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the
north to Mizoram in the south.
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Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m to
3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.
Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills which are generally less than 2,500 metres
in elevation.
Further south the Barail Range swings to west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills
which are an eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular block. They are
separated from the main block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai hills)
which have an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue
Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.
Himalayas extend in the east-west direction from the Indus gorge in the west to the
Brahmaputra gorge in the east.
Himalayan ranges take sharp southward bends at these gorges. These bends are
called syntaxial bends of the Himalayas.
The western syntaxial bend occurs near the Naga Parbat (Karakoram range) where
the Indus river has cut a deep gorge.
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Punjab Himalayas
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All the major rivers of Indus river system flow through Punjab Himalayas.
Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar are the major ranges in
this section.
Assam Himalayas
The southern slopes are very steep but the northern slopes are gentle.
The Lesser Himalayas are very narrow and are very close to the Great
Himalayas.
Western Himalayas
Between the Indus in the west and the Kali river in the east (880 km).
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Spread across three states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand.
The Ladakh plateau and the Kashmir valley are two important areas of the Kashmir
Himalayan region.
The southern slopes are rugged, steep and forested while the northern slopes are
bare, gentle and show plains with lakes.
The Kumaon Himalayas lie in Uttarakhand and extend from the Satluj to the Kali
river.
The Shiwalik in this region runs south of the Mussoori range between the Ganga and
the Yamuna rivers.
The flat valleys between the Lesser Himalaya and the Shiwalik range are called
doons or Duns of which Dehra Dun is the most famous.
Central Himalayas
800 km between river Kali in the west and river Tista in the east.
Some of the world famous peaks Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapurna,
Gosainthan and Dhaulagiri are located here.
In between the Great and the Lesser Himalayas, there are Kathmandu and Pokhra
lacustrine valleys (previously, they were lakes).
The Shiwalik range come very close to the lesser Himalaya towards the east and is
almost non-existent beyond Narayani (Gandak).
Eastern Himalayas
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This part of the Himalayas lies between the Tista river in the west and the
Brahmaputra river in the east and stretches for a distance of about 720 km.
Also known as the Assam Himalayas, the Eastern Himalayas occupy mainly the
areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.
The Assam Himalayas show a marked dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy
rainfall.
The Himalayas take a sudden southward turn after the Dihang gorge and the hill
ranges running in more or less north-south direction along India's border with
Myanmar are collectively known as the Purvanchal.
These are known by various local names such as Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Kohima hills,
Manipur hills, Mizo hills (previously known as the Lushai hills), Tripura hills and
Barail range.
The extension of the Purvanchal Himalaya continues southwards upto Andaman and
Nicobar Islands through the Myanmar range (Arakan Yoma) and even upto the
Indonesian archipelago.
In the eastern section the Himalayas rise abruptly from the plains of Bengal and
Oudh and suddenly attain great elevations within a short distance from the foot of
the mountains. Thus the peaks of Kanchenjunga and Everest are only a few
kilometres from the plains and are clearly visible from there.
In contrast, the western Himalayas rise gradually from the plains through a series of
ranges. Their peaks of perpetual snow are 150 to 200 km away from the plain areas.
the Dun valley (Doon valley, Dehradun valley); the Bhagirathi valley (near
Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley (near Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand and
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Karewas
Karewas are lacustrine deposits [deposits in lake] in the Valley of Kashmir and in
Bhadarwah Valley of the Jammu Division.
These are the flat topped mounds that border the Kashmir Valley on all sides.
Formation
During the Pleistocene Period (1 million years ago), the entire Valley of Kashmir was
under water.
Subsequently, due to endogenetic forces, the Baramullah Gorge was created and the
lake was drained through this gorge.
In fact, the karewas have been elevated, dissected and removed by subaerial
denudation as well as by the Jhelum river giving them the present position.
Economic Significance
The karewas are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron, almond, walnut, apple
and orchards.
The karewas, devoted to saffron cultivation are fetching good income to the growers.
In Eastern Himalayas and Kumaon Himalays the snowline is around 3,500 m above sea
level whereas in western Himalays snowline is about 2,500 m above sea level.
In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snow line is at lower elevation on the southern
slopes than on the northern slopes because the southern slopes are steeper and
receive more precipitation as compared to the northern slopes.
Glaciers in Himalayas
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Total area of Himalayas is about five lakh square kilometres (Area of India is nearly 32
lakh sq km). About 33,000 sq km area is covered by snow.
The snow line (the lowest level of perpetual snow) varies in different parts of the
Himalayas depending upon latitude, amount of precipitation and local topography.
Some of the largest glaciers outside the polar and sub-polar regions are found in this
range. The southern side of this range has many gigantic glaciers.
The 75 km long Siachen Glacier in Nubra valley has the distinction of being the
largest glacier outside the polar and the sub-polar regions.
Third largest is the Hispar Glacier. It is 62 km long and occupies a tributary of the
Hunza River.
The glaciers of the Pir Panjal Range are less numerous and smaller in size as compared
to those of the Karakoram Range.
The longest Sonapani Glacier in the Chandra Valley of Lahul and Spiti region is only
15 km long.
In the Kumaon-Garhwal region of the Himalayas, the largest is the 30 km long Gangotri
Glacier which is the source of the holy Ganga.
Garhwal Region
Lying in the Himalayas, it is bounded on the north by Tibet, on the east by Kumaon
region, on the south by Uttar Pradesh state, and on the northwest by Himachal
Pradesh state.
It
includes
the
districts
of
Chamoli,
Dehradun,
Haridwar,
Pauri
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They intercept the summer monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea
causing precipitation in the entire Ganga Plains, North-Eastern Hills.
They direct the monsoon winds towards north-western India (Punjab, Haryana etc..
But these regions receive most of the rainfall due to Western Disturbances coming from
the Mediterranean regions).
They protect northern-plains from the cold continental air masses of central Asia.
The Himalayas influence the path of Sub-tropical Jet stream flowing in the region. They
split the jet stream and this split jet stream plays an important role in bring monsoons
to India.
Had there been no Himalayas, the whole of India would have been a desert and its
winters would have been very severe. [Mechanism of monsoons will be explained in
detail later]
Defense
But the Chinese aggression on India in 1962 has reduced the defense significance of the
Himalayas.
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Source of Rivers
Rivers that feed nearly half a billion population of India originate in Himalayas. [we will
study this in detail later in drainage system]
Fertile Soil
The swift flowing rivers from Himalayas bring enormous amount of silt (alluvium) which
constantly enrich the Ganaga and Bramhaputra plains.
Hydroelectricity
Due to its natural topography and swift flowing perennial rivers, the Himalayan region
offers several natural sites with great hydroelectric power generation potential.
Forest Wealth
The Himalayan host rich coniferous and evergreen forests. Lower levels have tropical
evergreen forests and higher levels have Alpine vegetation (Coniferous).
The Himalayan forests provide fuel wood and a large variety of timber for industries.
Several patches are covered with grass offering rich pastures for grazing animals.
Agriculture
Due to rugged and sloped terrain, the Himalayas are not potential agricultural sites.
Some slopes are terraced for cultivation. Rice is the main crop on the terraced slopes.
The other crops are wheat, maize, potatoes, etc.
Tea is a unique crop which can be grown only on the Shiwalik hill slopes in the region.
Fruit cultivation is a major occupation. A wide variety of fruits such as apples, pears,
grapes, mulberry, walnut, cherries, peaches, apricot, etc. are also grown in the
Himalayan region.
Tourism
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The hilly areas in the Himalayas are not affected by hot winds like loo. Hence they offer
cool and comfortable climate.
The increasing popularity of winter sports has increased the rush of tourists in winters.
Cultural Tourism
Geosynclinical deposits in tertiary rocks are regions of potential coal and oil reserves.
Coal is found in Kashmir, Copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, limestone, semi-precious and
precious stones occur at some places in the Himalayas.
But the exploitation of these resources require advanced technologies which are not yet
available.
Also, disturbing such a fragile environment leads to more pain than gain (present
hydroelectric power projects have already proved this).
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Most of the passes remain closed in winter (Nov Apr) due to heavy snow fall.
COMMENTS
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Mintaka
Pass
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Khunjerab
Indo-China border
Pass
Aghil Pass
(Sinkiang) Province of
China
Banihal
Pass
2832 m
Chang-La
altitude of 5360 m
Khardung
La
Ladakh range
5602 m
Lanak La
(Akasai-Chin area of
Pir-Panjal
pass
range
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Indo-China borer
Range
Imis La
Pensi La
Kargil
Zoji La
between Srinagar on
one side and Kargil
side
Bara Lacha
La
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Elevation: 4,890 m
and Jammu and
Kashmir
National
highway
connecting
Mandi
in
Debsa Pass
Rohtang
Pass
Elevation: 3979 m
Border
Valleys
Road
Organisation
(BRO)
is
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Lipu Lekh
Himachal Pradesh
Elevation: 6000 m
and Tibet
trijunction of
Uttarakhand (India),
Uttarakhand
This pass is used by pilgrims to KailashMansarowar.
Uttarakhand with
elevation of 5610
Tibet
Mangsha
Dhura
Niti Pass
Uttarakhand with
Tibet
Mansarowar
Uttarakhand with
Tibet
Muling La
Uttarakhand and
Tibet
Sikkim
altitude of 4310 m
Jelep La
Sikkim-Bhutan border
altitude of 4538 m
passes through Chumbi Valley
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Bom Di La
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Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
altitude of 4331 m
with Bhutan
Dihang
Pass
Yonggyap
Pass
Arunachal Pradesh
and Myanmar.
Arunachal Pradesh
with Tibet
Kumjawng
Pass
Hpungan
Pass
Chankan
Pass
Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
Arunachal Pradesh
with Myanmar
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The rivers which were previously flowing into Tethys sea (Before Indian Plate collided
with Eurasian Plate continental drift, plate tectonics) deposited huge amount of
sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline. [Geosyncline a huge depression]
Himalayas are formed out of these sediments which were uplifted, folded and
compressed due to northern movement of Indian Plate.
Northern movement of Indian Plate also created a trough to the south of Himalayas.
Depositional Activity
During the initial stages of upliftment of sediments, the already existing rivers
changed their course several times and they were rejuvenated each time (perpetual
youth stage of rivers {Fluvial Landforms}).
Headward erosion and vertical erosion of the river valley in the initial stages, lateral
erosion in later stages contributed huge amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock
debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried downslope.
[Head ward erosion == Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the
origin to move back away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the
stream channel to lengthen]
The raising of Himalayas and subsequent formation of glaciers gave rise to many new
rivers. These rivers along with glacial erosion {Glacial Landforms}, supplied more
alluvium which intensified the filling of the depression.
With the accumulation of more and more sediments (conglomerates), the Tethys sea
started receding.
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With passage of the time, the depression was completely filled with alluvium, gravel,
rock debris (conglomerates) and the Tethys completely disappeared leaving behind a
monotonous aggradational plain.
Upper peninsular rivers have also contributed to the formation of plains, but to a
very small extent.
During the recent times (since few million years), depositional work of three major
river systems viz., the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra have become
predominant.
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It stretches for about 3,200 km from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the
Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts for 2,400 km.
The northern boundary is well marked by the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary
is a wavy irregular line along the northern edge of the Peninsular India.
The western boarder is marked by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the eastern
side, the plains are bordered by Purvanchal hills.
The width of the plain varies from region to region. It is widest in the west where it
stretches for about 500 km. Its width decreases in the east.
The thickness of the alluvium deposits also vary from place to place. The maximum
depth of the alluvium up to the basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not uniform and
varies greatly from place to place).
The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the north and those of Son in the south exhibit
greater alluvial thickness while the intra-cone areas have relatively shallower
deposits.
Its average elevation is about 200 m above mean sea level, highest elevation being
291 m above mean sea level near Ambala (This elevation forms the drainage
divide or watershed between Indus system and Ganga system).
It is about 8-16 km wide running in east-west direction along the foothills (alluvial
fans) of the Shiwaliks.
Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the
form of alluvial fans.
These alluvial fans have merged together to build up the bhabar belt.
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The porosity is due to deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock debris across
the alluvial fans.
The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity.
Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the western
and north-western hilly region.
The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in
this belt.
The Terai
Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the
south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
This thickly forested region provides shelter to a variety of wild life. [Jim Corbett
National Park in Uttarakhand and Kaziranga National Park in Assam lie in terai
region]
The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than in the west because the eastern
parts receive comparatively higher amount of rainfall.
Most of the Terai land, especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand, has
been turned into agricultural land which gives good crops of sugarcane, rice and
wheat.
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The Bhangar
The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher
than the flood plain.
The terraces are often impregnated with calcareous concretions known as KANKAR.
The Barind plains in the deltaic region of Bengal and the bhur formations in the
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
[Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the banks of the Ganga river
especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due to
accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot dry months of the year]
The Khadar
The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the
river banks.
Reh or Kollar
Reh areas have spread in recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary action
brings salts to the surface).
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Dhors: Long narrow depressions which are the remnants of the course of former
rivers.
Rajasthan Plain
This plain is an undulating plain [wave like] whose average elevation is about 325
m above mean sea level.
The desert region is called Marusthali and forms a greater part of the Marwar plain.
It has a few outcrops of gneisses, schists and granites which proves that geologically
it is a part of the Peninsular Plateau. It is only at the surface that it looks like an
aggradational plain.
In general, the eastern part of the Marusthali is rocky while its western part is
covered by shifting sand dunes locally known as dhrian.
The eastern part of the Thar Desert up to the Aravali Range is a semi-arid plain
known as Rajasthan Bagar.
It is drained by a number of short seasonal streams originating from the Aravali and
supports agriculture in some patches of fertile tracts.
Luni is an important seasonal stream which flows into Rann of Kuchchh. The tract
north of the Luni is known as thali or sandy plain.
Saline Lakes
North of the Luni, there is inland drainage having several saline lakes. They are a
source of common salt and many other salts.
Sambhar, Didwana, Degana, Kuchaman, etc. are some of the important lakes. The
largest is the Sambhar lake near Jaipur.
Punjab Plain
The plain is primarily made up of doabs the land between two rivers.
The depositional process by the rivers has united these doabs giving an homogenous
appearance.
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Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the following rivers: the
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
The average elevation of the plain is about 250 m above mean sea level.
Aravali ridge.
The northern part of this plain [Shiwalik hills] has been intensively eroded by
numerous streams called Chos. This has led to enormous gullying [Arid Landforms].
The area between the Ghaggar and the Yamuna rivers lies in Haryana and often
termed as Haryana Tract. It acts as water-divide between the Yamuna and the
Satluj rivers.
The only river between the Yamuna and the Satluj is the Ghaggar which is
considered to be the present day Successor of the legendary Saraswati River
Ganga Plain
This is the largest unit of the Great Plain of India stretching from Delhi to Kolkata
(about 3.75 lakh sq km).
The Ganga along with its large number of tributaries originating in the Himalayans
have brought large quantities of alluvium from the mountains and deposited it here
to build this extensive plain.
The peninsular rivers such as Chambal, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc. joining the Ganga river
system have also contributed to the formation of this plain.
The general slope of the entire plain is to the east and south east.
Rivers flow sluggishly in the lower sections of Ganges as a result of which the area is
marked by local prominences such as levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes,
ravines, etc. {Fluvial Landforms, Arid Landfroms}
Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to
frequent floods. The Kosi river is very notorious in this respect. It has long been
called the Sorrow of Bihar.
Rohilkhand plains
Avadh Plains
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Mithila Plain
Magadh Plain.
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Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta
The Ganga river divides itself into several channels in the delta area. The slope of the
land here is a mere 2 cm per km. Two thirds of the area is below 30 m above mean
sea level. [Highly vulnerable to sea level changes]
The seaward face of the delta is studded with a large number of estuaries, mud flats,
mangrove swamps, sandbanks, islands and forelands.
Large part of the coastal delta is covered tidal forests. These are called the
Sunderbans because of the predominance of Sundri tree here.
Brahmaputra Plain
This is also known as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam Valley or Assam Plain as
most of the Brahmaputra valley is situated in Assam.
The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra river coming from the north form a
number of alluvial fans. Consequently, the tributaries branch out in many channels
giving birth to river meandering leading to formation of bill and ox-bow lakes.
There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse
alluvial debris have led to the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.
This one fourth of the land of the country hosts half of the Indian population.
Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow moving perennial rivers and favorable climate
facilitate intense agricultural activity.
The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar
Pradesh the granary of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
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The entire plain except the Thar Desert, has a close network of roads and railways
which has led to large scale industrialization and urbanization.
Cultural tourism: There are many religious places along the banks of the sacred
rivers like the Ganga and the Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. Here flourished
the religions of Budha and Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti and Sufism.
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In this post: Peninsular Plateau Features of the Peninsular Plateau Marwar Plateau or
Mewar Plateau, Central Highland, Bundelkhand Upland, Malwa Plateau, Baghelkhand,
Chotanagpur
Plateau,
Meghalaya
Plateau,
Deccan
Plateau,
Peninsular Plateau
Maharashtra
Plateau,
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Roughly triangular in shape with its base coinciding with the southern edge of the
great plain of North India. Apex of the triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
The average height of the plateau is 600-900 m above sea level (varies from region to
region).
Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating its general slope.
Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which flow from east to west in a rift (rift is
caused by divergent boundary (Go back to Interaction of plates).
It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and schists
{Rock System}.
It has been a stable shield which has gone through little structural changes since its
formation.
Since few hundred million years, Peninsular block has been a land area and has
never been submerged beneath the sea except in a few places.
The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level and it slopes down eastwards.
The Banas river, along with its tributaries [Berach river, Khari rivers] originate in
the Aravali Range and flow towards northwest into Chambal river. The erosional
activity of these rives make the plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
[Rolling Plain: Rolling plains are not completely flat: there are slight rises and fall
in the land form. Ex: Prairies of USA]
Central Highland
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Most of plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal river which flows in a rift
valley.
