Cswip 3.2 Book

SENIOR WELDING INSPECTION
CONTENTS
Section Subject
1.0 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector

2.0 Terms and Definitions
3.0 Planning
4.0 Codes and Standards
5.0 Calibration of Welding Equipment
6.0 Destructive Testing
7.0 Heat Treatment
8.0 WPS and Welder Qualifications
9.0 Materials Inspection
10.0 Residual Stress and Distortion
11.0 Weldability of Steels
12.0 Weld Fractures
13.0 Welding Symbols
14.0 NDT
15.0 Welding Consumables
16.0 GMAW
17.0 SMAW
18.0 SAW
19.0 GTAW
20.0 Weld Imperfections
21.0 Weld Repairs
22.0 Welding Safety
23.0 Appendices
Rev 1 Jul 08
Senior Welding Inspection
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2008
Section 1
Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector

1 General
The Senior Welding Inspector has primarily a supervisory/managerial role,
which could encompass the management and control of an inspection
contract. The role would certainly include leading a team of Welding
Inspectors, who will look to the Senior Welding Inspector for guidance,
especially on technical subjects. The Senior Welding Inspector will be
expected to give advice, resolve problems, take decisions and generally
lead from the front, sometimes in difficult situations.
The attributes required by the Senior Welding Inspector are varied and the
emphasis on certain attributes and skills may differ from project to project.
Essentially though the Senior Welding Inspector will require leadership
skills, technical skills and experience.
2 Leadership Skills
Some aspects on the theory of leadership may be taught in the classroom,
but leadership is an inherent part of the character and temperament of an
individual. Practical application and experience play a major part in the
development of leadership skills and the Senior Welding Inspector should
strive to improve and fine tune these skills at every opportunity.
The skills required for the development of leadership include:
• A willingness and ability to accept instructions or orders from senior staff

and to act in the manner prescribed.
• A willingness and ability to give orders in a clear and concise manner,
whether verbal or written, which will leave the recipient in no doubt as to
what action or actions are required.
• A willingness to take responsibility, particularly when things go wrong,
perhaps due to the Senior Welding Inspector’s direction, or lack of it.
• A capacity to listen (the basis for good communication skills) if and when
explanations are necessary, and to provide constructive reasoning and
advice.
• A willingness to delegate responsibility to allow staff to get on with the
job and to trust them to act in a professional manner. The Senior
Welding Inspector should, wherever possible, stay in the background,
managing.
• A willingness and ability to support members of the team on technical
and administrative issues.
Rev 1 July 2008

Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector.
3 Technical Skills
A number of factors make up the technical skills required by the Senior
Welding Inspector and these are a knowledge of:
• Technology;
• Normative documents;
• Planning;
• Organisation;
• Auditing;
4 Knowledge of Technology
Welding technology knowledge required by the Senior Welding Inspector is
very similar to that required by the Welding Inspector, but with some
additional scope and depth.
Certain areas where additional knowledge is required are:
• A knowledge of quality assurance and quality control.

• A sound appreciation of the four commonly used non-destructive testing
methods.
• A basic understanding of steel metallurgy for commonly welded
materials and the application of this understanding to the assessment of
fracture surfaces.
• Assessment of non-destructive test reports, particularly the interpretation
of radiographs.
5 Knowledge of Normative Documents

It is not a requirement for Inspectors at any level to memorise the content of
relevant normative documents, except possibly with the exception of taking
examinations.
Specified normative documents (specifications, standards, codes of

practice, etc) should be available at the workplace and the Senior Welding
Inspector would be expected to read, understand and apply the
requirements with the necessary level of precision and direction required.
The Senior Welding Inspector should be aware of the more widely used
standards as applied in welding and fabrication. For example:
BS EN ISO 15614 / ASME IX Standards for welding procedure

approval
BS 4872, BS EN 287 / ASME IX Standards for welder approval.
PED BS 5500 / ASME VIII Standards for quality of fabrication.
BS EN ISO 9000 – 2000 Standards for quality management.
Rev 1 July 2008

6 Knowledge of Planning
Any project or contract will require some planning if inspection is to be
carried out effectively and within budget.
See unit: Planning for more detailed information.
7 Knowledge of Organisation
The Senior Welding Inspector must have good organisational skills in order
to ensure that the inspection requirements of any quality/inspection plan can
be met, within the allocated time, budget and using the most suitable
personnel for the activity. Assessment of suitable personnel may require
consideration of their technical, physical and mental abilities in order to
ensure that they are able to perform the tasks required of them. Other
considerations would include availability of inspection personnel at the time
required, levels of supervision and the monitoring of the inspector’s activities
form start to contract completion.
8 Knowledge of Quality/Auditing
There are many situations in manufacturing or on a project where the Senior
Welding Inspector may be required to carry out audits.
See section on: Quality Assurance/Quality Control and Inspection for more
detailed information.
9 Man Management
As mentioned above, the Senior Welding Inspector will have to direct and
work with a team of Inspection personnel which he may well have to pick.
He will have to liaise with Customer representatives, sub-contractors and
third party Inspectors. He may have to investigate non-compliances, deal
with matters of discipline as well as personal matters of his staff.
To do this effectively he needs skills in man management.
10 Recruitment
When recruiting an individual or a team the SWI will first have to establish
the requirements of the work. Among them would be:
• What skills are definitely required for the work and what additional ones
would be desirable?
• Are particular qualifications needed?
• Is experience of similar work desirable?
• What physical attributes are needed?
• Is the work local, in-shop, on-site, in a third world country?
• Does the job require working unsociable hours being away from home
for long periods?
Rev 1 July 2008

• Is the job for permanent staff or for a fixed term?
• If overseas what are the leave and travel arrangements?
• What is the likely salary?
During subsequent interviews the SWI will need to assess other aspects of
the candidates’ suitability:
• Has he the ability to work on his own initiative?

• Can he work as part of a team?
• If overseas has the person been to a similar location?
• What is his marital/home situation?
• Are there any Passport/Visa problems likely?
11 Morale and Motivation

The morale of a workforce has a significant effect on its performance so the
SWI must strive to keep the personnel happy and motivated and be able to
detect signs of low morale.
Low morale can lead to among other things:
• Poor productivity, less good workmanship, lack of diligence, taking short

cuts, ignoring safety procedures and higher levels of absenteeism.
The SWI needs to be able to recognise these signs and others such as
personnel not starting work promptly, taking longer breaks, talking in groups
and grumbling about minor matters.
A good supervisor should not allow his workforce to get into such a state.
He must keep them motivated by:
• His own demeanour – does he have drive and enthusiasm or is he

seen to have no energy and generally depressed. The workforce will
react accordingly.
• Is he seen to be leading from the front in a fair and consistent manner?
• Favouritism in the treatment of staff, on disciplinary matters, the
allocation of work, allotment of overtime, weekend working and
holidays are common causes of problems
• Keep them informed in all aspects of the job and their situation.
Rumours of impending redundancies or cuts in allowances etc will not
make for good morale.
Rev 1 July 2008

12 Discipline
Any workforce must be working in a disciplined manner, normally to rules
and standards laid down in the Company’s conditions of employment or
relevant company handbook. The SWI must have a good understanding of
these requirements and be able to apply them in a fair and equitable
manner.
He must have a clear understanding as to the limits of his authority –

knowing how far he can go in disciplinary proceedings.
The usual stages of disciplinary procedure are:
• The quiet word

• Formal verbal warning
• Written warning
• Possible demotion, transfer, suspension
• Dismissal with notice
• Instant dismissal.
Usually after the written warning stage the matter will be handled by the
Company’s Personnel or Human Resources Department.
It is of vital importance that the company rules are rigorously followed as

any deviation could result in claims for unfair or constructive dismissal.
In dealing with disciplinary matters the SWI must:
• Act promptly
• Mean what he says
• Treat everyone fairly and as an adult.
• Avoid constant complaining on petty issues
Where there are serious breaches of company rules by one or two people
the rest of the workforce should be informed of the matter so that rumour
and counter-rumours can be quashed.
Some matters of discipline may well arise because of incorrect working

practices, passing off below quality work, signing for work which has not
been done, etc.
Rev 1 July 2008

In all such cases the SWI will need to carry out an investigation and apply
disciplinary sanctions to the personnel involved. To do this:
• First establish the facts – by interviewing staff, from the relevant

records, by having rechecks on part of the job.
• If any suspicions are confirmed, transfer/remove suspect personnel
from the job pending disciplinary proceedings. If the personnel are
employed by a sub-contractor then a meeting with the sub-contractor
will be needed to achieve the same end.
• Find out the extent of the problem, is it localised or widespread?
• Is there need to inform the customer and third party inspector?
• Formulate a plan of action, with other company departments where
necessary, to retrieve the situation.
• Carry out the necessary disciplinary measures on the personnel
involved.
• Convene a meeting with the rest of the workforce to inform them of the
situation and ensure that any similar lapses will be dealt with severely.
• Follow up the meeting with a written memo.
13 Summary
The Senior Welding Inspector’s role can be varied and complex, a number
of skills need to be developed in order for the individual to be effective in the
role. Every Senior Welding Inspector will have personal skills and attributes
which can be brought to the job, some of the skills identified above may
already have been mastered or understood. The important thing for the
individual to recognise is not only do they have unique abilities which they
can bring to the role, but they also need to strive to be the best they can by
strengthening identifiable weak areas in their knowledge and understanding.
Some ways in which these goals may be achieved is through:
• Embracing facts and realities.

• Being creative.
• Being interested in solving problems.
• Being pro-active not reactive
• Having empathy with other people.
• Having personal values.
• Being objective.
Rev 1 July 2008

Section 2
Terms and Definitions

Note:
The following definitions are taken from BS 499-1:1991 “Welding terms and
symbols – Glossary for welding, brazing and thermal cutting”
Welding:
An operation in which two or more parts are united by means of heat or
pressure or both, in such a way that there is continuity in the nature of the
metal between these parts.
Brazing:
A process of joining generally applied to metals in which, during or after
heating, molten filler metal is drawn into or retained in the space between
closely adjacent surfaces of the parts to be joined by capillary attraction. In
general, the melting point of the filler metal is above 450°C but always below
the melting temperature of the parent material.
Braze welding:
The joining of metals using a technique similar to fusion welding and a filler
metal with a lower melting point than the parent metal, but neither using
capillary action as in brazing nor intentionally melting the parent metal.
Weld:
A union of pieces of metal made by welding.
Joint:
A connection where the individual components, suitably prepared and
assembled, are joined by welding or brazing.
Rev 1 July 2008

Type of joint Sketch Definition
Butt joint A connection between the ends
or edges of two parts making an
angle to one another of 135° to
180° inclusive in the region of the
joint
T joint A connection between the end or
edge of one part and the face of
the other part, the parts making
an angle to one another of more
than 5° up to and including 90° in
the region of the joint
Corner joint A connection between the ends

or edges of two parts making an
angle to one another of more
than 30° but less than 135° in the
region of the joint
Edge joint A connection between the edges

of two parts making an angle to
one another of 0° to 30° inclusive
in the region of the joint
Cruciform joint A connection in which two flat

plates or two bars are welded to
another flat plate at right angles
and on the same axis
Lap joint A connection between two

overlapping parts making an
angle to one another of 0° to 5°
inclusive in the region of the weld
or welds
Rev 1 July 2008

1 Types of Welds
1.1 From configuration point of view
Butt weld Fillet weld
In a butt joint
Butt weld In a T joint
In a corner joint
Autogenous weld:
A fusion weld made without filler metal. Can be achieved by TIG, plasma
electron beam, laser or oxy-fuel gas welding.
Slot weld:
A joint between two overlapping components made by depositing a fillet
weld round the periphery of a hole in one component so as to join it to the
surface of the other component exposed through the hole.
Rev 1 July 2008

Plug weld:
A weld made by filling a hole in one component of a workpiece with filler
metal so as to join it to the surface of an overlapping component exposed
through the hole (the hole can be circular or oval).
1.2 From the penetration point of view

Full penetration weld:
A welded joint where the weld metal fully penetrates the joint with complete
root fusion. In US the preferred term is complete joint penetration weld or
CJP for short (see AWS D1.1.)
Partial penetration weld:

A welded joint without full penetration. In US the preferred term is partial
joint penetration weld or PJP for short.
2 Types of Joint (see BS EN ISO 15607)

Homogeneous joint:
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have no significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
two carbon steel plates welded with a matching carbon steel electrode.
Heterogeneous joint:
Welded joint in which the weld metal and parent material have significant
differences in mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example:
a repair weld of a cast iron item performed with a nickel base electrode.
Dissimilar joint:
Welded joint in which the parent materials have significant differences in
mechanical properties and/or chemical composition. Example: a carbon
steel lifting lug welded onto an austenitic stainless steel pressure vessel.
Rev 1 July 2008

3 Features of the Completed Weld
Parent metal:
Metal to be joined or surfaced by welding, braze welding or brazing.
Filler metal:
Metal added during welding, braze welding, brazing or surfacing.
Weld metal:
All metal melted during the making of a weld and retained in the weld.
Heat-affected zone (HAZ):

The part of the parent metal that is metallurgically affected by the heat of
welding or thermal cutting, but not melted.
Fusion line:
The boundary between the weld metal and the HAZ in a fusion weld. This is
a non-standard term for weld junction.
Weld zone:
The zone containing the weld metal and the HAZ.
Weld face:
The surface of a fusion weld exposed on the side from which the weld has
been made.
Root:
The zone on the side of the first run farthest from the welder.
Toe:
The boundary between a weld face and the parent metal or between runs.
This is a very important feature of a weld since toes are points of high stress
concentration and often they are initiation points for different types of cracks
(eg fatigue cracks, cold cracks). In order to reduce the stress concentration,
toes must blend smoothly into the parent metal surface.
Excess weld metal:

Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes. Other non-standard
terms for this feature: reinforcement, overfill.
Rev 1 July 2008

Weld Parent Weld
metal zone
face Toe
Parent
metal
HAZ
Weld
metal Fusion
Root Excess
line
weld metal
Excess
weld metal
Butt weld
Parent
metal
Excess
weld metal
Weld
zone
Toe
Fusion
line
Weld
face
Root Parent
Weld HAZ metal
metal
Fillet weld
Rev 1 July 2008

4 Weld Preparation
A preparation for making a connection where the individual components,
suitably prepared and assembled, are joined by welding or brazing.
4.1 Features of the weld preparation

Angle of bevel:
The angle at which the edge of a component is prepared for making a weld.
In case of a V preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle
is between 25-30°. In case of a U preparation for a MMA weld on carbon
steel plates, this angle is between 8-12°. In case of a single bevel
preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel plates, this angle is between
40-50°.In case of a single J preparation for a MMA weld on carbon steel
plates, this angle is between 10-20°.
Included angle:
The angle between the planes of the fusion faces of parts to be welded. In
the case of single V, single U, double V and double U this angle is twice the
bevel angle. In case of single bevel, single J, double bevel and double J, the
included angle is equal to the bevel angle.
Root face:
The portion of a fusion face at the root that is not bevelled or grooved. It’s
value depends on the welding process used, parent material to be welded
and application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a
value between 1-2mm (for the common welding processes).
Gap:
The minimum distance at any cross section between edges, ends or
surfaces to be joined. Its value depends on the welding process used and
application; for a full penetration weld on carbon steel plates, it has a value
between 1-4mm.
Root radius:
The radius of the curved portion of the fusion face in a component prepared
for a single J, single U, double J or double U weld. In case of MMA,
MIG/MAG and oxyfuel gas welding on carbon steel plates, the root radius
has a value of 6mm in case of single and double U preparations and 8mm in
case of single and double J preparations.
Land:
The straight portion of a fusion face between the root face and the curved
part of a J or U preparation. Can be 0. Usually present in case of weld
preparations for MIG welding of aluminium alloys.
Rev 1 July 2008

4.2 Types of preparation
Open square butt preparation
This preparation is used for welding thin components, either from one side
or both sides. If the root gap is zero (ie if components are in contact), this
preparation becomes a closed square butt preparation (unrecommended
due to the lack of penetration problems!).
Single V preparation
Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Gap Root face
The V preparation is one of the most common preparations used in welding;

it can be produced using flame or plasma cutting (cheap and fast). For
thicker plates a double V preparation is preferred since it requires less filler
material to complete the joint and the residual stresses can be balanced on
both sides of the joint resulting in lower angular distortion.
Rev 1 July 2008

Double V preparation
The depth of preparation can be the same on both sides (symmetric double
V preparation) or the depth of preparation can be deeper on one side
compared with the opposite side (asymmetric double V preparation).
Usually, in this situation the depth of preparation is distributed as 2/3 of the
thickness of the plate on the first side with the remaining 1/3 on the
backside. This asymmetric preparation allows for a balanced welding
sequence with root back gouging, giving lower angular distortions. Whilst
single V preparation allows welding from one side, double V preparation
requires both sides access (the same applies for all double side
preparations).
Single U preparation
Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
radius
Gap R
Root face
Land
U preparation can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive).

However, tighter tolerances obtained in this case provide for a better fit-up
than in the case of V preparations. Usually it is applied for thicker plates
compared with single V preparation (requires less filler material to complete
the joint and this lead to lower residual stresses and distortions). Similar with
the V preparation, in case of very thick sections a double U preparation can
be used.
Rev 1 July 2008

Double U preparation
Usually this type of preparation does not require a land (exception:

aluminium alloys).
Single V preparation with backing strip
Backing strips allow the production of full penetration welds with increased
current and hence increased deposition rates/productivity without the
danger of burn-through. Backing strips can be permanent or temporary.
Permanent types are of the same material being joined and are tack welded
in place. The main problems related with this type of weld are poor fatigue
resistance and the probability of crevice corrosion between the parent metal
and the backing strip. It is also difficult to examine by NDT due to the built-in
crevice at the root of the joint. Temporary types include copper strips,
ceramic tiles and fluxes.
Single bevel preparation
Rev 1 July 2008

Double bevel preparation
Single J preparation
Double J preparation
All these preparations (single/double bevel and single/double J) can be used

on T joints as well. Double preparations are recommended in case of thick
sections. The main advantage of these preparations is that only one
component is prepared (cheap, can allow for small misalignments).
For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to BS EN ISO

9692 standard.
Rev 1 July 2008

5 Size of Butt Welds
Full penetration butt weld
Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness
Partial penetration butt weld
Actual throat Design throat

thickness thickness
As a general rule:
Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.
Full penetration butt weld ground flush
Actual throat thickness

= design throat
thickness
Butt weld between two plates of different thickness
Design throat thickness

Actual throat thickness =
= thickness of the
maximum thickness
thinner plate
through the joint
Run (pass):
The metal melted or deposited during one passage of an electrode, torch or
blowpipe.
Single run weld Multi run weld

Layer:
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more runs.
Rev 1 July 2008

Types of butt weld (from accessibility point of view):
Single side weld Double side weld
6 Fillet Weld
A fusion weld, other than a butt, edge or fusion spot weld, which is
approximately triangular in transverse cross section.
6.1 Size of fillet welds

Unlike butt welds, fillet welds can be defined using several dimensions.
Actual throat thickness:

The perpendicular distance between two lines, each parallel to a line joining
the outer toes, one being a tangent at the weld face and the other being
through the furthermost point of fusion penetration
Design throat thickness:

The minimum dimension of throat thickness used for purposes of design.
Also known as effective throat thickness. Symbolised on the drawing with
‘a’.
Leg length:
The distance from the actual or projected intersection of the fusion faces
and the toe of a fillet weld, measured across the fusion face. Symbolised on
the drawing with ‘z'.
Actual throat
thickness
Leg length
Design throat
thickness
Leg length
Rev 1 July 2008

6.2 Shape of fillet welds
Mitre fillet weld:
A flat face fillet weld in which the leg lengths are equal within the agreed
tolerance. The cross section area of this type of weld is considered to be a
right angle isosceles triangle with a design throat thickness ‘a’ and a leg
length ‘z’. The relation between design throat thickness and leg length is:
a = 0,707 × z. or z = 1,41 × a.
Convex fillet weld:

A fillet weld in which the weld face is convex. The above relation between
the leg length and the design throat thickness written in case of mitre fillet
welds is also valid for this type of weld. Since there is an excess weld metal
present in this case, the actual throat thickness is bigger than the design
throat thickness.
Concave fillet weld:

A fillet weld in which the weld face is concave. The above relation between
the leg length and the design throat thickness written in case of mitre fillet
welds is not valid for this type of weld. Also, the design throat thickness is
equal to the actual throat thickness. Due to the smooth blending between
the weld face and surrounding parent material, the stress concentration
effect at the toes of the weld is reduced compared with the previous type.
This is why this weld is highly desired in case of applications subjected to
cyclic loads where fatigue phenomena might be a major cause for failure.
Rev 1 July 2008

Asymmetrical fillet weld:
A fillet weld in which the vertical leg length is not equal with the horizontal
leg length. The relation between the leg length and the design throat
thickness written in case of mitre fillet welds is not valid for this type of weld
because the cross section is not an isosceles triangle.
Horizontal
leg size
Vertical
leg size
Throat
size
Deep penetration fillet weld:

A fillet weld with a deeper than normal penetration. It is produced using high
heat input welding processes (ie SAW or MAG with spray transfer). This
type of weld uses the benefits of greater arc penetration to obtain the
required throat thickness whilst reducing the amount of deposited metal
needed, thus leading to a reduction in residual stress level. In order to
produce a consistent and constant penetration, the travel speed must be
kept constant, at a high value. As a consequence, this type of weld is
usually produced using mechanised or automatic welding processes. Also,
the high depth-to-width ratio increases the probability of solidification
centreline cracking. In order to differentiate this type of welds from the
previous types, the throat thickness is symbolised with ‘s’ instead of ‘a’.
Rev 1 July 2008

6.3 Compound of butt and fillet welds
A combination of butt and fillet welds used in case of T joints with full or
partial penetration or butt joints between two plates with different thickness.
Fillet welds added on top of the groove welds improve the blending of weld
face towards parent metal surface and reduce the stress concentration at
the toes of the weld.
Bevel
weld Fillet
weld
Double bevel compound weld
7 Welding Position, Weld Slope and Weld Rotation

Weld position:
The orientation of a weld expressed in terms of working position, weld slope
and weld rotation (for further details, please see ISO 6947).
Weld slope:
The angle between root line and the positive X axis of the horizontal
reference plane, measured in mathematically positive direction (ie counter-
clockwise).
Weld rotation
The angle between the centreline of the weld and the positive Z axis or a
line parallel to the Y axis, measured in the mathematically positive direction
(ie counter-clockwise) in the plane of the transverse cross section of the
weld in question.
Rev 1 July 2008

Welding position Sketch Definition
Flat A welding position in which
the welding is horizontal,
with the centreline of
the weld vertical. Symbol
according ISO 6947 – PA.
Horizontal-vertical A welding position in which
the welding is horizontal
(applicable in case of fillet
welds). Symbol according
ISO 6947 – PB
Horizontal A welding position in which

the welding is horizontal,
with the centreline of the
weld horizontal. Symbol
according ISO 6947 – PC
Vertical up A welding position in which

the welding is upwards.
Symbol according ISO 6947
PG – PF.
Vertical down A welding position in which
the welding is downwards.
PF – PG
Overhead A welding position in which

the welding is horizontal and
overhead, with the centre-
line of the weld vertical.
– PE.
Horizontal- A welding position in which
overhead the welding is horizontal and
overhead (applicable in
case of fillet welds). Symbol
according ISO 6947 – PD.
Rev 1 July 2008

Tolerances for the welding positions
8 Weaving
Transverse oscillation of an electrode or a blowpipe nozzle during the
deposition of weld metal. This technique is generally used in case of vertical
up welds.
Stringer bead:
A run of weld metal made with little or no weaving motion.
Rev 1 July 2008

Section 3
Planning
1 General
The Senior Welding Inspector would almost certainly be involved in planning
for inspection at one or more of the following stages of a project;
• Pre-contract – Identification of the job requirements, recruiting and

allocating suitably trained and qualified staff, gathering together
relevant normative documents, technical data and drawings, producing
work/inspection schedules and quality plans as well as general
administration.
• In-contract – Application of inspection methodologies to the
requirements of the contract specification, production and collection of
inspection and test reports/documentation.
• Post-contract – Compilation of inspection reports, certification and test
data.
There are a number of methods of planning for inspection activities, the

method selected being dependant on a number of factors, primarily the
requirements of the client and the specific project.
The various methods are as follows;
In-situ inspection; an inspector(s) placed permanently at the work place. The

inspector would be expected to work independently, responsible for using
the allocated inspection time in a useful and expedient manner. Periodic
visits to the work place would be made by the Senior Inspector.
2 Gantt Charts
Gantt charts define stages of production and estimated work time for each
stage.
A Gantt chart is a popular type of bar chart/graph that illustrates a project

schedule ie list of a project's terminal elements. Terminal elements comprise
the work breakdown structure (WBS) of the project and are the lowest
activity or deliverable, with intended start and finish dates. Terminal
elements are not further subdivided,
Terminal elements are the items that are estimated in terms of resource
requirements, budget and duration linked by dependencies and schedules.
An example of a typical Gantt chart that could be used to plan inspection

activities for either manufacturing or construction is shown below.
The WBS/task elements are listed on the left hand side and the start and
completion of each activity is represented by a bar to the right of the activity.
The time period in this example is represented in months, both planned and
actual. Some Gantt charts may show time in weeks, which can also be
broken down into days.
Rev 1 July 2008

Planning.
Example of a Gantt chart
ANY PROJECT PHASE 1 INSPECTION SCHEDULE.
Work
Breakdown 2007
Structure
JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE
(WBS)
Recruit &
allocate
inspection staff
Review
fabrication
drawings
Review WPS’s,
WPQR’s&
WATC’s
Prepare quality
plans
Witness & test

WPS’s, WPQR’s
Witness welder
qualification
tests
Visual
inspection of
first
production
welds
LEGEND
Planned duration Planned milestone
Actual duration Actual milestone
Rev 1 July 2008

Planning.
3 Critical Path Analysis (CPA)
Critical path analysis (CPA) is a powerful project management tool that
helps to schedule and manage complex projects. Developed in the 1950s to
control large defence projects, CPA has been used routinely since then. As
with Gantt charts, CPA helps plan all tasks that must be completed as part
of a project. They act as the basis both for preparation of a schedule, and of
resource planning. During management of a project, they allow monitoring
of achievement of project goals.
CPA can also show where remedial action needs to be taken in order to get
a project back on course.
The benefit of using CPA over Gantt charts is that CPA formally identifies
tasks which must be completed on time in order for the whole project to be
completed on time, and also identifies which tasks can be delayed for a
while if resources need to be reallocated to catch up on missed tasks.
A further benefit of CPA is that it helps to identify the minimum length of time
needed to complete a project. Where there is a need to run an accelerated
project, fast track, it helps to identify which project steps should be
accelerated in order to complete the project within the available time. This
helps to minimise cost while still achieving objectives.
The disadvantage of CPA is that the relation of tasks to time is not as

immediately obvious as with Gantt charts. This can make them more difficult
to understand for someone who is not familiar with the technique.
CPA are presented using circle and arrow diagrams. These circles show
events within the project, such as the start and finish of tasks. Circles are
normally numbered to allow identification of them. An arrow running
between two event circles shows the activity needed to complete that task.
A description of the task is written underneath the arrow. The length of the
task is shown above it. By convention, all arrows run left to right.
An example of a very simple diagram is shown below:
0 4
A
START 1 2
4 Wks
Recruit & allocate

inspection
staff
Simple Circle and Arrow
This shows the start event (circle 1), and the completion of the ‘Recruit &
allocate inspection staff’ task (circle 2). The arrow between the two circles
shows the activity of carrying out ‘Recruit & allocate inspection staff’. The
time allocated for this activity is 4 weeks.
Rev 1 July 2008

Planning.
In the example above, the numbers above the circles show the earliest
possible time that this stage of the project will be reached.
Where one activity cannot start until another has been completed and when
other activities need to be scheduled it is useful to tabulate the terminal
elements and allocate time against each activity. For example the inspection
activities for a project could be shown as:
IDENTIFICATIO TERMINAL ELEMENT / SCHEDULED TIME

N ACTIVITY COMPLETION ALLOCATED
A Recruit & allocate

inspection staff To be completed first 4 weeks
Review fabrication
drawings, material & Start when A is
B completed 2 weeks
consumable certificates
Review WPS’s, WPQR’s

C & WATC’s Start when A is
completed 2 weeks
Prepare quality plans &

identify inspection Start when B is 3 weeks
D completed
requirements
Witness & test WPS’s & Start when C is

E WPQR’s completed 2 weeks
F Witness welder qualification Start when C, D & E 2 weeks

tests are completed
Visual inspection and Start when F is

G testing of production completed 9 weeks
welds
TOTAL TIME ALLOCATED 24 weeks
The above tabulated terminal elements can now be shown as an algorithm,

see the following example
Rev 1 July 2008

Planning.
6
4
C E
2 2
0 4 Wks 6 Wks 11 13 22
A
B D F G
START 1 2 3 5 6 7 FINISH
4 Wks 2 Wks 3 Wks 2 Wks 9 Wks
Critical path analysis for inspection project.
Rev 1 Jul 08
Planning.
In the example, the activities of ‘B & C' cannot be started until 'A' has been
completed.
This diagram also brings out a number of other important points:
• Within CPA, reference to activities is made by the numbers in the

circles at each end. For example, task ‘A’ would be called 'activity 1 to
2'.
• Task 'B' would be 'activity 2 to 3'.
• Activities are not drawn to scale. In the diagram above, activities are 8,
4, 3 and 2 weeks long.
• In the example the numbers above the circles indicate the earliest
possible time that this stage in the project will be reached.
CPA is an effective and powerful method of assessing:
• What tasks must be carried out

• Where parallel activity can be performed
• The shortest time in which you can complete a project
• Resources needed to execute a project
• The sequence of activities, scheduling and timings involved
• Task priorities
• The most efficient way of shortening time on urgent projects.
An effective Critical Path Analysis can make the difference between

success and failure on complex projects. It can be very useful for
assessing the importance of problems faced during the implementation of
the plan.
4 Programme Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

PERT is a variation on CPA but takes a slightly more sceptical view of time
estimates made for each project stage. To use it, estimate the shortest
possible time each activity will take, the most likely length of time, and the
longest time that might be taken if the activity takes longer than expected.
The formula below is used to calculate the time for each project stage:
Shortest time + 4 x likely time + longest time