The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing through
Mewar plateau and The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh are its
main tributaries.
It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow
here.
To the north are the ravines or badlands of the Chambal river [They are typical to
Chambal river basin]{ Arid landforms}.
Bundelkhand Upland
Yamuna river to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan Scarplands
to the east and south-east and Malwa Plateau to the south.
It is the old dissected (divided by a number of deep valleys) upland of the Bundelkhand
gneiss comprising of granite and gneiss.
Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh.
Average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from the
Vindhyan Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hill) made of granite and sandstone.
The erosional work of the rivers flowing here have converted it into an undulating
(wave like surface) area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow through the plateau.
Malwa Plateau
The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by
the Aravali Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north and
Bundelkhand to the east.
This plateau has two systems of drainage; one towards the Arabian sea (The
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi), and the other towards the Bay of Bengal
(Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
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In the north it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries like
the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of the Sindh,
the Ken and the Betwa.
The general slope is towards the north [decreases from 600 m in the south to less
than 500 m in the north]
This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by
the Chambal ravines.
Baghelkhand
Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and granite in the east.
The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage
system in the north and the Mahanadi river system in the south.
The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m.
The general horizontality of the strata shows that this area has not undergone any
major disturbance.
Chotanagpur Plateau
Peninsula.
The Son river flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga.
The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in different directions and
presents a radial drainage pattern. {Drainage Pattern}
Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel, the South Koel and
the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins.
The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to
east. Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk of coal in India.
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North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of
600 m above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain
due to large scale erosion.
The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m above
mean sea level. Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m) is
located.
At places it is interruped by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock rising
above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia)
The Rajmahal Hills forming the north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are
mostly made of basalt and are covered by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}.
They run in north-south direction and rise to average elevation of 400 m (highest
mount is 567 m). These hills have been dissected into separate plateaus.
Meghalaya Plateau
The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from
Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
This gap was formed by down-faulting (normal fault: a block of earth slides
downwards). It was later filled by sediments deposited by the Ganga and
Brahmaputa.
The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and
Meghna valleys in the south.
Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border.
The western, central and the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo
Hills (900 m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m).
Deccan Plateau
It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the
north-west, the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the
west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
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Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers.
Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.
Maharashtra Plateau
Much of the region is underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of the Deccan
Traps lies in this region].
The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap
topography [step like].
The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are
flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges.
Karnataka Plateau
The area looks like a rolling plateau with an average elevation of 600-900 m.
The general trend of the hills is either parallel to the Western Ghats or across it.
The plateau is divided into two parts called Malnad and Maidan.
The Malnad in Kannada means hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys covered
with dense forests.
The Maidan on the other hand is formed of rolling plain with low granite hills.
The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south
and merges with the Niligiri hills there.
Telangana plateau
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The region is drained by three river systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Penneru.
The entire plateau is divided into Ghats and the Peneplains (a vast featureless,
undulating plain which the last stage of deposition process).
Chhattisgarh Plain
The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the Peninsular plateau.
The whole basin lies between the Maikala Range and the Odisha hills.
The region was once ruled by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty six forts
(Chhattisgarh) it derives its name.
The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shales.
The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the west.
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In this post: Hills of Peninsular India - Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western Ghats,
Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats. Hill Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau - Aravali Range, Vindhyan
Range, Satpura Range, Western Ghats [Sahyadris] and Eastern Ghats.
Most of the hills in the peninsular region are of the relict type (residual hills).
They are the remnants of the hills and horsts formed many million years ago (horst:
uplifted block; graben: subsided block).
The plateaus of the Peninsular region are separated from one another by these hill
ranges and various river valleys.
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Aravali Range
They run for about 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat.
They are one of the oldest (very old) fold mountains of the world and the oldest in
India. {Fold Mountains Block Mountains}
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After its formation in Archaean Era (several 100 million years ago), its summits were
nourishing glaciers and several summits were probably higher than the present day
Himalayas.
Now they are relict (remnants after severe weathering and erosion since millions of
years) of the world's oldest mountain formed as a result of folding (Archaean Era).
Lakshadweep Archipelago through the Gulf of Khambhat and the other into Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
Its general elevation is only 400-600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m.
At the south-west extremity the range rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu (1,158
m), a small hilly block, is separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas.
Guru Sikhar (1,722 m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu.
Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movement by roads and railways.
Vindhyan Range
The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a view of from above) the Narmada valley, rises as
an escarpment (a long, steep slope at the edge of a plateau or separating areas of land at different heights )
flanking (neighboring on one side) the northern edge of the Narmada-Son Trough
(the rift through which the Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of ridge. It is a
narrow depression).
It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada Valley in an east-west direction from
Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over 1,200 km.
Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary
rocks of ancient age. {Rock System}
The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river systems of
south India.
The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise within 30 km of the Narmada.
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Satpura Range
Satpura range is a series of seven mountains (Sat = seven and pura = mountains)
It runs in an east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada
and the Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers.
Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and upheaved. They are regarded as
structural uplift or horst.
Run from the Tapi valley (21 N latitude) to a little north of Kanniyakumari (11 N
latitude) for a distance of 1,600 km.
The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a stepped
topography facing the Arabian Sea coast.
This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which on weathering, have given a
characteristic landing stair aspect to the relief of this mountain chain.
The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average elevation of 1,000 m
from the Western Coastal Plain.
But they slope gently on their eastern flank and hardly appear to be a mountain
when viewed from the Deccan tableland.
South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai, etc. present quite different landscape due to
the difference in geological structure.
The northern section of the Ghats from Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made of
horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas (Deccan Traps).
The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level, but
some peaks attain more heights.
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Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes which provide passage by road and
rail between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east.
The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16N latitude upto Nilgiri hills.
The western scarp is considerably dissected by headward erosion of the west flowing
streams.
The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 m)
are important peaks.
The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala
and TN, rise abruptly to over 2,000 m.
They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with Eastern Ghats.
Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are important peaks of this area.
The southern part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri range
by Pal ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap].
Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is used by a number of roads and railway
lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala.
It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon can
penetrate some distance inland, bringing rain to Mysore region.
South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged slopes on
both the eastern and western sides of the Ghats.
Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India.
Three ranges radiate in different directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the
Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north-east
and the Cardamom Hills or the Ealaimalai to the south.
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Eastern Ghats
Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India leaving broad plains
between their base and the coast.
It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in
Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear between the Godavari and
the Krishna.
They neither have structural unity nor physiographic continuity. Therefore these hill
groups are generally treated as independent units.
It is only in the northern part, between the Mahanadi and the Godavari that the
Eastern Ghats exhibit true mountain character. This part comprises the Maliya and
the Madugula Konda ranges.
The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m
and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.
The Madugula Konda range has higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m and 1,400 m
with several peaks exceeding 1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Araku Valley
Arma Konda (1,680 m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram Gutta (1,620 m) are
important peaks.
Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly
character and are occupied by Gondwana formations (KG Basin is here).
The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah
and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh where they are called as Nallamalai Range
[Naxalite hideout in AP] with general elevation of 600-850 m.
To the south, the hills and plateaus attain very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m elevation.
Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.
There are huge deposits of iron, manganese. copper, bauxite, chromium, mica, gold,
etc.
98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular
Plateau.
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Besides there are large reserves of slate, shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
A large part of north-west plateau is covered with fertile black lava soil which is
extremely useful for growing cotton.
Some hilly regions in south India are suitable for the cultivation of plantation crops
like tea, coffee, rubber, etc..
Some low lying areas of the plateau are suitable for growing rice.
The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests which provide
a large variety of forest products.
The rivers originating in the Western Ghats offer great opportunity for developing
hydroelectricity and providing irrigation facilities to the agricultural crops.
The plateau is also known for its hill resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty),
Panchmarhi, Kodaikanal, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron, Mount Abu, etc.
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In this post: Coastline of India Indian Coastline - East Coast of India, West Coast of India,
Coastlines: Coastlines of Emergence and Submergence; Western Coastal Plains Kutch and
Kathiawar region: Gujarat Plain, Konkan Plain, Karnataka Coastal Plain and Kerala Plain;
Eastern Coastal Plains of India: Utkal Plain, Andhra Plain and Tamil Nadu Plain;
Significance of the Coastal Plains.
The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of faulting of the
Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous period. {Continental Drift}
As such the coast of India does not offer many sites for good natural harbours.
[Indented coastlines of Europe provide good natural harbours whereas African and
Indian coastlines are not indented].
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea came into being during the Cretaceous or
early Tertiary period after the disintegration of Gondwanaland.
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It is marked by deltas of rivers like the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery.
Chilka lake and the Pulicat lake (lagoon) are the important geographical features of
east coast.
From the southern limit of the Utkal plain, stretch the Andhra coast.
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The Tamil Nadu coast and parts of Andhra coast together are known as Coramandal
Coast or Payan Ghat [False Divi Point in AP (Krishna River Delta) in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south.].
The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the
north to Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari).
Starting from north to south, it is divided into (i) the Konkan coast, (ii) the
Karnataka coast and (iii) the Kerala cost.
It is made up of alluvium brought down by the short streams originating from the
Western Ghats.
It is dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered
waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh )
Landforms}
The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the
largest being the Vembanad Lake.
Coastlines
Already explained in Marine Landforms. I am discussing here for continuity.
1. Coastline of Emergence
2. Coastline of Submergence
Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical
features of emergence. {Marine Landforms}
The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears
to be a coast of emergence.
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The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent.
The northern portion of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the
southern portion, that is the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.
1. Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) ==> Coastline of emergence
2. Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) ==> Coastline of emergence
3. Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) ==> Coastline of submergence.
The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. These seas and
lagoons were later filled by sediment brought by the Indus River which used to flow
through this area. Lack of rains in recent times has turned it into arid and semi-arid
landscape.
Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern continuation,
known as the Little Rann lies on the coast and south-east of Kachchh.
The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kachchh. The central part is a
highland of Mandav Hills from which small streams radiate in all directions (Radial
Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) is the highest point and is of volcanic origin.
The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is
covered with dense forests and is famous as home of the Gir lion.
Gujarat Plain
The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes towards the west
and south west.
Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes the
southern part of Gujarat and the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
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The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support agriculture, but the greater
part near the coast is covered by windblown loess (heaps of sand).
Konkan Plain
The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80
km wide).
It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in
the Arabian Sea.
Goa to Mangalore.
It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km
near Mangalore.
At some places the streams originating in the Western Ghats descend along steep
slopes and make waterfalls.
The Sharavati while descending over such a steep slope makes an impressive
waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. [Angel falls (979 m)
in Venezuela is the highest waterfall on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in Drakensberg
mountains in South Africa is the second highest.]
Kerala Plain
This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a low lying plain.
The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the
sea, lying parallel to the coastline.
The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10
km wide and gives rise to a 55 km long spit {Marine Landforms}.
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Extending from the Subarnarekha river along the West Bengal-Odisha border to
Kanniyakumari.
A major part of the plains is formed as a result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral
zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Cauvery comprising some of the largest deltas.
In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these are extensive plains with an average
width of 120 km.
This plain is known as the Northern Circars between the Mahanadi and the Krishna
rivers and Carnatic between the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
Utkal Plain
The most prominent physiographic feature of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
It is the biggest lake in the country and its area varies between 780 sq km in winter
to 1,144 sq km in the monsoon months.
Andhra Plain
South of the Utkal Plain and extends upto Pulicat Lake. This lake has been barred
by a long sand spit known as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch facility).
The most significant feature of this plain is the delta formation by the rivers Godavari
and Krishna.
The two deltas have merged with each other and formed a single physiographic unit.
The combined delta has advanced by about 35 km towards the sea during the recent
years. This is clear from the present location of the Kolleru Lake which was once a
lagoon at the shore but now lies far inland {Coastline of Emergence}.
This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly lacks good harbours with the
exception of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.
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The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from Pulicat lake to Kanniyakumari along
the coast of Tamil Nadu. Its average width is 100 km.
The most important feature of this plain is the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130
km wide.
The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities have made the Cauvery delta the
granary of South India.
Large parts of the coastal plains of India are covered by fertile soils on which different
crops are grown. Rice is the main crop of these areas.
The entire length of the coast is dotted with big and small ports which help in
carrying out trade.
The sedimentary rocks of these plains are said to contain large deposits of mineral oil
(KG Basin).
The sands of Kerala coast have large quantity of MONAZITE which is used for
nuclear power.
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In this post: Indian Islands - Andaman and Nicobar islands - Lakshadweep Islands - New
Moore Island.
Indian Islands
The major islands groups of India are Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago (A chain of
islands similar in origin) in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep islands in Arabian Sea.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed due to collision between Indian Plate
and Burma Minor Plate [part of Eurasian Plate][Similar to formation of
Himalayas].
Andaman and Nicobar Islands are southward extension of Arakan Yoma range
[Myanmar][Arakan Yoma in itself is an extension of Purvanchal Hills].
Lakshadweep Islands are coral islands. These islands are a part Reunion Hotspot
volcanism. [Both these concepts are explained in previous posts]
Other than these two groups there are islands in Indo-Gangetic Delta [they are more
a part of delta than islands] and between India and Sri Lanka [Remnants of Adams
Bridge; formed due to submergence].
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This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands [203 Andaman islands +
62 Nicobar Islands][Numbers are just for understanding. You need not remember trivial
facts].
The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend from 6 45' N to 13 45' N and from 92 10'
E to 94 15' E for a distance of about 590 km.
The Andaman islands are divided into three main islands i.e. North, Middle and
South.
The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree
Channel from the Nicobar group in the south [Prelims 2014].
Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands lies in the South Andaman.
Among the Nicobar islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the southernmost
island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car Nicobar is the
northernmost.
Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shale resting on
basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to Himalayas].
THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
islands [these are the only active volcanoes in India][There are no active
volcanoes in main land India].
Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick
forests. Most of the islands are mountainous.
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Lakshadweep Islands
They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the Kerala coast.
Amendivi Islands are the northern most while the Minicoy island is the
southernmost.
All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll} and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
The largest and the most advanced is the Minicoy island with an area of 4.53 sq km.
Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea
level (Extremely Vulnerable to sea level change).
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Their topography is flat and relief features such as hills, streams, valleys, etc. are
absent.
It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It
keeps on emerging and disappearing.
Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute over the Radcliffe
Award methodology of settling the maritime boundary between the two nations
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Drainage basin, Drainage Divide, Difference between a River Basin and a Watershed.
Drainage patterns Discordant drainage patterns and Concordant Drainage Patterns.
Drainage basin
Other terms that are used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment
area, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin, and water basin.
The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers and the land surface.
The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area
covered by the basin and channeling it to a single point.
In closed ("endorheic") drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside
the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake [Lake Aral], dry lake
[some desert lakes], or a point where surface water is lost underground [sink holes in
Karst landforms]. Other Examples: Lake Chad [Africa], Dead Sea etc.
Drainage Divide
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Adjacent drainage basins are separated from one another by a drainage divide.
Drainage divide is usually a ridge or a high platform.
Basin
Amazon River
Hudson Bay
Type
Primary River
Mediterranean
sea
Drains to
South America
Atlantic Ocean
6,144,727
North America
Atlantic Ocean
3,861,400
Atlantic Ocean
3,730,474
Congo River
Primary River
Africa
Caspian Sea
Lake
Asia/Europe
Nile River
Primary River
Africa
Primary River
North America
Lake
Africa
MississippiMissouri River
Lake Chad
Black Sea
Niger River
Mediterranean
sea
Primary River
Basin Area
Continent
multiple
Africa
(endorheic basin
== not outlet)
Mediterranean
Sea
Gulf of Mexico
n/a
(endorheic
basin)
Mediterranean
Sea
Atlantic Ocean
km2
3,626,000
3,254,555
3,202,230
2,497,918
2,400,000
2,261,763
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Basin
Type
Continent
Drains to
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Basin Area
km2
Yangtze
River (Chang
Primary River
Asia
Pacific Ocean
1,722,155
Europe
Atlantic Ocean[4]
1,700,000
Primary River
Asia
Bay of Bengal
1,621,000
Primary River
Asia
Arabian Sea
1,081,733
Jiang)
Baltic Sea
Ganges
Brahmaputra
Indus River
Mediterranean
sea
Both river basins and watersheds are areas of land that drain to a particular water
body, such as a lake, stream, river or estuary.
In a river basin, all the water drains to a large river. The term watershed is used to
describe a smaller area of land that drains to a smaller stream, lake or wetland.
There are many smaller watersheds within a river basin.
Drainage patterns
Based on the shape and formation of river patters, there are different drainage
patterns.
In simple words: In a discordant drainage pattern, the river follows its initial path
irrespective of the changes in topography.
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Discordant drainage patterns are classified into two main types: antecedent
and superimposed.
A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted and the river sticks to
its original slope, cutting through the uplifted portion like a saw [Vertical erosion or
Vertical down cutting], and forming deep gorges: this type of drainage is called
Antecedent drainage.
Example: Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra and other Himalayan rivers that are older
than the Himalayas themselves. There are usually called as ANTECEDENT RIVERS.
When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder basal rocks but
continues to follow the initial slope, it seems to have no relation with the harder rock
bed. This type of drainage is called superimposed drainage.
Usually, the drainage patterns (dendritic, trellis, etc.) are strongly influenced by the
hardness and softness of the rock and patterns of faults or fractures.
Sometimes, however, the land rises rapidly relative to the base level of the stream.
This increases the gradient of the stream and therefore, gives the stream more erosive
power.
The stream has enough erosive power that it cuts its way through any kind of
bedrock, maintaining its former drainage pattern.
You get a situation, then, where the drainage pattern does not correspond to the
hardness or softness of the bedrock or to the locations of faults and fractures.
Consequently, river directions relate to the former cover rocks and, as the latter were
being eroded, the rivers have been able to retain their courses unaffected by the
newly exposed structures.
The stream pattern is thus superposed on, or placed on structural features that were
previously buried.
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The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas and the rivers flowing at
the Rewa Plateau present some good examples of superimposed drainage.
Examples: The Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the Chambal, the Banas and the
rivers flowing at the Rewa Plateau, rivers of eastern USA and southern France.
[In simple words, the river flow becomes independent of present Topography. It flows
in its initial paths without being influenced by changing topography].
Antecedent Drainage == Cut through the newly formed landform and maintain the
same path == Himalayan Rivers.
Superimposed Drainage == Cut deeper through the existing landform and maintain the
same path == Some medium scale rivers of the Northern and Eastern peninsular India.
Antecedent Drainage == The soil formed is weak and it is easily eroded by the rivers.
Superimposed Drainage == The rivers have high erosive power so that they can cut
through the underlying strata.
Usually, rivers in both these drainage types flow through a highly sloping surface.
In simple words: In a concordant drainage pattern, the path of the river is highly
dependent on the slope of the river and topography.
Concordant drainage patterns are the most commonly found drainage patterns and
are classified into many types.
Consequent Rivers
The rivers which follow the general direction of slope are known as the consequent
rivers.
For example, rivers like Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, descending from the
Western Ghats and flowing into the Bay of Bengal, are some of the consequent rivers
of Peninsular India.
Subsequent Rivers
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A tributary stream that is eroded along an underlying belt of non-resistant rock after
the main drainage pattern (Consequent River) has been established is known as a
subsequent river.
The Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the Yamuna and the Ganga at
right angles. They are the subsequent drainage of the Ganga drainage system.
Drainage which is branching or ramifying (branch out or cause to branch out) thereby giving
the appearance of a tree.
A dendritic pattern develops in a terrain which has uniform lithology, and where
faulting and jointing are insignificant.
In this type of pattern the short subsequent streams meet the main stream at right
angles, and differential erosion through soft rocks paves the way for tributaries.
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Examples: The old folded mountains of the Singhbhum (Chotanagpur Plateau) and
Seine and its tributaries in Paris basin (France) have a drainage of trellis pattern.
The main stream bends at right angles and the tributaries join at right angles
creating rectangular patterns.
Example: Colorado river (USA), streams found is the Vindhyan Mountains of India.
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The tributaries from a summit follow the slope downwards and drain down in all
directions.
Examples:
Streams
of
Saurashtra
region,
Central
French
Plateau,
Mt.
Kilimanjaro.
Rivers like Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originating from Amarkantak Hills flow in
different directions and are good examples of radial pattern.
Radial drainage patterns are also found/in the Girnar Hills (Kathiwar, Gujarat), and
Mikir Hills of Assam.
When the upland has an outer soft stratum, the radial streams develop subsequent
tributaries which try to follow a circular drainage around the summit.
This is not a very common drainage pattern in India. Some examples of this are
however found in Pithoragarh (Uttarakhand), Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.
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Example: Rivers of lesser Himalayas and The small and swift rivers originating in
the Western Ghats that flow into Arabian Sea.
Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the Baghmati and its tributaries in Nepal.
A pattern of drainage in which the confluence of a tributary with the main river is
characterized by a discordant junctionas if the tributary intends to flow upstream
and not downstream.
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This pattern is the result of capture of the main river which completely reverses its
direction of flow, while the tributaries continue to point in the direction of former
flow.
The Arun River (Nepal), a tributary of the Kosi is an interesting example of barbed
drainage pattern.
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% Contribution of water
Brahmaputra
~ 40
Ganga
~ 25
Godavari
~ 6.4
Mahanadi
~ 3.5
Krishna
~ 3.4
Narmada
~ 2.9
Rest
~ 20
Major river
20,000
Medium river
20,000 2,000
Minor river
The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: Indus, the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and their
tributaries.
The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Cauvery, the Narmada and the Tapi and their tributaries.
Himalayan rivers, Deccan rivers and Coastal rivers that drain into the sea.
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Rivers of the inland drainage basin (endorheic basin). Streams like the Sambhar in
western Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins
and salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through the salt desert
is the Luni.
The Bay of Bengal drainage (Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal)(East flowing rivers)
Arabian sea drainage (Rivers that drain into Arabian sea)(West flowing rivers).
The rivers Narmada (Indias holiest river) and Tapti flow almost parallel to each other but
empty themselves in opposite directions (West flowing). The two rivers make the valley
rich in alluvial soil and teak forests cover much of the land.
The Bay of Bengal drainage
~ 77 per cent of the drainage area of the ~ 23 per cent of the drainage area of the
country is oriented towards the Bay of country is oriented towards the Arabian sea
Bengal
The
Ganga,
the
Brahmaputra,
Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large number
Cauvery, the Penneru, the Penneiyar, the of
Vaigai, etc.
swift
flowing
western
coast
rivers
The area covered by The Bay of Bengal drainage and Arabian Sea drainage are not
proportional to the amount of water that drains trough them.
Over 90 per cent of the water drains into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is drained into
the Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage.
Lop sided distribution
The Arabian Sea drainage or Western drainage receive less rainfall [Rajasthan, Haryana
and Punjab receive very low rainfall].
The Eastern drainage or the Bay of Bengal drainage receives rainfall both from Southwest and North-east monsoons.
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Most of the Himalayan waters (perennial rivers) flow into eastern drainage (Ganges and
Brahmaputra).
Indian Rivers that flow into Arabian Sea are seasonal or non-perennial (Luni, Narmada,
etc.).
Occurrence of more cyclonic rainfall in the eastern parts is another major reason.
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The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river systems.
The Himalayan Rivers existed even before the formation of Himalayas i.e. before the
collision of Indian Plate with the Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
They were flowing into the Tethys Sea. These rivers had their source in the now
Tibetan region.
The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, the Brahmaputra etc. clearly indicate that
these rivers are older than the Himalayas.
They continued to flow throughout the building phase of the Himalayas; their banks
rising steeply while the beds went lower and lower due to vertical erosion (Vertical down
cutting was significant and was occurring at a rate faster than the rising of Himalayas),
thus cutting deep gorges.
Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are typical examples of antecedent drainage.
Sanskrit
Sinthos Greek
Sindus
Major Rivers of Indus
Latin
Source
Length
River System
Indus
Glaciers
of
Kailas
710 km in India
Jhelum
Verinag
720 km
Chenab
1180 km
Ravi
725 km
Beas
460 km
Satluj
Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes
1450 km total
List
of
important
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Indus River
It flows in north-west direction from its source (Glaciers of Kailas Range Kailash
range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbhat Range.
Its length is about 2,900 km. Its total drainage area is about 1,165,000 square km
[more than half of it lies in semiarid plains of Pakistan]. It is joined by Dhar River near
Indo-China border.
After entering J&K it flows between the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It flows through
the regions of Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.
The gradient of the river in J&K is very gentle (about 30 cm per km).
Average elevation at which the Indus flows through JK is about 4000 m above sea level.
It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh (these kind of points are important for prelims).
The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the other Himalayan tributaries of the
Indus.
It crosses the Himalayas (ends its mountainous journey) through a 5181 m deep gorge
near Attock, lying north of the Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly bend here
(syntaxial bend).
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Kabul river from Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock. Thereafter it flows through the
Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar Plateau).
Some of the important tributaries below Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the
Zhob-Gomal.
Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated
waters of the five eastern tributariesthe Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas
and the Satluj.
The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge delta.
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The Jhelum has its source in a spring at Verinag in the south-eastern part of the
Kashmir Valley.
It flows northwards into Wular Lake (north-western part of Kashmir Valley). From Wular
Lake, it changes its course southwards. At Baramulla the river enters a gorge in the
hills.
The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge through Pir Panjal Range below Baramula.
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Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the Potwar
Plateau near Mirpur.
After flowing through the spurs of the Salt Range it debouches (emerge from a
confined space into a wide, open area) on the plains near the city of Jhelum.
The river is navigable for about 160 km out of a total length of 724 km.
Chenab River
The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the
Zaskar Range.
Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its
headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m.
The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through the Pangi
valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal range.
From here it through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins
the Satluj after receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
Ravi River
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The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
It drains the area between the Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.
After crossing Chamba, it takes a south-westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the
Dhaola Dhar range.
It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan below Amritsar.
Beas River
The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on
the southern end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it takes a south-westerly direction and meets the
Satluj river at Harike in Punjab.
It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the
Indian territory.
Satluj River
The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height of
4,570 m within 80 km of the source of the Indus.
Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course upto the Shipki La on the TibetHimachal Pradesh boundary.
It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan ranges.
Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous
Bhakra dam has been constructed.
After entering the plain at Rupnagar (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined by the
Beas at Harike.
From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for
nearly 120 km.
During its onward journey it receives the collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab and
Jhelum rivers. It joins the Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot.
Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory.
The waters of the Indus river system are shared by India and Pakistan according to the
Indus Water Treaty signed between the two countries on 19th September, 1960.
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According to this treaty, India can utilize only 20 per cent of its total discharge of
water.
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In this post: Ganga River System - Ganga River: Ganga Brahmaputra Delta.
Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga: Yamuna River, Chambal River, Banas River, Betwa
River, Ken River, Son River, Damodar river.
Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River, Ramganga River, Ghaghra River, Kali River,
Gandak River, Burhi Gandak, Kosi River.
Brahmaputra River System.
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River
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Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga)
Gangotri glacier
Yamuna
Chambal
Banas
Aravali Range
Betwa
Bhopal district
Ken
Barner Range
Son
Amarkantak Plateau
Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River
Ghaghra River
Gurla
Mandhata
peak,
south
of
Tibet-Nepal border
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Burhi Gandak
Ganga River
The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District
of Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m.
The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007.
Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered
Ganges river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).
The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a
major failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical expertise, poor
environmental planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.
Major tributaries of
Bhagirathi
Bheling
Rudra Prayag)
Dhauliganga
Bishenganga.
Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined space into a wide, open area] from the
hills into plain area at Haridwar.
The total length of the Ganga river from its source to its mouth (measured along the
Hugli) is 2,525 km.
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Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, forms the
largest delta of the world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Padma/Meghna
covering an area of 58,752 sq km.
The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense
forests called the Sunderbans.
A major part of the delta is a low-lying swamp which is flooded by marine water
during high tide.
Yamuna River
It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal
region in Uttarakhand at an elevation of about 6,000 meters.
It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
It emerges out of the hilly area and enters plains near Tajewala.
Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from the
Bandarpunch glacier.
It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the latter leaves the hills.
At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.
Peninsular Tributaries
1. Rishiganga
2. Uma
Allahabad.
1. Chambal
2. Sind
area
3. Betwa
4. Ken.
The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
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It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and
the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
Chambal River
The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan
Range.
The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall
and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to
badland topography. {Arid Landforms}
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The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River,
located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.
The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi Sagar
dam on across the Chambal River in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects,
located 29 km upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar
dam.
The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located
about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.
Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam
and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and
in Madhya Pradesh through canals.
Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from Chambal river irrigation project.
The Banas
It join the Chambal on Rajasthan Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai Madhopur.
The Sind
The Betwa
The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near
Hamirpur.
The Ken
The Ken river rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna
near Chila.
The Son
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The important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the
Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank.
Damodar river
The Damodar river rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through
a rift valley.
Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial
activity.
Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric
power. The valley is called the Ruhr of India.
The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar river.
It used to cause devastating floods as a result of which it earned the name Sorrow of
Bengal. Now the river is tamed by constructing numerous dams.
The major tributaries apart from the Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the
Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.
Ramganga River
The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributaries of Ramganga.
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Ghaghra River
Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of
the trans-Himalayan origin).
Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its bank)
and the Rapti.
The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few kilometres downstream of Chhapra in Bihar.
After reaching the plain area, its stream gets divided into many branches of which,
Koriyab and Garwa are important.
The river bed is sandy and sudden bends start occurring in the stream.
The river has a high flood frequency and has shifted its course several times.
Kali River
Gandak River
Its important tributaries are the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the
Trishuli.
Burhi Gandak
Originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border.
Kosi River
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The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha,
Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber and is popularly known as
Saptkaushiki.
These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik
region.
The sources of seven streams of the Kosi are located in snow covered areas which
also receive heavy rainfall.
Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun
and Sun Kosi.
They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after cutting a narrow gorge in the Mahabharata
Range.
Soon after debouching onto the plain the river becomes sluggish.
Large scale deposition of eroded material takes place in the plain region.
The river channel is braided and it shifts its course frequently. This has resulted in
frequent devastating floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into
waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is often termed as the Sorrow of Bihar.
In order to tame this river, a barrage was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar
in Nepal.
Embankments for flood control have been constructed as a joint venture of India and
Nepal.
Name
Tibet
China
Assam Valley
Bangladesh
Jamuna River
Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna [View image
above]
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It is 2,900 km in length.
Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river is
sluggish and has a wide navigable channel for about 640 km.
It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga
Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
The river Ngangchu flows through the trade centre of Gyantse in the south and joins
the main river.
Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course abruptly takes a south ward turn
around Namcha Barwa (7,756 m)(Syntaxial Bend).
Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and
emerges from the mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.
Here it first flows under the name of Siong and then as the Dihang.
From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this mighty river is known as the
Brahmaputra.
The main streams merging with the Brahmaputra from the north are, Subansiri,
Kameng, Dhansiri (north), Raidak, Tista etc..
The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after which it
diverted its course eastwards to join the Brahmaputra.
The Brahmaputra has a braided channel (flow into shallow interconnected channels
divided by deposited earth) for most of its passage through Assam where channels
keep shifting. It carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering.
The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most
important of which is MAJULI. It is 90 km long and measures 20 km at its widest.
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With rainfall concentrated during the monsoon months only the river has to carry
enormous quantities of water and silt which results in disastrous floods. The
Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of Sorrow.
The river is navigable for a distance of 1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth and
serves as an excellent inland water transport route.
It flows for a distance of 270 km in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at
Goalundo.
The united stream of the Jamuna and the Ganga flows further in the name of
Padma.
About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is joined on the left bank by the
Meghna, originating in the mountainous region of Assam.
From the confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river is known as the
Meghna which makes a very broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal.
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In this post: Peninsular River System or Peninsular Drainage Evolution of the Peninsular
Drainage, Peninsular River Systems, Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular River System.
Peninsula rivers are much older than the Himalayan rivers {Discordant}.
The peninsular drainage is mainly Concordant except for few rivers in the upper
peninsular region.
They are non-perennial rivers with a maximum discharge in the rainy season.
The peninsular rivers have reached mature stage {Fluvial Landforms} and have almost
reached their base level. [Vertical downcutting is negligible].
The river banks have gentle slopes except for a limited tract where faulting forms steep
sides.
The main water divide in peninsular rivers is formed by the Western Ghats, which run
from north to south close to the western coast.
The velocity of water in the rivers and the load carrying capacity of the streams is low
due to low gradient.
Most of the major rivers of the peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Cauvery flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers
make deltas at their mouths.
But the west flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapi as well as those originating from the
Western Ghats and falling in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas.
There are few places where rivers form superimposed and rejuvenated drainage which
are represented by waterfalls.
Examples: The Jog on the Sharvati (289 m), Yenna of Mahabaleshwar (183 m),
Sivasamundram on the Cauvery (101 m), Gokak on the Gokak (55 m), Kapildhara (23
m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada are the major waterfalls in the Peninsular
India.
Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-Aravali axis was the main water divide in the past.
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According to one hypothesis, the existing peninsula is the remaining half of bigger
landmass.
So one drainage was towards east flowing into Bay of Bengal and the other towards west
draining into Arabian Sea.
The western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea during the
early Tertiary period (coinciding with the formation of Himalayas).
During the collision of the Indian plate, the Peninsular block was subjected to
subsidence in few regions creating a series of rifts (trough, faults).
The now west flowing rivers of the Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the Tapi flow
through these rifts.
Straight coastline, steep western slope of the Western Ghats, and the absence of delta
formations on the western coast makes this theory a possibility.
Theory 2
It is believed that the west flowing peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys formed by
the rivers themselves.
Rather they have occupied two fault rifts in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas.
These faults are supposed to be caused by bend of the northern part of the Peninsula
at the time of upheaval of the Himalayas.
Peninsular block, south of the cracks, tilted slightly eastwards during the event thus
giving the orientation to the entire drainage towards the Bay of Bengal.
Criticism: Tilting should have increased the gradient of the river valleys and caused
some rejuvenation of the rivers. This type of phenomenon is absent in the Peninsula,
barring a few exceptions such as waterfalls.
Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal: The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the
Cauvery and several smaller rivers drains south-east into the Bay of Bengal.
Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi flowing west as
well as several small streams originating from the Western Ghats flow westwards into
the Arabian Sea.
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Rivers that drain into the Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna such as
the Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in the north-easterly
direction.
rivers
originate
in
the
Himalayan ranges and are named Peninsular Plateau and are named as
as the Himalayan rivers.
Peninsular rivers.
Catchment
These rivers have large basins and These rivers have small basins and
area
catchment areas. The total basin catchment areas. The Godavari has
area of the Indus, the Ganga and the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh
the Brahmaputra is 11.78, 8.61 and square kilometres only which is less
5.8
lakh
square
respectively.
Valleys
Indus.
Peninsular
rivers
flow
in
Type
drainage.
Water Flow
The Himalayan rivers are perennial The Peninsular rivers receive water
in
nature,
drainage.
i.e.,
water
throughout the year in these rivers. these rivers in rainy season only.
These rivers receive water both from Therefore, these rivers are seasonal or
the monsoons and snow-melt. The non-perennial. As such these rivers
perennial nature of these rivers are much less useful for irrigation.
makes them useful for irrigation.
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Stage
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These rivers flow across the young These rivers have been flowing in one
fold mountains and are still in a of the oldest plateaus of the world and
youthful stage.