6
This helps to bias time estimates away from the unrealistically short time-
scales normally assumed.
A variation of both CPA and PERT is a technique known as reverse

scheduling, which the completion date for the last terminal element for the
project is determined and then all other operations are worked back from
this date, each operation having its own target date.
Rev 1 Jul 08
Planning.
5 Summary
The Senior Welding Inspector doe not need to have an in-depth knowledge
of planning and would not be responsible for the planning of inspection
activities on a large project or contract, this would be the responsibility of
the planning team or planning department.
I
However the SWI does need to have a basic understanding of project
planning as inspection tasks must link in with other terminal activities to
ensure that inspection tasks are carried out on a timely and cost effective
basis, in accordance with the planning system being used on a particular
project or contract.
Rev 1 Jul 08
Planning.
Section 4
Codes and Standards

General
The control of quality in a fabrication and welding situation is achieved by
working to company procedures and codes of construction or standards.
The latter may be international, national, company’s own or specific to the
particular client or contract.
Company procedures are usually covered in Quality Manuals the scope of

which may vary widely depending upon the size of company, its range of
work, its working practices and many other factors.
1 Company Manuals
1.1 Quality assurance manual
Quality assurance is defined in IS0 9000 as; ‘part of quality management
focused on providing confidence that quality requirements will be fulfilled’.
Essentially what the QA manual sets out is how the company is organised,
to lay down the responsibilities and authority of the various departments,
how these departments interlink. The manual usually covers all aspects of
the company structure, not just those aspects of manufacture.
1.2 Quality control manual

Quality control is defined in ISO 9000 as; ‘part of quality management
focused on fulfilling quality requirements’.
The QC manual will be the manual most often referred to by the SWI as it
will spell out in detail how different departments and operations are
organised and controlled.
Typical examples would be: production and control of drawings, how

materials and consumables are purchased, how welding procedures are
produced, etc.
Essentially all operations to be carried out within the organisation will have
control procedures laid down.
In particular it will lay down how the Inspection function, whether visual,
dimensional or NDT, will be performed. Inspection being defined as ‘the
activity of measuring, examining and testing characteristics of a product or
service and comparing these to a specified requirement’. Such requirements
are laid down in codes of practice and standards.
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
2 Auditing
Auditing is a term originating from accountancy practice which involves an
independent accountant checking the accounts of a company to see if the
accounts are fair and accurate. A similar checking process is now widely
practised in manufacturing and construction industries and inspection
personnel will be involved in the carrying out of this operation.
Different types of audits may be performed:
• Full audit of a company, usually carried out by a third party such as a

Certifying Authority, checking the company for the award of a QA
accreditation system such as ISO 9000 or ASME Stamp.
• Major audit by a potential customer prior to placement of a large
contract. This is usually carried out to demonstrate the company has all
the necessary facilities, plant, machinery, personnel and quality systems
in place to enable them to successfully complete the contract.
• Part audits carried out as ongoing demonstration that the quality system
is working properly.
An example of the latter case would be where a Senior Inspector is

responsible for signing-off the data book or release certificate for a product.
After checking that all the necessary documents are in the package and that
they have been correctly completed and approved where necessary, the
SWI would look at a part of the job – a beam, a piece of pipework etc and
crosscheck against the drawings, mill certificates, inspection reports etc that
all comply with the job requirements.
3 Codes and Standards

It is not necessary for the Inspector to carry a wide range of codes and
standards in the performance of his/her duties. Normally the specification or
more precisely the contract specification is the only document required.
However the contract specification may reference supporting codes and
standards and the inspector should know where to access these normative
documents.
The following is a list of definitions relating to codes and standards which

the Inspector may come across whilst carrying inspection duties
3.1 Definitions
Normative document:
A document that provides rules, guidelines or characteristics for activities or
their results.
The term normative document is a generic term, which covers documents

such as standards, technical specifications, codes of practice and
regulations.*
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
Standard:
A document that is established by consensus and approved by a recognised
body.
A standard provides, for common and repeated use, guidelines, rules, and
characteristics for activities or their results, aimed at the achievement of the
optimum degree of order in a given context. *
Harmonised standards:
Standards on the same subject approved by different standardising bodies,
that establish interchangeability of products, processes and services, or
mutual understanding of test results or information provided according to
these standards*
Code of practice:
A document that recommends practices or procedures for the design,
manufacture, installation, maintenance, utilisation of equipment, structures
or products.
A code of practice may be a standard, a part of a standard or independent

of a standard*
Regulation:
A document providing binding legislative rules that is adopted by an
authority.*
Authority:
A body (responsible for standards and regulations legal or administrative
entity that has specific tasks and composition) that has legal powers and
rights.*
Regulatory authority:
Authority that is responsible for preparing or adopting regulations*
Enforcement authority:
Authority that is responsible for enforcing regulations*
Specification:
Document stating requirements. Meaning full data and its supporting
medium stating needs or expectations that is stated, generally implied or
obligatory.**
Procedure:
Specified way to carry out an activity or a process*. Usually it is a written
description of all essential parameters and precautions to be observed when
applying a technique to a specific application following an established
standard, code or specification
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
Instruction:
A written description of the precise steps to be followed based on an
established procedure, standard, code or specification.
Quality plan:
A document specifying which procedures and associated resources shall be
applied by whom and when to a specific project, product, process or
contract*
* ISO IEC Guide 2 – Standardisation and related activities – General vocabulary

** EN ISO 9000 – 2000 – Quality management systems – Fundamentals and
vocabulary
4 Summary
Application of the requirements of the quality manuals, the standards and
codes of practice ensure that a structure or component will have an
acceptable level of quality and be fit for the intended purpose.
Applying the requirements of a standard, code of practice or specification

can be a problem for the inexperienced Inspector. Confidence in applying
the requirements of one or all of these documents to a specific application
only comes with use over a period of time.
If in doubt the Inspector must always refer to a higher authority in order to

avoid confusion and potential problems.
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
BS NUMBER TITLE
BS 499: Part 1 Glossary of Welding Terms.
BS 709 Methods of destructive testing fusion welded joints and weld metal in steel.
BS 1113 Specification for design and manufacture of water-tube steam generating

plant.
BS 1453 Specification for filler materials for gas welding.
BS 1821 Specification for class I oxy -acetylene welding of ferritic steel pipe work for
carrying fluids.
BS 2493 Low alloy steel electrodes for MMA welding
BS 2633 Specification for class I arc welding of Ferritic steel pipe work for carrying
fluids.
BS 2640 Specification for class II oxy - acetylene welding of carbon steel pipe work
for carrying fluids.
BS 2654 Specification for manufacture of vertical steel welded non-refrigerated
storage tanks with butt-welded shells for the petroleum industry.
BS 2901 Part 3: Filler rods and wires for copper and copper alloys.
BS 2926 Specification for chromium & chromium-nickel steel electrodes for MMA
BS 2926 Specification for chromium & chromium-nickel steel electrodes for MMA
BS 3019 TIG welding.
BS 3604 Steel pipes and tubes for pressure purposes; Ferritic alloy steel with
specified elevated temperature properties for pressure purposes.
BS 3605 Specification for seamless tubes.
BS 4515 Specification for welding of steel pipelines on land and offshore.
BS 4570 Specification for fusion welding of steel castings.
BS 4677 Specification for arc welding of austenitic stainless steel pipe work for
carrying fluids.
BS 4872 Part 1: Approval testing of welders when procedure approval is not required. Fusion
welding of steel.
BS 4872 Part 2: TIG or MIG welding of aluminium and its alloys.
BS 6323 Specification for seamless and welded steel tubes for automobile,
mechanical and general engineering purposes.
BS 6693 Method for determination of diffusible hydrogen in weld metal.
BS 6990 Code of practice for welding on steel pipes containing process fluids or their
residues.
BS 7191 Specification for weldable structural steels for fixed offshore structures.
BS 7570 Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment.
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
BS EN NUMBER TITLE
BS EN 287 Part 1: Qualification test of welders - Fusion welding - Steels.
BS EN 440 Wire electrodes and deposits for gas shielded metal arc of non-alloy
and fine grain steels.
BS EN 499 Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non–alloy and fine
grain steels.
BS EN 3834- Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials
Parts 1 to 5
BS EN 756 Wire electrodes and flux wire combinations for submerged arc welding of
non-alloy and fine grain steels.
BS EN 760 Fluxes for submerged arc welding.
BS EN 970 Non-destructive examination of fusion welds - visual examination.
BS EN 910 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - Bend tests.
BS EN 12072 Filler rods and wires for stainless steels.
BS EN ISO 18274 Aluminium and aluminium alloys & magnesium alloys. Nickel & nickel
alloys.
Note: The Inspector should have an awareness of standards that are printed in bold.
BS EN NUMBER TITLE
BS EN 1011 Welding recommendations for welding of metallic materials.
Part 1: General guidance for arc welding.
Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels.
Part 3 Arc welding of stainless steels
Part 4. Arc welding of aluminium and aluminium alloys.
EN 1320 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials.
EN 1435 Non-destructive examination of welds - Radiographic examination of welded
joints.
BS EN 10002 Tensile testing of metallic materials.
BS EN 10020 Definition and classification of grades of steel.
BS EN 10027 Designation systems for steels.
BS EN 10045 Charpy impact tests on metallic materials.
BS EN 10204 Metallic products - types of inspection documents.
BS EN 22553 Welded, brazed and soldered joints - symbolic representation on
drawings.
BS EN 24063 Welding, brazing, soldering and braze welding of metal. Nomenclature
of processes and reference numbers for symbolic representation on
drawings.
BS EN 25817 Arc welded joints in steel. Guidance on quality levels for
imperfections.
BS EN 26520 Classification of imperfections in metallic fusion welds, with
explanations.
BS EN 26848 Specification for tungsten electrodes for inert gas shielded arc welding and
for plasma cutting and welding.
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
ISO NUMBER: TITLE:
ISO 857 - 1 Welding and allied processes - Vocabulary - Part 1 - Metal welding
processes.
ISO 6947 Welds - Working positions - definitions of angles of slope and rotation.
ISO 9606 – 2 Qualification test of welders – fusion welding.
Part 2 Aluminium & aluminium alloys.
ISO 15607 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials - General rules.
ISO 15608 Welding - Guidelines for a metallic material grouping system.
ISO 15609 - 1 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials - Welding procedure specification - Part 1: Arc welding.
ISO 15610 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-
Qualification based on tested welding consumables.
ISO 15611 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-
Qualification based on previous welding experience.
ISO 15613 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials -
Qualification based on pre - production-welding test.
ISO 15614 Specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic
materials - Welding procedure test.
Part 1: Arc and gas welding of steels and arc welding of nickel and nickel alloys.
Part 2: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys*
Part 3: Welding procedure tests for the arc welding of cast irons*
Part 4: Finishing welding of aluminium castings*
Part 5: Arc welding of titanium, zirconium and their alloys.
Part 6: Copper and copper alloys*
Part 7: Not used
Part 8: Welding of tubes to tube-plate joints.
Part 9: Underwater hyperbaric wet welding*
Part 10 Hyperbaric dry welding*
Part 11 Electron and laser beam welding
Part 12 Spot, seam and projection welding*
Part 13 Resistance butt and flash welding*
Note: The Inspector should have an awareness of standards that are printed in bold.
*Proposed
Rev 1 July 2008

Codes and Standards
Section 5
Calibration of Welding Equipment

1 Introduction
BS 7570 - Code of practice for validation of arc welding equipment – is a
standard that gives guidance to:
• Manufacturers about the accuracy required from output meters fitted to

welding equipment to show welding current, voltage etc
• End users who need to ensure that the output meters provide accurate
readings
The Standard refers to two grades of equipment - standard grade and

precision grade.
Standard grade equipment is suitable for manual and semi-automatic

welding processes.
Precision grade equipment is intended for mechanised or automatic welding

because there is usually a need for greater precision for all welding
variables as well as the prospect of the equipment being used for higher
‘duty cycle’ welding.
2 Terminology
BS 7570 defines the terms it uses - such as:
Calibration:
Operations for the purpose of determining the magnitude of errors of a
measuring instrument etc
Validation:
Operations for the purpose of demonstrating that an item of welding
equipment, or a welding system, conforms to the operating specification for
that equipment or system
Accuracy:
Closeness of an observed quantity to the defined, or true, value
Thus, when considering welding equipment, those that have output meters
for welding parameters (current, voltage, travel speed etc.) can be calibrated
by checking the meter reading with a more accurate measuring device –
and adjusting the readings appropriately.
Equipment that does not have output meters (some power sources for
MMA, MIG/MAG) cannot be calibrated but they can be validated, that is to
make checks to see that the controls are functioning properly.
Rev 1 July 2008

3 Calibration Frequency
BS 7570 recommends re-calibration/validation:
• At yearly intervals (following an initial consistency test at 3 monthly

intervals) for standard grade equipment
• At 6 monthly intervals for precision grade equipment.
However, the Standard also recommends that re-calibration/validation may

be necessary more frequently. Factors that need to be considered are:
• The equipment manufacturer’s recommendations

• The user’s requirements
• If the equipment has been repaired re-calibration should always be
carried out
• There is reason to believe the performance of the equipment has
deteriorated
4 Instruments for Calibration

Instruments used for calibration should:
• Be calibrated by a recognised calibrator - using standards that are

traceable to a national standard
• Be at least twice, and preferably five times, more accurate than the
accuracy required for the grade of equipment
• For precision grade equipment it will be necessary to use instruments
with much greater precision for checking output meters
5 Calibration Methods
The Standard gives details about the characteristics of power source types,
how many readings should be taken for each parameter and guidance on
precautions that may be necessary.
Rev 1 July 2008

For the main welding parameters, recommendations from the Standard are
as follows:
Current:
Details are given about the instrumentation requirements and how to
measure pulsed current but there are requirements specified, or
recommendations made, about where in the circuit current measurements
should be made.
The implication is that current can be measured at any position in the circuit
– the value should be the same.
Voltage:
The standard emphasises that for processes where voltage is pre-set (on
constant voltage the power sources) the connection points used for the
voltmeter incorporated into the power source may differ from the arc
voltage, which is the important parameter.
To obtain an accurate measure of arc voltage, the voltmeter should be

positioned as near as practical to the arc.
This is illustrated by the figure at the end of this section, which shows the
power source voltage meter connected across points 1 and 7.
However, because there will be some voltage drops in sections 1-2, 3-4 and
6-7 due to connection points introducing extra resistance into the circuit, the
voltage meter reading on the power source will tend to give a higher reading
than the true arc voltage.
Even if the power source voltmeter is connected across points 3 and 7

(which it may be) the meter reading would not take account of any
significant voltage drops in the return cable - section 6-7.
The magnitude of any voltage drops in the welding circuit will depend on
cable diameter, length and temperature and the Standard emphasises the
following:
• It is desirable to measure the true arc voltage between points 4-5 but for
some welding processes it is not practical to measure arc voltage so
close to the arc
• For MMA, it is possible to take a voltage reading relatively close to the arc
by connecting one terminal of the voltmeter through the cable sheath as
close as ~2m from the arc and connect the other terminal to the
workpiece (or to earth)
• For MIG/MAG the nearest practical connection points have to be 3-5 but
a change from an air-cooled to a water-cooled torch or vice-versa may
have a significant affect on the measured voltage
• Voltage drops between points 5-6 will be insignificant if there is a good
connection of the return cable at point 6.
Rev 1 July 2008

The Standard gives guidance about minimising any drop in line voltage by
ensuring that:
• The current return cable is as short as practical and is ‘heavy’, low

resistance, cable
• The current-return connector is suitably ‘rated’ and is firmly attached and
so does not overheat due to high resistance
The standard gives data for line voltage drops (DC voltage) according to
current, cable cross section and cable length (for both copper and
aluminium cables).
Wire feed speed

For constant voltage (self-adjusting arc) processes such as MIG/MAG the
standard recognises that calibration of the wire feeder is generally not
needed because it is linked to current.
If calibration is required, it is recommended that the time be measured (in

seconds) for ~1m of wire to be delivered (using a stopwatch or an electronic
timer).
The length of wire should then be measured (with a steel rule) to an

accuracy of 1mm and the feed speed calculated.
Travel speed
Welding manipulators, such as rotators and robotic manipulators, as well as
the more conventional linear travel carriages, influence heat input and other
properties of a weld and should be checked at intervals.
Most of the standard devices can be checked using a stopwatch and

measuring rule, but more sophisticated equipment, such as a tacho-
generator, may be appropriate.
Rev 1 July 2008

Power
Source
7 1 2 3
Wire Feeder
4
arc voltage {
5
6
An example of a welding circuit (for MIG/MAG)
Rev 1 July 2008

Section 6
Destructive Testing
1 Introduction
European Welding Standards require test coupons that are made for
welding procedure qualification testing to be subjected to non-destructive
testing and then destructive testing.
The tests are called destructive tests because the welded joint is ‘destroyed’
when various types of test piece are taken from it.
Destructive tests can be divided into 2 groups, those used to:
• Measure a mechanical property – quantitative tests

• Assess the joint quality – qualitative tests
Mechanical tests are quantitative because a quantity is measured – a

mechanical property such as tensile strength, hardness and impact
toughness.
Qualitative tests are used to verify that the joint is free from defects – they
are of sound quality - and examples of these are bend tests, macroscopic
examination and fracture tests (fillet fracture and nick-break).
2 Test Types, Test Pieces and Test Objectives

Various types of mechanical test are used by material manufacturers/
suppliers to verify that plates, pipes, forgings etc have the minimum property
values specified for particular grades.
Design engineers use the minimum property values listed for particular
grades of material as the basis for design and the most cost-effective
designs are based on an assumption that welded joints have properties that
are no worse than those of the base metal.
The quantitative (mechanical) tests that are carried out for welding
procedure qualification are intended to demonstrate that the joint properties
satisfy design requirements.
The emphasis in the following sub-sections is on the destructive tests and

test methods that are widely used for welded joints.
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
2.1 Transverse tensile tests
Test objective
Welding procedure qualification tests always require transverse tensile tests
to show that the strength of the joint satisfies the design criterion.
Test specimens
A transverse tensile test piece typical of the type specified by European
Welding Standards is shown below.
Parallel
length
Standards, such as EN 895, that specify dimensions for transverse tensile

test pieces require all excess weld metal to be removed and the surface to
be free from scratches.
Test pieces may be machined to represent the full thickness of the joint but
for very thick joints it may be necessary to take several transverse tensile
test specimens to be able to test the full thickness.
Test method
Test specimens are accurately measured before testing. Specimens are
then fitted into the jaws of a tensile testing machine and subjected to a
continually increasing tensile force until the specimen fractures.
The tensile strength (Rm) is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the
cross-sectional area of the test specimen - measured before testing.
The test is intended to measure the tensile strength of the joint and thereby
show that the basis for design, the base metal properties, remains the valid
criterion.
Acceptance criteria
If the test piece breaks in the weld metal, it is acceptable provided the
calculated strength is not less than the minimum tensile strength specified,
which is usually the minimum specified for the base metal material grade.
In the ASME IX code, if the test specimen breaks outside the weld or fusion
zone at a stress above 95% of the minimum base metal strength the test
result is acceptable.
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
2.2 All-weld tensile tests
Test objective
There may be occasions when it is necessary to measure the weld metal
strength as part of welding procedure qualification – particularly for elevated
temperature designs.
The test is carried out in order to measure not only tensile strength but also
yield (or proof strength) and tensile ductility.
All weld tensile tests are also regularly carried out by welding consumable
manufacturers to verify that electrodes and filler wires satisfy the tensile
properties specified by the standard to which the consumables are certified.
Test specimens
As the name indicates, test specimens are machined from welds parallel
with their longitudinal axis and the specimen gauge length must be 100%
weld metal.
Round tensile specimen from a Round tensile specimen from an

welding procedure qualification test electrode classification test piece
piece
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
Test method
Specimens are subjected to a continually increasing force in the same way
that transverse tensile specimens are tested.
Yield (Re) or proof stress (Rp) are measured by means of an extensometer

that is attached to the parallel length of the specimen and is able to
accurately measure the extension of the gauge length as the load is
increased.
Typical load extension curves and their principal characteristics are shown
below.
Load-extension curve for a steel Load-extension curve for a steel (or

that shows a distinct yield point at other metal) that does not show a
the elastic limit distinct yield point; proof stress is a
measure of the elastic limit
Tensile ductility is measured in two ways:

• % elongation of the gauge length (A%)
• % reduction of area at the point of fracture (Z%)
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
The schematics below illustrate these two ductility measurements.
2.3 Impact toughness tests

Test objective
Charpy V notch test pieces have become the internationally accepted
method for assessing resistance to brittle fracture by measuring the energy
to initiate, and propagate, a crack from a sharp notch in a standard sized
specimen subjected to an impact load.
Design engineers need to ensure that the toughness of the steel that is used
for a particular item will be high enough to avoid brittle fracture in service
and so impact specimens are tested at a temperature that is related to the
design temperature for the fabricated component.
C-Mn and low alloy steels undergo a sharp change in their resistance to
brittle fracture as their temperature is lowered so that a steel that may have
very good toughness at ambient temperature may show extreme brittleness
at sub-zero temperatures – as illustrated in following figure.
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
Transition Range
Impact energy
Upper shelf Ductile fracture

(0% crystallinity)
Lower shelf
Brittle fracture
(100% crystallinity)
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Test temperature, °C
The transition temperature is defined as the temperature that is mid-way
between the upper shelf (maximum toughness) and lower shelf (completely
brittle). In the above the transition temperature is –20°C.
Test specimens
The dimensions for test specimens have been standardised internationally
and are shown below for full sized specimens. There are also standard
dimensions for smaller sized specimens, for example 10mm x 7.5mm and
10mm x 5mm.
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
Charpy V notch test piece dimensions for full sized specimens
Specimens are machined from welded test plates with the notch position
located in different locations according to the testing requirements but
typically in the centre of the weld metal and at positions across the HAZ – as
shown below.
Typical notch positions for Charpy V notch test specimens from double V
butt welds
Test method
Test specimens are cooled to the specified test temperature by immersion in
an insulated bath containing a liquid that is held at the test temperature.
Rev 1 July 2008

Destructive Testing
After allowing the specimen temperature to stabilise for a few minutes it is
quickly transferred to the anvil of the test machine and a pendulum hammer
quickly released so that the specimen experiences an impact load behind
the notch.
The main features of an impact test machine are shown below.
Impact specimen on the anvil showing

Impact testing machine the hammer position at point of impact
Charpy V notch test pieces

– before and after testing
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Destructive Testing
The energy ‘absorbed’ by the hammer when it strikes each test specimen is
shown by the position of the hammer pointer on the scale of the machine.
Energy values are given in Joules (or ft-lbs in US specifications).
Impact test specimens are taken in triplicate (3 specimens for each notch
position) as there is always some degree of scatter in the results –
particularly for weldments.
Acceptance criteria
Each test result is recorded and an average value calculated for each set of
three tests. These values are compared with the values specified by the
application standard or client to establish whether specified requirements
have been met.
After impact testing, examination of the test specimens provides additional

information about their toughness characteristics and may be added to the
test report:
• % crystallinity – the % of the fracture face that has ‘crystalline’

appearance which indicates brittle fracture; 100% indicates completely
brittle fracture
• Lateral expansion – the increase in width of the back of the specimen
behind the notch – as indicated below; the larger the value the tougher
the specimen
A specimen that exhibits extreme brittleness will show a clean break. Both
halves of the specimen having a completely flat fracture face with little or no
lateral expansion.
A specimen that exhibits very good toughness will show only a small degree
of crack extension, without fracture and a high value of lateral expansion.
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Destructive Testing
2.4 Hardness testing
Test objectives
The hardness of a metal is its’ resistance to plastic deformation. This is
determined by measuring the resistance to indentation by a particular type
of indenter.
A steel weldment with hardness above a certain maximum may be

susceptible to cracking, either during fabrication or in service, and welding
procedure qualification testing for certain steels and applications that require
the test weld to be hardness surveyed to ensure that are no regions of the
weldment that exceed the maximum specified hardness.
Specimens prepared for macroscopic examination can also be used for

taking hardness measurements at various positions of the weldment –
referred to as a hardness survey.
Test methods
There are 3 widely used methods for hardness testing:
• Vickers hardness test – uses a square-base diamond pyramid indenter

• Rockwell hardness test – uses a diamond cone indenter or steel ball
• Brinell hardness test – uses a ball indenter
The hardness value being given by the size of the indentation produced
under a standard load. The smaller the indentation, the harder the metal.
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Destructive Testing
The Vickers method of testing is illustrated below.
d1 + d2
d=
2
Both Vickers and Brinell methods are suitable for carrying out hardness
surveys on specimens prepared for macroscopic examination of weldments.
A typical hardness survey requires the indenter to measure the hardness in

the base metal (on both sides of the weld), in the weld metal and across the
HAZ (on both sides of the weld).
The Brinell method gives an indentation that is too large to accurately

measure the hardness in specific regions of the HAZ and is mainly used to
measure hardness of base metals.
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Destructive Testing
A typical hardness survey (using Vickers hardness indenter) is shown
below:
Hardness values are shown on test reports as a number followed by letters

indicating the test method, for example:
240HV10 = hardness 240, Vickers method, 10kg indenter load
22HRC = hardness 22, Rockwell method, diamond cone indenter (scale C)
238HBW = 238 hardness, Brinell method, tungsten ball indenter
2.5 Crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) testing

Test objective
Charpy V notch testing enables engineers to make judgements about risks
of brittle fracture occurring in steels, but a CTOD test measures a material
property - fracture toughness.
Fracture toughness data enables engineers to carry out fracture mechanics
analyses such as:
• Calculating the size of a crack that would initiate a brittle fracture under
certain stress conditions at a particular temperature
• The stress that would cause a certain sized crack to give a brittle fracture
at a particular temperature
This data is essential for making an appropriate decision when a crack is

discovered during inspection of equipment that is in-service.
Test specimens
A CTOD specimen is prepared as a rectangular (or square) shaped bar cut
transverse to the axis of the butt weld. A V notch is machined at the centre
of the bar, which will be coincident with the test position - weld metal or
HAZ.
A shallow saw cut is then put into the bottom of the notch and the specimen
is then put into a machine that induces a cyclic bending load until a shallow
fatigue crack initiates from the saw cut.
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Destructive Testing
The specimens are relatively large – typically having a cross section B x 2B
and length ~10B (B = full thickness of the weld). The test piece details are
shown below.
Test method
CTOD specimens are usually tested at a temperature below ambient and
the temperature of the specimen is controlled by immersion in a bath of
liquid that has been cooled to the required test temperature.
A load is applied to the specimen to cause bending and induce a

concentrated stress at the tip of the crack and a clip gauge, attached to the
specimen across the mouth of the machined notch, gives a reading of the
increase in width of the mouth of the crack as the load is gradually
increased.
For each test condition (position of notch and test temperature) it is usual
practice to carry out three tests.
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Destructive Testing
The schematics below illustrate the main features of the CTOD test.
Fracture toughness is expressed as the distance that the crack tip opens
without initiation of a brittle crack.
The clip gauge enables a chart to be generated showing the increase in

width of the crack mouth against applied load from which a CTOD value is
calculated.
Acceptance criteria
An application standard or client may specify a minimum CTOD value that
indicates ductile tearing. Alternatively, the test may be for information so that
a value can be used for an engineering critical assessment.
A very tough steel weldment will allow the mouth of the crack to open widely
by ductile tearing at the tip of the crack whereas a very brittle weldment will
tend to fracture when the applied load is quite low and without any extension
at the tip of the crack.
CTOD values are expressed in millimetres - typical values might be

<<~0.1mm = brittle behaviour; >~1mm = very tough behaviour.
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Destructive Testing
2.6 Bend testing
Test objective
Bend tests are routinely taken from welding procedure qualification test
pieces and sometimes have to be taken from welder qualification test
pieces.
Subjecting specimens to bending is a simple method of verifying that there

are no significant flaws in the joint. Some degree of ductility is also
demonstrated.
Ductility is not actually measured but it is demonstrated to be satisfactory if

test specimens can withstand being bent without fracture or fissures above
a certain length.
Test specimens
There are 4 types of bend specimen:
Face bend
Specimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm thickness
and bent so that the face of the weld is on the outside of the bend (face in
tension).
Root bend
Test specimen taken with axis transverse to butt welds up to ~12mm
thickness and bent so that the root of the weld is on the outside of the bend
(root in tension).
Side bend
Test specimen taken as a transverse slice (~10mm) from the full thickness
of butt welds >~12mm and bent so that the full joint thickness is tested (side
in tension).
Longitudinal bend
Test specimen taken with axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of a butt weld;
specimen thickness is ~12mm and the face or root of weld may be tested in
tension.
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Destructive Testing
Test method
Bend tests for welding procedure qualification (and welder qualification) are
usually guided bend tests.
Guided means that the strain imposed on the specimen is uniformly

controlled by being bent around a former with a certain diameter.
The diameter of the former used for a particular test is specified in the code,
having been determined by the type of material that is being tested and the
ductility that can be expected from it after welding and any PWHT.
The diameter of the former is usually expressed as a multiple of the

specimen thickness and for C-Mn steel it is typically 4t (t is the specimen
thickness) but for materials that have lower tensile ductility the radius of the
former may be greater than 10t.
The standard that specifies the test method will specify the minimum bend
angle that the specimen must experience and this is typically 120-180°.
Acceptance criteria
Bend test pieces should exhibit satisfactory soundness by not showing
cracks or any signs of significant fissures or cavities on the outside of the
bend.
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Destructive Testing
Small ‘indications’ less than about 3mm in length may be allowed by some
standards.
2.7 Fracture tests

2.7.1 Fillet weld fractures
Test objective
The quality/soundness of a fillet weld can be assessed by fracturing test
pieces and examining the fracture surfaces.
This method for assessing the quality of fillet welds may be specified by
application standards as an alternative to macroscopic examination.
It is a test method that can be used for welder qualification testing according
to European Standards but is not used for welding procedure qualification to
European Standards.
Test specimens
A test weld is cut into short lengths (typically ≥50mm) and a longitudinal
notch is machined into the specimen as shown below. The notch profile may
be square, V shaped or U shaped.
Test method
Specimens are made to fracture through their throat by dynamic strokes
(hammering) or by pressing, as shown below. The welding standard or
application standard will specify the number of tests (typically 4).
Hammer stroke Moving press
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Destructive Testing
Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of penetration into the root
of the joint and solid inclusions and porosity that are visible on the fracture
surfaces.
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture
and location of any imperfection
2.7.2 Butt weld fractures (nick-break tests)

Test objective
The objective of these fracture tests is the same as for fillet fracture tests.
These tests are specified for welder qualification testing to European