Meanders
hard
rock
surface
character
little
of
and
the
scope
non-
plateau
for
the
of
water.
Under
and
often
shift
their
beds.
Deltas and The
Estuaries
Himalayan
rivers
form
Western
Ghats
and
flowing
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In this post: East Flowing Peninsular Rivers: Godavari Krishna Mahanadi. Rivers,
Tributaries and River Basins.
Mahanadi River
Godavari River
Krishna River
Pennar River
Subarnarekha River
Brahamani River
Sarada River
Ponnaiyar River
Vaigai River
Mahanadi River
The Mahanadi basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively
smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of
1.4 lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south
and east and by the Maikala range on the west.
The Mahanadi (Great River) follows a total course of 560 miles (900 km).
The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of the peninsular rivers, in water potential and
flood producing capacity, it ranks second to the Godavari.
Other small streams between the Mahanadi and the Rushikulya draining directly into
the Chilka Lake also forms the part of the basin.
The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 54.27% of the
total area.
After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and enters Odisha state.
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At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river has
formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at False Point by
several channels.
Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin called the Chhattisgarh Plain.
This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west and south as a result of which a
large number of tributaries join the main river from these sides.
Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel and the Jonk.
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Two important projects completed during pre-plan period in the basin are the Mahanadi
main canal and Tandula reservoir in Chhattisgarh.
During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango,
Mahanadi Reservoir Project were completed.
Three important urban centes in the basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack.
Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral resource and adequate power resource,
has a favorable industrial climate.
The Important industries presently existing in the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at
Bhilai, aluminium factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper mill near Cuttack and
cement factory at Sundargarh.
Other industries based primarily on agricultural produce are sugar and textile mills.
The basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to inadequate
carrying capacity of the channels.
The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides some amount of flood relief by storing part of
flood water.
However, the problem still persists and a lasting solution need to be evolved.
Godavari River
The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India and is revered as
Dakshina Ganga.
The Godavari basin extends over states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh
and Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Union
territory of Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of ~ 3 lakh Sq.km.
The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the
north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the
west.
The Godavari River rises from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra
about 80 km from the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m.
The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km.
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The left bank tributaries are more in number and larger in size than the right bank
tributaries.
The Manjra (724 km) is the only important right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari
after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main streams, the Gautami
Godavari on the east and the Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms a large delta
before it pours into the Bay of Bengal.
The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type with a round bulge and many distributaries.
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The upper reaches of the Godavari drainage basin are occupied by the Deccan Traps
containing minerals like magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon, chlorite etc (metallic
minerals)..
The downstream part of the middle basin is occupied mainly by sediments and rocks of
the Gondwana group.
The Gondwanas are principally detritals (waste or debris, in particular organic matter
produced by decomposition or loose matter produced by erosion) with some thick coal
seams. [Singareni Coal Seam]
The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower part of the drainage basin and are formed mainly
from the Khondalites.
Important projects completed duing the plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari
barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati, Upper
Wardha.
and
Polavaram.
The major urban Centers in the basin are Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik, Rajhmundry.
Other than this, the industries in the basin are mostly based on agricultural produce
such as rice milling, cotton spinning and weaving, sugar and oil extraction.
Cement and some small engineering industries also exist in the basin.
Krishna River
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The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula.
The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka having a
total area of ~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and
the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats near Jor village of Satara district of
Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m just north of Mahabaleshwar.
The total length of river from origin to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km.
The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 75.86% of the
total area.
The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna delta
appears to merge with that formed by the Godavari and extends about 35 km into the
sea.
The Koyna is a small tributary but is known for Koyna Dam. This dam was perhaps the
main cause of the devastating earthquake (6.4 on richter scale) in 1967 that killed 150
people.
The Bhima originates from the Matheron Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur after
for a distance of 861 km.
The Tungabhadra is formed by the unification of the Tunga and the Bhadra originating
from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri. Its total length is 531 km.
At Wazirabad, it receives its last important tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the city
of Hyderabad is located.
The major Hydro Power stations in the basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri Sailam,
Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, Naryanpur, Bhadra.
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Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States project in the basin. In order to operate the project
and to regulate the flows among the beneficiary States of Karnataka and Andhara
Pradesh.
The basin has rich mineral deposits and there is good potential for industrial
development.
Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are important
industrial activities at present in the basin.
Recently oil has been struck in this basin which is bound to have an effect on the future
industrial scenario of this basin.
Some parts of the basin, especially the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh, Bellary,
Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga, Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka and Pune,
Sholapur, Osmanabad and Ahmedanagar districts of Maharashtra are drought-prone.
The delta area of the basin is subject to flooding. It has been observed that the river bed
in delta area is continuously raised due to silt deposition resulting in reduction in
carrying capacity of the channel.
The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high intensity and short duration makes the flood
problem worse.
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Cauvery River
The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as the Dakshina Ganga or the Ganga of the
South.
The total length of the river from origin to outfall is 800 km.
The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union
Territory of Puducherry draining an area of 81 thousand Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Western Ghats on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and
the south and by the ridges separating it from Krishna basin and Pennar basin on the
north.
The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western ghats, extend Eastwards to the Eastern ghats and
divide the basin into two natural and political regions i.e., Karnataka plateau in the
North and the Tamil Nadu plateau in the South.
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Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts the Westen Ghats, the
Plateau of Mysore and the Delta.
The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin. The principal soil types found in the
basin are black soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils. Red
soils occupy large areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas.
The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall mainly from the S-W Monsoon and partially
from N-E Monsoon. The basin in Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the North-East
Monsoon.
Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the south-west monsoon
and the lower catchment area during winter season by the retreating north-east
monsoon.
It is, therefore almost a perennial river with comparatively less fluctuations in flow and
is very useful for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
Thus the Cauvery is one of the best regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of its
irrigation and power production potential already stands harnessed.
The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The major part of basin is covered with
agricultural land accounting to 66.21% of the total area.
Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil
and the Amaravati joins from right.
The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through
the Sivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high).
At Shivanasamudram, the river branches off into two parts and falls through a height of
91 m. in a series of falls and rapids.
The falls at this point is utilized for power generation by the power station at
Shivanasamudram.
The two branches of the river join after the fall and flow through a wide gorge which is
known as Mekedatu (Goats leap) and continues its journey to form the boundary
between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu States for a distance of 64 km.
At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery on the Right bank about 45 Kms below Mettur
Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the plains of Tamil Nadu.
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Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and here the river
widens with sandy bed and flows as Akhanda Cauvery.
Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into two parts, the
Northern branch being called The Coleron and Southern branch remains as Cauvery
and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form Srirangam Island.
On the Cauvery branch lies the "Grand Anicut" said to have been constructed by a
Chola King in 1st Century A.D.
Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery and Vennar.
These branches divide and sub-divide into small branches and form a network all over
the delta.
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The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu. The
run-off does not drain off quickly because of its shape and therefore no fast raising
floods occur in the basin.
During the pre-plan period many projects were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in
Tamil Nadu.
Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are important projects completed duing
the plan period.
Important industries in the basin include cotton textile industry in Coimbatore and
Mysore, cement factories in Coimbatore and Trichinapally and industries based on
mineral and metals.
The Salem steel plant and many engineering industies in Coimbatore and Trichinapally
are also situated in this basin.
Pennar River
The Pennar (also known as Uttara Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the
peninsula.
The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kasava hill of the Nandidurg range, in
Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka and flows towards east eventually draining
into the Bay of Bengal.
The total length of the river from origin to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
Located in peninsular India, the Pennar basin extends over states of Andhra Pradesh
and Karnataka having an area of ~55 thousand Sq.km
The fan shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala range on the north, by the
Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by the Nandidurg
hills on the south and by the narrow ridge separating it from the Vedavati valley of
the Krishna Basin on the west.
The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river are the Seshachalam
[famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda ranges.
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The major part of basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 58.64% of the total
area.
Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin also.
The only major project in the basin is the Somasila project.
With limited water and power potential and mineral resources, the scope for
industrial development is limited in the basin.
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There are no major industries. The existing small industries are mostly based on
agricultural produce such as cotton weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills etc.
Subarnarekha
The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the
boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Its
total length is 395 km.
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Brahamani River
The Brahmani river comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the
Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total length of 800 km.
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The basin is bounded in the North by Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South
by the Mahanadi basin and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains into
Bay of Bengal.
Sarada River
The river Sarada, an East flowing medium sized river, lies in the district of
Visakhapatnam of Andhra Pradesh.
Ponnaiyar River
The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is confined to the coastal area only.
It covers a small area in the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Basin is bounded on the North -West and South by various ranges of the Eastern
Ghats like the Velikonda Range, the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the Shevaroy hills,
the Chitteri hills and the Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
Vaigai River
South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the
longest.
The Vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12 basins lying between the
Cauvery and Kanyakumari.
This basin is bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the Cardaman
hills and the Palani hills on the West and by the Palk strait and Palk Bay on the East.
The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km, which entirely lies in the state of Tamil
Nadu.
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In this post: West Flowing Rivers of The Peninsular India Narmada Tapti Sabarmati
Mahi Luni Ghaggar River [Inland Drainage]. West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris
(Western Ghats)
The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to
their east flowing counterparts.
The two major west flowing rivers are the Narmada and the Tapi.
This exceptional behavior is because these rivers didnt form valleys and instead they
flow through faults (linear rift, rift valley, trough) created due to the bending of the
northern peninsula during the formation process of Himalayas.
The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other rivers of the Peninsular India which flow
westwards.
Hundreds of small streams originating in the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards and
join the Arabian Sea.
It is interesting to note that the Peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do not
form deltas, but only estuaries. {Fluvial Depositional Landforms}
This is due to the fact that the west flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and the Tapi
flow through hard rocks and hence do not carry any good amount of silt.
Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are very small and hence they dont contribute
any silt.
Hence these rivers are not able to form distributaries or a delta before they enter the
sea.
Estuary
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An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where freshwater from
rivers and streams meets and mixes with salt water from the ocean. [Primary
productivity in estuaries is very high. Fishing is a dominant occupation around
estuaries. Most of the estuaries are good bird sanctuaries].
Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to sea and
freshwater to salt water.
Although influenced by the tides, they are protected from the full force of ocean waves,
winds, and storms by such land forms as barrier islands or peninsulas. [You know why
estuaries make good ports?]
Estuarine environments are among the most productive on earth, creating more organic
matter each year than comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or agricultural land.
The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique communities of plants and
animals especially adapted for life at the margin of the sea.
Estuaries have important commercial value and their resources provide economic
benefits for tourism, fisheries, and recreational activities.
The protected coastal waters of estuaries also support important public infrastructure,
serving as harbors and ports vital for shipping and transportation.
Estuaries also perform other valuable services. Water draining from uplands carries
sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows through
wetlands such as swamps and salt marshes, much of the sediments and pollutants are
filtered out.
Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine plants also help prevent erosion and stabilize
shorelines [Mangroves].
Narmada River
Narmada flows westwards through a rift valley between the Vindhyan Range on the
north and the Satpura Range on the south.
Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the
south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
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Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is
1,310 km.
The hilly regions are in the upper part of the basin, and lower middle reaches are broad
and fertile areas well suited for cultivation.
The river slopes down near Jabalpur where it cascades (a small waterfall, especially one
in a series) 15 m into a gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of Mist) Falls.
Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the river
again descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara Falls.
There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.
Since the river flows through a narrow valley confined by precipitous (dangerously high or
steep)
The absence of tributaries is especially noted on the right bank of the river where the
Hiran is the only exception.
The other right bank tributaries are the Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar.
A few left bank tributaries drain the northern slopes of the Satpura Range and join the
Narmada at different places.
The major Hydro Power Project in the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar,
Omkareshwar, Bargi & Maheshwar.
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Tapti River
The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second largest west flowing river of the
Peninsular India and is known as 'the twin' or 'the handmaid' of the Narmada.
Flows for about 724 km before outfalling into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of
Cambay [Gulf of Khambhat].
The Tapti River along with its tributaries flows over the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh
and Gujarat and over large areas in the state of Maharashtra and a small area in
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
The basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat having an
area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km
Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is bounded by the Satpura range on the
north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta Range and the Satmala hills on the south
and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
The hilly region of the basin is well forested while the plains are broad and fertile areas
suitable for cultivation.
There are two well defined physical regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and plains; the
hilly regions comprising Satpura, Satmalas, Mahadeo, Ajanta and Gawilgarh hills are
well forested.
The plain covers the Khandesh areas (Khandesh is a region of central India, which
forms the northwestern portion of Maharashtra state) which are broad and fertile
suitable for cultivation primarily.
Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and the Aner.
Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna, the
Purna, the Mona and the Sipna.
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Important industries in the basin are textile factories in Surat and paper and news
print factory at Nepanagar.
Sabarmati River
The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of
21,674 Sq km.
The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of Kutch
on the west and by Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
The basin is roughly triangular in shape with the Sabarmati River as the base and the
source of the Vatrak River as the apex point.
Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at an elevation of 762 m near village Tepur, in
Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
The total length of river from origin to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
The major part of basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 74.68% of the total
area.
Rainfall varies from a meager few mm in Saurastra to over 1000 mm in southern part.
Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati and the Vatrak.
Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo reservoir project
are major projects completed during the plan period.
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Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the important urban centers in the basin.
Important industries are textiles, leather and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods,
paper, newsprint, automobile, machine tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc.
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Mahi River
The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having
total area of 34,842 Sq km.
It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on
the east, by the Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west.
The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 63.63% of the
total area
Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the basin. There are not many
industries in the basin.
Some of the industries are cotton textile, paper, newsprint, drugs and pharmaceuticals.
Most of these industries are located at Tatlam.
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Luni River
The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so because its
water is brackish below Balotra.
Luni is the only river basin of any significance in Western Rajasthan, which form the
bulk of arid zone.
Luni originates from western slopes of the Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772 m near
Ajmer flowing in South West direction and traversing a course of 511 km in Rajasthan,
it finally flow into the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the marsh).
Most of its tributaries drain the steep north west of Aravalli hills and join it on left side.
Its total catchment area falls in Rajasthan.
The peculiarity of this river is that it tends to increase its width rather than deepening
the bed because the banks are of soils, which are easily erodible whereas beds are of
sand. The floods develop and disappear so rapidly that they have no time to scour the
bed.
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About six hundred small streams originate from the Western Ghats and flow westwards
to fall into the Arabian Sea.
The western slopes of the Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the south-west
monsoons and are able to feed such a large number of streams.
Although only about 3% of the areal extent flow swiftly down the steep slope and some of
them make waterfalls.
The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made by the Sharavati river is the most famous
waterfall of India.
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Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland
drainage.
The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream
which rises on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms boundary between Haryana
and Punjab.
It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance
of 465 km.
Earlier, this river was an affluent of the Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is still
traceable.
Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the Markanda, the Saraswati and the Chaitanya.
It contains a lot more water in rainy season when its bed becomes 10 km wide at places.
Most of the streams draining western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up immediately
after they enter the sandy arid areas to the west of this range.
Usability of Rivers
The
Himalayas,
Vindhyas,
Satpuras,
Aravalis,
Maikala,
Chhotanagpur
plateau,
Meghalaya plateau, Purvachal, Western and the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities of large
scale water power development.
Sixty per cent of the total river flow is concentrated in the Himalayan rivers, 16 per cent
in the Central Indian rivers (the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, etc.), and the rest in
the rivers of the Deccan plateau.
The Ganga and the Brahmaputra in the north and northeastern part of the country, the
Mahanadi in Odisha, the Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and Telangana the
Narmada and the Tapi in Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in coastal states
possess some of the important and useful waterways of the country.
In the past they were of great importance, which suffered a great deal with the advent of
rail and roads.
Withdrawal of large quantities of water for irrigation resulted in dwindling flow of many
rivers.
The most important navigable risers are the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the
Mahanadi. The Godavari, the Krishna, the Narmada and the Tapi are navigable near
their mouths only.
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Indian Monsoons Factors responsible for south-west monsoon and north-east monsoon
formation. Mechanism of Indian Monsoons. Indian Monsoons ITCZ [Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone].
Indian Monsoons
The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mausin or from the Malayan
word monsin meaning season.
The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds They flow from sea to land during
the summer and from land to sea during winter.
Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon winds as land and sea breeze on a large scale.
Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central
Western Africa etc..
They are more pronounced in the Indian Subcontinent compared to any other region.
They are periodic or secondary winds which seasonal reversal in wind direction.
India receives south-west monsoon winds in summer and north-east monsoon winds in
winter.
South-west monsoons are formed due to intense low pressure system formed over the
Tibetan plateau.
North-east monsoons are associated with high pressure cells over Tibetan and Siberian
plateaus.
South-west monsoons bring intense rainfall to most of the regions in India and northeast monsoons bring rainfall to mainly south-eastern coast of India (Southern coast of
Seemandhra and the coast of Tamil Nadu.).
Countries like India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the annual
rainfall during south-west monsoon season where as South East China, Japan etc.,
during north-east rainfall season.
Permanent high pressure cell in the South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of Madagascar
in summer).
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Above points +
Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and high pressure over southern Indian Ocean.
Formation and strengthening of high pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and Siberian
Plateau in winter.
Westward migration and subsequent weakening of high pressure cell in the Southern
Indian Ocean.
There are several theories that tried to explain the mechanism of monsoons.
Classical Theory
Monsoons are mentioned in scriptures like the Rig Veda. But these scriptures didnt
make any mention of the monsoon mechanism.
The first scientific study of the monsoon winds was done by Arab traders.
Arab traders used the sea route to carry out trade with India and monsoon patterns
were of prime importance for them.
In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab explorer, gave an account of the reversal of
ocean currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian Ocean.
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In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as resulting from
thermal contrasts between continents and oceans due to their differential heating.
Modern Theories
Therefore, Halley's theory has lost much of its significance and modern theories
based on air masses and jet stream are becoming more relevant.
In summer the suns apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Cancer resulting in
high temperature and low pressure in Central Asia.
The pressure is sufficiently high over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence winds
flowed from Oceans flow towards landmass in summer.
This air flow from sea to land bring heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.
Winter Monsoon
In winter the suns apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.
The north western part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and
the flow of the monsoon is reversed.
The basic idea behind Classical theory is similar to land and sea breeze formation except
that in the case of monsoons the day and night are replaced by summer and winter.
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not develop equally everywhere on earth and the thermal
concept of Halley fails to explain the intricacies of the monsoons such as the sudden burst
of monsoons, delay in on set of monsoons sometimes, etc..
According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a modification of the planetary winds
of the tropics.
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The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the northeast trade winds in
the northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator.
The meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
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This is the region of ascending air, maximum clouds and heavy rainfall.
The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of equator with the change of season.
In the summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ
shifts northwards.
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The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start
blowing in southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force.
These displaced trade winds are called south-west monsoons when they blow over the
Indian sub-continent.
The front where the south-west monsoons meet the north-east trade winds is known as
the Monsoon Front (ITCZ). Rainfall occurs along this front.
In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to 20- 25 N latitude and is located in the IndoGangetic Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of
Bengal. The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon Trough [maximum
rainfall].
The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (NITCZ) in summer (July rainy season) and Southern Inter-Tropical
Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in winter (Jan dry season).
NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy rainfall that effect India.
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Indian Monsoon Mechanism Jet Stream Theory. Role of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ).
Why no south-west monsoons during winter? Why no south-west monsoons in March
May (summer)?
Jet stream Theory is the latest theory regarding the origin of the monsoons and has
earned worldwide acceptance from the meteorologists.
To understand how Jet streams affect Indian monsoons, we need to know the basic
mechanism of Jet Stream induced weather conditions.
Ridges occur where the warm air mass pushes against the cold air mass. Troughs occur
where cold air mass drops into warm air.
The region on earth below the trough is at low pressure and the region below ridge is at
high pressure.
This condition occurs due to weakening of jet stream due to lesser temperature contrast
between sub-tropics and temperate region (Our concern is STJ only).
Usually the trough region [the region exactly below the jet stream trough] creates
cyclonic condition (low pressure) at the surface of earth whereas the ridge regions
creates anticyclonic condition.
Troughs create upper level divergence which is associated with convergence at the
surface (low pressure cyclonic conditions) and ridges create upper level convergence
which is associated with divergence at the surface (high pressure cyclonic conditions).
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These ridges and troughs give rise to jet streaks which are also responsible for cyclonic
and anticyclonic weather conditions at the surface.
The winds leaving the jet streak are rapidly diverging, creating a lower pressure at the
upper level (Tropopause) in the atmosphere. The air below rapidly replaces the upper
outflowing winds. This in turn creates the low pressure at the surface. This surface low
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pressure creates conditions where the surrounding surface winds rush inwards. The
Coriolis effect creates the cyclonic rotation (cyclonic vortex) that is associated with
depressions [low pressure cells].
The winds entering the jet streak are rapidly converging because of the high pressure at
the upper level (Tropopause) in the atmosphere. This convergence at upper troposphere
leads to divergence (high pressure) at the surface (anticyclonic condition).
The Coriolis effect creates the anticyclonic rotation that is associated with clear
weather.
But how does this mechanism of jet streams influence Indian Monsoons?
Sub-Tropical Jet stream plays a significant role in both hindering the monsoon winds as
well as in quick onset of monsoons.
Sub-Tropical Jet stream is a narrow band of fast moving air flowing from west to east
[Westerlies].
The wind speeds in a westerly jet stream are commonly 150 to 300 km p.h. with extreme
values reaching 400 km p.h.
The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation which is dominated by
STJ.
In winter STJ flows along the southern slopes of the Himalayas but in summer it shifts
northwards, rather dramatically, and flows along the northern edge of Himalayas in early
June and in late summer (July-August) along the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
The periodic movement of the Jet stream is often the indicator of the onset (STJ shits to the
north of Himalayas in a matter of days) and subsequent withdrawal (STJ returns back to
its position south of Himalayas) of the monsoon.
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Northward movement of the subtropical jet is the first indication of the onset of the
monsoon over India.
Westerly jet stream blows at a very high speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone.
This jet stream is bifurcated by the Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau.
The northern branch of this jet stream blows along the northern edge of the Tibetan
Plateau.
The southern branch blows to the south of the Himalayan ranges along 25 north
latitude.
Western Disturbances
Meteorologists believe that southern branch of jet stream exercises a significant
influence on the winter weather conditions in India.
The upper jet is responsible for steering of the western depressions [Western
Disturbances] from the Mediterranean Sea.
Some of the depressions continue eastwards, redeveloping in the zone of jet stream
confluence about 30 N, 105 E (near east coast of China).
Winter rain and heat storms in north-western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in
hilly regions are caused by these disturbances.
These are generally followed by cold waves in the whole of northern plains.
The southern branch is stronger, with an average speed of about 240 km compared with
70 to 90 km p.h. of the northern branch.
Air subsiding beneath this upper westerly current gives dry out blowing northerly winds
from the subtropical anticyclone over northwestern India and Pakistan.
Reason 1: ITCZ has left India (the winds that blow over India are mostly offshore land
to land or land to ocean so they carry no moisture).
Reason 2: During winter, the southern branch of STJ is strong and is to the south of
Himalayas. The ridge of the jet lies over north-western India and is associated with
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strong divergence of winds and creates a high pressure region (sub-tropical high
pressure belt) over entire north India. [This is how the mechanism of jet streams influence
Indian Monsoons in winter season]
Reason 3: There is already a strong high pressure over Tibet. [High Pressure due to STJ
+ High Pressure over Tibet = strong divergence = no rainfall]
With the beginning of summer in the month of March, the STJ [upper westerlies] start
their northward march.
The southerly branch of STJ remains positioned south of Tibet, although weakening in
intensity.
The weather over northern India becomes hot, dry and squally due to larger incoming
solar radiation and hot winds like loo.
Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ) pushes northwards with the weakening of the
STJ [upper westerlies] south of Tibet, but the burst of the monsoon does not take place
until the upper-air circulation has switched to its summer pattern.
By the end of May the southern jet breaks and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet
Plateau and there is sudden burst of monsoons (the ridge moves northwards into
Central Asia = high pressure over north-west India moves northwards into Central Asia
= makes way for south-west monsoon winds). An Easterly jet emerges over peninsular
India with the northward migration of STJ.
The upper air circulations are reversed with the emergence of Easterly jet [convergence
in upper layers is replaced by divergence == divergence in lower layers is replaced with
convergence == high pressure at lower layers is replaced by low pressure system]. The
easterly winds become very active in the upper troposphere and they are associated with
westerly winds in the lower troposphere (south-west monsoon winds).
Western and eastern jets flow to the north and south of the Himalayas respectively. The
eastern jet becomes powerful and is stationed at 15 N latitude.
This results in more active south-west monsoon and heavy rainfall is caused.
There is good suns insolation from March May but still there is no s-w monsoons.
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Reason: The ridge region of Southern branch of STJ creates strong divergence (high
pressure) in north-west India. The diverging air blocks incoming winds and prevents
strong convergence of winds along ITCZ.
During the summer season in the Northern Hemisphere, low pressure areas develop at
the ground surface near Peshawar (Pakistan) and north-west India due to intense
heating of ground surface during April, May, and June.
As long as the position of the upper air jet stream is maintained above the surface low
pressure (to the south of Himalayas), the dynamic anti-cyclonic conditions persist over
north-west India.
The winds descending from the upper air high pressure [because of the trough of STJ]
obstructs the ascent of winds from the surface low pressure areas, with the result that
the weather remains warm and dry.
This is why the months of April and May are generally dry and rainless in spite of high
temperatures (low pressure on land) and high evaporation.
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Indian Monsoons Role of Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) [African Easterly Jet], Indian
Monsoons Role of Tibet, Indian Monsoons Role of Somali Jet and Indian Monsoons
Role of Indian Ocean Dipole.
The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ is not fully understood but it is believed
that the jet may be caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights over the
Tibetan Plateau during summer.
This jet descends over the Indian Ocean (near Madagascar) and intensifies its high
pressure cell so as to move as south-west monsoon.
There are major high velocity winds in the lower troposphere called low-level jets
(LLJs).
In the tropics, the most prominent of these are the Somali Jet and the African Easterly
Jet [Tropical Easterly Jet].
The TEJ is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric summer over
southern Asia and northern Africa. The TEJ is found near between 5 and 20N.
It is fairly persistent in its direction, and intensity from June through the beginning of
October. Its position fluctuates between 5 and 20N.
TEJ comes into existence quickly after the STJ has shifted to the north of the Himalayas
(Early June).
TEJ flows from east to west over peninsular India at 6 9 km and over the Northern
African region.
The formation of TEJ results in the reversal of upper air circulation patterns [High
pressure switches to low pressure] and leads to the quick onset of monsoons.
Recent observations have revealed that the intensity and duration of heating of Tibetan
Plateau has a direct bearing on the amount of rainfall in India by the monsoons.
When the summer temperature of air over Tibet remains high for a sufficiently long time,
it helps in strengthening the easterly jet and results in heavy rainfall in India.
The easterly jet does not come into existence if the snow over the Tibet Plateau
does not melt. This hampers the occurrence of rainfall in India.
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Therefore, any year of thick and widespread snow over Tibet will be followed by a
year of weak monsoon and less rainfall.
Due to its protruded height it receives 2-3C more insolation than the neighboring areas.
The plateau affects the atmosphere in two ways: (a) as a mechanical barrier, and (b) as
a high- level heat sources.
At the beginning of June the subtropical jet stream is completely withdrawn from India
and occupies a position along 40 N (to the north of Tibetan Plateau).
The plateau accentuates the northward displacement of the jet stream. Hence the burst
of monsoon in June is prompted by the Himalayas and not by the thermally induced low
pressure cell over Tibet. (Tibetan plateau is responsible for south-west monsoons.
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But it is the STJ that facilitates sudden outburst of monsoons with its sudden
northward migration)
In the middle of October the plateau proves to be the most important factor in causing
the advance of the jet south of the Himalayas or bifurcating it into two parts.
The winter Tibetan Plateau cools rapidly and produces a high pressure cell. (Cyclonic
condition over Tibet ceases and an anticyclonic condition is established). The high
pressure cell over Tibet strengthens N-E monsoons.
Tibet gets heated in summer and is 2C to 3C warmer than the air over the adjoining
regions.
Because the Tibet Plateau is a source of heat for the atmosphere, it generates an area of
rising air (convergence)(intense low pressure cell).
During its ascent the air spreads outwards in upper troposphere (divergence) and
gradually sinks (subsidence) over the equatorial part of the Indian Ocean.
It finally approaches the west coast of India as a return current from a south-westerly
direction and is termed as equatorial westerlies.
It picks up moisture from the Indian Ocean and causes rainfall in India and adjoining
countries.
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Polar and subtropical jet streams are the permanent jet streams which greatly influence
the weather of temperate regions.
Temporary jet streams are narrow winds with speeds more than 94 kph in the upper,
middle and sometimes in lower troposphere. They are few. Important ones are Somali
Jet and The African Easterly jet or Tropical Easterly Jet.
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These two jet streams play an important role in the formation and progression of Indian
Monsoons.
The progress of the southwest monsoon towards India is greatly aided by the onset of
Somali jet that transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel.
It was observed to flow from Mauritius and the northern part of the island of
Madagascar before reaching the coast of Kenya at about 3 S.
It strengthens permanent high near Madagascar and also helps to drive S-W
monsoons towards India at a greater pace and intensity.
The importance of the low level jet arises from the fact that its path around 9 N
coincides with a zone of coastal upwelling.
As the strong winds drive away the surface coastal waters towards the east, extremely
cold water from the depths of the sea rise upwards to preserve the continuity of mass.
The peculiar feature of Somali Current is reversal in direction with the onset of the
summer monsoon.
In winter, this current is from north to the south running southwards from the coast of
Arabia to the east African coastline; but with the advent of the summer monsoon it
reverses its direction and flows from the south to the north.
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Indian ocean Dipole is a recently discovered phenomena that has a significant influence
on Indian monsoons.
Indian ocean Dipole is a SST anomaly (Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly different
from normal) that occurs occasionally in Northern or Equatorial Indian Ocean Region
(IOR).
The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature
between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) a western pole in the Arabian Sea (western
Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
IOD develops in the equatorial region of Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in
October.
With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
near African Coast) being much warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia
becoming colder and dry.
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In the negative dipole year, reverse happens making Indonesia much warmer and
rainier.
Positive IOD is good for Indian Monsoons as more evaporation occurs in warm water.
Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD is named as Equatorial Indian
Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO)(Oscillation of pressure cells between Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea).
During the positive phase of the Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO), there
is enhanced cloud formation and rainfall in western part of the equatorial ocean near
the African coast while such activity is suppressed near Sumatra.
While EQUINOO and IOD go in step during strong positive IOD events, they do not
always do so.
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Indian Monsoons South West|North East Monsoons <-- You are Here
As the summer time approaches, there is increased solar heating of the Indian
subcontinent and the Tibetan Plateau.
In the peak summer months (25th of May 10th of Jun), with the apparent northward
movement of the sun, the southern branch of the SJT, which flows to the south of the
Himalayas, shifts to the north of the Himalayas.
When the suns position is about to reach the Tropic of Cancer (June), the SJT shifts to
the north of the Tibetan Plateau (1st of Jun 20th of June). The ITCZ is close to its peak
position over the Tibetan Plateau.
The altitude of the mountains initially disrupts the jet but once it has cleared the
summits it is able to reform over central Asia.
Its movement towards the north is one of the main features associated with the onset of
the monsoon over India.
With the northward shift of SJT, an Easterly Jet is formed over the Indian plains. It
generally forms in the first week of June and lasts till late October.
It can be traced in the upper troposphere right up to the west coast of Africa.
The northward shift of SJT and ICTZ moves the subtropical high pressure belt to the
north of the Tibetan Plateau and the Easterly Jet creates a low pressure region in the
Indian plains (Easterly Jet creates anticyclonic conditions in upper troposphere).
This low pressure in the northern plains coupled with the intense low of the Tibetan
Plateau leads to the sudden onset of south-west monsoons (1st of Jun 20th of June).
The monsoon cell is situated between the Indian Ocean (North of Madagascar)(High
Pressure Cell) and Tibetan plateau (Low Pressure Cell).
In summer the sub-tropical easterly jet fluctuates between the plains region of India and
peninsular India varying the intensity of rainfall from location to location.
During March to May, the building up of this cell is blocked by the STJ which tends to
blow to the south of the Himalayas (Northwest India and Plains region are occupied by
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Subtropical High Pressure Belt. This high pressure belt undermines the influence of low
pressure cell over Tibet).
As long as the STJ is in this position the development of summer monsoons is inhibited
(the high pressure belt stays over north India).
With the STJ out of the way (high pressure belt migrates to the north of Tibet) the sub
continental monsoon cell develops (Somali Jet) very quickly indeed, often in a matter of
a few days.
Warmth and moisture are fed into the cell by a lower level tropical jet stream which
brings with it air masses laden with moisture from the Indian Ocean.
The end of the monsoon season is brought about when the atmosphere over the Tibetan
Plateau begins to cool (August October), this enables the STJ to transition back across
the Himalayas.
With the southward shift of ITCZ, subtropical high pressure belt returns back to the
Indian plains and the rainfall ceases.
This leads to the formation of a anticyclonic winter monsoon cell typified by sinking air
masses over India and relatively moisture free winds that blow seaward.
This gives rise to relatively settled and dry weather over India during the winter months.
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First attempt was made during International India Ocean Expedition (HOE) from 1962 to
1965.
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Committee
on
Ocean
Research
(SCOR)
and
UNESCO
with
World
Two more experiments were conducted, jointly, by India and the former USSR in 1973
and 1977, with limited participation from other countries.
These experiments are known as the Indo-Soviet Monsoon Experiment (ISMEX) and
Monsoon-77 respectively.
MONEX
It was organised jointly by many researching organizations and the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO) under their World Weather Watch (WWW) programme.
Details are not necessary. Remember the names. They can be asked in prelims. MONEX
was asked in previous papers.
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Western Disturbances
In the winter season, the sub-tropical jet (STJ) is bifurcated into two branches due to
physical obstruction of the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
One branch is flows to the south of the Himalayas, while the second branch is
positioned to the north of the Tibetan Plateau.
The ridge of the jet stream creates anticyclonic (with clockwise air circulation) conditions
over North-West India.
Consequently, the winds tend to descend over the north-western parts of India, resulting
into the development of atmospheric stability and dry conditions (anticyclonic condition
= no rainfall).
But the sub-tropical jet (STJ) causes periodic changes in general weather conditions.
The STJ drives the temperate low pressures over Mediterranean Sea towards east across
Afghanistan, Pakistan and reach north-west India.
These storms are residual frontal cyclones which move at the height of 2000 metres
from the mean sea level.
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The weather becomes clear after the western disturbances passes away.
Western Disturbances also bring heavy snowfall in the Himalayan Region and a cold
wave to north Indian plains.
The western disturbances affect weather conditions during the winter season up to
Patna (Bihar) and give occasional rainfall which is highly beneficial for the standing
rabi crops, (wheat, barley, mustard, gram, lentil, etc.).
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Cloudburst leads to flash floods and causes lot of damage to life and property.
Every intense rainfall is not a Cloudburst. Cloudburst specifically occurs when an air
mass with high humidity is struck at a place due to various reasons.
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In 2010, South-Western strip of Russia (Caucasus Region, Moscow etc.) saw higher than
normal temperatures (highest in in the last 100 years) and there were numerous
cloudbursts in Jammu and Kashmir.
A strong upper-atmospheric high was located over European Russia towards the
beginning of summer.