Standards as an alternative to radiography. They are not used for welding
procedure qualification testing to European Standards.
Test specimens
Test specimens are taken from a butt weld and notched so that the fracture
path will be in the central region of the weld. Typical test piece types are
shown below.
Test method
Test pieces are made to fracture by hammering or three-point bending.
Acceptance criteria
The standard for welder qualification, or application standard, will specify the
acceptance criteria for imperfections such as lack of fusion, solid inclusions
and porosity that are visible on the fracture surfaces.
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Destructive Testing
Test reports should also give a description of the appearance of the fracture
and location of any imperfection.
3 Macroscopic Examination
Transverse sections from butt and fillet welds are required by the European
Standards for welding procedure qualification testing and may be required
for some welder qualification testing for assessing the quality of the welds.
This is considered in detail in a separate section of these course notes.
Macro examination Micro examination
Objectives
• Detecting weld defects. (macro)
• Measuring grain size. (micro)
• Detecting brittle structures, precipitates.
• Assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking and corrosion
sensitivity
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Destructive Testing
European Standards for Destructive Test Methods
The following Standards are specified by the European Welding Standards
for destructive testing of welding procedure qualification test welds and for
some welder qualification test welds.
EN 875 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Impact

tests – Test specimen location, notch orientation and
examination
EN 895 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials –

Transverse tensile test
EN 910 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials – Bend tests
EN 1321 Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials –

Macroscopic and microscopic examination of weld
BS EN 10002 Metallic materials - Tensile testing. Part 1: Method of test at

ambient temperature
BS EN 10002 Tensile testing of metallic materials. Part 5: Method of test

at elevated temperatures
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Destructive Testing
Section 7
Heat Treatment
1 Introduction
The heat treatment given to a particular grade of steel by the steelmaker/
supplier should be shown on the material test certificate and may be
referred to as the ‘supply condition’.
Welding inspectors may need to refer to material test certificates and it is

appropriate that they be familiar with the terminology that is used and have
some understanding of the principles of some of the most commonly applied
heat treatments.
Welded joints may need to be subjected to heat treatment after welding

(post-weld heat treatment) and the tasks of monitoring the thermal cycle and
checking the heat treatment records are often delegated to welding
inspectors.
2 Heat Treatment of Steel

The main supply conditions for weldable steels are:
As rolled, hot rolled, hot finished

Plate is hot rolled to finished size and allowed to air cool; the temperature at
which rolling finishes may vary from plate to plate and so strength and
toughness properties vary and are not optimised;
Applied to
Relatively thin, lower strength C-steel
TMCP*, control-rolled, thermo-mechanically rolled

Steel plate given precisely controlled thickness reductions during hot rolling
within carefully controlled temperature ranges; final rolling temperature is
also carefully controlled;
Applied to
Relatively thin, high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) and for some steels
with good toughness at low temperatures, eg, cryogenic steels
* TMCP = thermo-mechanical controlled processing
Normalised
After working the steel (rolling or forging) to size, it is heated to ~900°C and
then allowed to cool in air to ambient temperature; this optimises strength
and toughness and gives uniform properties from item to item for a
particular grade of steel;
Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels
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Heat Treatment
Quenched and tempered
after working the steel (rolling or forging) to size, it is heated to ~900°C and
then cooled as quickly as possible by quenching in water or oil; after
quenching, the steel must be tempered (softened) to improve the ductility of
the ‘as-quenched’ steel;
Applied to
Some low alloy steels to give higher strength, or toughness or wear
resistance
Solution annealed/heat treated

After hot or cold working to size, steel heated to ~1100°C and rapidly cooled
by quenching into water to prevent any carbides or other phases from
forming;
Applied to
Austenitic stainless steels such as 304 and 316 grades
Annealed
After working the steel (pressing or forging etc) to size, it is heated to
~900°C and then allowed to cool in the furnace to ambient temperature; this
reduces strength and toughness but improves ductility;
Applied to
C-Mn steels and some low alloy steels
Figures 1 to 5 show the thermal cycles for the main supply conditions and
subsequent heat treatment that can be applied to steels
3 Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)

Post weld heat treatment has to be applied to some welded steels in order
to ensure that the properties of the weldment will be suitable for their
intended applications.
The temperature at which PWHT is carried out is usually well below the
temperature where phase changes can occur (note 1), but high enough to
allow residual stresses to be relieved quickly and to soften (temper) any
hard regions in the HAZ.
There are major benefits of reducing residual stress and ensuring that the
HAZ hardness is not too high for particular steels with certain service
applications.
Examples of these benefits are to:
• Improve the resistance of the joint to brittle fracture

• Improve the resistance of the joint to stress corrosion cracking
• Enable welded joints to be machined to accurate dimensional tolerances
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Heat Treatment
Because the main reason for (and benefit of) PWHT is to reduce residual
stresses, PWHT is often called ‘stress relief’.
Note 1: There are circumstances when a welded joint may need to be

normalised to restore HAZ toughness. However, these are relatively rare
circumstances and it is necessary to ensure that welding consumables are
carefully selected because normalising will significantly reduce weld metal
strength
4 PWHT Thermal Cycle

The application standard/code, will specify when PWHT is required to give
benefits #1 or #2 above and also give guidance about the thermal cycle that
must be used.
In order to ensure that a PWHT cycle is carried it in accordance with a

particular code, it is essential that a PWHT procedure is prepared and that
the following parameters are specified:
• Maximum heating rate

• Soak temperature range
• Minimum time at the soak temperature (soak time)
• Maximum cooling rate
4.1 Heating rate

This must be controlled to avoid large temperature differences within the
fabricated item. Large differences in temperature (large thermal gradients)
will produce large stresses and these may be high enough to cause
distortion (or even cracking).
Application standards usually require control of the maximum heating rate

when the temperature of the item is above ~300°C. This is because steels
start to show significant loss of strength above this temperature and are
more susceptible to distortion if there are large thermal gradients.
The temperature of the fabricated item must be monitored during the

thermal cycle and this is done by means of thermocouples attached to the
surface at a number of locations representing the thickness range of the
item.
By monitoring furnace and item temperatures the rate of heating can be

controlled to ensure compliance with code requirements at all positions
within the item.
Maximum heating rates specified for C-Mn steel depend on thickness of the
item but tend to be in the range ~60 to ~200°C/h.
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Heat Treatment
4.2 Soak temperature
The soak temperature specified by the code depends on the type of steel
and thus the temperature range required to reduce residual stresses to a
low level.
C and C-Mn steels require a soak temperature of ~600°C whereas some

low alloy steels (such as Cr-Mo steels used for elevated temperature
service) require higher temperatures – typically in the range ~700 to
~760°C.
Note: Soak temperature is an essential variable for a WPQR. Thus, it is

very important that the it is controlled within the specified limits otherwise it
may be necessary to carry out a new WPQ test to validate the properties of
the item and at worst it may not be fit-for-purpose.
4.3 Soak time

It is necessary to allow time for all the welded joints to experience the
specified temperature throughout the full joint thickness.
The temperature is monitored by surface-contact thermocouples and it is the

thickest joint of the fabrication that governs the minimum time for
temperature equalisation.
Typical specified soak times are 1h per 25mm thickness.
4.4 Cooling rate

It is necessary to control the rate of cooling from the PWHT temperature for
the same reason that heating rate needs to be controlled – to avoid
distortion (or cracking) due to high stresses from thermal gradients.
Codes usually specify controlled cooling to ~300°C. Below this temperature

the item can be withdrawn from a furnace and allowed to cool in air because
steel is relatively strong and is unlikely to suffer plastic strain by any
temperature gradients that may develop.
Figure 6 is a typical PWHT thermal cycle.
5 Heat Treatment Furnaces

It is important that oil and gas-fired furnaces used for PWHT do not allow
flame contact with the fabrication as this may induce large thermal
gradients.
It is also important to ensure that the fuel (particularly for oil-fired furnaces)
does not contain high levels of potentially harmful impurities – such as
sulphur.
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Heat Treatment
6 Local PWHT
For a pipeline or pipe spool it is often necessary to apply PWHT to individual
welds by local application of heat.
For this, a PWHT procedure must specify the previously described

parameters for controlling the thermal cycle but it is also necessary to
specify the following:
• Width of the heated band (must be within the soak temperature range)
• Width of the temperature ‘decay’ band (soak temperature to ~300°C)
Other considerations are:
• Position of the thermocouples within the heated band width and the
decay band
• If the item needs to be supported in a particular way to allow movement/
avoid distortion
The commonest method of heating for local PWHT is by means of insulated

electrical elements (electrical ‘mats’) that are attached to the weld.
Gas-fired, radiant heating elements can also be used.
Figure 7 shows typical control zones for localised PWHT of a pipe butt weld.
Normalising
• Rapid heating to soak temperature (100% austenite)
• Short ‘soak’ time at temperature
• Cool in air to ambient temperature
Temperature,°C
~900°C
Time
Figure 1 a typical normalising heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some low
alloy steels
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Heat Treatment
Quenching and tempering
• Rapid cooling by quenching in water or oil
• Reheat to tempering temperature, soak and air cool
Temperature°C
~ 900°C
>~ 650°C
Quenching Tempering
cycle cycle
Time
Figure 2 Typical quenching and tempering heat treatment applied to
some low alloy steels
Slab heating temperature > ~1050°C
Austenite
 (γ)
~900°C
Temperature,°C
Austenite + ferrite
(γ+α)
~700°C
As-rolled Control-rolled
Ferrite + pearlite or or
(α )+ iron carbide) hot rolled TMCP
Time
Figure 3 Comparison of the ‘control-rolled’ (TMCP) and ‘as-rolled’
conditions (= hot rolling)
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Heat Treatment
Solution heat treatment
• Rapid heating to soak temp. (100% austenite)
• Rapid cool cooling by quenching into water or oil
Temperature,°C
> ~1050°C
Quenching
Time
Figure 4 Typical solution heat treatment (solution annealing) applied
to austenitic stainless steels
Annealing
• Slow cool in furnace to ambient temperature
Temperature,°C
~900°C
Time
Figure 5 Typical annealing heat treatment applied to C-Mn and some
low alloy steels
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Heat Treatment
PWHT (C-Mn steels)
• Controlled heating rate from 300°C to soak temperature
• Minimum soak time at temperature
• Controlled cooling to ~300°C
Temperature °C
~600°C
Controlled
heating & cooling
rates
~300°C
Soak
a
time
Time
Figure 6 Typical PWHT applied to C-Mn steels
Weld seam
temp. temp.
decay heated band decay
band band
Figure 7 Local PWHT of a pipe girth seam
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Heat Treatment
Section 8
WPS and Welder Qualifications

1
General
When structures and pressurised items are fabricated by welding, it is
essential that all the welded joints are sound and have suitable properties
for their application.
Control of welding is achieved by means of welding procedure specifications

(WPS) that give detailed written instructions about the welding conditions
that must be used to ensure that welded joints have the required properties.
Although WPS are shop floor documents to instruct welders, they are
documents that welding inspectors also need to be familiar with. This is
because they will need to refer to WPS when they are checking that welders
are working in accordance with the specified requirements.
Welders need to be able to understand WPS and to have the skill to make
welds that are not defective and demonstrate these abilities before being
allowed to make production welds.
1 Qualified Welding Procedure Specifications

It is industry practice to use qualified WPS for most applications.
A welding procedure is usually qualified by making a test weld to

demonstrate that the properties of the joint satisfy the requirements
specified by the application standard (and the client/end user).
Demonstrating the mechanical properties of the joint is the principal purpose

of qualification tests but showing that a defect-free weld can be produced is
also very important.
Production welds that are made in accordance with welding conditions

similar to those used for a test weld should have similar properties and
therefore be fit for their intended purpose.
Figure 1 is an example of a typical WPS written in accordance with the

European Welding Standard format giving details of all the welding
conditions that need to be specified.
1.1 Welding standards for procedure qualification

European and American Standards have been developed to give
comprehensive details about:
• How a welded test piece must be made to demonstrate joint properties

• How the test piece must be tested
• What welding details need to be included in a WPS
• The range of production welding allowed by a particular qualification test
weld
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2
The principal European Standards that specify these requirements are:
EN ISO 15614 Specification & qualification of welding procedures for

metallic materials – Welding procedure test
Part 1: Arc & gas welding of steels & arc welding of nickel & nickel alloys
Part 2: Arc welding of aluminium and its alloys
The principal American Standards for procedure qualification are:
ASME Section IX for pressurised systems (vessels & pipework)
AWS D1.1 for structural welding of steels
AWS D1.2 for structural welding of aluminium
1.2 The qualification process for welding procedures

Although qualified WPS are usually based on test welds that have been
made to demonstrate weld joint properties; welding standards also allow
qualified WPS to be written based on other data (for some applications).
Some alternative ways that can be used for writing qualified WPS for some
applications are:
• Qualification by adoption of a standard welding procedure - test

welds previously qualified and documented by other manufacturers
• Qualification based on previous welding experience - weld joints that

have been repeatedly made and proved to have suitable properties by
their service record
Procedure qualification to European Standards by means of a test weld (and

similar in ASME Section IX and AWS) requires a sequence of actions that is
typified by those shown by Table 1.
A successful procedure qualification test is completed by the production of a

welding procedure qualification record (WPQR), an example of which is
shown by Figure 2.
Rev 1 July 2008

3
1.3 Relationship between a WPQR and a WPS

Once a WPQR has been produced, the welding engineer is able to write
qualified WPSs for the various production weld joints that need to be made.
The welding conditions that are allowed to be written on a qualified WPS are
referred to as the qualification range and this range depends on the
welding conditions that were used for the test piece (the as-run details) and
form part of the WPQR.
Welding conditions are referred to as welding variables by European and

American Welding Standards and are classified as either essential
variables or non-essential variables.
These variables can be defined as follows:
• Essential variable a variable that has an affect on the mechanical

properties of the weldment (and if changed beyond the limits specified by
the standard will require the WPS to be re-qualified)
• Non-essential variable a variable that must be specified on a WPS but
does not have a significant effect on the mechanical properties of the
weldment (and can be changed without need for re-qualification but will
require a new WPS to be written)
It is because essential variables can have a significant effect on mechanical

properties that they are the controlling variables that govern the qualification
range and determine what can be written into a WPS.
If a welder makes a production weld using conditions outside the

qualification range given on a particular WPS, there is danger that the
welded joint will not have the required properties and there are then two
options:
• Make another test weld using similar welding conditions to those used for
the affected weld and subject this to the same tests used for the relevant
WPQR to demonstrate that the properties still satisfy specified
requirements
• Remove the affected weld and re-weld the joint strictly in accordance with
the designated WPS
Most of the welding variables that are classed as essential are the same in
both the European and American Welding Standards but their qualification
ranges may differ.
Some Application Standards specify their own essential variables and it is

necessary to ensure that these are taken into consideration when
procedures are qualified and WPSs are written.
Rev 1 July 2008

4
Examples of essential variables (according to European Welding Standards)

are given in Table 2.
2 Welder Qualification
The use of qualified WPSs is the accepted method for controlling production
welding but this will only be successful if the welders have the ability to
understand and work in accordance with them.
Welders also need to have the skill to consistently produce sound welds
(free from defects).
Welding Standards have been developed to give guidance on what

particular test welds are required in order to show that welders have the
required skills to make particular types of production welds in particular
materials.
2.1 Welding standards for welder qualification

The principal European Standards that specify requirements are:
EN 287-1 Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding

Part 1: Steels
EN ISO 9606-2 Qualification test of welders – Fusion welding

Part 2: Aluminium and aluminium alloys
EN 1418 Welding personnel – Approval testing of welding

operators for fusion welding and resistance weld setters
for fully mechanised and automatic welding of metallic
materials
The principal American Standards that specify requirements for welder

qualification are:
ASME Section IX for pressurised systems (vessels & pipework)
AWS D1.1 for structural welding of steels
AWS D1.2 for structural welding of aluminium
2.2 The qualification process for welders

Qualification testing of welders to European Standards requires test welds
to be made and subjected to specified tests to demonstrate that the welder
is able to understand the WPS and to produce a sound weld.
For manual and semi-automatic welding the emphasis of the tests is to

demonstrate ability to manipulate the electrode or welding torch.
Rev 1 July 2008

5
For mechanised and automatic welding the emphasis is on demonstrating

that welding operators have ability to control particular types of welding
equipment.
American Standards allow welders to demonstrate that they can produce

sound welds by subjecting their first production weld to non-destructive
testing.
Table 3 shows the steps required for qualifying welders in accordance with
European Standards.
Figure 3 shows a typical Welder Qualification Certificate in accordance with

European Standards.
2.3 Welder qualification and production welding allowed

The welder is allowed to make production welds within the range of
qualification recorded on his welder qualification certificate.
The range of qualification is based on the limits specified by the Welding

Standard for welder qualification essential variables s - defined as:
a variable that if changed beyond the limits specified by the Welding
Standard may require greater skill than has been demonstrated by the
test weld.
Some welding variables that are classed as essential for welder qualification
are the same types as those classified as essential for welding procedure
qualification, but the range of qualification may be significantly wider.
Some essential variables are specific to welder qualification.
Examples of welder qualification essential variables are given in Table 4.
2.4 Period of validity for a welder qualification certificate

A welder’s qualification begins from the date of welding of the test piece.
The European Standard allows a qualification certificate to remain valid for a

period of two years – provided that:
• The welding co-ordinator, or other responsible person, can confirm that

the welder has been working within the initial range of qualification
• Working within the initial qualification range is confirmed every six months
2.5 Prolongation of welder qualification

A welder’s qualification certificate can be prolonged every two years by an
examiner/examining body but before prolongation is allowed certain
conditions need to be satisfied:
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• Records/evidence are available that can be traced to the welder and the
WPS that have been used for production welding
• The supporting evidence must relate to volumetric examination of the
welder’s production welds (RT or UT) on two welds made during the 6
months prior to the prolongation date
• The supporting evidence welds must satisfy the acceptance levels for
imperfections specified by the European welding standard and have been
made under the same conditions as the original test weld.
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The welding engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Specification

(pWPS) for each test coupon to be welded
• A welder makes the test coupon in accordance with the pWPS

• A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used to make
the test coupon (called the ‘as-run’ conditions)
An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party Inspector may be

requested to monitor the procedure qualification
The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard – visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT
• The test coupon is destructively tested (tensile, bend, macro tests)
• The code/application standard/client may require additional tests such

as hardness tests, impact tests or corrosion tests – depending on
material and application
• A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared by the

welding engineer giving details of: -
» The as-run welding conditions
» Results of the NDT
» Results of the destructive tests
» The welding conditions allowed for production welding
• If a Third Party Inspector is involved he will be requested to sign the

WPQR as a true record of the test
Table 1 Typical sequence for welding procedure qualification by means of a test

weld
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VARIABLE RANGE for PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION

Welding process No range – process qualified is process that must be used in
production
PWHT Joints tested after PWHT only qualify as PWHT production joints
Joints tested ‘as-welded’ only qualify ‘as-welded’ production joints
Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical properties

type are allocated the same Material Group No.; qualification only
allows production welding of materials with the same Group No.
Welding Consumables for production welding must have the same

consumables European designation – as a general rule
Material A thickness range is allowed – below and above the test coupon
thickness thickness
Type of current AC only qualifies for AC; DC polarity (+VE or -VE) cannot be
changed; pulsed current only qualifies for pulsed current
production welding
Preheat The preheat temperature used for the test is the minimum that
temperature must be applied
Interpass The highest interpass temperature reached in the test is the

temperature maximum allowed
Heat input (HI) When impact requirements apply maximum HI allowed is 25%
above test HI
when hardness requirements apply minimum HI allowed is 25%
below test HI
Table 2 Typical examples of WPS essential variables according to European Welding

Standards
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The welding engineer writes a WPS for welder qualification test piece
• The welder makes the test weld in accordance with the WPS
• A welding inspector monitors the welding to ensure that the welder is
working in accordance the WPS
An Independent Examiner/Examining Body/Third Party Inspector may be

requested to monitor the test
• The test coupon is subjected to NDT in accordance with the methods

specified by the Standard (visual inspection, MT or PT and RT or UT)
• For certain materials, and welding processes, some destructive
testing may be required (bends or macros)
• A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the welding

conditions used for the test piece and the range of qualification
allowed by the Standard for production welding
• If a Third Party is involved, the Qualification Certificate would be

endorsed as a true record of the test
Table 3 The stages for qualification of a welder
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VARIABLE RANGE for WELDER QUALIFICATION

Welding process No range – process qualified is process that a welder can use in
production
Type of weld Butt welds cover any type of joint except branch welds
fillet welds only qualify fillets
Parent material Parent materials of similar composition and mechanical properties

type are allocated the same Material Group No.; qualification only allows
production welding of materials with the same Group No. but the
Groups allow much wider composition ranges than the procedure
Groups
Filler material Electrodes and filler wires for production welding must be of the
same form as the test (solid wire, flux cored etc); for MMA coating
type is essential
Material A thickness range is allowed; for test pieces above 12mm allow
thickness ≥ 5mm
Pipe diameter Essential and very restricted for small diameters;

test pieces above 25mm allow ≥ 0.5 x diameter used (min. 25mm)
Welding positions Position of welding very important; H-L045 allows all positions
(except PG)
Table 4 Typical examples of welder qualification essential variables according to

European Welding Standards
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Section 9
Materials Inspection
1
1 General
One of the duties of the Visual/Welding Inspector is to carry out materials
inspection. There are a number of situations where the inspector will be
required to carry out materials inspection:
• At the plate or pipe mill,

• Of material during fabrication or construction
• Of material after installation, usually during a planned maintenance
programme, outage or shutdown.
A wide range of materials are available, that can be used in fabrication and
welding. These include, but are not limited to:
• Steels
• Stainless steels
• Aluminium and its alloys
• Nickel and its alloys
• Copper and its alloys
• Titanium and its alloys
• Cast iron
These materials are all widely used in fabrication, welding and construction
to meet the requirements of a diverse range of applications and industry
sectors.
There are three essential aspects to materials inspection that the Inspector
should consider:
• Material type and weldability

• Material traceability
• Material condition and dimensions.
2 Material Types and Weldability

A Welding Inspector must be able to understand and interpret the material
designation in order to check compliance with relevant normative
documents. For example materials standards such as BS EN, API, ASTM,
the welding procedure specification (WPS), the purchase order, fabrication
drawings, the quality plan/the contract specification and client requirements.
A commonly used material standard for steel designation is BS EN 10025 –

Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels.
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A typical steel designation to this standard, S355J2G3, would be classified

as follows:
S Structural steel
355 Minimum yield strength: N/mm² at t ≤ 16mm
J2 Longitudinal Charpy, 27Joules 6-20°C
G3 Normalised or normalised rolled
In terms of material type and weldability, commonly used materials and

most alloys of these materials can be fusion welded using various welding
processes, in a wide range of thickness, and, where applicable, diameters.
Reference to other standards such as ISO 15608 Welding - Guidelines for a

metallic material grouping system, steel producers and welding consumable
data books can also provide the Inspector with guidance on the suitability of
a material and consumable type for a given application.
3 Alloying Elements and Their Effects

Iron Fe
Carbon C For strength
Manganese Mn For toughness
Silicon Si < 0.3% deoxidiser
Aluminium Al Grain refiner, <0.008% deoxidiser + toughness
Chromium Cr Corrosion resistance
Molybdenum Mo 1% is for creep resistance
Vanadium V Strength
Nickel Ni Low temperature applications
Copper Cu Used for weathering steels (Corten)
Sulphur S Residual element (can cause hot shortness)
Phosphorous P Residual element
Titanium Ti Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (S&T)
Niobium Nb Grain refiner, used as a micro alloying element (S&T)
(S&T) = strength and toughness
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4 Material Traceability
Traceability is defined as ‘the ability to trace the history, application or
location of that which is under consideration’. In the case of a welded
product, traceability may require the Inspector to consider:
• Origin of the materials – both parent and filler material

• Processing history – for example before or after PWHT
• Location of the product – this would usually refer to a specific part or sub-
assembly
In order to trace the history of the material, reference to the inspection

documents must be made. BS EN 10204 Metallic products – Types of
inspection documents is the standard, which provides guidance on these
types of document. Under BS EN 10204 inspection documents fall into two
types:
Non-specific inspection (a)

Inspection carried out by the manufacturer in accordance with his own
procedures to assess whether products defined by the same product
specification and made by the same manufacturing process, are in
compliance with the requirements of the order or not.
Type 2.1 are documents in which the manufacturer declares that the
products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order
without inclusion of test results.
products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and
in which test results based on non-specific inspection are supplied.
Specific inspection (b)

Inspection carried out, before delivery, according to the product
specification, on the products to be supplied or on test units of which the
products supplied are part, in order to verify that these products are in
compliance with the requirements of the order.
products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order and
in which test results are supplied.
Type 3.2 are documents prepared by both the manufacturer’s authorised

inspection representative independent of the manufacturing department,
and either the purchaser’s authorised representative or the inspector
designated by the official regulations, and in which they declare that the
products supplied are in compliance with the requirements of the order
and in which test results are supplied.
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Application or location of a particular material can be carried out through a

review of the welding procedure specification (WPS), the fabrication
drawings, the quality plan or by physical inspection of the material at the
point of use.
In certain circumstances the Inspector may have to witness the transfer of

cast numbers from the original plate to pieces to be used in production.
On pipeline work it is a requirement that the inspector records all the

relevant information for each piece of line pipe. On large diameter pipes this
information is usually stencilled on the inside of the pipe. On smaller
diameter pipes the information may be stencilled along the outside of the
pipe.
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BS EN 10204: Metallic materials
Types of inspection documents summary
NON–SPECIFIC INSPECTION * (a)
Inspection document type 2.1

Declaration of compliance with the order
Inspection document type 2.2
Statement of compliance with the order. Test report
Validated by the manufacturer. Statement of compliance with the order,
with indication of results of non-specific
inspection.
Validated by the manufacturer
a) Non-specific inspection may be replaced by specific inspection if specified in the

material standard or the order.
SPECIFIC INSPECTION * (b)
Inspection certificate type 3.1 Inspection certificate type 3.2

Statement of compliance with the Statement of compliance with the order,
order, with indication of results of with indication of results of specific
specific inspection inspection.
Validated by the manufacturer’s Validated by the manufacturer’s authorised
authorised inspection representative inspection representative independent of
independent of the manufacturing the manufacturing department and either
department. the purchaser’s authorised inspection
representative or the inspector designated
by the official regulations.
b) Quality management system of the material manufacturer certified by a

competent body established within the community and having undergone a
specific assessment for materials
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5 Material Condition and Dimensions

The condition of the material could have an adverse effect on the service life
of the component; it is therefore an important inspection point. The points for
inspection must include:
General inspection, visible imperfections, dimensions and surface condition.
General inspection
This type of inspection takes account of storage conditions, methods of
handling, the number of plates or pipes and distortion tolerances.
Visible imperfections
Typical visible imperfections are usually attributable to the manufacturing
process and would include cold laps, which break the surface or laminations
if they appear at the edge of the plate. For laminations, which may be
present in the body of the material, ultrasonic testing using a compression
probe may be required.
Cold lap Plate lamination
Dimensions
For plates this would include length, width and thickness.
For pipes, this would not only include length and wall thickness, but also
inspection of diameter and ovality. At this stage of the inspection the
material cast or heat number may also be recorded for validation against the
material certificate.
Surface condition
The surface condition of the material is important, it must not show
excessive mill scale and rust, must not be badly pitted, or have
unacceptable mechanical damage.
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There are four grades of rusting which the inspector may have to consider:
Rust Grade A Steel surface largely covered with adherent mill scale with
little or no rust
Rust Grade B Steel surface, which has begun to rust, and from which mill
scale has begun to flake.
Rust Grade C Steel surface on which the mill scale has rusted away or from
which it can be scrapped. Slight pitting visible under normal
vision.
Rust Grade D Steel surface on which mill scale has rusted away. General
pitting visible under normal vision.
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6 Summary
Material inspection is an important part of the Inspector’s duties and an
understanding of the documentation involved is the key to success.
Material inspection must be approached in a logical and precise manner if

material verification and traceability are to be achieved. This can be difficult
if the material is not readily accessible, access may have to be provided,
safety precautions observed and authorisation obtained before material
inspection can be carried out. Reference to the quality plan should identify
the level of inspection required and the point at which inspection takes
place. Reference to a fabrication drawing should provide information on the
type and location of the material.
If material type cannot be determined from the inspection documents

available, or if the inspection document is missing, other methods of
identifying the material may need to be used.
These methods may include but are not limited to: spark test, spectroscopic
analysis, chemical analysis, scleroscope hardness test etc. These types of
tests are normally conducted by an approved test house, but sometimes on
site, and the Inspector may be required to witness these tests in order to
verify compliance with the purchase order or appropriate standard(s).
* EN ISO 9000 Quality management systems – Fundamentals and

vocabulary
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Section 10
Residual Stress and Distortion

1
1 What Causes Distortion?

Because welding involves highly localised heating of joint edges to fuse the
material, non-uniform stresses are set up in the component because of
expansion and contraction of the heated material.
Initially, compressive stresses are created in the surrounding cold parent

metal when the weld pool is formed due to the thermal expansion of the hot
metal (heat affected zone (HAZ)) adjacent to the weld pool. However,
tensile stresses occur on cooling when the contraction of the weld metal and
immediate HAZ is resisted by the bulk of the cold parent metal.
The magnitude of thermal stresses induced into the material can be seen by
the volume change in the weld area on solidification and subsequent cooling
to room temperature. For example, when welding C-Mn steel, the molten
weld metal volume will be reduced by approximately 3% on solidification
and the volume of the solidified weld metal/HAZ will be reduced by a further
7% as its temperature falls from the melting point of steel to room
temperature.
If the stresses generated from thermal expansion/contraction exceed the

yield strength of the parent metal, localised plastic deformation of the metal
occurs. Plastic deformation causes a permanent reduction in the component
dimensions and distorts the structure.
2 What Are the Main Types of Distortion?

Distortion occurs in several ways:
• Longitudinal shrinkage
• Transverse shrinkage
• Angular distortion
• Bowing and dishing
• Buckling
Contraction of the weld area on cooling results in both transverse and

longitudinal shrinkage.
Non-uniform contraction (through thickness) produces angular distortion as

well as longitudinal and transverse shrinking.
For example, in a single V butt weld, the first weld run produces longitudinal
and transverse shrinkage and rotation. The second run causes the plates to
rotate using the first weld deposit as a fulcrum. Therefore balanced welding
in a double side V butt joint can be used to produce uniform contraction and
prevent angular distortion.
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Similarly, in a single-sided fillet weld, non-uniform contraction will produce

angular distortion of the upstanding leg. Double-sided fillet welds can
therefore be used to control distortion in the upstanding fillet but because
the weld is only deposited on one side of the base plate, angular distortion
will now be produced in the plate.
Longitudinal bowing in welded plates happens when the weld centre is not
coincident with the neutral axis of the section so that longitudinal shrinkage
in the welds bends the section into a curved shape. Clad plate tends to bow
in two directions due to longitudinal and transverse shrinkage of the
cladding. This produces a dished shape.
Dishing is also produced in stiffened plating. Plates usually dish inwards

between the stiffeners, because of angular distortion at the stiffener
attachment welds.
In plating, long range compressive stresses can cause elastic buckling in

thin plates, resulting in dishing, bowing or rippling, see below.
Examples of distortion
Examples of distortion
Increasing the leg length of fillet welds, in particular, increases shrinkage.
3 What Are the Factors Affecting Distortion?