It diverted the jet stream (meandering of Sub-Tropical Jet Stream) and its rain-giving
train (trough) of summer storms farther north than usual, giving much of Southern
European Russia drought conditions.
In addition, southern desert heat from central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula and North
Africa began to flow northward, which strengthened this ridge of STJ and tightened its
hold over the region.
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The stalled system prevented weather systems being drawn across Russia and the
obstacle acted as a barrier trapping hot air to the south and cold air to the north.
The consequence of this static mass of hot air was the heat wave that devastated Russia.
With the jet stream stalled the Sub-Tropical Jet was unable to transit across the
Himalayas as it would do ordinarily, the monsoon cell to the south, fed by warmer
waters in the Indian Ocean, had nowhere to go and as a consequence it deposited vast
amounts of rain over Pakistan, Himalchal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir and this
led to extensive flooding.
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Indian Climate Climate of India Features of Indian Climate Factors Influencing The
Climate Of India: Physiography, Monsoon Winds, El Nino etc..
Indias climate closely resembles the climate that of a tropical country although its
northern part (north of tropic of cancer) is situated in the temperate belt.
Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan ranges
which block the cold air masses moving southwards from Central Asia.
During summer, due to over the head position of the sun, the climate in the southern
parts resemble equatorial dry climate.
The north Indian plains are under the influence of hot dry wind called loo blowing from
the Thar, Baloch and Iranian Deserts, increasing the temperatures to a level
comparable to that of the southern parts of the country.
Thus the whole of India, south of the Himalayas can be climatically treated as a tropical
country.
The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical
tropical monsoon climate.
So Indian climate, to be precise, is tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet and dry
climate) rather than just a tropical or half temperate climate.
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India has high Regional Climatic Diversity because of its topographical diversity
(location, altitude, distance from sea and relief).
Rainfall
The climate in most of the regions is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.
Some places like Thar desert, Ladakh have no wet season.
Mean annual rainfall varies substantially from region to region. Mawsynram and
Cherrapunji in Meghalaya receives around 1,000 cm of annual rainfall while at
Jaisalmer the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 12 cm.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Odisha see intense rainfall in July and August
while the Coromandel Coast goes dry during these months.
Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna receive south-west monsoon rains by the first
quarter of June while the rains are awaited till early July at places in Northwest India.
Temperature
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Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur in the Thar desert and the highest annual
temperature ranges are recorded in the Himalayan regions.
Both diurnal and mean annual temperature ranges are least in coastal regions.
In December, the temperature may dip to 40C at some places in J&K while in many
coastal regions average temperature is 20-25C.
Winters are moderately cold in most of the regions while the summers are extremely hot.
Himalayan regions experience brutal winters while the summers are moderate.
Latitudinal location
The Himalayas
Physiography
Monsoon Winds
Latitudinal location
Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in tropics and hence receive high solar
insolation. The summer temperatures are extreme and winters temperatures are
moderate in most of the regions.
The northern parts on the other hand lie in the warm temperate zone. They receive
comparatively less solar insolation. But summer are equally hot in north India because
of hot local wind called loo. Winter are very cold due to cold waves brought by the
western disturbances.
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The monsoon winds first reach the coastal regions and hence bring good amount of
rainfall.
Himalayas
The Himalayas act as a climatic divide between India and Central Asia.
During winter, Himalayas protect India from cold and dry air masses of Central
Asia.
During monsoon months these mountain ranges act as an effective physical barrier
for rain bearing south-west monsoon winds.
Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon winds into two branches
one branch flowing along the plain regions towards north-west India and the other
towards South-East Asia.
If the Himalayas were not present, the monsoon winds would simply move into China
and most of the north India would have been a desert.
Why rainfall decreases form east to west in plains region (Indus-Ganga Plains)?
In summer, there are many minor low pressure cells that exist all over the plain region.
As the monsoon winds move from east to west the moisture levels decrease due to
successive rainfall at each low pressure regions.
By the time winds reach western parts of the plains (Delhi, Haryana etc.) all the
moisture in the monsoon winds in exhausted.
Then how come Haryana and Punjab not deserts like Rajasthan?
They receive rainfall due to Western Disturbances in winter. (In summer the rainfall is
very low.)
Physiography
Physiography is the most important factor that determines the mean annual rainfall
received by a region.
Why are some parts in peninsular India semi-arid?
Places on the windward side of an orographic barrier receive great amount of rainfall
where as those on the leeward side remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-shadow effect.
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Example: The south-west monsoon winds from the Arabian sea strike almost
perpendicular at the Western Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the Western Coastal
plain and the western slopes of the Western Ghats.
On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu lie in rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats and receive scanty
rainfall.
Why no significant rainfall in Gujarat and Rajasthan? Explain the formation of Thar
Desert?
Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and Gujarat are not obstructed by any
orographic barrier and hence these regions receive no rainfall.
[Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to Aravalis and hence there is no orographic
rainfall].
[No convection cell or vertical wind movements arise in Rajasthan and Gujarat: Monsoon
winds blow towards low pressure cells in Tibet and hence only horizontal wind
movements exist in Gujarat and Rajasthan]
[Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In winter the region experiences strong divergence
because of the STJ Sub-Tropical Jet.]
How come Cherrapunji and Mawsynram receive abnormally high rainfall?
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are the wettest places on earth with mean annual rainfall
over 1000 cm.
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Monsoon Winds
The most dominating factor of the Indian climate is the 'monsoon winds'.
Important features of Indian Monsoons are
1. Sudden onset (sudden burst)
2. Gradual progress
3. Gradual retreat
4. Seasonal reversal of winds
The complete reversal of the monsoon winds brings about a sudden change in the
seasons.
The harsh summer season suddenly giving way to monsoon or rainy season.
The south-west monsoons from the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to
the entire country.
The north-eastern winter monsoon do not cause much rainfall except along the
Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
The changes in the upper air circulation over Indian landmass is brought about by Jet
streams. (Explained in detail in Indian Monsoons)
Westerly Jet Stream
Westerly jet stream blows at a very high speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone.
Southern branch of the jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter
weather conditions in India.
This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances from the
Mediterranean region in to the Indian sub-continent.
Winter rain and heat storms in north-western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in
hilly regions are caused by these disturbances.
These are generally followed by cold waves in the whole of northern plains.
Easterly Jet Stream
Reversal in upper air circulation takes place in summer due to the apparent shift of the
sun's vertical rays in the northern hemisphere.
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The westerly jet stream is replaced by the easterly jet stream which owes its origin to the
heating of the Tibet plateau.
Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence large
parts of the peninsular India.
Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the weather
conditions during the south-west monsoon season (low intensity cyclones).
Some cyclones are born during the retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October and
November (high intensity cyclones) and influence the weather conditions along the
eastern coast of India.
The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean sea and travel eastward
under the influence of westerly jet stream.
They influence the winter weather conditions over most of Northern-plains and Western
Himalayan region.
Droughts are common during El Nino events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic
rainfall.
La Nina
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ENSO = [warm water in eastern Pacific + low pressure over eastern Pacific] + [cool water
in western Pacific + high pressure in western Pacific]
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Winter Season Summer Season Indian Climate: Pressure, Winds, Rainfall, Temperature,
Cyclones, Western Disturbances. Loo, Andhis, Norwesters, Thunderstorms, etc..
Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of
temperature, cool and slow north-east trade winds.
The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the country, is very high.
To the south of this isotherm the temperatures are above 20C. Here there is no
distinctly defined winter weather. Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically
experiences temperatures near 30C.
To the north mean temperatures are below 21C and the winter weather is distinct.
The mean minimum temperature is about 5C over north-west India and 10C over the
Gangetic plains.
Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest place in India. The minimum temperature
recorded at Dras was 45C in 1908.
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High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west India due to low temperatures
coupled with divergence induced by the ridge of the STJ.
The winds start blowing from high pressure area of north-west to low pressure area of
south-east. The wind velocity is low due to low pressure gradient.
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The spell of fine weather over north-western and northern India is often broken due to
inflow of western disturbances.
They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
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After the passage of the disturbance, widespread fog and cold waves lowering the
minimum temperature by 5 to 10C below normal are experienced.
The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases with the advancement of the season.
This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest south.
The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy
rainfall.
Some of them cross the southern peninsula over to the Arabian Sea.
Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea and move towards either north or west.
The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of
Bengal and cause winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-east
Karnataka and south-east Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of November).
Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of
Andhra Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually decreases.
The amount of rainfall gradually decreases from the north and north-west to east (it is
opposite in rainy season).
The northeastern part of India also gets rainfall during the winter months.
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March to June.
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High suns insolation due to apparent movement of sun between the equator and the
Tropic of Cancer.
The southern parts of the country are distinctly warmer in March and April whereas in
June, north India has higher temperatures.
In April the highest temperature of about 45C is recorded in the northern parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as high as 48C
may be recorded.
The highest temperatures recorded are 50.5C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and 50.6C
at Ganganagar on 14th June, 1935.
The highest temperatures are recorded just before the onset of the southwest monsoons
(late May).
The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be as high as 18C in some
parts.
The maximum summer temperatures are comparatively lower in the costal and southern
peninsular regions due to moderating effect of the sea.
The temperatures along the west coast are comparatively lower than those prevailing on
the east coast due to the prevailing westerly winds.
Northern and central parts of India experience heat waves in this season.
Most of the heat waves develop over Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location far away
from the sea). From here they spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The strong north westerly winds (caused due to strong divergence in north-west India)
with a long land journey over hot regions check the onward march of the sea breeze over
eastern coastal belt and create heat wave conditions over Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
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The heat waves strike by the end of April and their maximum occurrence is in May. They
last till the onset of southwest monsoon.
The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to 5 days. However, heat waves are rare over the
peninsula south of 13N latitude due to maritime conditions prevailing there.
The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country due to high temperature.
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But strong dynamically induced divergence over north-west India prevents the onset of
south-west monsoons.
There is a marked change in the direction and speed of the winds from winter.
In May and June, high temperature in northwest India builds steep pressure gradient.
Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M., increases gradually and reaches maximum
intensity in the afternoon.
It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km per hour and persists for days.
Andhis
The strong dust storms resulting from the convective phenomena are locally known as
andhis (blinding storms). They move like a solid wall of dust and sand.
The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few
metres.
Such dust storms are common in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu region, Delhi,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.
They are short lived. The squall and showers which follow these storms bring down the
temperature sharply temporarily.
The strong convectional movements related to the westerly jet stream lead to
thunderstorms in eastern and north-eastern part of the country.
They normally originate over Chota Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards by
westerly winds.
The areas with highest incidence of thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the adjoining areas
of Odisha and Jharkhand.
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In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the direction
of squalls is mainly from the northwest, and they are called norwesters.
They are often very violent with squall speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour.
Hailstones sometimes accompany showers and occasionally attain the size of a golf ball.
They cause heavy damage to standing crops, trees, buildings, livestock and even lead to
loss of human lives.
However, they are, sometimes, useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
storms are known as Barodoli Chheerha.
The period of maximum occurrence of these storms is the month of Vaisakh (mid-March
to mid-April) and hence, they are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the black storms or a
mass of dark clouds of Vaiasakha.
In the south the thunderstorms occur in Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining parts
of Karnataka (Blossom Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly during evenings and
nights.
A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of Bengal in the month of March but they do not
affect the mainland of India.
Their frequency rises steeply in April and the number of cyclones originating in May is
more than double than those originating in April.
About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and the rest
originate in the Arabian Sea.
Most of the depressions in April originate to the south of 10N while those originating in
May are born to the north of this latitude.
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Most of the storms of this season initially move west or north-west but later they recurve
northeast and strike Bangladesh and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar.
Very few hit Indian coast while some dissipate over the sea itself.
The whole of the east coast of India, the coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan Coast
of Myanmar are liable to be hit by tropical storms in May.
Many of them are quite severe and cause heavy damage to life and property.
In the Arabian Sea, major storms are formed in May between 7 and 12 N latitudes.
Most of them move away from the Indian coast in a north-westerly direction and
dissipate in the sea.
Few originate close to the Indian coast. They move towards the north-east and hit
somewhere along the west coast of India.
This season is not totally rainless (only one per cent of the annual rainfall).
In the northeastern parts of the country, dust storms bring little rainfall.
The norwesters bring some rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of
rainfall is high.
The rainfall brought by the norwesters is known as the spring storm showers.
This small amount of rainfall is very useful for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and is
known as tea showers in Assam.
Such showers are called mango showers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because
they are very beneficial to mango crop.
In Karnataka they are called cherry blossoms due to their effect on the coffee
plantations.
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Rainy Season South West Monsoon Season North East Monsoon Season
ISOLINE: imaginary lines joining regions with equal rainfall or any other parameter.
ISOBAR: imaginary lines joining regions with equal pressure.
ISOTHERM: imaginary lines joining regions with equal temperature.
ISOHYET: imaginary lines joining regions with equal rainfall.
With the onset of monsoons, temperature falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
The highest temperatures are experienced at places west of the Aravali [38 to 40C].
This is due to lack of clouds and hot continental air masses.
The temperatures are quite low over the Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall.
The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have
temperatures above 30C as they receive little rainfall during this season.
Low pressure conditions prevail over northwest India due to high temperature.
ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga plain. There are frequent changes in its
location depending upon the weather conditions.
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Over the peninsular region, due to pressure gradient between north and south, winds
blow in a southwest to northeast direction from Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal.
Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from east to
west.
Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is received during this season.
The average rainfall over the plains of India in this season is about 87 per cent.
Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian
Sea.
The normal date of onset of the southwest monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first place of
entry in the mainland of India is 1st June.
The monsoons advance quickly accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning and heavy
downpour. This sudden onset of rain is termed as monsoon burst.
Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they come much earlier than normal.
Normally the onset occurs between 29th May and 7th June.
The earliest onset was on 11th May in 1918 and 1955, while the most delayed onset was
on 18th June in 1972.
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South West Monsoon Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch
Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala progress in the form of two branches viz. the
Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
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The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai by 10th
June.
The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather rapidly over most of Assam. The normal date
of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas the Bay branch is deflected westward by
the Himalayan barrier and it advances up the Gangetic plain.
The two branches merge with each other mostly around Delhi to form a single current.
Both the branches reach Delhi more or less at the same time.
The combined current gradually extends to west Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab,
Rajasthan and finally to Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir.
By the end of June the monsoon is usually established over most parts of the country.
By mid-July, the monsoon extends into Kashmir and the remaining parts of the country.
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is much powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch for
reasons:
1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay of Bengal, and
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2. the entire Arabian Sea current advances towards India, whereas only a part of
the Bay of Bengal current enters India, the remainder proceeding to Myanmar,
Thailand and Malaysia.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct streams on
arriving in the mainland of India.
The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of over
250 cm. It strike perpendicular to Western Ghats causing plentiful Orographic Rainfall
[400 to 500 cm annual rainfall on the windward side].
Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-50 cm on the leeward side of the crest.
There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on the immediate leeward side of the Western
Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts rising again and the amount of rainfall
increases further east.
The second stream enters NarmadaTapi troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches
central India. It does not cause much rain near the coast due to the absence of major
orographic obstacle across the rift. Some parts of central India receive rainfall from this
stream (Ex: Nagpur).
The third stream moves parallel to the Aravali Range without causing much rainfall.
Consequently the whole of Rajasthan is a desert area.
However, some orographic effect is occurs on the south-eastern edge of the Aravali
Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall while the surrounding plains have only 60 to
80 cm rainfall.
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon is divided into two distinct streams.
The first stream crosses the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and reaches Meghalaya. Here
that the orographic effect results in intense rainfall. Cherrapunji receives an annual
rainfall of 1,102 cm, major portion of which occurs from June to August.
Mawsynram (present champion) located at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to the
west of Cherrapunji (X champion) records higher annual rainfall of 1,221 cm.
Both the stations are located on the southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the northern
end of a deep valley running from south to north.
The second stream of the Bay of Bengal branch moves along Himalayan foothills as
they are deflected to the west by the Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to Ganga
plain.
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The rainfall by this stream is characterized by a steady decline as we move from east to
west up the plain. [Previous Prelims Question]
The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry during the south-west monsoon period
because of
1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea current and
2. Bay of Bengal current which flows parallel to the coast.
During the Monsoon season, there are periods when the Monsoon trough shifts to the
foothills of Himalayas, which leads to sharp decrease in rainfall over most parts of the
country but increase along the Himalayas and parts of Northeast India and Southern
Peninsula.
During July and August, there are certain periods when the monsoons become weak.
Rainfall practically ceases over the country outside the Himalayan belt and southeast
peninsula. This is known as break in the monsoon.
Breaks are likely to occur during the second week of August and last for a week.
The breaks are believed to be brought about by the northward shifting of the monsoon
trough (minimum low pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the trough lies at the foothills
of the Himalayas during the break period.
The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted by a line
on a weather map showing the locations of minimum sea level pressure, and as such, is a
convergence zone between the wind patterns of the southern and northern hemispheres.
During the break period, heavy rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions and the
southern slopes of the Himalayas.
On an average one or two breaks do occur during the rainy season. 85 out of 100 years
there is a break in the monsoons.
A major part of the South West Monsoon rainfall is generated by depressions [intense
low pressure] originating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some depressions
develop over land also.
About 3-4 depressions are formed per month from June to September.
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Almost all of them are sucked inward through the deltas of great rivers [They need
moisture to be alive], the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these areas.
The location of depressions strongly coincide with the latitudinal position of ITCZ.
Most of the depression originate to the west of 90 E in Bay of Bengal and move in northwest direction.
Storms during August and September are rare and are formed close to MaharashtraGujarat coast.
Most of the rainfall in central and northern parts of the country is caused by these
depressions.
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Major part of monsoon rains are received between June and September.
The amount of rainfall decreases with increasing distance from the sea.
The rainless interval during south west monsoon season is known as breaks. The
breaks in rainfall are related to tropical cyclones which originate in the Bay of Bengal.