If a metal is uniformly heated and cooled there would be almost no
distortion. However, because the material is locally heated and restrained by
the surrounding cold metal, stresses are generated higher than the material
yield stress causing permanent distortion. The principal factors affecting the
type and degree of distortion are:
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• Parent material properties

• Amount of restraint
• Joint design
• Part fit-up
• Welding procedure
3.1 Parent material properties

Parent material properties, which influence distortion, are coefficient of
thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, and to a lesser extent, yield stress
and Young’s Modulus. As distortion is determined by expansion and
contraction of the material, the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
material plays a significant role in determining the stresses generated during
welding and, hence, the degree of distortion. For example, as stainless steel
has a higher coefficient of expansion and lesser thermal conductivity than
plain carbon steel, it generally has significantly more distortion.
3.2 Restraint
If a component is welded without any external restraint, it distorts to relieve
the welding stresses. So, methods of restraint, such as strong-backs in butt
welds, can prevent movement and reduce distortion. As restraint produces
higher levels of residual stress in the material, there is a greater risk of
cracking in weld metal and HAZ especially in crack-sensitive materials.
3.3 Joint design

Both butt and fillet joints are prone to distortion, but it can be minimised in
butt joints by adopting a joint type, which balances the thermal stresses
through the plate thickness. For example, a double- in preference to a
single-sided weld. Double-sided fillet welds should eliminate angular
distortion of the upstanding member, especially if the two welds are
deposited at the same time.
3.4 Part fit-up

Fit-up should be uniform to produce predictable and consistent shrinkage.
Excessive joint gap can also increase the degree of distortion by increasing
the amount of weld metal needed to fill the joint. The joints should be
adequately tacked to prevent relative movement between the parts during
welding.
3.5 Welding procedure

This influences the degree of distortion mainly through its effect on the heat
input. As welding procedures are usually selected for reasons of quality and
productivity, the welder has limited scope for reducing distortion. As a
general rule, weld volume should be kept to a minimum. Also, the welding
sequence and technique should aim to balance the thermally induced
stresses around the neutral axis of the component.
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4 Distortion - Prevention By Pre-Setting, Pre-Bending

or Use of Restraint
Distortion could often be prevented at the design stage, for example, by
placing the welds about the neutral axis, reducing the amount of welding
and depositing the weld metal using a balanced welding technique. In
designs where this is not possible, distortion may be prevented by one of
the following methods:
• Pre-setting of parts
• Pre-bending of parts
• Use of restraint
The technique chosen will be influenced by the size and complexity of the
component or assembly, the cost of any restraining equipment and the need
to limit residual stresses.
Pre-setting of parts to produce correct alignment after welding

a) Pre-setting of fillet joint to prevent angular distortion
b) Pre-setting of butt joint to prevent angular distortion
4.1 Pre-setting of parts

The parts are pre-set and left free to move during welding (see above). In
practice, the parts are pre-set by a pre-determined amount so that distortion
occurring during welding is used to achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control.
The main advantages compared with the use of restraint are that there is no
expensive equipment needed and there will be lower residual stress in the
structure.
Unfortunately, as it is difficult to predict the amount of pre-setting needed to

accommodate shrinkage, a number of trial welds will be required. For
example, when MMA or MIG/MAG welding butt joints, the joint gap will
normally close ahead of welding; when submerged arc welding; the joint
may open up during welding. When carrying out trial welds, it is also
essential that the test structure is reasonably representative of the full size
structure in order to generate the level of distortion likely to occur in practice.
For these reasons, pre-setting is a technique more suitable for simple
components or assemblies.
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Pre-bending, using strongbacks and wedges, to

accommodate angular distortion in thin plates.
4.2 Pre-bending of parts

Pre-bending, or pre-springing the parts before welding is a technique used
to pre-stress the assembly to counteract shrinkage during welding. As
shown above, pre-bending by means of strongbacks and wedges can be
used to pre-set a seam before welding to compensate for angular distortion.
Releasing the wedges after welding will allow the parts to move back into
alignment.
The Figure shows the diagonal bracings and centre jack used to pre-bend
the fixture, not the component. This counteracts the distortion introduced
though out-of-balance welding.
4.3 Use of restraint

Because of the difficulty in applying pre-setting and pre-bending, restraint is
the more widely practised technique. The basic principle is that the parts are
placed in position and held under restraint to minimise any movement during
welding. When removing the component from the restraining equipment, a
relatively small amount of movement will occur due to locked-in stresses.
This can be cured by either applying a small amount of pre-set or stress-
relieving before removing the restraint.
When welding assemblies, all the component parts should be held in the
correct position until completion of welding and a suitably balanced
fabrication sequence used to minimise distortion.
Welding with restraint will generate additional residual stresses in the weld,
which may cause cracking. When welding susceptible materials, a suitable
welding sequence and the use of preheating will reduce this risk.
Restraint is relatively simple to apply using clamps, jigs and fixtures to hold
the parts during welding.
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4.3.1 Welding jigs and fixtures

Jigs and fixtures are used to locate the parts and to ensure that dimensional
accuracy is maintained whilst welding. They can be of a relatively simple
construction, as shown in a below but the welding engineer will need to
ensure that the finished fabrication can be removed easily after welding.
4.3.2 Flexible clamps

A flexible clamp (b below) can be effective not only in applying restraint but
also in setting-up and maintaining the joint gap (it can also be used to close
a gap that is too wide).
A disadvantage is that as the restraining forces in the clamp will be

transferred into the joint when the clamps are removed, the level of residual
stress across the joint can be quite high.
a) Welding jig b) Flexible clamps
c) Strongbacks with wedges d) Fully welded strongbacks
Restraint techniques to prevent distortion
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4.3.3 Strongbacks (and wedges)

Strongbacks are a popular means of applying restraint especially for site
work. Wedged strongbacks (c above), will prevent angular distortion in plate
and help to prevent peaking in welding cylindrical shells. As these types of
strongback will allow transverse shrinkage, the risk of cracking will be
greatly reduced compared with fully welded strongbacks.
Fully welded strongbacks (welded on both sides of the joint) (d above) will
minimise both angular distortion and transverse shrinkage. As significant
stresses can be generated across the weld, which will increase any
tendency for cracking, care should be taken in the use of this type of
strongback.
4.4 Best practice

Adopting the following assembly techniques will help to control distortion:
• Pre-set parts so that welding distortion will achieve overall alignment and
dimensional control with the minimum of residual stress
• Pre-bend joint edges to counteract distortion and achieve alignment and
dimensional control with minimum residual stress.
• Apply restraint during welding by using jigs and fixtures, flexible clamps,
strongbacks and tack welding but consider the risk of cracking which can
be quite significant, especially for fully welded strongbacks.
• Use an approved procedure for welding and removal of welds for restraint
techniques, which may need preheat to avoid forming imperfections in the
component surface.
5 Distortion - Prevention by Design

Design principles
At the design stage, welding distortion can often be prevented, or at least

restricted, by considering:
• Elimination of welding
• Weld placement
• Reducing the volume of weld metal
• Reducing the number of runs
• Use of balanced welding
5.1 Elimination of welding

As distortion and shrinkage are an inevitable result of welding, good design
requires that not only the amount of welding is kept to a minimum, but also
the smallest amount of weld metal is deposited. Welding can often be
eliminated at the design stage by forming the plate or using a standard
rolled section, as shown below.
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Elimination of welds by:

a) Forming the plate;
b) Use of rolled or extruded section
If possible, the design should use intermittent welds rather than a

continuous run, to reduce the amount of welding. For example, in attaching
stiffening plates, a substantial reduction in the amount of welding can often
be achieved whilst maintaining adequate strength.
5.2 Weld placement

Placing and balancing of welds are important in designing for minimum
distortion. The closer a weld is positioned to the neutral axis of a fabrication,
the lower the leverage effect of the shrinkage forces and the final distortion.
Examples of poor and good designs are shown below.
Distortion may be reduced by placing the welds

around the neutral axis
As most welds are deposited away from the neutral axis, distortion can be
minimised by designing the fabrication so the shrinkage forces of an
individual weld are balanced by placing another weld on the opposite side of
the neutral axis. Whenever possible, welding should be carried out
alternately on opposite sides, instead of completing one side first. In large
structures, if distortion is occurring preferentially on one side, it may be
possible to take corrective actions, for example, by increasing welding on
the other side to control the overall distortion.
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5.3 Reducing the volume of weld metal

To minimise distortion, as well as for economic reasons, the volume of weld
metal should be limited to the design requirements. For a single-sided joint,
the cross-section of the weld should be kept as small as possible to reduce
the level of angular distortion, as illustrated below.
Reducing the amount of angular distortion and lateral shrinkage
Ways of reducing angular distortion and lateral shrinkage
• Reducing the volume of weld metal;

• Using single pass weld
• Ensure fillet welds are not oversize.
Joint preparation angle and root gap should be minimised providing the weld
can be made satisfactorily. To facilitate access, it may be possible to specify
a larger root gap and smaller preparation angle. By cutting down the
difference in the amount of weld metal at the root and the face of the weld,
the degree of angular distortion will be correspondingly reduced. Butt joints
made in a single pass using deep penetration have little angular distortion,
especially if a closed butt joint can be welded (see above). For example, thin
section material can be welded using plasma and laser welding processes
and thick section can be welded, in the vertical position, using electrogas
and electroslag processes. Although angular distortion can be eliminated,
there will still be longitudinal and transverse shrinkage.
In thick section material, as the cross-sectional area of a double V joint

preparation is often only half that of a single V preparation, the volume of
weld metal to be deposited can be substantially reduced. The double V joint
preparation also permits balanced welding about the middle of the joint to
eliminate angular distortion.
As weld shrinkage is proportional to the amount of weld metal both poor

joint fit-up and over-welding will increase the amount of distortion. Angular
distortion in fillet welds is particularly affected by over-welding. As design
strength is based on throat thickness, over-welding to produce a convex
weld bead does not increase the allowable design strength but it will
increase the shrinkage and distortion.
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5.4 Reducing the number of runs

There are conflicting opinions on whether it is better to deposit a given
volume of weld metal using a small number of large weld passes or a large
number of small passes. Experience shows that for a single-sided butt joint,
or fillet weld, a large single weld deposit gives less angular distortion than if
the weld is made with a number of small runs. Generally, in an unrestrained
joint, the degree of angular distortion is approximately proportional to the
number of passes.
Completing the joint with a small number of large weld deposits results in
more longitudinal and transverse shrinkage than a weld completed in a
larger number of small passes. In a multi-pass weld, previously deposited
weld metal provides restraint, so the angular distortion per pass decreases
as the weld is built up. Large deposits also increase the risk of elastic
buckling particularly in thin section plate.
5.5 Use of balanced welding

Balanced welding is an effective means of controlling angular distortion in a
multi-pass butt weld by arranging the welding sequence to ensure that
angular distortion is continually being corrected and not allowed to
accumulate during welding. Comparative amounts of angular distortion from
balanced welding and welding one side of the joint first are shown below.
The balanced welding technique can also be applied to fillet joints.
Balanced welding to reduce the amount of angular distortion
If welding alternately on either side of the joint is not possible, or if one side
has to be completed first, an asymmetrical joint preparation may be used
with more weld metal being deposited on the second side. The greater
contraction resulting from depositing the weld metal on the second side will
help counteract the distortion on the first side.
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5.6 Best practice

The following design principles can control distortion:
• Eliminate welding by forming the plate and using rolled or extruded

sections
• Minimise the amount of weld metal
• Do not over-weld
• Use intermittent welding in preference to a continuous weld pass
• Place welds about the neutral axis
• Balance the welding about the middle of the joint by using a double V
joint in preference to a single
Adopting best practice principles can have surprising cost benefits. For
example, for a design fillet leg length of 6mm, depositing an 8mm leg length
will result in the deposition of 57% additional weld metal. Besides the extra
cost of depositing weld metal and the increase risk of distortion, it is costly to
remove this extra weld metal later. However, designing for distortion control
may incur additional fabrication costs. For example, the use of a double V
joint preparation is an excellent way to reduce weld volume and control
distortion, but extra costs may be incurred in production through
manipulation of the workpiece for the welder to access the reverse side.
6 Distortion - Prevention by Fabrication Techniques

6.1 Assembly techniques
In general, the welder has little influence on the choice of welding procedure
but assembly techniques can often be crucial in minimising distortion. The
principal assembly techniques are:
• Tack welding
• Back-to-back assembly
• Stiffening
6.1.1 Tack welding

Tack welds are ideal for setting and maintaining the joint gap but can also
be used to resist transverse shrinkage. To be effective, thought should be
given to the number of tack welds, their length and the distance between
them. With too few, there is the risk of the joint progressively closing up as
welding proceeds. In a long seam, using MMA or MIG/MAG, the joint edges
may even overlap. It should be noted that when using the submerged arc
process, the joint might open up if not adequately tacked.
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The tack welding sequence is important to maintain a uniform root gap

along the length of the joint. Three alternative tack-welding sequences are
shown below:
• Tack weld straight through to the end of the joint (a). It is necessary to
clamp the plates or to use wedges to maintain the joint gap during tacking
• Tack weld one end and then use a back stepping technique for tacking
the rest of the joint (b)
• Tack weld the centre and complete the tack welding by back stepping (c).
Alternative procedures used for tack welding

to prevent transverse shrinkage
Directional tacking is a useful technique for controlling the joint gap, for
example closing a joint gap which is (or has become) too wide.
When tack welding, it is important that tacks which are to be fused into the
main weld, are produced to an approved procedure using appropriately
qualified welders. The procedure may require preheat and an approved
consumable as specified for the main weld. Removal of the tacks also
needs careful control to avoid causing defects in the component surface.
6.1.2 Back-to-back assembly

By tack welding or clamping two identical components back-to-back,
welding of both components can be balanced around the neutral axis of the
combined assembly (see a on next page). It is recommended that the
assembly is stress-relieved before separating the components. If stress-
relieving is not done, it may be necessary to insert wedges between the
components (b on next page) so when the wedges are removed, the parts
will move back to the correct shape or alignment.
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Back-to-back assembly to control distortion when welding two identical

components:
a) Assemblies tacked together before welding;
b) Use of wedges for components that distort on separation after welding
6.1.3 Stiffening
Longitudinal stiffeners prevent bowing

in butt welded thin plate joints
Longitudinal shrinkage in butt-welded seams often results in bowing,

especially when fabricating thin plate structures. Longitudinal stiffeners in
the form of flats or angles, welded along each side of the seam (see above)
are effective in preventing longitudinal bowing. Stiffener location is
important: they must be placed at a sufficient distance from the joint so they
do not interfere with welding, unless located on the reverse side of a joint
welded from one side.
6.2 Welding procedure

A suitable welding procedure is usually determined by productivity and
quality requirements rather than the need to control distortion. Nevertheless,
the welding process, technique and sequence do influence the distortion
level.
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Welding process
General rules for selecting a welding process to prevent angular distortion
are:
• Deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible

• Use the least number of runs to fill the joint
Unfortunately, selecting a suitable welding process based on these rules

may increase longitudinal shrinkage resulting in bowing and buckling.
In manual welding, MIG/MAG, a high deposition rate process, is preferred to

MMA. Weld metal should be deposited using the largest diameter electrode
(MMA), or the highest current level (MIG/MAG), without causing lack-of-
fusion imperfections. As heating is much slower and more diffuse, gas
welding normally produces more angular distortion than the arc processes.
Mechanised techniques combining high deposition rates and welding

speeds have the greatest potential for preventing distortion. As the distortion
is more consistent, simple techniques such as pre-setting are more effective
in controlling angular distortion.
Welding technique
General rules for preventing distortion are:
• Keep the weld (fillet) to the minimum specified size

• Use balanced welding about the neutral axis
• Keep the time between runs to a minimum
Angular distortion of the joint as determined

by the number of runs in the fillet weld
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In the absence of restraint, angular distortion in both fillet and butt joints will
be a function of the joint geometry, weld size and the number of runs for a
given cross section. Angular distortion (measured in degrees) as a function
of the number of runs for a 10mm leg length fillet weld is shown above.
If possible, balanced welding around the neutral axis should be done, for
example on double-sided fillet joints, by two people welding simultaneously.
In butt joints, the run order may be crucial in that balanced welding can be
used to correct angular distortion as it develops.
Use of welding direction to control distortion:

a) Back-step welding
b) Skip welding.
Welding sequence
The welding sequence, or direction, of welding is important and should be
towards the free end of the joint. For long welds, the whole of the weld is not
completed in one direction. Short runs, for example using the back-step or
skip welding technique, are very effective in distortion control (see above)
• Back-step welding involves depositing short adjacent weld lengths in the

opposite direction to the general progression (see above
• Skip welding is laying short weld lengths in a predetermined, evenly
spaced, sequence along the seam (b in above figure). Weld lengths and
the spaces between them are generally equal to the natural run-out
length of one electrode. The direction of deposit for each electrode is the
same, but it is not necessary for the welding direction to be opposite to
the direction of general progression.
6.3 Best practice

The following fabrication techniques are used to control distortion:
• Using tack welds to set-up and maintain the joint gap

• Identical components welded back-to-back so welding can be balanced
about the neutral axis
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• Attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal bowing in butt

welds of thin plate structures
• Where there is choice of welding procedure, process and technique
should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible; MIG/MAG in
preference to MMA or gas welding and mechanised rather than manual
welding
• In long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one direction;
back-step or skip welding techniques should be used.
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7 Distortion - Corrective Techniques

Every effort should be made to avoid distortion at the design stage and by
using suitable fabrication procedures. As it is not always possible to avoid
distortion during fabrication, several well-established corrective techniques
can be employed. However, reworking to correct distortion should not be
undertaken lightly as it is costly and needs considerable skill to avoid
damaging the component.
In this issue, general guidelines are provided on best practice for correcting
distortion using mechanical or thermal techniques.
7.1 Mechanical techniques

The principal mechanical techniques are hammering and pressing.
Hammering may cause surface damage and work hardening.
In cases of bowing or angular distortion, the complete component can often

be straightened on a press without the disadvantages of hammering.
Packing pieces are inserted between the component and the plattens of the
press. It is important to impose sufficient deformation to give over-correction
so that the normal elastic spring-back will allow the component to assume
its correct shape.
Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
Pressing to correct bowing in a flanged plate is shown above. In long

components, distortion is removed progressively in a series of incremental
pressings; each one acting over a short length. In the case of the flanged
plate, the load should act on the flange to prevent local damage to the web
at the load points. As incremental point loading will only produce an
approximately straight component, it is better to use a former to achieve a
straight component or to produce a smooth curvature.
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7.1.1 Best practice for mechanical straightening

The following should be adopted when using pressing techniques to remove
distortion:
• Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so that spring-
back will return the component to the correct shape
• Check that the component is adequately supported during pressing to
prevent buckling
• Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or produce a
curvature
• As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the following
safe practice must be adopted:
- Bolt the packing pieces to the platen
- Place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the 'missile'
- Clear personnel from the hazard area
7.2 Thermal techniques

The basic principle behind thermal techniques is to create sufficiently high
local stresses so that, on cooling, the component is pulled back into shape.
Localised heating to correct distortion
This is achieved by locally heating the material to a temperature where

plastic deformation will occur as the hot, low yield strength material tries to
expand against the surrounding cold, higher yield strength metal. On cooling
to room temperature the heated area will attempt to shrink to a smaller size
than before heating. The stresses generated thereby will pull the component
into the required shape. (see above)
Local heating is, therefore, a relatively simple but effective means of

correcting welding distortion. Shrinkage level is determined by size, number,
location and temperature of the heated zones. Thickness and plate size
determines the area of the heated zone. Number and placement of heating
zones are largely a question of experience. For new jobs, tests will often be
needed to quantify the level of shrinkage.
Spot, line, or wedge-shaped heating techniques can all be used in thermal

correction of distortion.
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7.2.1 Spot heating
Spot heating for correcting buckling
Spot heating is used to remove buckling, for example when a relatively thin
sheet has been welded to a stiff frame. Distortion is corrected by spot
heating on the convex side. If the buckling is regular, the spots can be
arranged symmetrically, starting at the centre of the buckle and working
outwards.
7.2.2 Line heating
Line heating to correct angular distortion in a fillet weld
Heating in straight lines is often used to correct angular distortion, for

example, in fillet welds. The component is heated along the line of the
welded joint but on the opposite side to the weld so the induced stresses will
pull the flange flat.
7.2.3 Wedge-shaped heating

To correct distortion in larger complex fabrications it may be necessary to
heat whole areas in addition to employing line heating. The pattern aims at
shrinking one part of the fabrication to pull the material back into shape.
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Use of wedge shaped heating to straighten plate
Apart from spot heating of thin panels, a wedge-shaped heating zone should
be used from base to apex and the temperature profile should be uniform
through the plate thickness. For thicker section material, it may be
necessary to use two torches, one on each side of the plate.
As a general guideline, to straighten a curved plate wedge dimensions

should be:
• Length of wedge - two-thirds of the plate width

• Width of wedge (base) - one sixth of its length (base to apex)
The degree of straightening will typically be 5mm in a 3m length of plate.

Wedge-shaped heating can be used to correct distortion in a variety of
situations, (see below):
• Standard rolled section, which needs correction in two planes (a)

• Buckle at edge of plate as an alternative to rolling (b)
• Box section fabrication, which is distorted out of plane (c)
a) Standard rolled steel b) Buckled edge of plate c) Box fabrication

section
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
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7.2.4 General precautions

The dangers of using thermal straightening techniques are the risk of over-
shrinking too large an area or causing metallurgical changes by heating to
too high a temperature. As a general rule, when correcting distortion in
steels the temperature of the area should be restricted to approximately to
600-650°C - dull red heat.
If the heating is interrupted, or the heat lost, the operator must allow the
metal to cool and then begin again.
7.2.5 Best practice for distortion correction by thermal heating

The following should be adopted when using thermal techniques to remove
distortion:
• Use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures

• Other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped heating
technique
• Use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
• Restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
• Limit the temperature to 600-650°C (dull red heat) in steels to prevent
metallurgical damage
• In wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge, penetrate
evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even temperature
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Section 11
Weldability of Steels
1
1 Introduction
The term weldability simply means the ability to be welded and many types
of steel that are weldable have been developed for a wide range of
applications.
However, it is the ease or difficulty of making a weld with suitable properties

and free from defects which determines whether steels are considered as
having ‘good weldability’ or said to have ‘poor weldability’. A steel is usually
said to have poor weldability if it is necessary take special precautions to
avoid a particular type of imperfection. Another reason for poor weldability
may be the need to weld within a very narrow range of parameters to
achieve properties required for the joint.
2 Factors That Affect Weldability

A number of inter-related factors determine whether a steel is said to have
good or poor weldability. These are:
• Actual chemical composition

• Weld joint configuration
• Welding process to be used
• Properties required from the weldment
For steels with poor weldability it is particularly necessary to ensure that:
• Welding procedure specifications give welding conditions that do not

cause cracking but achieve the specified properties
• Welders work strictly in accordance with the specified welding conditions
• Welding inspectors regularly monitor welders to ensure they are working
strictly in accordance the WPSs
Having a good understanding of the characteristics, causes, and ways of

avoiding imperfections in steel weldments should enable welding inspectors
to focus attention on the most influential welding parameters when steels
with poor weldability are being used.
3 Hydrogen Cracking
During fabrication by welding, cracks can occur in some types of steel, due
to the presence of hydrogen. The technical name for this type of cracking is
hydrogen induced cold cracking (HICC) but it is often referred to by other
names that describe various characteristics of hydrogen cracks, namely:
• Cold cracking - cracks occur when the weld has cooled down
• HAZ cracking - cracks tend to occur mainly in the HAZ
• Delayed cracking - cracks may occur some time after welding has
finished (possibly up to ~48h)
• Underbead cracking - cracks occur in the HAZ beneath a weld bead
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Although most hydrogen cracks occur in the HAZ, there are circumstances
when they may form in weld metal.
Figure 1 shows typical locations of HAZ hydrogen cracks.
Figure 2 shows hydrogen crack in the HAZ of a fillet weld.
3.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to hydrogen cracking

Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of a steel occurs when 4 conditions exist at
the same time, namely:
Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited

Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
Temperature < 3000C
Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness
These 4 conditions (4 factors) are mutually interdependent so that the

influence of one condition (its’ active level) depends on how active the
others 3 factors are.
3.2 Cracking mechanism

Hydrogen (H) can enter the molten weld metal when hydrogen containing
molecules are broken down into H atoms in the welding arc.
Because H atoms are very small they can move about (diffuse) in solid steel
and while weld metal is hot they can diffuse to the weld surface and escape
into the atmosphere.
However, at lower temperatures H cannot diffuse as quickly and if the

weldment cools down quickly to ambient temperature H will become trapped
- usually the HAZ.
If the HAZ has a susceptible microstructure – indicated by being relatively

hard and brittle, there are also relatively high tensile stresses in the
weldment then H cracking can occur.
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The precise mechanism that causes cracks to form is complex but H is

believed to cause embrittlement of regions of the HAZ so that high-localised
stresses cause cracking rather than plastic straining.
3.3 Avoiding HAZ hydrogen cracking

Because the factors that cause cracking are interdependent, and each need
to be at an active level at the same time, cracking can be avoided by
ensuring that at least one of the 4 factors is not active during welding.
Methods that can be used to minimise the influence of each of the 4 factors
are considered in the following sub-sections.
Hydrogen
The principal source of hydrogen is moisture (H2O) and the principal source
of moisture is welding flux. Some fluxes contain cellulose and this can be a
very active source of hydrogen.
Welding processes that do not require flux can be regarded as low hydrogen
processes.
Other sources of hydrogen are moisture present in rust or scale, and oils
and greases (hydrocarbons).
Reducing the influence of hydrogen is possible by:
• Ensuring that fluxes (coated electrodes, flux-cored wires and SAW

fluxes) are low in H when welding commences
• Low H electrodes must be either baked & then stored in a hot holding
oven or supplied in vacuum-sealed packages;
• Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes should be kept in a heated silo before
issue to maintain their as-supplied, low moisture, condition
• Check the diffusible hydrogen content of the weld metal (sometimes it
is specified on the test certificate)
• Ensuring that a low H condition is maintained throughout welding by
not allowing fluxes to pick-up moisture from the atmosphere
• Low hydrogen electrodes must be issued in small quantities and the
exposure time limited; heated ‘quivers’ facilitate this control;
• Fux-cored wire spools that are not seamless should be covered or
returned to a suitable storage condition when not in use;
• Basic agglomerated SAW fluxes should be returned to the heated silo
when welding is not continuous
• Check the amount of moisture present in the shielding gas by checking
the dew point (must be bellow -60°C)
• Ensuring that the weld zone is dry and free from rust/scale and
oil/grease
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Tensile Stress
There are always tensile stresses acting on a weld because there are
always residual stresses from welding.
The magnitude of the tensile stresses is mainly dependent on the thickness

of the steel at the joint, heat input, joint type, and size and weight of the
components being welded.
Tensile stresses in highly restrained joints may be as high as the yield

strength of the steel and this is usually the case in large components with
thick joints and it is not a factor that can easily be controlled.
The only practical ways of reducing the influence of residual stresses may
be by:
• Avoiding stress concentrations due to poor fit-up

• Avoiding poor weld profile (sharp weld toes)
• Applying a stress-relief heat treatment after welding
• Increasing the travel speed as practicable in order to reduce the heat
input
• Keeping weld metal volume to an as low level as possible
These measures are particularly important when welding some low alloy
steels that have particularly sensitivity to hydrogen cracking.
Susceptible HAZ Microstructure

A susceptible HAZ microstructure is one that contains a relatively high
proportion of hard brittle phases of steel - particularly martensite.
The HAZ hardness is a good indicator of susceptibility and when it exceeds

a certain value a particular steel is considered to be susceptible. For C and
C-Mn steels this hardness value is ~ 350HV and susceptibility to H cracking
increases as hardness increases above this value.
The maximum hardness of an HAZ is influenced by:
• Chemical composition of the steel

• Cooling rate of the HAZ after each weld run is made.
For C and C-Mn steels a formula has been developed to assess how the
chemical composition will influence the tendency for significant HAZ
hardening - the carbon equivalent value (CEV) formula.
The CEV formula most widely used (and adopted by IIW) is:
CEViiw = % C + %Mn + %Cr + %Mo + %V + %Ni + %Cu

6 5 15
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The CEV of a steel is calculated by inserting the material test certificate

values shown for chemical composition into the formula. The higher the
CEV of a steel the greater its’ susceptibility to HAZ hardening and therefore
the greater the susceptibility to H cracking.
The element with most influence on HAZ hardness is carbon. The faster the
rate of HAZ cooling after each weld run, the greater the tendency for
hardening.
Cooling rate tends to increase as:
• Heat input decreases (lower energy input)

• Joint thickness increases (bigger heat sink)
Avoiding a susceptible HAZ microstructure (for C and C-Mn steels) requires:
• Procuring steel with a CEV that is at the low-end of the range for the steel
grade(limited scope of effectiveness)
• Using moderate welding heat input so that the weld does not cool quickly
(and give HAZ hardening)
• Applying pre-heat so that the HAZ cools more slowly (and does not show
significant HAZ hardening); in multi-run welds, maintain a specific
interpass temperature
For low alloy steels, with additions of elements such as Cr, Mo and V, the
CEV formula is not applicable and so must not be used to judge the
susceptibility to hardening. The HAZ of these steels will always tend to be
relatively hard regardless of heat input and pre-heat and so this is a ‘factor’
that cannot be effectively controlled to reduce the risk of H cracking. This is
the reason why some of the low alloy steels have greater tendency to show
hydrogen cracking than in weldable C and C-Mn steels, which enable HAZ
hardness to be controlled.
Weldment at low temperature

Weldment temperature has a major influence on susceptibility to cracking
mainly by influencing the rate at which H can move (diffuse) through the
weld and HAZ. While a weld is relatively warm (>~300°C) H will diffuse quite
rapidly and escape into the atmosphere rather than be trapped and cause
embrittlement.
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Reducing the influence of low weldment temperature (and the risk of

trapping H in the weldment) can be effected by:
• Applying a suitable pre-heat temperature (typically 50 to ~250°C)