Monsoons often fail to keep date. Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before the
scheduled time causing considerable damage to the crops.
Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal of southwest monsoon [middle of September
November].
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The monsoons withdraw from the extreme north-west end of the country in September,
from the peninsula by October and from the extreme south-eastern tip by December.
In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach in the first week of July and withdraw from
there in the second week of September.
The south-west monsoons reach Coromandel coast in the first week of June and
withdraw from there only in the middle of December.
Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual
and takes about three months.
With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear and the sky becomes clear.
As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon trough weakens and gradually shifts southward.
Consequently the pressure gradient is low.
Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of the north monsoon is not clearly defined.
The direction of winds over large parts of the country is influenced by the local pressure
conditions.
Most severe and devastating tropical cyclones originate in the Indian seas especially
in the Bay of Bengal.
The highest frequency of the cyclones is in the month of October and the first half of
November.
More cyclones are born in October and then in November and more cyclones originate
in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of Bengal originate between 8N and 14N.
Initially they move in a west or northwesterly direction, but many of them later recurve
and move towards the north-east.
Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross or affect the Indian coast.
The areas most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal.
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Many of the cyclones which strike the eastern coast of India, south of 15N latitude
cross the southern Peninsula and enter Arabian Sea.
During this process, they may weaken, but on re-entry over the Arabian sea they
intensify into cyclonic storms.
The storms of Arabian sea originate between 12N and 17N latitudes in October and
between 8 N and 13 N latitudes in November.
Generally they move away from the coast in a north-westerly direction. But about 25%
of them later recurve northeast and strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast.
In north-west India the western disturbances produce clouding and light rainfall in the
otherwise fine weather.
The precipitation is in the form of snow in higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.
The humidity and cloud cover are much reduced with the retreat of the south-west
monsoons and most parts of the country remain without much rainfall.
October-November is the main rainy season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of
Andhra Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as well as a secondary rainy period
for Kerala.
The retreating monsoons absorb moisture while passing over the Bay of Bengal and
cause this rainfall.
Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the wettest part of the country with Mawsynram
and Cherrapunji getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall respectively.
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Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, major part of the northern plain, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
These are desert and semi-desert areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall.
They include large areas of western Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh region of
Jammu and Kashmir.
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India has tropical monsoon climate with large regional variations in terms of rainfall and
temperature.
While classifying Indian climatic regions, most geographers have given more importance
to rainfall than to temperature as variations in rainfall are much more marked than
those of temperature.
Here we will see two classifications - Stamp's and Koeppens. For GS this is more than
enough.
Stamp used 18C isotherm of mean monthly temperature for January to divide the
country into two broad climatic regions, viz., temperate or continental zone in the
north and tropical zone in the south.
This line runs roughly across the root of the peninsula, more or less along or parallel to
the Tropic of Cancer.
The two major climatic regions are further divided into eleven regions depending upon
the amount of rainfall and temperature.
Tropical India
1. Region of very heavy rainfall
2. Region of heavy rainfall
3. Region of moderate rainfall
4. The Konkan Coast
5. The Malabar Coast
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6. Tamil Nadu
Avg Temperature
Annual Rainfall
Himalayan Region
Sumer = 4-7C
Winter = 13-18C
North-western Region
Summer = 16C
Winter = 24C
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parts of Jammu and Kashmir
Arid Lowland
Thar desert of Rajasthan, south western
part of Haryana and Kachchh of Gujarat
Region of moderate rainfall
Punjab,
Haryana,
western
Uttar
Pradesh, Union Territory of Delhi, northwest Plateau area of Madhya Pradesh
and eastern Rajasthan
Transitional Zone
Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar
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Winter = 16 to
24C
Summer = 48C
Below 40 cm
Winter = 15-18C
Summer = 3335C
40 - 80 cm
Winter = 15-19C
Summer = 30 35C
100 -150 cm
Tropical India
Region of very heavy rainfall
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram
and Nagaland
Region of heavy rainfall
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gangetic West
Bengal, Odisha and coastal Andhra
Pradesh
Region of moderate rainfall
between Western and Eastern Ghats
Konkan Coast
Mumbai in the north to Goa in the south
Malabar Coast
Goa to Kanniyakumari
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of
Andhra Pradesh
Winter = 18C in
Summer = 3235C
Over 200
Winter = 18-24C
Summer = 2935C
100 - 200 cm
Winter = 18-24C
Summer = 32C in
50 -100 cm
Annual
27C.
Over 200 cm
24-
Annual = 27C
Over 250 cm
Annual = 24C
100 to 150 cm
(Retreating
monsoon)
He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the
distribution of vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
Koeppen recognized five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature
and one on precipitation.
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The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on
seasonality of precipitation and temperature characteristics.
The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s, where
a) f - no dry season,
b) m - monsoon climate,
c) w - winter dry season and
d) s - summer dry season.
The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided depending upon the
seasonal distribution of rainfall or degree of dryness or cold.
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The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two subdivisions of dry
climate:
1. semi-arid or Steppe (S) and
2. arid or desert (W).
Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two subdivisions of polar
climate
1. tundra (T) and
2. icecap (F).
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Koeppen divided India into nine climatic regions making use of the above scheme.
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Region
Western coastal region, south of Mumbai
Annual rainfall
over 300 cm
[wet
winters,
dry
summers]
sun period)
Aw
(Tropical Savanah
type)
BShw
(Semi-arid Steppe
type)
BWhw
less than 12 cm
dry winters)
Dfc
(Cold, Humid
Assam
(Tundra Type)
(Polar Type)
occurs
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10C
Source: Indian Geography KULLAR
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Climate, soil and topography are the major factors that influence Natural
Vegetation of a place.
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The main climatic factors are rainfall and temperature. The amount of annual
rainfall has a great bearing on the type of vegetation.
Annual Rainfall
Type of Vegetation
200 cm or more
100 to 200 cm
50 to 100 cm
25 to 50 cm
Below 25 cm
Desert (Arid)
Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and other hilly regions with an
elevation of more than 900 metres.
As the temperature falls with altitude in the Himalayan region the vegetal cover
changes with altitude from tropical to sub-tropical, temperate and finally alpine.
Topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal forests,
etc..
India's vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.
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C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests
1. Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
2. Sub-tropical moist hill (pine)
3. Sub-tropical dry evergreen
D. Montane Temperate Forests
1. Montane Wet Temperate
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate
E. Alpine Forests
1. Sub-Alpine
2. Moist Alpine scrub
3. Dry Alpine scrub
Forest Type in India
% of Total Area
37
28
Tropical Semi-Evergreen
4
Rest below 4 %
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Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed
their leaves together.
Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too wet type climate.
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Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of
foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar
layer arrangement. The entire morphology looks like a green carpet when viewed from
above.
Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The
undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Distribution
1. Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level).
2. Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
3. In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Timber
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It has high commercial value but it is highly challenging to exploit due to dense
undergrowth, absence of pure stands and lack of transport facilities [Read
previous posts on Climatic regions to understand how lumbering industry works in
Equatorial Rainforests (hardwood) and Taiga Climatic (softwood) conditions].
The important species of these forests are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun,
canes, bamboo etc.
They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests.
They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests.
Climatic Conditions
Distribution
Western coast
Assam
Odisha and
Andamans.
Characteristics
They are more gregarious [living in flocks or colonies more pure stands] than
the wet evergreen forests.
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Buttressed Trunks
The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo Western Ghats,
white cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. Himalayan region.
Timber
Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are
less dense with more pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen
forests).
Characteristics
The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient
moisture is not available.
Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m].
These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large tracts
under these forests have been cleared for cultivation.
Distribution
Belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77 E to 88 E.
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Most of Odisha.
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Timber
The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun,
bamboo, etc.
They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water (The mixture of
seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can
range from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences
(delta or tidal forests).
Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places
along the coast.
Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari,
the Krishna and the Cauvery.
Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks,
backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
The most pronounced and the densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
the predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).
Timber
It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building
purposes and making boats.
The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw
pines, canes and palms, etc.
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Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in October
December].
The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.
Characteristics
Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture or casuarina
plantations.
Casuarina plantation
They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal
sand dunes, high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions.
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Distribution
Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka.
Benefits
Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of
paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
Wasteland development
Characteristics
These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season.
The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
They represent a transitional type - moist deciduous on the wetter side and thorn
forests on the drier side.
The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising up to
a height of 20 metres.
Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and
climbers.
Distribution
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They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to
Kanniyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal.
The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders,
laurel, satinwood, etc.
Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
Characteristics
The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.
Distribution
Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
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Distribution
Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to
2000 m.
Characteristics
Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other plant]
are common.
These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur only
in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the
Satpura and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravali Range
carry sub-types of these forests.
Western Himalayas between 73E and 88E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to
2000 metres above sea level.
Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
Timber
Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms pure stands.
Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000
metres above sea level.
Climatic Conditions
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The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold.
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Characteristics
Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs.
Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.
Distribution
Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
Characteristics
Distribution
Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.
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Characteristics
Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees.
They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
Timber
It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway
sleepers.
Characteristics
Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are
the main trees.
Distribution
Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west
monsoon is very feeble.
Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
Alpine Forests
These forests can be divided into: (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry
alpine scrub.
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The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc.
which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends upto snowline.
The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over
3,500 metres above sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, artemesia
etc. are important species.
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Soil Soil Types: Sandy-Clayey-Loamy. Soil Profile Soil Horizon: O horizon, A Horizon, E
horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon or Parent rock, R Horizon or Bedrock.
Soil
Soil is the thin top layer on the earths crust comprising rock particles mixed with
organic matter.
The Soil formation is mainly related to the parent rock material, surface relief, climate
and natural vegetation.
The soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks by the action of wind, water and
climate. This process is called weathering.
The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various sizes.
(a) If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil.
(b) If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is called clayey soil.
(c) If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is called
loamy.
1. Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles. So, sandy soils
tend to be light, well aerated and dry.
2. Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly together, leaving little space for air.
Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the tiny gaps between the particles of clay. So
clay soils have little air. But they are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy
soils.
3. The best topsoil for growing plants is loam. Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and
another type of soil particle known as silt. Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The size
of the silt particles is between those of sand and clay. The loamy soil also has humus in
it. It has the right water holding capacity for the growth of plants.
Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and
gram. Such soils are good at retaining water.
For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to
retain water are ideal.
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For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are
required.
For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water easily and can hold plenty of
air, are more suitable.
A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the soil profile.
Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth and chemical composition. These
layers are referred to as horizons.
A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical
characteristics differ from the layers above and beneath.
Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and
texture.
This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. It is called the topsoil
or the A-horizon.
The next layer has a lesser amount of humus but more of minerals. This layer is
generally harder and more compact and is called the B-horizon or the middle layer.
The third layer is the C-horizon, which is made up of small lumps of rocks with
cracks.
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O Horizon
It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil
life.
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This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds,
and other soluble constituents.
E horizon
These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between
the A and B horizons.
B Horizon or Subsoil
This layer accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.
Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon
[illuviation (opposite of eluviation)].
Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material in
sedimentary deposits.
This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon or Bedrock
This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil
profile.
Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
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Soil formation in Indian Conditions Factors that influence soil formation: Parent Material
Gondwana rocks & Deccan basalts, Relief, Climate & Natural Vegetation.
Parent Material
Relief
Climate
Natural Vegetation
Parent Material
The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.
In most of the cases, the parent material determines the colouration, mineral
composition and texture of the soil.
In some cases, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties of
the parent rock.
Climatic factors induce chemical changes which also affect physical properties of the
soil.
The surface rocks are exposed to the process of weathering. In this process, the rocks
are converted into fine grains and provide a base for the soil formation.
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They are the Oldest rocks [(pre-Cambrian era)(formed due to solidification of molten
magma about 4billion years ago)].
These rocks are rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on
weathering.
The red colour of these soils is due to the presence of iron oxide.
On weathering they give calcareous [containing calcium carbonate; chalky] and argillaceous
[consisting of or containing clay] soils.
Gondwana rocks
These rocks are also sedimentary in nature and they are much younger.
Deccan basalts
Volcanic outburst over a vast area of the Peninsular India many hundred million
years ago gave rise to Deccan Traps.
Basaltic lava flowed out of fissures covering a vast area of about ten lakh sq km.
Consequently the weathering of these rocks has given rise to soils of darker colour.
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The is fertile with high moisture holding capacity and is popularly known as
regur or black cotton soil.
Rocks of extra peninsular (plains and Himalayas) India have given rise to soils with
high porosity.
These soils are generally immature recent and sub recent rocks, result in alluvial
soils on weathering.
Alluvial fertile soils consist of fine silts and clay. These soils have little relation with
the original rocks.
On the other hand, the soils of peninsular plateau are generally coarse-grained and
are closely related to the parent rocks. The peninsular soils are generally less fertile.
Relief
The relief is the most important factor for soil formation in places with steep slopes
like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc.
Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant and it hinders soil formation. Example:
Chambal ravines, higher reaches of Himalayas where there is minimal or no forest
cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep
soils. Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
The exceptions in the plateau are river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently
deep.
Climate
Temperature and rainfall are the most important factors in soil formation.
They determine the effectiveness of weathering of the parent material, the quantity of
water seeping through the soil and the type of micro-organisms present therein.
Two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate.
Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of soils in two
different types of climates.
The crystalline granites produce laterite soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non-laterite soil in drier areas.
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Hot summer and low rainfall develops black soil as is found in some parts of
Tamil Nadu irrespective of the parent rock.
In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid
climate.
In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There is little
vegetation and the soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are invariably of
light colour.
In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, excess of evaporation
makes soils lime accumulating. Hence the soil is pedocal in nature [Pedocal is a
subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms in semiarid and
arid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter].
In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is very
slow and the soils are acidic in nature.
In areas of heavy rainfall and high temperature, the soils are red or lateritic. Why?
Torrential rainfall during the rainy season washes the upper soil and leaches the
materials into deeper horizon.
During the dry summer season the evaporation exceeds precipitation and through
capillary action iron and aluminium oxides are transported to the surface making
the soil red.
In areas of alternate wet and dry climate, the leached material which goes deep down
in the horizon is brought up and the blazing sun bakes the top soil so hard that it
resembles a brick. Therefore, this soil is called lateritic which literally means
brick.
Natural Vegetation
The formation and development of soil is very much influenced by the growth of
vegetation.
The decayed leaf material adds much needed humus to soil thereby increasing its
fertility.
The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India. There is a close
relationship between the vegetation types and soil types in India.
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Major Soil Groups of India Alluvial Soils Black Soils Characteristics, Chemical
properties, Distribution, Crops, Geological divisions: Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar, Khadar.
Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular India and soils
of extra-peninsular India.
The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e.
directly from the underlying rocks.
Soils of Peninsular India are transported and re-deposited to a limited extent and are
known as sedentary soils.
The soils of the Extra-Peninsula are formed due to the depositional work of rivers and
wind. They are very deep. They are often referred to as transported or azonal soils.
Major groups:
(1) Alluvial soils,
(2) Black soils,
(3) Red soils,
(4) Laterite and Lateritic soils,
(5) Forest and Mountain soils,
(6) Arid and Desert soils,
(7) Saline and Alkaline soils and
(8) Peaty and Marshy soils.
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Alluvial Soils
Rocks of the Himalayas form the parent material. Thus the parent material of these soils
is of transported origin.
They are the largest soil group covering about 15 lakh sq km or about 45.6 per cent of
the total area.
They support more than 40% of the Indias population by providing the most productive
agricultural lands.
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They are immature and have weak profiles due to their recent origin.
Most of the soil is loamy. Sandy and clayey soils are not uncommon.
Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present in
some regions along the river terraces.
The soil is porous because of its loamy (equal proportion of sand and clay) nature.
Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favorable for
agriculture.
The proportion of Iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.
They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places where
the top layer is covered by desert sand.
They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery,
where they are called deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium)
Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi valleys and Northern parts of
Gujarat.
They are mostly flat and regular soils and are best suited for agriculture.
They are best suited to irrigation and respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation.
They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger
khadar and older bhangar soils.
Bhabar
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The bhabar belt is about 8-16 km wide running along the Shiwalik foothills. It is a
porous, northern most stretch of Indo-Gangetic plain.
Rivers descending from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form
of alluvial fans. These alluvial fans (often pebbly soils) have merged together to build up
the bhabar belt.
The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to deposition of
huge number of pebbles and rock debris across the alluvial fans.
The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity.
Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
The area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in
this belt.
Terai
Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract (15-30 km
wide) to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it.
The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. It is a swampy
lowland with silty soils.
The terai soils are rich in nitrogen and organic matter but are deficient in phosphate.
These soils are generally covered by tall grasses and forests but are suitable for a
number of crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute etc..
The Bhangar is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the
flood plain (about 30 metres above the flood level).
A few metres below the terrace of the bhangar are beds of lime nodules known as
kankar.
Khadar
The Khadar is composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river
banks.
The banks are flooded almost every year and a new layer of alluvium is deposited with
every flood. This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
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They are sandy clays and loams, more dry and leached, less calcareous and
carbonaceous (less kankary). A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost
every year.
Black Soils
The parent material for most of the black soil are the volcanic rocks that were formed in
the Deccan Plateau (Deccan and the Rajmahal trap).
In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. The former are
sufficiently deep while the later are generally shallow.
These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall. It is, therefore, a soil group
typical to the dry and hot regions of the Peninsula.
A typical black soil is highly argillaceous [Geology (of rocks or sediment) consisting of or containing
clay]
In general, black soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the valleys are very
fertile.
The black soil is highly retentive of moisture. It swells greatly on accumulating moisture.
Strenuous effort is required to work on such soil in rainy season as it gets very sticky.
In summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and
deep cracks. The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permits oxygenation
of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite
or iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from crystalline
schists and basic gneisses.
Various tints of the black colour such as deep black, medium black, shallow black , a
mixture of red and black may be found in this group of soils.