• Preventing the weld from cooling down quickly after each pass by
maintaining the preheat and the specific interpass temperature during
welding
• Maintaining the pre-heat temperature (or raising it to ~250°C) when
welding has finished and holding the joint at this temperature for a
number of hours (minimum 2) to facilitate the escape of H (called post-
heat *)
*Post-heat must not be confused with PWHT at a temperature ≥~600°C
3.4 Hydrogen cracking in weld metal

Hydrogen cracks can form in steel weld metal under certain circumstances.
The mechanism of cracking, and identification of all the influencing factors,
is less clearly understood than for HAZ cracking but it can occur when
welding conditions cause H to become trapped in weld metal rather than in
HAZ. However it is recognised that welds in higher strength materials,
thicker sections and using large beads are the most common areas where
problems arise.
Hydrogen cracks in weld metal usually lie at 45° to the direction of principal
tensile stress in the weld metal and this is usually the longitudinal axis of the
weld (Figure 3). In some cases the cracks are of a V formation, hence an
alternative name chevron cracking.
There are not any well-defined rules for avoiding weld metal hydrogen
cracks apart from:
• Ensure a low hydrogen welding process is used
• Apply preheat and maintain a specific interpass temperature
BS EN 1011-2 entitled ‘Welding – Recommendations for welding of metallic

materials – Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels’ gives in Annex C practical
guidelines about how to avoid H cracking. Practical controls are based
principally on the application of pre-heat and control of potential H
associated with the welding process.
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4 Solidification Cracking
The technically correct name for cracks that form during weld metal
solidification is solidification cracks but other names are sometimes used
when referring to this type of cracking
• Hot cracking - they occur at high temperatures – while the weld is hot
• Centreline cracking - cracks may appear down the centreline of the weld
bead
• Crater cracking - small cracks in weld craters are solidification cracks
Because a weld metal may be particularly susceptible to solidification

cracking it may be said to show hot shortness because it is short of ductility
when hot and so tends to crack.
Figure 4 shows a transverse section of a weld with a typical centreline

solidification crack.
4.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to solidification cracking

Solidification cracking occurs when 3 conditions exist at the same time:
• Weld metal has a susceptible chemical composition

• Welding conditions used give an unfavourable bead shape
• High level of restraint or tensile stresses present in the weld area

All weld metals solidify over a temperature range and since solidification
starts at the fusion line towards the centreline of the weld pool, during the
last stages of weld bead solidification there may be enough liquid present to
form a weak zone in the centre of the bead. This liquid film is the result of
low melting point constituents being pushed ahead of the solidification front.
During solidification, tensile stresses start to build-up due to contraction of

the solid parts of the weld bead, and it is these stresses that can cause the
weld bead to rupture. These circumstances result in a weld bead showing a
centreline crack that is present as soon as the bead has been deposited.
Centreline solidification cracks tend to be surface breaking at some point in

their length and can be easily seen during visual inspection because they
tend to be relatively wide cracks.
4.3 Avoiding solidification cracking

Avoiding solidification cracking requires the influence of one of the factors
responsible, to be reduced to an inactive level.
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Weld metal composition

Most C and C-Mn steel weld metals made by modern steelmaking methods
do not have chemical compositions that are particularly sensitive to
solidification cracking.
However, these weld metals can become sensitive to this type of cracking if
they are contaminated with elements, or compounds, that produce relatively
low melting point films in weld metal.
Sulphur and copper are elements that can make steel weld metal sensitive
to solidification cracking if they are present in the weld at relatively high
levels. Sulphur contamination may lead to the formation of iron sulphides
that remain liquid when the bead has cooled down as low as ~980°C,
whereas bead solidification starts at above 1400°C.
The source of sulphur may be contamination by oil or grease or it could be

picked up from the less refined parent steel being welded by dilution into the
weld.
Copper contamination in weld metal can be similarly harmful because it has

low solubility in steel and can form films that are still molten at ~1100°C.
Avoiding solidification cracking (of an otherwise non-sensitive weld metal)

requires the avoidance of contamination with potentially harmful materials
by ensuring:
• Weld joints are thoroughly cleaned immediately before welding

• Any copper containing welding ‘accessories’ are suitable/in suitable
condition - such as backing-bars and contact tips used for GMAW, FCAW
and SAW
Unfavourable welding conditions

Unfavourable welding conditions are those that encourage weld beads to
solidify so that low melting point films become trapped at the centre of a
solidifying weld bead and become the weak zones for easy crack formation.
Figure 5 shows a schematic of a weld bead that has solidified using

unfavourable welding conditions associated with centreline solidification
cracking.
The weld bead has a cross-section that is quite deep and narrow – a width-
to-depth ratio <~2 and the solidifying dendrites have pushed the lower
melting point liquid to the centre of the bead where it has become trapped.
Since the surrounding material is shrinking as a result of cooling, this film
would be subjected to tensile stress, which leads to cracking.
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In contrast, Figure 6 shows a bead that has a width-to-depth ratio that is

>>2. This bead shape shows lower melting point liquid pushed ahead of the
solidifying dendrites but it does not become trapped at the bead centre.
Thus, even under tensile stresses resulting from cooling, this film is self-
healing and cracking is avoided
SAW and spray-transfer GMAW are more likely to give weld beads with an
unfavourable width-to-depth ratio than the other arc welding processes.
Also, electron beam and laser welding processes are extremely sensitive to
this kind of cracking as a result of the deep, narrow beads produced.
Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to centreline

solidification cracking (of weld metals with sensitive compositions) may
require significant changes to welding parameters, such as reducing the:
• Welding current (to give a shallower bead)

and
• Welding speed (to give a wider weld bead)
Avoiding unfavourable welding conditions that lead to crater cracking of a

sensitive weld metal requires changes to the technique used at the end of a
weld when the arc is extinguished, such as:
• For TIG welding, use a current slope-out device so that the current, and
weld pool depth gradually reduce before the arc is extinguished (gives
more favourable weld bead width-to-depth ratio). It is also a common
practice to backtrack the bead slightly before breaking the arc or lengthen
the arc gradually to avoid crater cracks.
• For TIG welding, modify weld pool solidification mode by feeding the filler
wire into the pool until solidification is almost complete and avoiding a
concave crater
• For MMA, modify the weld pool solidification mode by reversing the
direction of travel at the end of the weld run so that crater is filled
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5 Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing is a type of cracking that occurs only in steel plate or other
rolled products underneath a weld.
Characteristics of lamellar tearing are:
• Cracks only occur in the rolled products eg plate and sections.

• Most common in C-Mn steels
• Cracks usually form close to, but just outside, the HAZ
• Cracks tend to lie parallel to surface of the material (and the fusion
boundary of the weld), having a stepped aspect
The above characteristics can be seen in Figure 7a.
5.1 Factors influencing susceptibility to lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing occurs when 2 conditions exist at the same time:
• A susceptible rolled plate is used to make a weld joint

• High stresses act in the through-thickness direction of the susceptible
material (known as the short-transverse direction)
Susceptible rolled plate

A material that is susceptible to lamellar tearing has very low ductility in the
through-thickness direction (short-transverse direction) and is only able to
accommodate the residual stresses from welding by tearing rather than by
plastic straining.
Low through-thickness ductility in rolled products is caused by the presence

of numerous non-metallic inclusions in the form of elongated stringers. The
inclusions form in the ingot but are flattened and elongated during hot rolling
of the material.
Non-metallic inclusions associated with lamellar tearing are principally

manganese sulphides and manganese silicates.
High through-thickness stress

Weld joints that are T, K and Y configurations end up with a tensile residual
stress component in the through-thickness direction.
The magnitude of the through-thickness stress increases as the restraint

(rigidity) of the joint increases. Section thickness and size of weld are the
main influencing factors and it is in thick section, full penetration T, K and Y
joints that lamellar tearing is more likely to occur.
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11

High stresses in the through-thickness direction, that are present as welding
residual stresses, cause the inclusion stringers to open-up (de-cohese) and
the thin ligaments between individual de-cohesed inclusions then tear and
produce a stepped crack.
Figure 7b shows a typical step-like lamellar tear.
5.3 Avoiding lamellar tearing

Lamellar tearing can be avoided by reducing the influence of one, or both, of
the factors.
Susceptible rolled plate

EN 10164 (Steel products with improved deformation properties
perpendicular to the surface of the product – Technical delivery conditions)
gives guidance on the procurement of plate to resist lamellar tearing.
Resistance to lamellar tearing can be evaluated by means of tensile test

pieces taken with their axes perpendicular to the plate surface (the through-
thickness direction). Through-thickness ductility is measured as the %
reduction of area (%R of A) at the point of fracture of the tensile test piece
(Figure 8).
The greater the measured %R of A, the greater the resistance to lamellar

tearing. Values in excess of ~20% indicate good resistance even in very
highly constrained joints.
Reducing the susceptibility of rolled plate to lamellar tearing can be

achieved by ensuring that it has good through-thickness ductility by:
• Using clean steel that has low sulphur content (<~0.015%) and
consequently has relatively few inclusions
• Procuring steel plate that has been subjected to through-thickness tensile
testing to demonstrate good through-thickness ductility (as EN 10164)
Through-thickness stress
Through thickness stress in T, K and Y joints is principally the residual
stress from welding, although the additional service stress may have some
influence.
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12
Reducing the magnitude of through-thickness stresses for a particular weld

joint would require modification to the joint, in some way, and so may not
always be practical because of the need to satisfy design requirements.
However, methods that could be considered are:
• Reducing the size of the weld by:

• Using a partial penetration butt weld instead of full-penetration
• Using fillet welds instead of a full, or a partial pen. butt weld (Figure 9)
• By applying a buttering layer of weld metal to the surface of a susceptible
plate so that the highest through-thickness strain is located in the weld
metal and not the susceptible plate (Figure 10)
• Changing the joint design – such as using a forged or extruded
intermediate piece so that the susceptible plate does not experience
through-thickness stress (Figure 11)
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13
FIGURES:
Figure 1 Typical locations of hydrogen induced cold cracks
Figure 2 A hydrogen induced cold crack that initiated the HAZ at the toe
of a fillet weld
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14
tTransverse
a) cracks
Weld layers with

b) cracks lying at 45°
to X-Y axis
Figure 3 a) Plan view of a plate butt weld showing subsurface

transverse cracks
b) Longitudinal section X-Y of the above weld showing
how the transverse cracks actually lie at 45° to the
surface. They tend to remain within an individual
weld run and may be in weld several layers.
Their appearance in this orientation has given rise to
the name ‘chevron’ cracks (arrow shaped cracks)
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15
Figure 4 a) Solidification crack at the weld bean centre where columnar

dendrites have trapped some lower melting point liquid
b) The weld bead does not have an ideal shape but it has
solidified without the dendrites meeting ‘end-on’ and trapping
lower melting point liquid thereby resisting solidification
cracking.
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16
D W/D < 2
Direction of
travel
Figure 5 A weld bead with an unfavourable width-to-depth ratio. This is

responsible for liquid metal being pushed into the centre of the bead by
the advancing columnar dendrites and becoming the weak zone that is
ruptured
D W/D > ~2
Direction of
travel
Figure 6 A weld bead with a favourable width-to-depth ratio. The dendrites push
the lowest melting point metal towards the surface at the centre of the
bead centre and so it does not form a weak central zone Deleted:
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17
Fusion
boundary
HAZ
a)
Crack propagation by tearing

of ligaments between
De-cohesion ‘de-cohesed’ inclusion stringers
Through-thickness of inclusion
residual stresses i
from welding
Inclusion
stringer
b)
Figure 7 a) Typical lamellar tear located just outside the visible HAZ
b) The step-like crack that is characteristic of a lamellar tear
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18
Through-thickness
tensile test piece
Plate surface
Reduction of
diameter at
point of fracture
Plate surface
Figure 8 Round tensile test piece taken with its axis in the short-transverse
direction (through thickness of plate) to measure the % R. of A. and
assess the plate’s resistance to lamellar tearing
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19
Susceptible plate Susceptible plate
Figure 9 Reducing the effective size of a weld will reduce the through-thickness
stress on the susceptible plate and may be sufficient to reduce the risk
of lamellar tearing
Susceptible plate Extruded section
Figure 10 Lamellar tearing can be avoided by changing the joint design
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20
Weld metal ‘buttering’
Susceptible plate
Figure 11 Two layers of weld metal (usually by MMA) applied to

susceptible plate before the T-butt weld is made
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Section 12
Weld Fractures
1
Welds may suffer three different fracture mechanisms:
• Ductile
• Brittle
• Fatigue
Often a complete fracture of a weldment will be a combination of fracture

types eg initially fatigue followed by final ductile fracture.
1 Ductile Fractures
Occur in instances where the strength and the cross-sectional area of the
material are insufficient to carry the applied load.
Such fractures are commonly seen on material and welding procedure

tensile test specimens where failure is accompanied by yielding, stretching
and thinning as shown below.
The fracture edges are at 45 degrees to the applied load and are known as
shear lips.
Brittle fracture
Is a fast, unstable type of fracture which can lead to catastrophic failure.
The phenomenon was first identified during World War 2 when many Liberty
Ships broke in two for no apparent reason. Since that time many brittle
failures have occurred in bridges, boilers, pressure vessels etc sometimes
with loss of life and always with expensive damage.
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Weld Fractures
2
The risk of brittle fracture increases;
• As the temperature (ambient or operational) decreases

• With the type and increasing thickness of the material
• Where high levels of residual stresses are present
• In the presence of notches.
• Increased strain rate ie speed of loading
Courtesy of Douglas E. Williams, P.E., Welding Handbook, Vol.1,

Ninth Edition, reprinted by permission of the American Welding Society
Photograph showing effect of notch on a tensile specimen
Distinguishing features of a brittle fracture are:
• Surface is flat and at 90° to the applied load.

• Will show little or no plastic deformation
• The surface will be rough and may be crystalline in appearance.
• May show chevrons which will point back to the initiation source.
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Weld Fractures
3
Photograph showing a brittle fracture surface on a CTOD test piece
Fatigue fracture
Fatigue fractures occur in situations where loading is of a cyclic nature and
at stress levels well below the yield stress of the material.
Typically fatigue cracks will be found on bridges, cranes, aircraft and items
affected by out of balance or vibrating forces.
Initiation takes place from stress concentrations such as changes of section,

arc- strikes, toes of welds. Even the best designed and made welds have
some degree of stress concentration.
As fatigue cracks take time firstly to initiate then to grow, this slow
progression allows such cracks to be found by regular inspection schedules
on those items known to be fatigue sensitive.
The growth rate of fatigue cracks is dependant on the loading and the
number of cycles. It is not time dependant
Fatigue failures are not restricted to any one type of material or temperature
range. Stress-relief has little effect upon fatigue life.
Structures known to be at risk of fatigue failure are usually designed to

codes that acknowledge the risk and lays down the rules and calculations to
predict its design life.
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4
Typical fatigue fracture in a T joint
Identifying features of fatigue fracture are:
• Very smooth fracture surface, although may have steps due to multiple
initiation points.
• Bounded by curved crack front
• Bands may be visible indicating crack progression.
• Initiation point opposite curve crack front
• Surface at 90° to applied loading
Fatigue cracks sometimes stop of their own accord if the crack runs into an
area of low stress. On the other hand they may grow until the remaining
cross-section in insufficient to support the applied loads. At this point final
failure will take place by a secondary mechanism ie ductile or brittle.
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5
Assessment of fracture surfaces

The Senior Welding Inspector’s examination requires fracture surfaces to be
assessed. This should be done in the following manner:
• Make a sketch of the fracture specimen.

• Indicate on the sketch the salient features ie initiation point (Note: There
may be more than one ignition point), the first mode of failure and the
second mode of failure, if there is one.
• For each of these indicated features describe what it is and how you
recognised it.
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Weld Fractures
Section 13
Welding Symbols
1
A weld joint can be represented on an engineering drawing by means of a

detailed sketch showing every detail and dimension of the joint preparation
- as shown below.
8-12°
≈R6
1-3mm
1-4mm
Single U preparation
While this method of representation gives comprehensive information, it

can be time-consuming and can also overburden the drawing.
An alternative method is to use a symbolic representation to specify the

required information - as shown below for the same joint detail.
Symbolic representation has following advantages:

• Simple and quick to put on the drawing
• Does not over-burden the drawing
• No need for an additional view - all welding symbols can be put on the
main assembly drawing
Symbolic representation has following disadvantages:

• It can only be used for standard joints (eg BS EN ISO 9692)
• There is not a way of giving precise dimensions for joint details
• Some training is necessary in order to interpret the symbols correctly
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2
1 Standards for Symbolic Representation of Welded

Joints on Drawings
There are two principal standards that are used for welding symbols:
European Standard
EN22553 – Welded, brazed & soldered joints – Symbolic representation on
drawings
American Standard
AWS A2.4 – Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, & Non-destructive
Examination
These standards are very similar in many respects, but there are also
some major differences that need to be understood to avoid mis-
interpretation.
Details of the European Standard are given in the following sub-sections

with only brief information about how the American Standard differs from
the European Standard.
Elementary Welding Symbols

Various types of weld joint are represented by a symbol that is intended to
help interpretation by being similar to the shape of the weld to be made.
Examples of symbols used by EN 22553 are shown on following pages.
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3
2 Elementary Welding Symbols
Designation Illustration of joint preparation Symbol
Square butt weld
Single V butt weld
Single bevel butt weld
Single V butt weld with

broad root face
Single bevel butt weld

with broad root face
Single U butt weld
Single J butt weld
Fillet weld
Surfacing (cladding)
Backing run
(back or backing weld)
Backing bar
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4
3 Combination of Elementary Symbols

For symmetrical welds made from both sides, the applicable elementary
symbols are combined – as shown below.
Double V butt
weld (X weld)
Double bevel butt

weld (K weld)
Double U butt
weld
Double J butt
weld
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5
4 Supplementary Symbols
Weld symbols may be complemented by a symbol to indicate the required
shape of the weld.
Examples of supplementary symbols and how they are applied are given
below.
Flat (flush)
single V butt
weld
Convex double
V butt weld
Concave fillet
weld
Flat (flush)
single V butt
weld with flat
(flush) backing
run
Single V butt
weld with broad
root face and
backing run
Fillet weld with

both toes
blended
smoothly
Note: If the weld symbol does not have a supplementary symbol

then the shape of the weld surface does not need to be indicated precisely.
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Welding Symbols
6
5 Position of Symbols on Drawings

In order to be able to provide comprehensive details for weld joints, it is
necessary to distinguish the two sides of the weld joint.
The way this is done, according to EN 22553, is by means of:
• An arrow line
• A dual reference line consisting of a continuous line and a dashed line
Below illustrates the method of representation.

3
2a
1 = Arrow line
1 2a = Reference line (continuous
line)
2b = Identification line (dashed
line)
2b
3 = Welding symbol (single V
joint)
Joint line
6 Relationship between the Arrow Line and the Joint

Line
One end of the joint line is called the arrow side and the opposite end is
called other side.
The arrow side is always the end of the joint line that the arrow line points
to (and touches).
It can be at either end of the joint line and it is the draughtsman who
decides which end to make the arrow side.
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Welding Symbols
7
Below illustrates these principles.
arrow line
‘arrow side’
‘other side’
‘other side’
‘arrow side’ arrow line
‘other side’ ‘arrow side’

‘arrow side’ ‘other side’
arrow line arrow line
There are some conventions about the arrow line:
• It must touch one end of the joint line

• It joins one end of the continuous reference line.
• In case of a non-symmetrical joint, such as a single bevel joint, the
arrow line must point towards the joint member that will have the weld
preparation put on to it (as shown below)
An example of how a single-bevel butt joint should be represented is

shown below.
7 Position of the Reference Line and Position of the

Weld Symbol
The reference line should, wherever possible, be drawn parallel to the
bottom edge of the drawing (or perpendicular to it).
For a non-symmetrical weld it is essential that the arrow side and other
side of the weld be distinguished. The convention for doing this is:
• Symbols for the weld details required on the arrow side must be placed
on the continuous line
• Symbols for the weld details on other side must be placed on the
dashed line
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8
8 Positions of the Continuous Line and the Dashed

Line
EN 22553 allows the dashed line to be either above or below the
continuous line – as shown below.
or
If the weld is a symmetrical weld then it is not necessary to distinguish

between the two sides and EN 22553 states that the dashed line should be
omitted. Thus, a single V butt weld with a backing run can be shown by
either of the four symbolic representations shown below.
Single V weld with a backing run
Arrow side Other side
Other side Arrow side
Arrow side Other side
Other side Arrow side
Note: This flexibility with the position of the continuous and dashed lines is an
interim measure that EN 22553 allows so that old drawings (to the obsolete
BS499 Part 2, for example) can be conveniently converted to show the EN
method of representation.
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9
9 Dimensioning of Welds
General rules
Dimensions may need to be specified for some types of weld and EN
22553 specifies a convention for this.
• Dimensions for the cross-section of the weld are written on the left-hand
side of the symbol
• Length dimensions for the weld are written on the right-hand side of the
symbol
• In the absence of any indication to the contrary, all butt welds are full
penetration welds
9.1 Symbols for cross-section dimensions

The following letters are used to indicate dimensions:
a Fillet weld throat thickness

Z Fillet weld leg length
s Penetration depth
(applicable to partial penetration butt welds and deep penetration
fillets)
Some examples of how these symbols are used are shown below.
Partial penetration s10

single V butt weld
Z8
Fillet weld with 8mm leg
8mm
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Welding Symbols
10
a6
Fillet weld with 6mm throat
6mm
9.2 Symbols for length dimensions

To specify weld length dimensions and, for intermittent welds the number
of individual weld lengths (weld elements), the following letters are used: -
l Length of weld
(e) Distance between adjacent weld elements
n Number of weld elements
The use of these letters is illustrated for the intermittent double-sided fillet
weld shown below.
100mm
Plan view End view

150mm
Z8 3 × 150 (100)
z n × l (e)
Z8 3 × 150 (100)
z n × l (e)
z n × l (e)
z n × l (e)
z n × l (e)
z n × l (e)
Note: dashed line not required because it is a symmetrical weld
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Welding Symbols
11
If an intermittent double-sided fillet weld is to be staggered, the convention

for indicating this is shown below.
l (e)
Plan view End view
z n× l (e)
×
z n l (e)
9.3 Complementary indications

Complementary indications may be needed to specify some other
characteristics of welds. Examples are:
• Field or site welds is indicated by a flag
• A peripheral weld, to be made all around a part, is indicated by a circle
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12
10 Indication of the Welding Process

If required, the welding process is to be symbolised by a number written
between the two branches of a fork at the end of the reference line – as
shown below.
Some welding process
designations
111 111 = MMA

121 = SAW
131 = MIG
135 = MAG
11 Other Information in the Tail of the Reference Line

In addition to specifying the welding process, other information can be
added to an open tail (shown above) such as the NDT acceptance level
the working position and the filler metal type and EN 22553 defines the
sequence that must be used for this information.
A closed tail can also be used into which reference to a specific instruction
can be added – as shown below.
WPS 014
12 Weld Symbols in Accordance with AWS 2.4

Many of the symbols and conventions that are specified by EN 22553 are
the same as those used by AWS.
The major differences are:
• Only one reference line is used (a continuous line)

• Symbols for weld details on the arrow side go underneath the
reference line
• Symbols for weld details on the other side go on top of the reference
line
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Welding Symbols
13
These differences are illustrated by the following example.
Arrow
Other side
13 Drawing Review
Drawings are often made by personnel who are not familiar with the
relevant symbol rules which results in drawings that are difficult to interpret
or ambiguous in their intent.
As part of the CSWIP 3.2 examination candidates will need to demonstrate

their competence at interpreting such an engineering drawing in respect of
its welding symbols. To do this:
• The candidate first needs to establish the symbol system being used.
• Next study the views and part sections of the object so that it can be
visualised in its manufactured form.
• For each of the designated symbols, draw a sketch of what the joint will
look like according to the symbol.
• Next describe the joint in words, together with any supplementary
information, eg field weld, ground flush, welding process, other places,
etc. which has been given.
• If any thing is wrong with the symbol such as the dashed line is
missing, the symbol is the wrong way around, the described joint
cannot be put on the material in the manner shown, write down the
problem but do not suggest how it should be made.
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Welding Symbols
Section 14
NDT
1
Introduction
Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye-penetrant and magnetic particle methods are
briefly described below. The relative advantages and limitations of the
methods are discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of
welds.
1 Radiographic Methods
In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a
beam of penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted
radiation is collected by some form of sensor, which is capable of measuring
the relative intensities of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most
cases this sensor will be a radiographic film; however the use of various
electronic devices is on the increase. These devices facilitate so-called real
time radiography and examples may be seen in the security check area at
most airports. Digital technology has enabled the storing of radiographs
using computers. The present discussion is confined to film radiography
since this is still by far the most common method applied to welds.
1.1 Sources of penetrating radiation

Penetrating radiations may be generated from high-energy electron beams,
in which case they are termed X rays, or from nuclear disintegrations
(atomic fission), in which case they are termed γ-rays. Other forms of
penetrating radiation exist but they are of limited interest in weld
radiography.
1.2 X rays
X rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon
energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated
by conventional X ray tubes which dependant upon output may be suitable
for portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing
kilovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X rays are produced using
devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators. These devices are not
generally suitable for use outside of fixed installations. All sources of X rays
produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the spread of kinetic
energies of electrons within the electron beam. Low energy radiations are
more easily absorbed and the presence of low energy radiations, within the
X ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore better
radiographic sensitivity than is the case with γ-rays which are discussed
below. Conventional X ray units are capable of performing high quality
radiography on steel of up to 60mm thickness, betatrons and linear
accelerators are capable of penetrating in excess of 300mm of steel.
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1.3 γ-rays
The early sources of γ-rays used in industrial radiography were in general
composed of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these sources was
not very high, therefore they were physically rather large by modern
standards even for quite modest outputs of radiation and the radiographs
produced by them were not of a particularly high standard. Radium sources
were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the production of
radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. Since the advent
of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificially produce isotopes of
much higher specific activity than those occurring naturally and which do not
produce hazardous fission products. Unlike the X-ray sources γ-sources do
not produce a continuous distribution of quantum energies. γ-sources
produce a number of specific quantum energies which are unique for any
particular isotope. Four isotopes are in common use for the radiography of
welds; they are in ascending order of radiation energy: thulium 90, ytterbium
169, iridium 192 and cobalt 60. In terms of steel thulium 90 is useful up to a
thickness of 7mm or so, it’s energy is similar to that of 90keV X rays and
due to it’s high specific activity useful sources can be produced with physical
dimensions of less than 0.5mm. Ytterbium 169 has only fairly recently
become available as an isotope for industrial use, it’s energy is similar to
that of 120keV X rays and it is useful for the radiography of steel up to
approximately 12mm thickness. Iridium 192 is probably the most commonly
encountered isotopic source of radiation used in the radiographic
examination of welds, it has a relatively high specific activity and high output
sources with physical dimensions of 2-3mm are in common usage, it’s
energy is approximately equivalent to that of 500 keV X rays and it is useful
for the radiography of steel in the thickness range 10-75mm. Cobalt 60 has
an energy approximating to that of 1.2MeV X rays, due this relatively high
energy suitable source containers are large and rather heavy. Cobalt 60
sources are for this reason not fully portable. They are useful for the
radiography of steel in the thickness range 40-150mm.
The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X rays are: a) The
increased portability; b) The lack of the need for a power source; c) Lower
initial equipment costs. Against this the quality of radiographs produced by
γ-ray techniques is inferior to that produced by X ray techniques, the
hazards to personnel may be increased (if the equipment is not properly
maintained, or if the operating personnel have insufficient training), and due
to their limited useful lifespan new isotopes have to be purchased on a
regular basis (so that the operating costs of a γ-ray source may exceed
those of an X ray source).
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3
1.4 Radiography of welds

Radiographic techniques depend upon detecting differences in absorption of
the beam ie: changes in the effective thickness of the test object, in order to
reveal defective areas. Volumetric weld defects such as slag inclusions
(except in some special cases where the slag absorbs radiation to a greater
extent than does the weld metal) and various forms of gas porosity are
easily detected by radiographic techniques due to the large negative
absorption difference between the parent metal and the slag or gas. Planar
defects such as cracks or lack of side wall or interun fusion are much less
likely to be detected by radiography since such defects may cause little or
no change in the penetrated thickness. Where defects of this type are likely
to occur other NDE techniques such as ultrasonic testing are preferable to
radiography. This lack of sensitivity to planar defects makes radiography an
unsuitable technique where a fitness-for-purpose approach is taken when
assessing the acceptability of a weld. However, film radiography produces a
permanent record of the weld condition, which can be archived for future
reference; it also provides an excellent means of assessing the welder’s
performance and for these reasons it is often still the preferred method for
new construction.
Figure 1: X ray equipment Figure 2 Gamma-ray equipment
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4
Figure 3: X ray of a welded seam showing porosity
1.5 Radiographic testing
Advantages Limitations
• Permanent record • Health hazard. Safety (important)
• Good for sizing non planar • Classified workers, medicals required
defects/flaws • Sensitive to defect orientation
• Can be used on all materials • Not good for planar defect detection
• Direct image of defects/flaws • Limited ability to detect fine cracks
• Real-time imaging • Access to both sides required
• Can be position inside pipe • Skilled interpretation required
(productivity) • Relatively slow
• Very good thickness • High capital outlay and running costs
penetration available • Isotopes have a half life (cost)
• No power required with
gamma
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5
2 Ultrasonic Methods
The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that
material and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous
materials. When ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given
sound velocity to a second material with different velocity refraction and
reflection of the sound beam will occur at the boundary between the two
materials. The same laws of physics apply equally to ultrasonic waves as
they do to light waves. Because ultrasonic waves are refracted at a
boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties, probes
may be constructed which can beam sound into a material at (within certain
limits) any given angle. Because sound is reflected at a boundary between
two materials having different acoustic properties ultrasound is a useful tool
for the detection of weld defects. Because the velocity is a constant for any
given material and because sound travels in a straight line (with the right
equipment) ultrasound can also be utilised to give accurate positional
information about a given reflector. Careful observation of the echo pattern
of a given reflector and its behaviour as the ultrasonic probe is moved
together with the positional information obtained above and knowledge of
the component history enables the experienced ultrasonic operator to
classify the reflector as say slag lack of fusion or a crack.
2.1 Equipment for ultrasonic testing

Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of:
A) A flaw detector comprising:

• Pulse generator,
• Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control,
• Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
• Calibrated amplifier with a graduated gain control or attenuator)
B) An ultrasonic probe comprising:

• Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations
to mechanical vibrations and vice-versa
• Probe shoe, normally a perspex block to which the crystal is firmly
attached using a suitable adhesive
• Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent
excessive ringing
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6
Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or semi-

automated systems for ultrasonic testing utilise the same basic equipment
although since in general this will be multi-channel equipment it is bulkier
and less portable. Probes for automated systems are set in arrays and
some form of manipulator is necessary in order to feed positional
information about the probes to the computer. Automated systems generate
very large amounts of data and make large demands upon the RAM of the
computer. Recent advances in automated UT have led to a reduced amount
of data being recorded for a given length of weld. Simplified probe arrays
have greatly reduced the complexity of setting up the automated system to
carry out a particular task. Automated UT systems now provide a serious
alternative to radiography on such constructions as pipelines where a large
number of similar inspections allow the unit cost of system development to
be reduced to a competitive level.
Figure 4: Ultrasonic equipment
Figure 5 Compression and shear wave probes
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7
Figure 6 Scanning technique with a shear wave probe
Figure 7 Typical screen display when using a shear wave probe
2.2 Ultrasonic testing

Portable (no mains power) battery No permanent record
Direct location of defect (3 dimensional) Only ferritic materials (mainly)
Good for complex geometry High level of operator skill required
Safe operation (can be carried out next Calibration of equipment required
to someone)
Special calibration blocks required
Instant results
No good for pin pointing porosity
High penetrating capability Critical of surface conditions (clean
Can be done from one side only smooth)
Good for finding planar defects Will not detect surface defects
Material thickness >8mm due to dead
zone
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8
3 Magnetic Particle Testing

Surface breaking or very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic flux are
applied. These leakage fields will attract magnetic particles (finely divided
magnetite) to themselves and this process leads to the formation of an
indication. The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented
in order to provide contrast with the substrate or conversely the substrate
may be lightly coated with a white background lacquer in order to contrast
with the particles. Fluorescent magnetic particles provide the greatest
sensitivity. The particles will normally be in a liquid suspension and this will
normally be applied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles may be
applied by a gentle jet of air. The technique is applicable only to
ferromagnetic materials, which are at a temperature below the curie point
(about 650°C). The leakage field will be greatest for linear discontinuities
lying at right angles to the magnetic field. This means that for a
comprehensive test the magnetic field must normally be applied in two
directions, which are mutually perpendicular. The test is economical to carry
out both in terms of equipment costs and rapidity of inspection. The level of
operator training required is relatively low.
Figure 8 Magnetic particle inspection using a yoke
Figure 9 Crack found using magnetic particle inspection
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3.1 Magnetic particle testing
Inexpensive equipment Only magnetic materials
Direct location of defect May need to demagnetise components
Not critical of surface Access may be a problem for the yoke
conditions Need power if using a yoke
Could be applied without No permanent record
power
Calibration of equipment
Low skill level
Testing in two directions required
Sub defects surface 1-2mm
Need good lighting 500 Lux minimum
Quick instant results
Hot testing (using dry powder)
Can be used in the dark (UV
light
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10
4 Dye Penetrant Testing

Any liquid that has good wetting properties will act as a penetrant.
Penetrants are attracted into surface breaking discontinuities by capillary
forces. Penetrant, which has entered a tight discontinuity, will remain even
when the excess penetrant is removed. Application of a suitable developer
will encourage the penetrant within such discontinuities to bleed out. If there
is a suitable contrast between the penetrant and the developer an indication
visible to the eye will be formed. This contrast may be provided by either
visible or fluorescent dyes. Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases
the sensitivity of the technique. The technique is not applicable at extremes
of temperature. At low temperatures (below 5°C) the penetrant vehicle,
normally oil will become excessively viscous and this will cause an increase
in the penetration time with a consequent decrease in sensitivity. At high
temperatures (above 60°C) the penetrant will dry out and the technique will
not work.
Figure 10 Methods of applying the red dye during dye-penetrant inspection
Figure 11 Crack found using dye-penetrant inspection
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4.1 Dye penetrant

All materials (non-porous) Will only detect defects open to the
surface
Portable
Requires careful surface preparation
Applicable to small parts with
complex geometry Not applicable to porous surfaces
Simple Temperature dependant
Inexpensive Cannot retest indefinitely
Sensitivity Potentially hazardous chemicals
Relatively low skill level (easy No permanent record
to interpret) Time lapse between application and
results
Messy
5 Surface Crack Detection (Magnetic Particle/Dye

Penetrant): General
When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be
forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surface of a
component, therefore the value of the magnetic particle and dye Penetrant
techniques should not be underestimated. Ultrasonic inspection may not
detect near surface defects easily since the indications may be masked by
echoes arising from the component geometry and should therefore be
supplemented by an appropriate surface crack detection technique for
maximum test confidence.
.
Review of NDT documentation
In reviewing or carrying out an audit of NDT reports certain aspects apply to
all reports whilst others are specific to a particular technique.
General requirements:
• Date/ time/stage of inspection
• Place of inspection
• Procedure or Standard to which the test was performed
• Standard used for acceptance criteria
• Material type and thickness
• Joint configuration
• All defects identified, located and sized
• NDT technicians name and qualification
• Stamped signed and dated
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Ultrasonic specific – note not suitable for all weld metal types
• Surface finish ie as-welded or ground

• Type of equipment
• Probe types – compression and shear wave
• Probe sizes – usually 10mm
• Probe frequency – typically 2.5–5MHz
• Probe angles – typically 45, 60 , 70, 90
• Type of couplant
• Calibration block type and hole size
• Calibration range setting
• Scanning pattern
• Sensitivity setting
• Recording level
Radiographic specific
• Type of radiation – X or gamma
• Source type, size and strength (curies)
• Tube focal spot size and power (Kva)
• Technique eg single wall single image
• Source/focal spot to film distance
• Type and range of IQI
• Type and size of film
• Type and placement of intensifying screens
• Exposure time
• Development temps and times
• Recorded sensitivity – better than 2%
• Recorded density range – 2-3.5
Magnetic particle specific – note method suitable for ferritic steels only
• Method – wet/dry, fluorescent, contrast etc
• Method of magnetisation- DC or AC
• Equipment type – prod, yoke, perm. magnet, bench, coils
• Prod spacing (7.5A/mm)
• Lift test for magnets – 4.5kg for AC yoke, 18kg for perm. magnet
• Contrast paint
• Ink type
• Prod/yoke test scan sequence – 2 x at 450 to weld c/l.
• Lighting conditions – 500 Lux min for daylight, 20 Lux for UV
• UV light -1mW/cm2
• Flux measurement strips – Burmah-Castrol etc
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Penetrant specific
• Method – colour contrast or fluorescent
• Surface preparation
• Penetrant type
• Application method and time (5-60min)
• Method of removal
• Type and application of developer
• Contrast light – 500 Lux min
• Black light – 20 Lux
• Operating temperature - 5–500C
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Section 15
Welding Consumables
1
1 Introduction
Welding consumables are defined as all those things that are used up in the
production of a weld.
This list could include many things including electrical energy; however we
normally refer to welding consumables as those things used up by a
particular welding process.
1.1 MMA electrodes

MMA electrodes can be categorised according to the type of covering they
have and consequently the characteristics that it confers.
For C-Mn and low alloy steels there are 3 generic types of electrodes:
• Cellulosic
• Rutile
• Basic
These generic names indicate the type of mineral/compound that is
dominant in the covering.
1.2 Covered electrode manufacture

Electrode manufacturers produce electrodes by:
• Straightening and cutting core wire to standard lengths (typically 300,
350, and 450mm depending on electrode classification and diameter)
• Making a dry mix of powdered compounds/minerals (precise levels of
additions depend on individual manufacturers formulations)
• Making a wet mix by adding the dry powders to a liquid binder
• Extruding the covering (concentrically) on to the core wire
• Hardening the covering by drying the electrodes1
• Carrying out batch tests - as required for electrode certification
• Packing the electrodes into suitable containers
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For low hydrogen electrodes this is a high temperature bake - ≥~450ºC

• Vacuum packed electrodes are packed in small quantities into
packaging that is immediately vacuum sealed – to ensure no moisture
pick-up
• Electrodes that need to be re-baked are packed into standard packets
and as this may be some time after baking, and the packaging may not
be sealed, they do not reach the end-user in a guaranteed low hydrogen
condition, they therefore require re-baking at a typical temperature of
350ºC for approximately 2 hours, Note! You should always follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
For individual batch certification this will require the manufacture of a test
pad for chemical analysis and may require manufacture of a test weld from
which a tensile test and Charpy V notch test pieces are tested
1.3 Electrode coverings

Core wires used for most C-Mn electrodes, and some low alloy steel
electrodes, are a very low C steel* and it is the formulation of the covering
that determines the composition of the deposited weld metal and the
operating characteristics of the electrode.
(* typically ~ 0.06%C, ~0.5%Mn)
The flux covering on an electrode is formulated to aid the manufacturing

process and to provide a number of functions during welding.
The major welding functions are:

• Facilitate arc ignition/re-ignition and give arc stabilisation
• Generate gas for shielding the arc and molten metal from contamination
by air
• Interact with the molten weld metal to give de-oxidation and flux
impurities into the slag to cleanse/refine the molten weld metal
• Form a slag for protection of the hot weld metal from air contamination
• Provide elements to give the weld metal the required mechanical
properties
• Enable positional welding by means of slag formers that freeze at
temperatures above the solidification temperature range of the weld metal
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1.4 Inspection points for MMA consumables
1. Size: Wire diameter and length.
2. Condition: Cracks, chips and concentricity.
3. Type (specification): Correct specification/code.
E 46 3 B
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been
through the correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct
temperature (typically 300-350°C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding
oven at 150°C before being issued to the welders in heated quivers. Most
electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly when damp and care should
be taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure that they are adequately dry,
and that all electrodes are stored in conditions of controlled temperature and
humidity.
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2 Cellulosic Electrodes
Cellulose is the principal substance in this type of electrode and comprising
typically ~ 40% of the flux constituents.
Cellulose is an organic material (naturally occurring) such as cotton and

wood, but it is wood pulp that is the principal source of cellulose used in the
manufacture of electrode coverings.
The main characteristics of cellulosic electrodes are:

• Cellulose breaks down during welding and produces carbon monoxide
and dioxide and hydrogen
• Hydrogen provides part of the gas shielding function and gives a
relatively high arc voltage
• The high arc voltage gives the electrode a hard and forceful arc with good
penetration/fusion ability
• The volume of slag formed is relatively small
• Cellulosic electrodes cannot be baked during manufacture or before
welding because this would destroy the cellulose; the manufacturing
procedure is to harden the coating by drying (typically at 70-100ºC)
• Because of the high hydrogen levels there is always some risk of H
cracking which requires control measures such as hot-pass welding to
facilitate the rapid escape of hydrogen
• Because of the risk of H cracking there are limits on the strength/
composition and thickness of steels on which they can be used (electrode
are manufactured in classes E60xx, E70xx, E80xx and E90xx but both
lower strength grades tend to be the most commonly used)
• High toughness at low temperatures cannot be consistently achieved
from this type of electrode (typically only down to about -20ºC)
2.1 Applications of cellulosic electrodes

Cellulosic electrodes have characteristics that enable them to be used for
vertical-down welding at fast travel speed but with low risk of lack-of-fusion
because of their forceful arc.
The niche application for this type of electrode is girth seam welding of large
diameter steel pipes for overland pipelines (Transco (BGAS) P2, BS 4515
and API 1104 applications). No other type of electrode has the ability to
allow root pass welding at high speed and still give good root penetration
when the root gap is less than ideal.
Because of their penetration ability these electrodes have also found

application on oil storage tanks – for vertical and circumferential seam
welding of the upper/thinner courses for which preparations with large root
faces or square edge preparations are used.
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3 Rutile Electrodes
Rutile is a mineral that consists of about 90% titanium dioxide (TiO2) and is
present in C and C-Mn steel rutile electrodes at typically ~50%.
Characteristics of rutile electrodes are:
• They have a very smooth and stable arc and produce a relatively thin
slag covering that is easy to remove
• They give a smooth weld profile
• They are regarded as the most user-friendly of the various electrode
types
• They have relatively high combined moisture content and because they
contain typically up to ~10% cellulose they cannot be baked and
consequently they do not give a low H weld deposit
• Because of the risk of cracking they are not designed for welding of high
strength or thick section steel
(although electrodes are manufactured in classes E60xx, E70xx, E80xx
the E60xx grade is by far the most commonly used)
• They do not give high toughness at low temperatures (typically only down
to about -20ºC)
The above listed characteristics mean that this type of electrode is used for
general-purpose fabrication of unalloyed, low strength steels in relatively
thin sections (typically ≤ ~13mm).
3.1 Rutile electrode variants

By adding iron powder to the covering a range of thick-coated electrodes
have been produced in order to enhance productivity.
Such electrodes give weld deposits that weigh between ~135 and 190% of
their core wire weight and so referred to as high recovery electrodes, or
more specifically for example a 170% recovery electrode.
The weld deposit from such electrodes can be relatively large and fluid and
this restricts welding to the flat position and for standing fillets for electrodes
with the highest recovery rates.
In all other respects these electrodes have the characteristics listed for
standard rutile electrodes.
4 Basic Electrodes
Basic electrodes are so named because the covering is made with a high
proportion of basic minerals/compounds (alkaline compounds), such as
calcium carbonate (CaCO3), magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) and calcium
fluoride (CaF2).
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Welding Consumables
6
A fully basic electrode covering will be made up with about 60% of these
basic minerals/compounds.
Characteristics of basic electrodes are:
• The basic slag that forms when the covering melts reacts with impurities,
such as sulphur and phosphorus, and also reduces the oxygen content of
the weld metal by de-oxidation
• The relatively clean weld metal that is deposited gives a very significant
improvement in weld metal toughness (C-Mn electrodes with Ni additions
can give good toughness down to -90°C)
• They can be baked at relatively high temperatures without any of the
compounds present in the covering being destroyed, thereby giving low
moisture content in the covering and low hydrogen levels in weld metal
• In order to maintain the electrodes in a low hydrogen condition they need
to be protected from moisture pick-up
¾ By means of baking before use (typically at ~350°C), transferring to

a holding oven (typically at ~120°C) and issued in small quantities
and/or using heated quivers (‘portable ovens’) at the work station
(typically ~70°
¾ By use of vacuum packed electrodes that do not need to be re-
baked before use
• Basic slag is relatively viscous and thick which means that electrode
manipulation requires more skill and should be used with a short arc to
minimise the risk of porosity
• The surface profile of weld deposits from basic electrodes tends to be
convex and slag removal requires more effort
Metal powder electrodes contain an addition of metal powder to the flux

coating to increase the maximum permissible welding current level. Thus,
for a given electrode size, the metal deposition rate and efficiency
(percentage of the metal deposited) are increased compared with an
electrode containing no iron powder in the coating. The slag is normally
easily removed. Iron powder electrodes are mainly used in the flat and H/V
positions to take advantage of the higher deposition rates. Efficiencies as
high as 130 to 140% can be achieved for rutile and basic electrodes without
marked deterioration of the arcing characteristics but the arc tends to be
less forceful which reduces bead penetration.
4.1 Applications of basic electrodes

Basic electrodes have to be used for all applications that require good
fracture toughness at temperatures below ~ -20°C.
To avoid the risk of hydrogen cracking basic electrodes have to be used for
welding hardenable steels (most C-Mn and all low alloy steels) and for most
steels when the joint thickness is greater than about 15mm.
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5 Classification of Electrodes
National standards for electrodes that are used for welding are:
• EN 499 - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy

and fine grain steels
• AWS A5.1 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for shielded metal
arc welding
• AWS A5.5 - Specification for low-alloy steel electrodes for shielded metal
arc welding
Electrode classification is based on tests specified by the standard on weld

deposits made with each type of covered electrode. The standards require
chemical analysis and mechanical tests and electrode manufacturers tend
to dual certify electrodes, wherever possible, to both the European and
American standards
5.1 EN 499
EN 499 - Covered electrodes for manual metal arc welding of non-alloy
and fine grain steels (see Figure 1)
This is the designation that manufacturers print on to each electrode so that

it can be easily identified. The classification is split into two sections:
Compulsory section - this includes the symbols for:
• Type of product
• Strength
• Impact properties
• Chemical composition
• Type of electrode covering
Optional section - this includes the symbols for:
• Weld metal recovery

• The type of current
• The welding positions
• The hydrogen content
The designation, compulsory (strength, toughness and coating including

any light alloying elements) must be identified on the electrode, however
the optional (position, hydrogen levels etc are not mandatory and may not
be shown on all electrodes.
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8
Figure 1 The electrode classification system of EN 499
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9
5.2 AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003

AWS A5.1/5.1M: 2003 - Specification for carbon steel electrodes for
shielded metal arc welding (see Figure 3)
This specification establishes the requirements for classification of covered

electrodes with carbon steel cores for MMA welding. Requirements include
mechanical properties of weld metal; weld metal soundness; and usability of
electrodes. Requirements for chemical composition of the weld metal,
moisture content of low hydrogen electrodes, standard sizes and lengths,
marking, manufacturing and packaging are also included. A guide to the
use of the standard is given in an appendix. Optional supplementary
requirements include improved toughness and ductility, lower moisture
contents and diffusible hydrogen limits.
The AWS classification system has mandatory and optional designators and
requires that both the mandatory classification designators and any optional
designators be printed on each electrode. The last two digits of the
mandatory part of the classification are used to designate the type of
electrode coating/covering and examples of some of the more widely used
electrodes are shown below.
AWS A5.1 Tensile strength, N/mm2 Type of coating

classification
E6010 Cellulosic
E6011 414 Cellulosic
E6012 Rutile
E6013 Rutile
E7014 Rutile, iron powder
E7015 482 Basic
E7016 Basic
E7018 Basic, iron powder
E7024 Rutile high recovery
Figure 2 Examples of some of the commonly used AWS A5.1 electrodes.
Typical electrode to AWS A5.1
Designates: an electrode Designates: the tensile strength Designates: The welding position the
(min.) in PSI of the weld metal type of covering
the kind of current
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Figure 3 Mandatory classification designators

General description EN 499 AWS A5.1 / 5.5
Cellulosic electrodes E 38 3 C 21 E6010
(For vertical-down welding E 42 3 Z C 21 E7010-G

‘Stovepipe welding’
of pipeline girth welds) E 46 3 Z C 21 E8010-G
E 42 3 C 25 E7010-P 1 *
E 46 4 1Ni C 25 E8010-P 1 *
* P = specially designated piping electrodes

Rutile electrodes E 38 2 R 12 E6013
(For general purpose fabrication of E 42 0 R 12 E6013

low strength steels – can be used for
all positions except vertical-down)
Heavy coated rutile electrodes E 42 0 RR 13 E6013
(Iron-powder electrodes) E 42 0 RR 74 E7024
(For higher productivity welding for

general fabrication of low strength
steels – can generally only be used
for downhand or standing fillet
welding)
Basic electrodes E 42 2 B 12 H10 E7016
(For higher strength steels, thicker E 42 4 B 32 H5 E7018

section steels where there is risk of H
cracking; for all applications requiring E 46 6 Mn1Ni B 12 H5 E 7016-G
good fracture toughness)
E 55 6 Mn1Ni B 32 H5 E8018-C1
E 46 5 1Ni B 45 H5* E8018-G
E9018-G
E10018-G
* Vertical-down low H electrodes
Table 1 Common electrodes that are classified to BS EN 499 & AWS A5.1 / 5.5
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6 TIG Filler Wires

Filler wires manufactured for TIG welding have compositions very similar to
those of base materials. However, they may contain very small additions of
elements that will combine with oxygen and nitrogen as a means of
scavenging any contaminants from the surface of the base material or from
the atmosphere.
For manual TIG, the wires are manufactured to the BS EN 440 and are
provided in 1m lengths (typically 1.2, 1.6, and 2.4mm diameter) and for
identification have flattened ends on which is stamped the wire designation
(in accordance with a particular standard) and, for some grades, a batch
number.
TIG consumable identification is stamped at the end of the wire
For making precision root runs for pipe butt welds (particularly for automated
TIG welding) consumable inserts can be used that are made from material
the same as the base material, or are compatible with it.
For small diameter pipe, the insert may be a ring but for larger diameter pipe
an insert of the appropriate diameter is made from shaped strip/wire,
examples of which are shown below.
6.1 TIG shielding gases

Pure argon is the shielding gas that is used for most applications and is the
preferred gas for TIG welding of steel and gas flow rates are typically ~8 to
12 litres/min for shielding.
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12
The shielding gas not only protects the arc and weld pool but also is the
medium required to establish a stable arc by being easy to ionise. A stable
arc cannot be established in air and hence the welder would not be able to
weld if the shielding gas were not switched on.
Argon with a helium addition – typically ~30% may be used when a hotter
arc is needed such as when welding metals with high thermal conductivity,
such as copper/copper alloys or thicker section aluminium/aluminium alloys.
There are some circumstances when special shielding gases are beneficial,
for example:
Ar + 3 to 5%H for austenitic stainless steels and Cu-Ni alloys

Ar + ~3%N for duplex stainless steels
6.2 TIG back-purging

For most materials, the underside of a weld root bead needs to be protected
by an inert gas (a back-purge) – typically ~6-8 litres/min during welding.
For C steels and low alloy steels with total alloying additions ≤2.5% it may
not always be necessary to use a back-purge but for higher alloyed steels
and most other materials there may be excessive oxidation – and risk of
lack of fusion if it is not used.
7 MIG/MAG Filler Wires

Solid filler wires manufactured for MIG/MAG generally have chemical
compositions that have been formulated for particular base materials and
the wires have compositions similar to these base materials. Solid wires for
welding steels with active shielding gases are deoxidised with manganese
and silicon to avoid porosity. There may also be titanium and aluminium
additions. Mild steel filler wires are available with different levels of
deoxidants, known as double or triple de-oxidised wires. More highly
deoxidised wires are more expensive but are more tolerant of the plate
surface condition, eg mill scale, surface rust, oil, paint and dust. There may,
therefore, be a reduction in the amount of cleaning of the steel before
welding.
These deoxidiser additions yield a small amount of glassy slag on the

surface of the weld deposit, commonly referred to as silica deposits. These
small pockets of slag are easily removed with light brushing; but when
galvanising or painting after welding, it is necessary to use shot blasting.
During welding, it is common practice to weld over these small islands since
they do not represent a thick slag, and they usually spall off during the
contraction of the weld bead. However, when multipass welding, the slag
level may build up to an unacceptable level causing weld defects and
unreliable arc starting.
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Steel wires usually have a flash coating of copper to improve current pick-up
and to extend the shelf life of the wire. However, the copper coating can
sometimes flake off and be drawn into the liner and wire feed mechanism,
particularly if there is misalignment in the wire feed system. This may cause
clogging and erratic wire feed. Uncoated wires are available as an
alternative, although electrical contact may not be as good as with copper-
coated wires, and contact tip operating temperatures may be higher.
Some typical Standards for specification of steel wire consumables are:
EN 440: Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and deposits for gas

shielded metal arc welding of non-alloy and fine grain steels - Classification.
EN 12534: Welding consumables - Wire electrodes, wires, rods and

deposits for gas shielded metal arc welding of high strength steels -
Classification.
Wire sizes are typically in the range 0.6-2.4mm diameter but the most
commonly used sizes are 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.6mm and provided on layer
wound spools for consistent feeding.
Spools should be labelled to show the classification of the wire and its’
diameter.
Flux-cored and metal-cored wires are also used extensively although the
process is then referred to as FCAW (flux-cored arc welding) and MCAW
(metal cored arc welding)
7.1 MIG/MAG gas shielding

For non-ferrous metals and their alloys (such as Al, Ni and Cu) an inert
shielding gas must be used. This is usually either pure argon or an argon
rich gas with a helium addition.
The use of a fully inert gas is the reason why the process is also called MIG
welding (metal inert gas) and for precise use of terminology this name
should only be used when referring to the welding of non-ferrous metals
The addition of some helium to argon gives a more uniform heat

concentration within the arc plasma and this affects the shape of the weld
bead profile
Argon-helium mixtures effectively give a hotter arc and so they are

beneficial for welding thicker base materials those with higher thermal
conductivity eg copper or aluminium.
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14
For welding of steels – all grades, including stainless steels – there needs to
be a controlled addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide in order to generate a
stable arc and give good droplet wetting. Because these additions react with
the molten metal they are referred to as active gases and hence the name
MAG welding (metal active gas) is the technical term that is use when
referring to the welding of steels.
The percentage of carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen depends on the type of

steel being welded and the mode of metal transfer being used – as indicated
below: -
• 100%CO2
For low carbon steel to give deeper penetration (Figure 4) and faster
welding this gas promotes globular droplet transfer and gives high levels
of spatter and welding fume
• Argon + 15 to 25%CO2
Widely used for carbon and some low alloy steels (and FCAW of
stainless steels)
• Argon + 1 to 5%O2
Widely used for stainless steels and some low alloy steels
Figure 4 The effects of shielding gas composition

on weld penetration and profile
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Welding Consumables
15
Figure 5 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of carbon,

carbon-manganese and low alloy steels
Blue is a cooler gas mixture; red is a hotter mixture.
Gas mixtures - helium in place of argon gives a hotter arc, more fluid weld
pool and better weld profile. These quaternary mixtures permit higher
welding speeds, but may not be suitable for thin sections.
7.1.1 Stainless steels

Austenitic stainless steels are typically welded with argon-CO2/O2 mixtures
for spray transfer, or argon-helium-CO2 mixtures for all modes of transfer.
The oxidising potential of the mixtures are kept to a minimum (2-2.5%
maximum CO2 content) in order to stabilise the arc, but with the minimum
effect on corrosion performance. Because austenitic steels have a high
thermal conductivity, the addition of helium helps to avoid lack of fusion
defects and overcome the high heat dissipation into the material. Helium
additions are up to 85%, compared with ~25% for mixtures used for carbon
and low alloy steels. CO2 -containing mixtures are sometimes avoided to
eliminate potential carbon pick-up.
Figure 6 Active shielding gas mixtures for MAG welding of stainless steels
Rev 1 July 2008

Welding Consumables
16
For martensitic and duplex stainless steels, specialist advice should be

sought. Some Ar-He mixtures containing up to 2.5%N2 are available for
welding duplex stainless steels.
7.1.2 Light alloys, eg aluminium and magnesium, and copper and nickel and
their alloys
Inert gases are used for light alloys and alloys that are sensitive to oxidation.
Welding grade inert gases should be purchased rather than commercial
purity to ensure good weld quality.
Argon:
Argon can be used for aluminium because there is sufficient surface oxide
available to stabilise the arc. For materials that are sensitive to oxygen, such
as titanium and nickel alloys, arc stability may be difficult to achieve with
inert gases in some applications.
The density of argon is approximately 1.4 times that of air. Therefore, in the
downhand position, the relatively heavy argon is very effective at displacing
air. A disadvantage is that when working in confined spaces, there is a risk
of argon building up to dangerous levels and asphyxiating the welder.
Argon-helium mixtures:
Argon is most commonly used for MIG welding of light alloys, but some
advantage can be gained by the use of helium and argon/helium mixtures.
Helium possesses a higher thermal conductivity than argon. The hotter weld
pool produces improved penetration and/or an increase in welding speed.
High helium contents give a deep broad penetration profile, but produce
high spatter levels. With less than 80% argon, a true spray transfer is not
possible. With globular-type transfer, the welder should use a 'buried' arc to
minimise spatter. Arc stability can be problematic in helium and argon-
helium mixtures, since helium raises the arc voltage, and therefore there is a
larger change in arc voltage with respect to arc length. Helium mixtures
require higher flow rates than argon shielding in order to provide the same
gas protection.
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Welding Consumables
17
There is a reduced risk of lack of fusion defects when using argon-helium

mixtures, particularly on thick section aluminium. Ar-He gas mixtures will
offset the high heat dissipation in material over about 3mm thickness.
Figure 7 Inert shielding gas mixtures for MIG welding of aluminium,

magnesium, titanium, nickel and copper alloys
A summary table of shielding gases and mixtures used for different base
materials is given in Table 2.
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18
7.1.3 SUMMARY
Shielding Reaction
Metal Characteristics
gas behaviour
Carbon Argon- Slightly Increasing CO2 content gives hotter arc,
steel CO2 oxidising improved arc stability, deeper penetration,
transition from 'finger'-type to bowl-shaped
penetration profile, more fluid weld pool
giving flatter weld bead with good wetting,
increased spatter levels, better toughness
than CO2. Min 80% argon for axial spray
transfer. General-purpose mixture: argon-10-
15% CO2.
Argon- Slightly Stiffer arc than Ar- CO2 mixtures, minimises
O2 oxidising undercutting, suited to spray transfer mode,
lower penetration than Ar-CO2 mixtures,
'finger'-type weld bead penetration at high
current levels. General-purpose mixture:
Argon-3% CO2.
Argon- Slightly Substitution of helium for argon gives hotter
helium- oxidising arc, higher arc voltage, more fluid weld pool,
CO2 flatter bead profile, more bowl-shaped and
deeper penetration profile and higher welding
speeds, compared with Ar- CO2 mixtures.
High cost.
CO2 Oxidising Arc voltages 2-3V higher than Ar-CO2
mixtures, best penetration, higher welding
speeds, dip transfer or buried arc technique
only, narrow working range, high spatter
levels, low cost.
Stainless He-Ar- Slightly Good arc stability with minimum effect on
steels CO2 oxidising corrosion resistance (carbon pickup), higher
helium contents designed for dip transfer,
lower helium contents designed for pulse and
spray transfer. General-purpose gas: Ar-40-
60%He-2%CO2.
Argon- O2 Slightly Spray transfer only, minimises undercutting
oxidising on heavier sections, good bead profile.
Aluminium, Argon Inert Good arc stability, low spatter, and general-
copper, purpose gas. Titanium alloys require inert
nickel, gas backing and trailing shields to prevent air
titanium contamination.
alloys Argon- Inert Higher heat input offsets high heat
helium dissipation on thick sections, lower risk of
lack of fusion defects, higher spatter, higher
cost than Argon.
Table 2 Shielding gas mixtures for MIG/MAG welding - summary
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Welding Consumables
19
8 SAW Filler Wires

Filler wires for SAW are made to AWS and EN standards and the most
commonly used sizes are 2.4, 3.2, 4.0 and 5.0mm diameter and are
available for welding a wide range of steels and some non-ferrous
applications, they have compositions similar to the base material but for
certification standards require flux/wire weld metal deposits to be made for
analysis and testing as required
8.1 SAW flux types

Fluxes can be categorised into two types, namely fused and agglomerated
(agglomerated fluxes are sometimes called bonded fluxes – particularly in
the USA).
8.1.1 Fused flux