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Spread over 5.46 lakh sq km (16.6 per cent of the total area) across Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu.
These soils are best suited for cotton crop. Hence these soils are called as regur and
black cotton soils.
Other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia
tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets.
Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are available.
Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black soils.
This soil has been used for growing a variety of crops for centuries without adding
fertilizers and manures, with little or no evidence of exhaustion.
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Indian Soil Types: Red Soils, Laterite Lateritic Soils, Forest Mountain Soils, Arid
Desert Soils, Saline Alkaline Soils, Peaty Marshy Soils.
Previous post: Alluvial Soil Black Soil.
Red Soils
Red soils along with its minor groups form the largest soil group of India.
The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid granites,
gneisses and quartzites.
The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams.
On the uplands, the red soils are poor, gravelly, and porous. But in the lower areas they
are rich, deep dark and fertile.
They are acidic mainly due to the nature of the parent rocks. The alkali content is fair.
When limestone, granites, gneisses and quartzites are eroded the clay enclosed within
the rocks remains intact with other forms of non-soluble materials.
In oxidizing conditions, rust or iron oxide develops in the clay, when the soil is present
above the water table giving the soil a characteristic red colour.
The colour is more due to the wide diffusion rather than high percentage of iron oxide
content.
They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq km (10.6 per cent) of the total area of the country.
Other regions with red soil include parts of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur
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plateau; parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravalis and the eastern half
of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.
The red soils are mostly loamy and hence cannot retain water like the black soils.
The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation techniques, give good yield
of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds, potatoes and fruits.
They are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.
Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil
whereby lime and silica are leached away and a soil rich in oxides of iron and
aluminium compounds is left behind.
Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
Sometimes, the phosphate content may be high in the form of iron phosphate.
Continuous stretch of laterite soil is found on the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to
1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras
and Malwa Plateau.
They also occur at lower levels and in valleys in several other parts of the country.
They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and are widely
scattered in other regions.
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When manured and irrigated, some laterites are suitable for growing plantation crops
like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc.
In some areas, these soils support grazing grounds and scrub forests.
These soils can be easily cut into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed to air.
These soils occupy about 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67% of the total land area of India.
They are mainly heterogeneous soils found on the hill slopes covered by forests.
Consequently, they differ greatly even if they occur in close proximity to one
another.
In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north
facing slopes. The south facing slopes are very steep and exposed to denudation and
hence do not support soil formation.
They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in peninsular
forest region.
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Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand (90 to 95 per cent) and clay (5 to 10 per cent).
The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. Desertification of neighboring soils is common
due to intrusion of desert sand under the influence of wind [Aeolian sand].
Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The sand here is
blown from the Indus basin and the coast by the prevailing south-west monsoon winds.
Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
Some desert soils are alkaline with varying degree of soluble salts like calcium
carbonate.
Calcium content increases downwards and the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
Phosphates and nitrates make these soil fertile wherever moisture is available.
There is a possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are available.
In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton,
millets, maize and pulses are grown.
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a
substance) with saline and alkaline efflorescences (become covered with salt particles).
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In regions with low water table, the salts percolate into sub soil and in regions with good
drainage, the salts are wasted away by flowing water.
But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt concentration
becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top soil once the water evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by
the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season.
Capillary action
Capillary action is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity.
Surface tension
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of liquids (a membrane like surface) that
makes them acquire the least surface area possible.
Surface tension causes insects (e.g. water striders), usually denser than water, to
float and stride on the water surface.
Surface tension offers the necessary buoyant force (buoyancy) required for an
object to float in water [Ships flots because of difference in density as well
surface tension].
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These soils are found in canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table.
Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab
(side effects of improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and Maharashtra have this kind
of soils.
The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
agriculture.
In Gujarat, the areas around the Gulf of Khambhat are affected by the sea tides
carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas comprising the estuaries of the Narmada, the
Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have thus become infertile.
Along the coastline, saline sea waters infiltrate into coastal regions during storm surges
(when cyclones make landfall) and makes the soil unfit for cultivation. The low lying
regions of coastal Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu face this kind of soil degradation.
These are soils with large amount of organic matter and considerable amount of
soluble salts.
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Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sunderbans of West Bengal,
in Bihar and Almora district of Uttarakhand.
Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains
cease, they are put under paddy cultivation.
Most soils are old and mature. Soils of the peninsular plateau are much older than the
soils of the great northern plain.
Indian soils are largely deficient in nitrogen, mineral salts, humus and other organic
materials.
Plains and valleys have thick layers of soils while hilly and plateau areas depict thin soil
cover.
Some soils like alluvial and black soils are fertile while some other soils such as laterite,
desert and alkaline soils lack in fertility and do not yield good harvest.
Indian soils have been used for cultivation for hundreds of years and have lost much of
their fertility.
Soil erosion (Himalayan region, Chambal Ravines etc.), deficiency in fertility (Red,
lateritic and other soils), desertification (around Thar desert, rain-shadow regions like
parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.), waterlogging (Punjab-Haryana plain) salinity and
alkalinity (excessively irrigated regions of Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka etc.), wasteland,
over exploitation of soils due to increase in population and rise in living standards and
encroachment of agricultural land due to urban and transport development.
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Soil Degradation
Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality caused by its improper use, usually for
agricultural, pastoral, industrial or urban purposes.
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Pic
Courtesy:
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http://www.dailymail.co.uk/indiahome/indianews/article-
2660560/Desertification-land-degradation-affects-quarter-Indias-land.html
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by agents like wind and water.
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Top soil has most of the nutrients necessary for a plants growth. With depth, the
fertility of the soil decreases. Thus, erosion results in reduction of fertility of the soil by
washing away the fertile top layer.
Erosion by wind and water is much quicker than the soil formation process. So once
fertile soil layer is lost, it requires a lot of time and resources to restore it.
In Indias case, the problem of soil erosion is particularly severe due to over dependence
on agriculture and improper land management.
Notable Quotable: Soil erosion is essentially a problem created by man and also
faced by man himself.
Water Erosion
If erosion continues unchecked for a long time, numerous finger-shaped grooves may
develop in the silt laden soils. The whole pattern resembles the shape of a tree. This is
called rill erosion.
With further erosion of the soil, the rills deepen and become enlarged and are turned
into gullies. Gullies formed over a large area gives rise to badland topography
(Chambal Ravines).
When a gully bed is eroded further, the bed gradually deepens and flattens out and a
ravine is formed. The depth of a ravine may extend to 30 metres or more.
Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to canyons. Canyons are few hundred meters
deep and wide. (Grand Canyon on Colorado River).
When the entire top sheet of soil is washed away by water or by wind, leaving behind
barren rock, it is called sheet erosion. Sheet erosion attacks a large area of top soil and
renders the land almost unfit for cultivation.
In the coastal areas, waves dash along the coast and cause heavy damage to soil. During
the landfall of cyclones, storm surges destroy beaches and wash away the top layer. In
estuaries, tidal bores cause extensive damage to the surrounding banks. This is called
sea erosion.
In the higher reaches of the Himalayan region, soil erosion is caused by sowing moving
glaciers. This is called glacial erosion.
Wind Erosion
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Wind erosion or Aeolian erosion is quite significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
Winds usually blow at high speeds in deserts due to absence of trees (physical
obstruction).
These winds remove the fertile, arable, loose soils leaving behind a depression devoid of
top soil (the depression formation in deserts is the first step in Oasis formation. Oasis
forms in depressions when there is underground water that gets accumulated above
rocks).
Wind erosion is accentuated when the soil is dry, soils are subjected to overgrazing and
devoid of vegetation cover.
Very fine and medium sands are moved by wind in a succession of bounds and leaps,
known as saltation.
Coarse sand is not usually airborne but rather is rolled along the soil surface. This type
of erosion is called surface creep.
Very coarse sand and gravels are too large to be rolled by wind, so wind-eroded soils
have surfaces covered with coarse fragments larger than 1.00 mm in diameter. This kind
of arid soil surface is known as desert pavement.
80 million hectares or about one-fourth of our total area is exposed to wind and water
erosion.
Wind erosion is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid parts of north west India.
About one-ninth of land is subject to severe wind erosion in Rajasthan and adjoining
areas of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh.
It is estimated that 34 lakh tonnes of fertile soils is removed by wind every year.
Wind speed,
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Human density,
Deforestation,
Overgrazing,
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Desertification.
Rivers, canals and tanks are silted and their water holding capacity decreases.
Deforestation
Population explosion has created pressure on forest land and resources and this causes
deforestation. Deforestation accentuates soil erosion (soil degradation).
Roots of trees and plants bind the soil particles and regulate the flow of water, thus
saving soil from erosion. Deforestation make soil vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
The large scale damage to soil in Shiwalik range, the Chos of Punjab, the ravines of
Chambal valley are due to deforestation.
Overgrazing
During the rainy season, there is plenty of vegetation and animals get enough fodder.
But during the dry period, there is shortage of fodder and the grass is grazed to the
ground and torn out by the roots by animals.
This leads to loose structure of the soil and the soil is easily washed away by rains.
Moreover, soil is pulverized (reduce to fine particles) by the hoofs of animals, and thus proves
detrimental to top soil when heavy showers fall on it.
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Wrong ploughing, lack of crop rotation and practice of shifting cultivation are the most
adversely affecting methods of agriculture.
If the fields are ploughed along the slope, there is no obstruction to the flow of water and
the water washes away the top soil easily.
In some parts of the country, the same crop is grown year after year which spoils the
chemical balance of the soil. This soil is exhausted and is easily eroded by wind or
water.
Shifting cultivation practiced in some areas in the north-eastern states. In this method,
a piece of forest land is cleared by felling and burning of trees and crops are grown. The
removal of the forest cover leads to the exposure of the soil to rains and sun which
results in heavy loss of top soil, especially on the hill slopes.
In Saline and Alkaline Soils, the top soil is impregnated (soak or saturate with a substance) with
saline and alkaline efflorescences (become covered with salt particles).
In regions with low water table (due to over irrigation in canal irrigated areas), the salts
percolate into sub soil and in regions with good drainage, the salts are wasted away by
flowing water.
But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt concentration
becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the top soil once the water evaporates.
In regions with high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by
the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry season.
In canal irrigated areas plenty of the water is available and the farmers indulge in over
irrigation of their fields.
Under such conditions, the ground water level rises and saline and alkaline
efflorescences consisting of salts of sodium, calcium and magnesium appear on the
surface as a layer of white salt through capillary action.
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Although salts of alkali are somewhat different in their chemical properties from the
salts of saline soils both soils occur in the same areas.
Sandy soils are more prone to alkalinity and the loamy soils to salinity-alkalinity.
It is estimated that about 80 lakh hectares of land (2.43% of the country's total area) is
affected by the problem of salinity and alkalinity.
Vast tracts of canal irrigated areas in Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and Haryana; arid regions
of Rajasthan, semi-arid areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and
Karnataka etc. are facing this problem.
Although Indira Gandhi canal in Rajasthan has turned the sandy desert into a granary,
it has given birth to serious problems of salinity and alkalinity.
Salinity and alkalinity have adverse effect on soil and reduce soil fertility.
Cultivation is not possible on saline soils unless they are flushed out with large
quantities of irrigation water to leach out the salts.
Choice of crops is limited to salinity tolerant crops like cotton, barley etc..
Providing outlets for lands to drain out excess water and lower water table.
Seal leakages from canals, tanks and other water bodies by lining them.
Improve vegetal cover to avoid further degradation by planting salt tolerant vegetation.
Crop rotation..
Alkali can be removed by adding sulphuric acid or acid forming substances like sulphur
and pyrite.
Organic residues such as rice husks and rice straw can be added to promote formation
of mild acid as a result of their decomposition.
Flushing the salt by flooding the fields with excess water. However, this practice can
lead to accumulation of saline water in the downstream area.
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Desertification
Desertification is the spread of desert like conditions in arid or semi-arid areas due to
man's influence or climatic change.
A large part of the arid and semi-arid region lying between the Indus and the Aravali
range is affected by spreading desert conditions.
Desert soils suffer maximum erosion by wind. The sand carried by wind is deposited on
the adjoining fertile lands whose fertility dwindles and slowly the fertile land start
merging with the advancing desert.
It has been estimated that the Thar Desert is advancing at an alarming rate of about 0.5
km per year.
Deposition of sand in rivers, lakes and other water bodies thereby decreasing their water
containing capacity.
Mulching shifting sand dunes in deserts with different plant species. Mulches serve as
an effective physical barrier to the moving sand.
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Waterlogging
Waterlogged soils are soaked with water accumulated during rainy season or due to
leakage from various water sources.
Extent of waterlogged soils is about 12 million hectares in India half of which lies along
the coast and the other half in the inland area.
Proper layout of drainage schemes is the only way to overcome the menace of
waterlogging.
The basic methods of removing excess water from waterlogged soils are (a) surface
drainage and (b) vertical drainage.
(a) Surface Drainage. Surface drainage involves the disposal of excess water over ground
surface through an open drainage system with an adequate outlet.
(b) Vertical Drainage. Any bore or well from which the underlying water is extracted is
defined as vertical drainage. It works well in Indo-Gangetic plain where the pumped
water is used for irrigating the neighboring regions.
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Soil Conservation Crop Rotation, Strip Cropping, Use of Early Maturing Varieties, Contour
Ploughing, Checking Shifting Cultivation, Ploughing the Land in Right Direction, Mulching,
Contour barriers, Terrace farming, Contour Bunding, Intercropping, Contour ploughing,
Shelter belts or Windbreaks, Sand fences, Afforestation, Checking Overgrazing.
Soil Conservation
Soil conservation is the prevention of soil from erosion or reduced fertility caused by
overuse, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
Soil erosion is the greatest single evil to Indian agriculture and animal husbandry.
Notable Quotable from Kullars Indian Geography: With soil conservation people rise
and with its destruction they fall. Neglect of soil is like killing the hen that lays the
golden egg.
Crop Rotation
In many parts of India, a particular crop is sown in the same field year after year. This
practice leads to exhaustion of certain nutrients in the soil making it infertile.
Crop rotation is a practice in which a different crop is cultivated on a piece of land each
year.
This helps to conserve soil fertility as different crops require different nutrients from the
soil. Crop rotation will provide enough time to restore lost nutrients.
For example, potatoes require much potash but wheat requires nitrate. Thus it is best to
alternate crops in the field.
Legumes such as peas, beans, and many other plants, add nitrates to the soil by
converting free nitrogen in the air into nitrogenous nodules on their roots. Thus if they
are included in the crop rotation nitrogenous fertilizers can be dispensed with.
Strip Cropping
Crops may be cultivated in alternate strips, parallel to one another. Some strips may be
allowed to lie fallow while in others different crops may be sown.
Various crops are harvested at different intervals. This ensures that at no time of the
year the entire area is left bare or exposed.
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The tall growing crops act as wind breaks and the strips which are often parallel to the
contours help in increasing water absorption by the soil by slowing down run off.
Early maturing varieties of crops take less time to mature and thus put lesser pressure
on the soil. In this way it can help in reducing the soil erosion.
Contour Ploughing
If ploughing is done at right angles to the hill slope, the ridges and furrows break the
flow of water down the hill.
This prevents excessive soil loss as gullies are less likely to develop and also reduce runoff so that plants receive more water.
Checking and reducing shifting cultivation by persuading the tribal people to switch over
to settled agriculture is a very effective method of soil conservation.
This can be done by making arrangements for their resettlement which involves the
provision of residential accommodation, agricultural implements, seeds, manures, cattle
and reclaimed land.
Ploughing the land in a direction perpendicular to wind direction also reduces wind
velocity and protects the top soil from erosion.
Mulching
The bare ground (top soil) between plants is covered with a protective layer of organic
matter like grass clippings, straw, etc.
Benefits
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Organic mulches also improve the condition of the soil. As these mulches slowly
decompose, they provide organic matter which helps keep the soil loose.
Contour barriers
Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front
of the barriers to collect water.
They intercept downslope flowing water and soil particles. These barriers slow down the
water movement and reduce its erosive force. They also filter out and trap many of the
suspended soil particles, keeping them from being washed out of the field.
A long term advantage of barriers is that soil tends to build up behind them, creating a
terrace effect. Barriers can be classified as live (strips of living plants), dead (rocks, crop
residues), or mixed (a combination of the previous two).
Rock dam
Rocks are piled up across a channel to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies
and further soil loss.
Terrace farming
These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops.
They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.
Contour Bunding
Terracing and contour bunding which divide the hill slope into numerous small slopes,
check the flow of water, promote absorption of water by soil and save soil from erosion.
Retaining walls of terraces control the flow of water and help in reducing soil erosion.
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Intercropping
Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the
soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing
Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to
flow down the slope
In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to
protect soil cover.
Sand fences
Sand fences are barriers made of small, evenly spaced wooden slats or fabric. They are
erected to reduce wind velocity and to trap blowing sand. Sand fences can be used as
perimeter controls around open construction sites to keep sediments from being blown
offsite by the wind.
Afforestation
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It includes the prevention of forest destruction along with growing new forests or
increase area under forests.
A minimum area 20 to 25 per cent of forest land was considered healthy for soil and
water conservation for the whole country.
It was raised to 33 per cent in the second five year plan 20 per cent for the plains and
60 per cent for hilly and mountainous regions.
Checking Overgrazing
Overgrazing accentuates erosion. During the dry period, there is shortage of fodder and
the grass is grazed to the ground and torn out to the roots by animals. Soil is pulverized
(reduce to fine particles) by the hoofs of animals. All this leads to weak top layer.
This can be done by creating separate grazing grounds and producing larger quantities
of fodder.
Dams
Much of the soil erosion by river floods can be avoided by constructing dams across the
rivers in proper places. This checks the speed of water and saves soil from erosion.
But indiscriminate dam construction can worsen the condition by creating floods and
landslides like it happens in the Himalayan region.