These types are manufactured by mixing certain suitable minerals/
compounds, fusing them together, crushing the solid mass and then sieving
the crushed mass to recover granules within a particular size range.
Fused fluxes have the following characteristics/properties:
• Contain a high proportion of silica (up to ~60%) and so the flux granules
have similar in appearance to crushed glass – irregular shaped and hard
- and have a smooth, and slightly shiny, surface
• During re-circulation they have good resistance to breaking down into fine
particles – referred to as fines
• Have very low moisture content as manufactured and do not absorb
moisture during exposure and so they should always give low hydrogen
weld metal
• Give welds beads with good surface finish and profile and de-slag easily
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Welding Consumables
20
The main disadvantage of fused fluxes is that the compounds that give de-
oxidation cannot be added so that welds have high oxygen content and so
steel weld metal does not have good toughness at sub-zero temperatures.
8.1.2 Agglomerated flux

This is manufactured by mixing fine powdered minerals/compounds, adding
a wet binder and further mixing to form flux granules of the required size.
These are dried/baked to remove moisture, sieved and packaged in sealed
containers to ensure they are in low hydrogen condition when supplied to
the user.
Some of the minerals/compounds used in these fluxes cannot be subjected

to the high temperatures required to make fused fluxes because they would
break down and lose the properties that are needed during welding.
Agglomerated fluxes have the following characteristics:
• Granules tend to be more spherical and have a dull/matt finish

• Granules are consist of fine powders, weakly held together, and so are
quite soft and easily be broken down into fine powders during handling/
re-circulation
• Some of the compounds, and the binder itself, will tend to absorb
moisture from the atmosphere if left exposed and a controlled handling
procedure* is essential
• The slag is less fluid than those generated by fused fluxes and the weld
bead profile tends to be more convex and more effort is required to
remove the slag
*Agglomerated fluxes are similar to fluxes used for basic covered electrodes
and susceptible to moisture pick-up when they are cold and left exposed.
A typical controlled handling practice is to transfer flux from the

manufacturer’s drum/bag to a heated silo (~120-150°C). This acts like the
holding oven for basic electrodes.
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Welding Consumables
21
Warm flux is transferred to the flux hopper on the machine (usually

unheated) and at the end of a shift or when there is to be an interruption in
welding, the hopper flux should be transferred to the silo.
The particular advantage of agglomerated fluxes is there ability to give weld

metals with low oxygen content and this enables steel weld metal to be
produced with good sub-zero toughness.
8.2 SAW flux basicity index

Fluxes are often referred to as having a certain basicity or basicity index
(BI).
The BI indicates the flux formulation according to the ratio of basic

compounds to acid compounds and is used to give an indication of flux/weld
reaction and can be interpreted as follows:
• A flux with a BI = 1 has an equal ratio of basic and acid compounds and
thus is neither basic nor acid but said to be neutral*
• A flux with BI >1 has basic characteristics; fully basic fluxes have BI of ~3
to ~3.5
• A flux with BI <1 has acid characteristics
• Fused and agglomerated fluxes are mixed to produce fluxes referred to
as semi-basic
* In the USA it is customary to use the terms neutral to indicate that the flux
has no significant influence on the composition by transfer of elements from
flux to weld pool and active to indicate that the flux does transfer some
elements
Fused fluxes have acid characteristics and agglomerated fluxes have basic
characteristics.
Although there are EN and AWS standards for flux classification, it is

common UK practice to order fluxes by manufacturer name and use this
name on WPSs.
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Welding Consumables
Section 16
MAG Welding
1
1 The Process
Known in the USA as gas metal arc welding (GMAW). The MIG/MAG
welding process is a versatile technique suitable for both thin sheet and
thick section components in most metallic materials. In the process, an arc
is struck between the end of a wire electrode and the workpiece, melting
both to form a weld pool. The wire serves as the source of heat (via the arc
at the wire tip) and filler metal for the joint. The wire is fed through a copper
contact tube (also called a contact tip) which conducts welding current into
the wire. The weld pool is protected from the surrounding atmosphere by a
shielding gas fed through a nozzle surrounding the wire. Shielding gas
selection depends on the material being welded and the application. The
wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive, and the welder or machine moves
the welding gun or torch along the joint line. The process offers high
productivity and is economical because the consumable wire is continuously
fed. A diagram of the process is shown in Figure 1.
The MIG/MAG process uses semiautomatic, mechanised, or automatic

equipment. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are
controlled automatically, but the travel speed and wire position are under
manual control. In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic
control, but they can be varied manually during welding, eg steering of the
welding head and adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. With
automatic equipment, there is no manual intervention during welding.
Figure 1.1 shows equipment required for the MIG/MAG process.
Figure 1 MIG/MAG welding
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MAG Welding
2
Figure 1.1 MIG/MAG welding equipment
Advantages of the MIG/MAG process:
• Continuous wire feed

• Automatic self-regulation of the arc length
• High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations
• High consumable efficiency
• Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2.0kJ/mm
• Low hydrogen potential process
• Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line
• Little or no post weld cleaning
• Can be used in all positions (dip transfer)
• Good process control possibilities
• Wide range of application
1.1.1 Disadvantages
• No independent control of filler addition
• Difficult to set up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels
• Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments
• High level of equipment maintenance
• Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values
• Higher equipment cost than MMA (manual metal arc) welding
• Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may
disturb the gas shield
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3
• Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or TIG welding

• Cleanliness of base metal slag processes can tolerate greater
contamination.
2 Process Variables
The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are:
• Welding current/wire feed speed

• Voltage
• Gases
• Travel speed and electrode orientation
• Inductance
• Contact tip to work distance
• Nozzle to work distance
• Shielding gas nozzle
• Type of metal transfer
2.1 Welding current / wire feed speed

On MIG/MAG welding sets there is no control to set the welding current. The
electrical characteristics of the welding set (flat or constant voltage type)
automatically alters the welding current with changes to the set wire feed
speed to achieve a constant arc length.
Increasing the wire feed, and therefore current, increases wire burn-off,
deposition rate and penetration.
Current type is almost always DC+ve, although some cored wires require
DC-ve for best results.
2.2 Voltage
This is set to achieve steady smooth welding conditions and is generally
increased as the wire feed speed is increased.
Increase in voltage increases the width of the weld and reduces penetration.
2.3 Travel speed and electrode orientation

The faster the travel speed the less penetration, narrower bead width and
the higher risk of undercut
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• Increasing travel speed

• Reduced penetration and width,
undercut
Figure 2 The effect of travel speed
Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow

Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
Figure 3 The effect of torch angle
2.4 Effect of contact tip to workpiece distance (CTWD)

The CTWD has an influence over the welding current because of resistive
heating in the electrode extension (see Figure 4). The welding current
required to melt the electrode at the required rate (to match the wire feed
speed) reduces as the CTWD is increased. Long electrode extensions can
cause lack of penetration, for example, in narrow gap joints, or with poor
manipulation of the welding gun. Conversely, the welding current increases
when the CTWD is reduced.
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MAG Welding
5
Contact tip
Gas nozzle
Contact tip
setback
Electrode
Contact tip-
Nozzle-to-work extension
to-work
(stand-off) distance
distance Arc length
Workpiece
Figure 4 Contact tip to workpiece distance; electrode extension;

and nozzle to workpiece distance
Increased extension
Figure 5 The effect of increasing electrode extension
The electrode extension should be checked when setting-up welding

conditions or when fitting a new contact tube. Normally measured from the
contact tube to the work piece (Figure 5) suggested CTWDs for the principal
metal transfer modes are:
Metal transfer mode CTWD, mm

Dip 10-15
Spray 20-25
Pulse 15-20
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MAG Welding
6
2.5 Effect of nozzle to work distance

Nozzle to work distance (see Figure 4) has a considerable effect on gas
shielding efficiency; a decrease having the effect of stiffening the column.
The nozzle to work distance is typically 12-15mm. If the CTWD is
simultaneously reduced, however, the deposition rate at a given current is
decreased and visibility and accessibility are affected; so, in practice, a
compromise is necessary. The following gives suggested settings for the
mode of metal transfer being used
Metal transfer mode Contact tip position relative to nozzle

Dip 2mm inside to 2mm protruding
Spray 4-8mm inside
Spray (aluminium) 6-10mm inside
2.6 Shielding gas nozzle

The purpose of the shielding gas nozzle is to produce a laminar gas flow in
order to protect the weld pool from atmospheric contamination. Nozzle sizes
range from 13mm to 22mm diameter. The nozzle diameter should be
increased in relation to the size of the weld pool.
2.7 Types of metal transfer
Figure 6 Arc characteristic curve
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MAG Welding
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1) Dip transfer:
Key characteristics:
• Metal transfer by wire dipping or short circuiting into the weld pool
• Relatively low heat input process
• Low weld pool fluidity
• Used for thin sheet metal above 0.8 and typically less than 3.2mm,
positional welding of thicker section and root runs in open butt joints
• Process stability and spatter can be a problem if poorly tuned
• Lack of fusion risk if poorly set up and applied
• Not used for non-ferrous metals and alloys
In dip transfer the wire short-circuits the arc between 50–200 times/sec. This
type of transfer is normally achieved with CO2 or mixtures of CO2 and argon
gas + low amps and welding volts < 24V.
Figure 7 Dip transfer
2) Spray transfer:
• Free-flight metal transfer
• High heat input
• High deposition rate
• Smooth, stable arc
• Used on steels above 6mm thickness and aluminium alloys above 3mm
thickness
Spray transfer occurs at high currents and high voltages. Above the
transition current, metal transfer is in the form of a fine spray of small
droplets, which are projected across the arc with low spatter levels. The high
welding current produces strong electromagnetic forces (known as the pinch
effect' that cause the molten filament supporting the droplet to neck down.
The droplets detach from the tip of the wire and accelerate across the arc
gap.
With steels it can be used only in down-hand butts and H/V fillet welds, but
gives significantly higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than the dip
transfer mode. With aluminum alloys it can be used in all positions.
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MAG Welding
8
Figure 8 Spray transfer
3) Pulsed transfer:
• Free-flight droplet transfer without short-circuiting over the entire working
range
• Very low spatter
• Lower heat input than spray transfer
• Reduced risk of lack of fusion compared with dip transfer
• Control of weld bead profile for dynamically loaded parts
• Process control/flexibility
• Enables use of larger diameter, less expensive wires with thinner plates -
more
• Easily fed (a particular advantage for aluminium welding)
Pulsing the welding current extends the range of spray transfer operation
well below the natural transition from dip to spray transfer. This allows
smooth, spatter-free spray transfer to be obtained at mean currents below
the transition level, eg 50-150A and at lower heat inputs.
A typical pulse waveform and the main pulse welding variables are shown in
Figure 9. Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule of
metal across the arc gap at a frequency between 50–300 pulses/sec. Pulse
transfer is a development of spray transfer that gives positional welding
capability for steels, combined with controlled heat input, good fusion, and
high productivity. It may be used for all sheet steel thickness >1mm, but is
mainly used for positional welding of steels >6mm.
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Figure 9 Pulsed welding waveform and parameters
4) Globular transfer:
• Irregular metal transfer
• Medium heat input
• Medium deposition rate
• Risk of spatter
• Not widely used in the UK; can be used for mechanised welding of
medium
• Thickness steels (typically 3-6mm) in the flat (PA) position
The globular transfer range occupies the transitional range of arc voltage
between free flight and fully short-circuiting transfer. Irregular droplet
transfer and arc instability are inherent, particularly when operating near the
transition threshold. In globular transfer, a molten droplet of several times
the electrode diameter forms on the wire tip. Gravity eventually detaches the
globule when its weight overcomes surface tension forces, and transfer
takes place often with excessive spatter
To minimise spatter levels, it is common to operate with a very short arc

length, and in some cases a buried arc technique is adopted. Globular
transfer can only be used in the flat position and is often associated with
lack of penetration, fusion defects and uneven weld beads, because of the
irregular transfer and tendency for arc wander.
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2.8 Inductance
What does inductance do?
When MIG welding in the dip transfer mode, the welding electrode touches
the weld pool, causing a short circuit. During the short circuit, the arc voltage
is nearly zero. If the constant voltage power supply responded instantly,
very high current would immediately begin to flow through the welding
circuit. The rapid rise in current to a high value would melt the short-circuited
electrode free with explosive force, dispelling the weld metal and causing
considerable spatter.
Inductance is the property in an electrical circuit that slows down the rate of
current rise (Figure 10). The current travelling through an inductance coil
creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field creates a current in the welding
circuit that is in opposition to the welding current. Increasing the inductance
will also increase the arc time and decrease the frequency of short-
circuiting.
For each electrode feed rate, there is an optimum value of inductance. Too
little inductance results in excessive spatter. If too much inductance is used,
the current will not rise fast enough and the molten tip of the electrode is not
heated sufficiently causing the electrode to stub into the base metal. Modern
electronic power sources automatically set the inductance to give a smooth
arc and metal transfer.
Figure 10 Relationship between inductance and current rise
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MAG Welding
11
3 Welding Consumables
3.1 Solid wires
Usually made in sizes from 0.6 to 1,6mm diameter they are produced with
an analysis which essentially matches the materials being joined. Additional
elements are often added especially extra de-oxidants in steel wires. C-Mn
and low alloy steel wires are usually copper coated to reduce the risk of
rusting and promote better electrical contact.
3.2 Flux cored wires

A cored wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux. This flux
can contain elements that would normally be used in MMA electrodes and
so the process has a very wide range of applications.
In addition we can also add gas producing elements and compounds to the
flux and so the process can become independent of a separate gas shield,
which restricted the use of conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field
applications.
Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetically with various forms of
joint. The effectiveness of the joint of the wire is an inspection point of cored
wire welding as moisture can easily be absorbed into a damaged or poor
seam.
Wire types commonly used are:
• Rutile – which give good positional capabilities.

• Basic – also positional but good on “dirty” material
• Metal cored – higher productivity and some having excellent root run
capabilities.
• Self-shielded – no external gas needed.
Baking of cored wires is ineffective and will do nothing to restore the

condition of a contaminated flux within a wire.
Note that unlike MMA electrodes the potential hydrogen levels and
mechanical properties of welds with rutile wires can equal those of the basic
types.
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MAG Welding
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4 Important Inspection Points/Checks When MIG/MAG

Welding
1 The welding equipment
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good
condition.
2 The eectrode wire

The diameter, specification and the quality of the wire are the main
inspection headings. The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important
factor with single, double and triple de-oxidised wires being available.
The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, then the lower the chance of
porosity in the weld. The quality of the wire winding, copper coating, and
temper are also important factors in minimising wire feed problems.
Quality of wire windings and increasing costs

(a) Random wound. (b) Layer wound. (c) Precision layer wound.
3 The drive rolls and liner.

Check the drive rolls are of the correct size for the wire and that the
pressure is only hand tight, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess
pressure will deform the wire to an ovular shape. This will make the wire
very difficult to drive through the liner and result in arcing in the contact tip
and excessive wear of the contact tip and liner.
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner
will generally fit 2 sizes of wire ie (0.6 and 0.8) (1.0 and 1.2) (1.4 and 1.6)
mm diameter. Steel liners are used for steel wires and Teflon liners for
aluminium wires.
4 The contact tip

Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven, and
check the amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire
and contact tip will reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are
copper-coated to maximise the transfer of current by contact between 2
copper surfaces at the contact tip, this also inhibits corrosion. The contact
tip should be replaced regularly.
5 The connections
The length of the electric arc in MIG/MAG welding is controlled by the
voltage settings. This is achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp
characteristic inside the equipment. Any poor connection in the welding
circuit will affect the nature and stability of the electric arc, and is thus is a
major inspection point.
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MAG Welding
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6 Gas and gas flow rate

The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the
flow rate from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage
over the solidifying and molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
7 Other variable welding parameters

Checks should be made for correct wire feed speed, voltage, speed of
travel, and all other essential variables of the process given on the approved
welding procedure.
8 Safety checks
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of
equipment and electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in
use to avoid exposure to ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified

to weld the procedure being employed.
Typical welding imperfections:
1 Silica inclusions, (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run

cleaning.
2 Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section
vertically down.
3 Porosity caused from loss of gas shield and low tolerance to
contaminants
4 Burn-through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet
metal
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MAG Welding
Section 17
MMA Welding
1
1 Manual Metal-Arc/Shielded Metal Arc Welding

(MMA/SMAW)
The most versatile of the welding processes, manual metal arc (MMA)
welding is suitable for welding most ferrous and non-ferrous metals, over a
wide range of thicknesses. The MMA welding process can be used in all
positions, with reasonable ease of use and relatively economically. The final
weld quality is primarily dependent on the skill of the welder.
When an arc is struck between the coated electrode and the work piece,
both the electrode and work piece surface melt to form a weld pool. The
average temperature of the arc is approximately 6000°C, which is sufficient
to simultaneously melt the parent metal, consumable core wire and the flux
coating. The flux forms gas and slag, which protects the weld pool from
oxygen and nitrogen in the surrounding atmosphere. The molten slag
solidifies and cools and must be chipped off the weld bead once the weld
run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited). The process
allows only short lengths of weld to be produced before a new electrode
needs to be inserted in the holder.
The manual metal arc welding process
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MMA Welding
2
2 MMA Welding Basic Equipment Requirements
10 1
9 2
8 3
4
7
6 5
1 Power source transformer/rectifier (constant current type)

2 Holding oven (holds at temperatures up to 150°C)
3 Inverter power source (more compact and portable)
4 Electrode holder (of a suitable amperage rating)
5 Power cable (of a suitable amperage rating)
6 Welding visor (with correct rating for the amperage/process)
7 Power return cable (of a suitable amperage rating)
8 Electrodes (of a suitable type and amperage rating)
9 Electrode oven (bakes electrodes at up to 350°C)
10 Control panel (on\off/amperage/polarity/OCV)
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MMA Welding
3
3 Power Requirements
Manual metal arc welding can be carried out using either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) current. With DC welding current either positive (+ve) or
negative (-ve) polarity can be used, so current is flowing in one direction. AC
welding current flows from negative to positive, and is two directional.
Power sources for MMA welding are transformers (which transforms mains
AC to AC suitable for welding), transformer-rectifiers (which rectifies AC to
DC), diesel or petrol driven generators (preferred for site work) or inverters
(a more recent addition to welding power sources). For MMA welding a
power source with a constant current (drooping) output characteristic must
be used.
The power source must provide:
• An open circuit voltage (OCV) to initiate the arc, between 50 and 90V
• Welding voltage to maintain the arc during welding, between 20 and
30V.
• A suitable current range, typically 30-350A.
• A stable arc. Rapid arc recovery or arc re-ignition without current surge.
• A constant welding current. The arc length may change during welding,
but consistent electrode burn-off rate and weld penetration
characteristics must be maintained during welding.
4 Welding Variables
Other factors, or welding variables, which affect the final quality of the MMA
weld, are:
Current (amperage)
Voltage affects heat Input
Travel speed
Polarity
Type of electrode
4.1 Current (amperage)

Amperage controls burn-off rate and depth of penetration. Welding current
level is determined by the size of electrode and the welding position -
manufacturers recommend the normal operating range and current
Incorrect amperage settings when using MMA can contribute to the

following:
Amperage too low: Poor fusion or penetration, irregular weld bead

shape, slag inclusion unstable arc, porosity,
potential arc strikes, difficult starting.
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MMA Welding
4
Amperage too high: Excessive penetration, burn-through, undercut,

spatter, porosity, deep craters, electrode damage
due to overheating, high deposition making
positional welding difficult.
4.2 Voltage
Open circuit voltage (OCV) is the voltage measured between the output
terminals of the power source when no current is flowing through the
welding circuit.
For safety reasons this should not exceed 100V, and is usually between
50-90V.
Arc voltage is the voltage required to maintain the arc during welding and is
usually between 20–30V. As arc voltage is a function of arc length the
welder controls the arc length and therefore the arc voltage.
Arc voltage controls weld pool fluidity.
The effects of having the wrong arc voltage can be:
Arc Voltage too low: Poor penetration, electrode stubbing, lack of

fusion defects, potential for arc strikes, slag
inclusion, unstable arc condition, irregular weld
bead shape.
Arc voltage too high: Excessive spatter, porosity, arc wander, irregular
weld bead shape, slag inclusions, fluid weld pool
making positional welding difficult.
4.3 Travel speed

Travel speed is related to whether the welding is progressed by stringer
beads or by weaving. Often the run out length (ROL) ie the length of deposit
from one standard electrode is quoted on procedures rather than speed as it
is easier for the welder to visualise.
Travel speed too fast: Narrow thin weld bead, fast cooling, slag
inclusions, undercut, poor fusion/penetration
Travel speed too slow: Cold lap, excess weld deposition, irregular bead
shape, undercut.
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MMA Welding
5
4.4 Type of current and polarity

Polarity will determine the distribution of heat energy at the welding arc. The
preferred polarity of the MMA system depends primarily upon the electrode
being used and the desired properties of the weld.
• Direct Current. Electrode positive (DCEP / DC+).

Usually produces the greatest penetration but with lesser deposition rate.
Known in some standards as reverse polarity
• Direct current. Electrode negative (DCEN / DC-)

Usually produces less penetration with greater deposition rate.
Known in some standards as straight polarity
When using direct current the arc can be affected by arc blow. The
deflection of the arc from its normal path due to magnetic forces.
• Alternating current (AC)

The distribution of heat energy at the arc is equal.
• Operating Factor (O/F)

The percentage (%) of arc on time in a given time span.
When compared with semi automatic welding processes the MMA welding
process has a low O/F of approximately 30% Manual semi-automatic
MIG/MAG O/F is in the region 60% with fully automated MIG/MAG in the
region of 90% O/F. A welding process O/F can be directly linked to
productivity.
Operating Factor should not to be confused with the term duty cycle,
which is a safety value given as the % of time a conductor can carry a
current and is given as a specific current at 60 and 100% of 10 minutes ie
350A 60% and 300A 100%.
5 Type of Consumable Electrode

For MMA welding there are three generic types of flux covering:
Rutile, basic, cellulosic. The details of these types are covered in

elsewhere in these notes.
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MMA Welding
6
6 Typical Welding Defects

1 Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter-
run cleaning.
2 Porosity from using damp or damaged electrodes or when welding

contaminated or unclean material.
3 Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by in-correct settings of the

amps, root gap or face width.
4 Undercut caused by too high amperage for the position or by a poor

welding technique eg travel speed too fast or too slow, arc length
(therefore voltage) variations particularly during excessive weaving.
5 Arc strikes caused by incorrect arc striking procedure, or lack of skill.

These may be also caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power return lead
clamps.
6 Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type or

incorrect baking procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes.
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MMA Welding
Section 18
Submerged Arc
1
1 The Process
Abbreviated as SAW, this is a welding process where an arc is struck
between a continuous bare wire and the parent plate. The arc, electrode
end and the molten pool are submerged in an agglomerated or fused
powdered flux, which turns, into a gas and slag in its lower layers when
subjected to the heat of the arc, thus protecting the weld from
contamination. The wire electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of
motor-driven rollers, which usually are voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of
constant length. The flux is fed from a hopper fixed to the welding head, and
a tube from the hopper spreads the flux in a continuous elongated mound in
front of the arc along the line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to
submerge the arc completely so that there is no spatter, the weld is shielded
from the atmosphere, and there are no ultraviolet or infra-red radiation
effects (see below). Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. The use of
powdered flux restricts the process to the flat and horizontal-vertical welding
positions.
Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents
owing to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents give deep
penetration and high deposition rates. Generally a DC electrode positive
polarity is employed up to about 1000A because it produces a deep
penetration. On some applications (ie cladding operations) DC electrode
negative is needed to reduce penetration and dilution. At higher currents or
in case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often preferred to avoid the
problem of arc blow (when used with multiple electrode systems, DC
electrode positive is used for the lead arc and AC is used for the trail arc).
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Submerged Arc
2
Power sources can be of the constant current or constant voltage type either
may have outputs exceeding 1000A.
Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a

predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible,
a guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the
welding head and flux hoppers.
Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure

vessels, linepipe, railway carriages and anywhere where long welds are
required. It can be used to weld thicknesses from 1.5mm upwards.
Materials joined
• Welding of carbon steels.

• Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and creep resisting).
• Welding stainless steels.
• Welding nickel alloys.
• Cladding to base metals to improve wear and corrosion resistance.
2 Process variables
There are several variables which when changed can have an effect on the
weld appearance and mechanical properties:
1 Welding current
2 Type of flux and particle distribution
3 Arc voltage
4 Travel speed
5 Electrode size
6 Electrode extension
7 Type of electrode
8 Width and depth of the layer of flux
9 Electrode angle, (leading, trailing)
10 Polarity
11 Single-, double- or multi-wire system
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Submerged Arc
3
2.1 Welding current

Welding current effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 35V arc
voltage and 61cm/min travel speed)
• Excessively high current produces a deep penetrating arc with a

tendency to burn-through, undercut or a high, narrow bead prone to
solidification cracking
• Excessively low current produces an unstable arc, lack of penetration
and possibly lack of fusion
350A 500A 650A
2.2 Arc voltage

Arc voltage adjustment varies the length of the arc between the electrode
and the molten weld metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length
increases and vice versa. The voltage principally determines the shape of
the weld bead cross section and its external appearance.
25V 35V 45V
Arc voltage effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A welding
current and 61cm/min travel speed)
Increasing the arc voltage will:
• Produce a flatter and wider bead

• Increase flux consumption
• Tend to reduce porosity caused by rust or scale on steel
• Help to bridge excessive root opening when fit-up is poor
• Increase pick-up of alloying elements from the flux when they are
present
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Submerged Arc
4
Excessively high arc voltage will:
• Produce a wide bead shape that is subject to solidification cracking

• Make slag removal difficult in groove welds
• Produce a concave shaped fillet weld that may be subject to cracking
• Increase undercut along the edge(s) of fillet welds
• Over-alloy the weld metal, via the flux
Reducing the arc voltage with constant current and travel speed will:
• Produce a stiffer arc which improves penetration in a deep weld groove

and resists arc blow.
Excessively low arc voltage will:
• Produce a high, narrow bead

• Causes difficult slag removal along the weld toes
2.3 Travel speed

If the travel speed is increased:
• Heat input per unit length of weld is decreased

• Less filler metal is applied per unit length of weld, and consequently less
excess weld metal
• Penetration decreases and thus the weld bead becomes smaller
30cm/min 61cm/min 122cm/min

Travel speed effect on weld profile (2.4mm electrode diameter, 500A
welding current and 35V arc voltage)
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Submerged Arc
5
2.4 Electrode size

Electrode size affects:
• The weld bead shape and the depth of penetration at a given current: a
high current density results in a stiff arc that penetrates into the base
metal. Conversely, a lower current density in the same size electrode
results in a soft arc that is less penetrating.
• The deposition rate: at any given amperage setting, a small diameter

electrode will have a higher current density and a higher deposition rate
of molten metal than a larger diameter electrode. However, a larger
diameter electrode can carry more current than a smaller electrode, so
the larger electrode can ultimately produce a higher deposition rate at
higher amperage.
3.2 mm 4.0 mm 5.0 mm
Electrode size effect on weld profile (600A welding current, 30V arc voltage
and 76cm/min travel speed).
2.5 Electrode extension

The electrode extension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes
beyond the contact tip. At high current densities, resistance heating of the
electrode between the contact tip and the arc can be utilised to increase the
electrode melting rate (as much as 25-50%). The longer the extension, the
greater the amount of heating and the higher the melting rate (see below).
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Submerged Arc
6
2.6 Type of electrode

An electrode with a low electrical conductivity, such as stainless steel, can
with a normal electrode extension experience greater resistance heating.
Thus for the same size electrode and current, the melting rate of a stainless
steel electrode will be higher than that of a carbon steel electrode.
2.7 Width and depth of flux

The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance
and soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action. If the
granular layer is too deep, the arc is too confined and a rough weld with a
rope-like appearance is likely to result, it may also produce local flat areas
on the surface often referred to as gas flats. The gases generated during
welding cannot readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld metal is
irregularly distorted. If the granular layer is too shallow, the arc will not be
entirely submerged in flux. Flashing and spattering will occur. The weld will
have a poor appearance, and it may show porosity.
3 Storage and Care of Consumables

Care must be given to fluxes supplied for SAW which, although they may be
dry when packaged, may be exposed to high humidity during storage. In
such cases they should be stored in accordance with the manufacturer's
recommendations before use, or porosity or cracking may result. It rarely
practical or economical to re-dry fluxes which may have picked up moisture.
Ferrous wire coils supplied as continuous feeding electrodes are usually

copper-coated. This provides some corrosion resistance, ensures good
electrical contacts and helps in smooth feeding. Rust and mechanical
damage should be avoided in such products, as they will both interrupt
smooth feeding of the electrode. Rust will be detrimental to weld quality
generally since rust is a hygroscopic material (may contain or absorb
moisture) and thus it can lead to hydrogen induced cracking.
Contamination by carbon containing materials such as oil, grease, paint and

drawing lubricants is especially harmful with ferrous metals. Carbon pick-up
in the weld metal can cause a marked and usually undesirable change in
properties. Such contaminants may also result in hydrogen being absorbed
in the weld pool.
Welders should always follow the manufacturer's recommendations for

consumables storage and handling
Rev 1 July 2008

Submerged Arc
Section 19
TIG Welding
1
1 Process Characteristics
In the USA the TIG process is also called gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW).
TIG welding is a process where melting is produced by heating with an arc
struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece.
An inert gas is used to shield the electrode and weld zone to prevent
oxidation of the tungsten electrode and atmospheric contamination of the
weld and hot filler wire (as shown below).
Manual TIG welding
Tungsten is used because it has a melting point of 3370°C, which is well

above any other common metal.
The power source is of the constant current type.
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TIG Welding
2
2 Process Variables
The main variables in TIG welding are:
• Welding current
• Current type and polarity
• Travel speed
• Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle
• Shielding gas flow rate
Each of these variables is considered in more detail in the following sub-

sections.
2.1 Welding current

• Weld penetration is directly related to welding current.
• If the welding current is too low, the electrode tip will not be properly
heated and an unstable arc may result.
• If the welding current is set too high, the electrode tip might overheat and
melt, leading to tungsten inclusions.
2.2 Current type and polarity

• With steels DC electrode negative is used.
• Materials which have refractory oxides such as those of aluminium or
magnesium are welded using AC or DC electrode positive which break
up the oxide layer.
• With a DC positively connected electrode, heat is concentrated at the
electrode tip and therefore for DC positive welding the electrode needs
to be of greater diameter than when using DC negative if overheating of
the tungsten is to be avoided. A water-cooled torch is recommended if
DC positive is used.
• The current carrying capacity of a DC positive electrode is about one
tenth that of a negative one and it is therefore limited to welding thin
sections.
2.3 Travel speed

• Travel speed affects both weld width and penetration but the effect on
width is more pronounced than on penetration.
• Increasing the travel speed reduces the penetration and width
• Reducing the travel speed increases the penetration and width
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TIG Welding
3
2.4 Tungsten electrode types

Different types of tungsten electrodes can be used to suit different
applications:
• Pure tungsten electrodes are rarely used.

• Thoriated electrodes are alloyed with thorium oxide, typically 2%, to
improve arc initiation. They have higher current carrying capacity than
pure tungsten electrodes and maintain a sharp tip for longer.
Unfortunately, thoria is slightly radioactive (emitting α radiation) and the
dust generated during tip grinding should not be inhaled. Electrode
grinding machines used for thoriated tungsten grinding should be fitted
with a dust extraction system.
• Ceriated and lanthaniated electrodes are alloyed with cerium and
lanthanum oxides, for the same reason as thoriated electrodes. They
operate successfully with DC or AC but since cerium and lanthanum are
not radioactive, these types have been used as replacements for
thoriated electrodes
• Zirconiated electrodes are alloyed with zirconium oxide. Operating
characteristics of these electrodes fall between the thoriated types and
pure tungsten. However, since they are able to retain a balled end during
welding, they are recommended for AC welding. Also, they have a high
resistance to contamination and so they are used for high integrity welds
where tungsten inclusions must be avoided.
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TIG Welding
4
2.5 Shape of tungsten electrode tip

• With DC electrode negative, thoriated, ceriated or lanthanated tungsten
electrodes are used with the end is ground to a specific angle (the
electrode tip angle or vertex angle – shown below).
• As a general rule, the length of the ground portion of the tip of the
electrode should have a length equal to approximately 2 to 2.5 times the
electrode diameter.
• The tip of the electrode is ground flat to minimise the risk of the tip
breaking off when the arc is initiated or during welding (shown below).
• If the vertex angle is increased, the penetration increases.
• If the vertex angle is decreased, bead width increases.
• For AC welding, pure or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are used.
• These are used with a hemispherical (‘balled’) end (as shown below).
• In order to produce a balled end the electrode is grounded, an arc
initiated and the current increased until it melts the tip of the electrode.
Electrode tip angle Electrode tip with Electrode tip with a

(or vertex angle) with flat end balled end
3 Filler Wires and Shielding Gases

These are selected on the basis of the materials being welded. See the
relevant chapter in these notes.
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TIG Welding
5
4 Tungsten Inclusions
Small fragments of tungsten that enter a weld will always show up on
radiographs (because of the relatively high density of this metal) and for
most applications will not be acceptable.
Thermal shock to the tungsten causing small fragments to enter the weld
pool is a common cause of tungsten inclusions and is the reason why
modern power sources have a current slope-up device to minimise this risk.
This device allows the current to rise to the set value over a short period and
so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently.
5 Crater Cracking
Crater cracking is one form of solidification cracking and some filler metals
can be sensitive to it.
Modern power sources have a current slope-out device so that at the end of
a weld when the welder switches off the current it reduces gradually and the
weld pool gets smaller and shallower.
This means that the weld pool has a more favourable shape when it finally
solidifies and crater cracking can be avoided.
6 Common Applications of the TIG Process

These include autogenous welding of longitudinal seams, in thin walled
pipes and tubes, in stainless steel and other alloys, on continuous forming
mills.
Using filler wires, TIG is used for making high quality joints in heavier gauge
pipe and tubing for the chemical, petroleum and power generating
industries.
It is also in the aerospace industry for such items as airframes and rocket
motor cases.
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TIG Welding
6
7 Advantages of the TIG Process

• It produces superior quality welds, with very low levels of diffusible
hydrogen and so there is less danger of cold cracking.
• It does not give weld spatter nor slag inclusions which makes it
particularly suitable for applications that require a high degree of
cleanliness (eg pipework for the food and drinks industry, semi-
conductors manufacturing, etc).
• It can be used with filler metal and on thin sections without filler; it can
produce welds at relatively high speed.
• It enables welding variables to be accurately controlled and is particularly
good for controlling weld root penetration in all positions of welding.
• It can be used to weld almost all weldable metals, including dissimilar
joints, but is not generally used for those with low melting points such as
lead and tin. The method is especially useful in welding the reactive
metals with very stable oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium
and zirconium.
• The heat source and filler metal additions are controlled independently
and thus it is very good for joining thin base metals.
8 Disadvantages of the TIG Process

• It gives low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
• There is a need for higher dexterity and welder co-ordination than with
MIG/MAG or MMA welding.
• It is less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than
~10mm.
• It is difficult to fully shield the weld zone in draughty conditions and so
may not be suitable for site/field welding
• Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the
weld pool.
• The process does not have any cleaning action and so has low tolerance
for contaminants on filler or base metals.
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TIG Welding
Section 20
Weld Imperfections
1
1 Definitions (see BS EN ISO 6520-1)

Imperfection: Any deviation from the ideal weld.
Defect: An unacceptable imperfection.
Classification of imperfections according to BS EN ISO 6520-1:
This standard classifies the geometric imperfections in the case of fusion

welding, dividing them into six groups:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimension
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
It is important that an imperfection is correctly identified thus allowing for the

cause to be identified and actions taken to prevent further occurrence.
2 Cracks
Definition: An imperfection produced by a local rupture in the solid state,
which may arise from the effect of cooling or stresses. Cracks are more
significant than other types of imperfection, as their geometry produces a
very large stress concentration at the crack tip, making them more likely to
cause fracture.
Types of crack:
• Longitudinal
• Transverse
• Radiating (cracks radiating from a common point)
• Crater
• Branching(a group of connected cracks originating from a common
crack)
These cracks can be situated in the:
• Weld metal
• HAZ
• Parent metal
Exception: Crater cracks are found only in the weld metal.
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Weld Imperfections
2
Depending on their nature, these cracks can be:
• Hot cracks (ie solidification cracks liquation cracks)

• Precipitation induced cracks (ie reheat cracks, present in creep resisting
steels)
• Cold cracks (ie hydrogen induced cracks)
• Lamellar tearing
2.1 Hot cracks

Depending on their location and mode of occurrence, hot cracks can be:
• Solidification cracks: occur in the weld metal (usually along the centreline
of the weld) as a result of the solidification process
• Liquation cracks: occur in the coarse grain HAZ, in the near vicinity of
the fusion line as a result of heating the material to an elevated
temperature, high enough to produce liquation of the low melting point
constituents placed on grain boundaries.
2.2 Solidification cracks
Generally, solidification cracking can occur when:
• Weld metal has a high carbon or impurity (sulphur etc) element content
• Depth-to-width ratio of the solidifying weld bead is large (deep and
narrow)
• Disruption of the heat flow condition occurs, eg stop/start condition
The cracks can be wide and open to the surface like shrinkage voids or
sub-surface and possibly narrow.
Solidification cracking is most likely to occur in compositions, which result in

a wide freezing temperature range. In steels this is commonly created by a
higher than normal content of carbon and impurity elements such as sulphur
Rev 1 July 2008

Weld Imperfections
3
and phosphorus. These elements segregate during solidification, so that

intergranular liquid films remain after the bulk of the weld has solidified. The
thermal shrinkage of the cooling weld bead can cause these to rupture and
form a crack.
It is important that the welding fabricator does not weld on or near metal
surfaces covered with scale or which have been contaminated with oil or
grease. Scale can have a high sulphur content, and oil and grease can
supply both carbon and sulphur. Contamination with low melting point
metals such as copper, tin, lead, and zinc should also be avoided.
2.3 Hydrogen induced cracks
Root (underbead) crack Toe crack
Hydrogen induced cracking occurs primarily in the grain-coarsened region of

the HAZ, and is also known as cold cracking, delayed cracking or
underbead/toe cracking. Underbead cracking lies parallel to the fusion
boundary, and its path is usually a combination of intergranular and
transgranular cracking. The direction of the principal residual tensile stress
Rev 1 July 2008

Weld Imperfections
4
can, for toe cracks, cause the crack path to grow progressively away from
the fusion boundary towards a region of lower sensitivity to hydrogen
cracking. When this happens, the crack growth rate decreases and
eventually arrests.
A combination of four factors is necessary to cause HAZ hydrogen cracking:
1 Hydrogen level > 15ml/100g of weld metal deposited

2 Stress > 0.5 of the yield stress
3 Temperature < 3000C
4 Susceptible microstructure > 400HV hardness
If any one factor is not satisfied, cracking is prevented. Therefore, cracking

can be avoided through control of one or more of these factors.
• Apply preheat (to slow down the cooling rate and thus avoid the
formation of susceptible microstructures)
• Maintain a specific interpass temperature (same effect as preheat)
• Post heat on completion of welding (to reduce the hydrogen content by
allowing hydrogen to effuse from the weld area)
• Apply PWHT (to reduce residual stress and eliminate susceptible
microstructures)
• Reduce weld metal hydrogen by proper selection of welding process/
consumable (eg use TIG welding instead MMA, use basic covered
electrodes instead cellulose ones)
• Use multi-run instead single-run technique (eliminate susceptible
microstructures by means of self tempering effect, reduce the hydrogen
content by allowing hydrogen to effuse from the weld area)
• Use a temper bead or hot pass technique (same effect as above)
• Use austenitic or nickel filler (avoid susceptible microstructure formation
and allow hydrogen diffusion out of critical areas)
• Use dry shielding gases (reduce hydrogen content)
• Clean joint from rust (avoid hydrogen contamination from moisture
present in the rust)
• Reduce residual stress
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Weld Imperfections
5
• Blend the weld profile (reduce stress concentration at the toes of the
weld)
2.4 Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing occurs only in rolled steel products (primarily plates) and its
main distinguishing feature is that the cracking has a terraced appearance.
Cracking occurs in joints where:
• A thermal contraction strain occurs in the through-thickness direction of

steel plate
• Non-metallic inclusions are present as very thin platelets, with their
principal planes parallel to the plate surface
Contraction strain imposed on the planar non-metallic inclusions results in

progressive decohesion to form the roughly rectangular holes which are the
horizontal parts of the cracking, parallel to the plate surface. With further
strain, the vertical parts of the cracking are produced, generally by ductile
shear cracking. These two stages create the terraced appearance of these
cracks.
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Weld Imperfections
6
Two main options are available to control the problem in welded joints liable
to lamellar tearing:
• Use a clean steel with guaranteed through-thickness properties (Z

grade) a combination of joint design, restraint control and welding
sequence to
• Minimise the risk of cracking.
3 Cavities
Cavity
Gas cavity: formed Shrinkage cavity:

by entrapped gas caused by shrinkage
during solidification
Gas pore Interdendritic

shrinkage
Uniformly
distributed porosity Crater pipe
Clustered Microshrinkage
(localised) porosity
Linear porosity
Elongated cavity Interdendritic Transgranular

microshrinkage microshrinkage
Worm-hole
Surface pore
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Weld Imperfections
7
3.1 Gas pore
Description: A gas cavity of essentially spherical shape trapped within the

weld metal.
This gas cavity can be present in various forms:
• Isolated
• Uniformly distributed porosity
• Clustered (localised) porosity
• Linear porosity
• Elongated cavity
• Surface pore
Causes Prevention
Damp fluxes/corroded electrode (MMA) Use dry electrodes in good
condition
Grease/hydrocarbon/water Clean prepared surface
contamination of prepared surface
Air entrapment in gas shield (MIG/MAG Check hose connections
TIG)
Incorrect/insufficient deoxidant in Use electrode with sufficient
electrode, filler or parent metal deoxidation activity
Too high an arc voltage or arc length Reduce voltage and arc length
Gas evolution from priming Identify risk of reaction before
paints/surface treatment surface treatment is applied
Too high a shielding gas flow rate which Optimise gas flow rate
results in turbulence (MIG/MAG TIG)
Comments: Note that porosity can either be localised or finely dispersed

voids throughout the weld metal.
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Weld Imperfections
8
3.2 Worm holes
Description: Elongated or tubular cavities formed by entrapped gas during

the solidification of the weld metal; they can occur singly or in groups.
Causes Prevention
Gross contamination of Introduce preweld cleaning
preparation surface procedures
Laminated work surface Replace parent material with an
unlaminated piece
Crevices in work surface due to Eliminate joint shapes which produce
joint geometry crevices
Comments: Wormholes are caused by the progressive entrapment of gas

between the solidifying metal crystals (dendrites) producing characteristic
elongated pores of circular cross-section. These elongated pores can
appear as a herring-bone array on a radiograph. Some of them may break
the surface of the weld.
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Weld Imperfections
9
3.3 Surface porosity
Description: A gas pore that breaks the surface of the weld.
Causes Prevention
Damp or contaminated surface or Clean surface and dry electrodes
electrode
Low fluxing activity (MIG/MAG) Use a high activity flux
Excess sulphur (particularly free- Use high manganese electrode to
cutting steels) producing sulphur produce MnS, note free-cutting
dioxide steels (high sulphur) should not
normally be welded
Loss of shielding gas due to long Improve screening against draughts
arc or high breezes (MIG/MAG) and reduce arc length
Too high a shielding gas flow rate Optimise gas flow rate
which results in turbulence
(MIG/MAG TIG)
Comments: The origins of surface porosity are similar to those for uniform
porosity.
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Weld Imperfections
10
3.4 Crater pipe
Description: A shrinkage cavity at the end of a weld run. The main cause is
shrinkage during solidification.
Causes Prevention
Lack of welder skill due to using Retrain welder
processes with too high a current
Inoperative crater filler (slope out) Use correct crater filling techniques
(TIG)
Comments: Crater filling is a particular problem in TIG welding due to its

low heat input. To fill the crater for this process it is necessary to reduce the
weld current (slope out) in a series of descending steps until the arc is
extinguished.
4 Solid Inclusions
Definition: Solid foreign substances entrapped in the weld metal.
Solid
inclusion
Slag Flux Oxide Metallic

inclusion inclusion inclusion inclusion
Tungsten
Copper
Linear Isolated Clustered Other
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Weld Imperfections
11
4.1 Slag inclusions
Description: Slag trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an

irregular shape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore.
Causes Prevention
Incomplete slag removal from Improve inter-run slag removal
underlying surface of multipass
weld
Slag flooding ahead of arc Position work to gain control of slag.
Welder needs to correct electrode
angle
Entrapment of slag in work surface Dress work surface smooth
Comments: A fine dispersion of inclusions may be present within the weld

metal, particularly if the MMA process is used. These only become a
problem when large or sharp-edged inclusions are produced.
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Weld Imperfections
12
4.2 Flux inclusions

Description: Flux trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an irregular
shape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore. Appear only in case
of flux associated welding processes (ie MMA, SAW and FCAW).
Causes Prevention
Unfused flux due to damaged Use electrodes in good condition
coating
Flux fails to melt and becomes Change the flux/wire. Adjust welding
trapped in the weld (SAW or parameters ie current, voltage etc to
FCAW) produce satisfactory welding conditions
4.3 Oxide inclusions

Description: Oxides trapped during welding. The imperfection is of an
irregular shape and thus differs in appearance from a gas pore.
Causes Prevention
Heavy mill scale/rust on work Grind surface prior to welding
surface
Comments: A special type of oxide inclusion is puckering. This type of

defect occurs especially in the case of aluminium alloys. Gross oxide film
enfoldment can occur due to a combination of unsatisfactory protection from
atmospheric contamination and turbulence in the weld pool.
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Weld Imperfections
13
4.4 Tungsten inclusions
Description: Particles of tungsten can become embedded during TIG

welding. This imperfection appears as a light area on radiographs due to the
fact that tungsten is denser than the surrounding metal and absorbs larger
amounts of X/gamma radiation.
Causes Prevention
Contact of electrode tip with weld pool Keep tungsten out of weld pool;
use HF start
Contact of filler metal with hot tip of Avoid contact between electrode
electrode and filler metal
Contamination of the electrode tip by Reduce welding current; adjust
spatter from the weld pool shielding gas flow rate
Exceeding the current limit for a given Reduce welding current; replace
electrode size or type electrode with a larger diameter
one
Extension of electrode beyond the Reduce electrode extension
normal distance from the collet, and/or welding current
resulting in overheating of the
electrode
Inadequate tightening of the collet Tighten the collet
Inadequate shielding gas flow rate or Adjust the shielding gas flow rate;
excessive wind draughts resulting in protect the weld area; ensure that
oxidation of the electrode tip the post gas flow after stopping the
arc continues for at least
5 seconds
Splits or cracks in the electrode Change the electrode, ensure the
correct size tungsten is selected
for the given welding current used
Inadequate shielding gas (eg use of Change to correct gas composition
argon-oxygen or argon-carbon dioxide
mixtures that are used for MAG
welding)
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14
5 Lack of Fusion and Penetration

5.1 Lack of fusion
Definition: Lack of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or
between the successive layers of weld metal.
Lack of
fusion
Lack of sidewall Lack of inter-run Lack of root

fusion fusion fusion
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Weld Imperfections
15
5.1.1 Lack of sidewall fusion
Description: Lack of union between the weld and parent metal at one or
both sides of the weld.
Causes Prevention
Low heat input to weld Increase arc voltage and/or welding
current; decrease travel speed
Molten metal flooding ahead of Improve electrode angle and work
arc position; increase travel speed
Oxide or scale on weld Improve edge preparation procedure
preparation
Excessive inductance in MAG dip Reduce inductance, even if this
transfer welding increases spatter
Comments: During welding sufficient heat must be available at the edge of

the weld pool to produce fusion with the parent metal.
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16
5.1.2 Lack of inter-run fusion
Description: A lack of union along the fusion line, between the weld beads.
Causes Prevention
Low arc current resulting in low fluidity of weld Increase current
pool
Too high a travel speed Reduce travel speed
Inaccurate bead placement Retrain welder
Comments: Lack of inter-run fusion produce crevices between the weld

beads and cause local entrapment of slag.
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5.1.3 Lack of root fusion
Description: Lack of fusion between the weld and parent metal at the root
of a weld.
Causes Prevention
Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc
voltage; decrease travel speed
Excessive inductance in MAG dip Use correct induction setting for the
transfer welding, parent metal thickness
MMA electrode too large (low Reduce electrode size
current density)
Use of vertical down welding Switch to vertical up procedure
Large root face Reduce root face
Small root gap Ensure correct root opening
Incorrect angle or incorrect Use correct electrode angle. Ensure
electrode manipulation welder is fully qualified and competent
Excessive misalignment at root Ensure correct alignment
5.2 Lack of penetration
Lack of
penetration
Incomplete Incomplete root

penetration penetration
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5.2.1 Incomplete penetration
Description: The difference between the actual and nominal penetration.
Causes Prevention
Excessively thick root face, Improve back gouging technique and
insufficient root gap or failure to ensure the edge preparation is as per
cut back to sound metal in a back approved WPS
gouging operation
Low heat input Increase welding current and/or arc
voltage; decrease travel speed
Excessive inductance in MAG dip Improve electrical settings and possibly
transfer welding, pool flooding switch to spray arc transfer
ahead of arc
MMA electrode too large (low Reduce electrode size
current density)
Use of vertical down welding Switch to vertical up procedure
Comments: If the weld joint is not of a critical nature, ie the required

strength is low and the area is not prone to fatigue cracking, it is possible to
produce a partial penetration weld. In this case incomplete root penetration
is considered part of this structure and is not an imperfection (this would
normally be determined by the design or code requirement).
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5.2.2 Incomplete root penetration
Description: One or both fusion faces of the root are not melted. When
examined from the root side, you can clearly see one or both of the root
edges unmelted.
Causes and prevention: Same as for lack of root fusion.
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20
6 Imperfect Shape and Dimensions

6.1 Undercut
Description: An irregular groove at the toe of a run in the parent metal or in

a previously deposited weld metal due to welding. It is characterised by its
depth, length and sharpness.
Undercut
Continuous Intermittent Inter run

undercut undercut undercut
Causes Prevention
Melting of top edge due to high Reduce power input, especially
welding current (especially at free approaching a free edge where
edge) or high travel speed overheating can occur
Attempting a fillet weld in horizontal Weld in the flat position or use
vertical position (PB) with leg length multirun techniques
>9mm
Excessive/incorrect weaving Reduce weaving width or switch to
multiruns
Incorrect electrode angle Direct arc towards thicker member
Incorrect shielding gas selection Ensure correct gas mixture for
(MAG) material type and thickness (MAG)
Comments: Care must be taken during weld repairs of undercut to control

the heat input. If the bead of a repair weld is too small, the cooling rate
following welding will be excessive and the parent metal may have an
increased hardness and the weld may be susceptible to hydrogen cracking.
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21
6.2 Excess weld metal
Description: Excess weld metal is the extra metal that produces excessive
convexity in fillet welds and a weld thickness greater than the parent metal
plate in butt welds. This feature of a weld is regarded as an imperfection
only when the height of the excess weld metal is greater than a specified
limit.
Causes Prevention
Excess arc energy (MAG, Reduction of heat input
SAW)
Shallow edge preparation Deepen edge preparation
Faulty electrode manipulation Improve welder skill
or build-up sequence
Incorrect electrode size Reduce electrode size
Too slow a travel speed Ensure correct travel speed is used
Incorrect electrode angle Ensure correct electrode angle is used
Wrong polarity used (electrode Ensure correct polarity ie DC +VE
polarity DC-VE (MMA, SAW ) Note DC-VE must be used for TIG
Comments: The term “reinforcement” used to designate this feature of the

weld is misleading since the excess metal does not normally produce a
stronger weld in a butt joint in ordinary steel. This imperfection can become
a problem, as the angle of the weld toe can be sharp, leading to an
increased stress concentration at the toes of the weld and fatigue cracking.
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6.3 Excess penetration
Description: Projection of the root penetration bead beyond a specified limit

can be local or continuous.
Causes Prevention
Weld heat input too high Reduce arc voltage and/or welding
current; increase welding speed
Incorrect weld preparation ie Improve workpiece preparation
excessive root gap, thin edge
preparation, lack of backing
Use of electrode unsuited to Use correct electrode for position
welding position
Lack of welder skill Retrain welder
Comments: Note that the maintenance of a penetration bead having

uniform dimensions requires a great deal of skill, particularly in pipe butt
welding. This can be made more difficult if there is restricted access to the
weld or a narrow preparation. The use of permanent or temporary backing
bars can be used to assist in the control of penetration.
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6.4 Overlap
Description: An imperfection at the toe of a weld caused by metal flowing

on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it.
Causes Prevention
Poor electrode manipulation Retrain welder
(MMA)
High heat input/low travel speed Reduce heat input or limit leg size to
causing surface flow of fillet welds 9mm maximum leg size for single pass
fillets.
Incorrect positioning of weld Change to flat position
Wrong electrode coating type Change electrode coating type to a
resulting in too high a fluidity more suitable fast freezing type which
is less fluid
Comments: For a fillet weld overlap is often associated with undercut, as if

the weld pool is too fluid the top of the weld will flow away to produce
undercut at the top and overlap at the base. If the volume of the weld pool is
too large in case of a fillet weld in horizontal-vertical position (PB), weld
metal will collapse due to gravity, producing both defects (undercut at the
top and overlap at the base). This defect is called “sagging”.
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6.5 Linear misalignment
Description: Misalignment between two welded pieces such that while their
surface planes are parallel, they are not in the required same plane.
Causes Prevention
Inaccuracies in assembly Adequate checking of alignment prior to
procedures or distortion from welding coupled with the use of clamps
other welds and wedges
Excessive out of flatness in hot Check accuracy of rolled section prior to
rolled plates or sections welding
Comments: Misalignment is not really a weld imperfection, but a structural

preparation problem. Even a small amount of misalignment can drastically
increase the local shear stress at a joint and induce bending stress.
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25
6.6 Angular distortion
Description: Misalignment between two welded pieces such that their

surface planes are not parallel or at the intended angle.
Causes and prevention: Same as for linear misalignment.
6.7 Incompletely filled groove
Description: A continuous or intermittent channel in the surface of a weld

due to insufficient deposition of weld filler metal.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient weld metal Increase the number of weld runs
Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder
Comments: This imperfection differs from undercut, as incompletely filled

groove reduces the load bearing capacity of a weld, whereas undercut
produces a sharp stress-raising notch at the edge of a weld.
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6.8 Irregular width
Description: Excessive variation in width of the weld.
Causes Prevention
Severe arc blow Switch from DC to AC, keep an as short
as possible arc length
Irregular weld bead surface Retrain welder
Comments: Although this imperfection may not affect the integrity of

completed weld, it can affect the width of HAZ and reduce the load-carrying
capacity of the joint (in case of fine-grained structural steels) or impair
corrosion resistance (in case of duplex stainless steels).
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27
6.9 Root concavity
Description: A shallow groove that occurs due to shrinkage at the root of a

butt weld.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient arc power to produce Raise arc energy
positive bead
Incorrect prep/fit-up Work to WPS
Excessive backing gas pressure Reduce gas pressure
(TIG)
Slag flooding in backing bar groove Tilt work to prevent slag flooding
Comments: The use of a backing strip can be used to control the extent of
the root bead.
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6.10 Burn through
Description: A collapse of the weld pool resulting in a hole in the weld.
Causes Prevention
Insufficient travel speed Increase the travel speed
Excessive welding current Reduce welding current
Excessive grinding of root face More care taken, retrain welder
Excessive root gap Ensure correct fit up
Comments: This is a gross imperfection, which occurs basically due to lack

of welder skill. It can be repaired by bridging the gap formed into the joint,
but requires a great deal of attention.
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7 Miscellaneous Imperfections
7.1 Stray arc
Description: Local damage to the surface of the parent metal adjacent to

the weld, resulting from arcing or striking the arc outside the weld groove.
The result is in form of random areas of fused metal where the electrode,
the holder, or current return clamp has accidentally touched the work.
Causes Prevention
Poor access to the work Improve access (modify assembly
sequence)
Missing insulation on electrode Institute a regular inspection scheme
holder or torch for electrode holders and torches
Failure to provide an insulated Provide an insulated resting place
resting place for the electrode
holder or torch when not in use
Loose current return clamp Regularly maintain current return
clamps
Adjusting wire feed (MAG welding) Retrain welder
without isolating welding current
Comments: An arc strike can produce a hard HAZ, which may contain
cracks. These can lead to serious cracking in service. It is better to remove
an arc strike by grinding than weld repair.
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7.2 Spatter
Description: Globules of weld metal or filler metal expelled during welding

and adhering to the surface of parent metal or solidified weld metal.
Causes Prevention
High arc current Reduce arc current
Long arc length Reduce Arc Length
Magnetic arc blow Reduce arc length or switch to AC
power
Incorrect settings for GMAW Modify electrical settings (but be
process careful to maintain full fusion!)
Damp electrodes Use dry electrodes
Wrong selection of shielding gas Increase argon content if possible,
(100% CO2) however too high a % of argon may
lead to lack of penetration
Comments: Spatter in itself is a cosmetic imperfection and does not affect

the integrity of the weld. However as it is usually caused by an excessive
welding current, it is a sign that the welding conditions are not ideal and so
there are usually other associated problems within the structure ie high heat
input. Note that some spatter is always produced by open arc consumable
electrode welding processes. Anti-spatter compounds can be used on the
parent metal to reduce sticking and the spatter can then be scraped off.
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7.3 Torn surface

Description: Surface damage due to the removal by fracture of temporary
welded attachments. The area should be ground off, then subjected to a dye
penetrant or magnetic particle examination and then restored to its original
shape by welding using a qualified procedure. NOTE: Some applications do
not allow the presence of any overlay weld on the surface of the parent
material.
7.4 Additional imperfections

7.4.1 Grinding mark
Description: Local damage due to grinding.
7.4.2 Chipping mark

Description: Local damage due to the use of a chisel or other tools.
7.4.3 Underflushing
Description: Lack of thickness of the workpiece due to excessive grinding.
7.4.4 Misalignment of opposite runs

Description: Difference between the centrelines of two runs made from
opposite sides of the joint.
7.4.5 Temper colour (visible oxide film)

Description: Lightly oxidised surface in the weld zone. Usually occurs in
case of stainless steels.
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32
8 Acceptance Standards
Weld imperfections can seriously reduce the integrity of a welded structure.
Therefore, prior to service of a welded joint, it is necessary to locate them
using NDE techniques, assess their significance, and take action to avoid
their re-occurrence.
The acceptance of a certain size and type of defect for a given structure is
normally expressed as the defect acceptance standard. This is usually
incorporated in application standards or specifications.
All normal weld imperfection acceptance standards totally reject cracks.

However, in exceptional circumstances, and subject to the agreement of all
parties, cracks may be allowed to remain if it can be demonstrated beyond
doubt that they will not lead to failure. This can be difficult to establish and
usually involves fracture mechanics measurements and calculations.
It is important to note that the levels of acceptability vary between different

applications, and in most cases vary between different standards for the
same application. Consequently, when inspecting different jobs it is
important to use the applicable standard or specification quoted in the
contract.
Once unacceptable weld imperfections have been found, they have to be

removed. If the weld imperfection is at the surface, the first consideration is
whether it is of a type, which is normally shallow enough to be repaired by
superficial dressing. Superficial implies that, after removal of the defect, the
remaining material thickness is sufficient not to require the addition of further
weld metal.
If the defect is too deep, it must be removed by some means and new weld
metal added to ensure a minimum design throat thickness.
Replacing removed metal or weld repair (as in filling an excavation or re-

making a weld joint) has to be done in accordance with an approved
procedure. The rigor with which this procedure is qualified will depend on
the application standard for the job. In some cases it will be acceptable to
use a procedure qualified for making new joints whether filling an excavation
or making a complete joint. If the level of reassurance required is higher, the
qualification will have to be made using an exact simulation of a welded
joint, which is excavated and then refilled using a specified method. In either
case, qualification inspection and testing will be required in accordance with
the application standard.
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Section 21
Weld Repairs
1
Weld repairs can be divided into two specific areas:
1 Production repairs
2 In service repairs
The reasons for making a repair are many and varied. Typically, they range
from the removal of weld defects induced during manufacture to a quick and
temporary running-repair to an item of production plant. In these terms, the
subject of welding repairs is also wide and varied and often confused with
maintenance and refurbishment where the work can be scheduled.
With planned maintenance and refurbishment, sufficient time can be allowed

to enable the tasks to be completed without production pressures being
applied. In contrast, repairs are usually unplanned and may result in
shortcuts being taken to allow the production programme to continue. It is,
therefore, advisable for a fabricator to have an established policy on repairs
and to have repair methods and procedures in place.
The manually controlled welding processes are the easiest to use,

particularly if it is a local repair or one to be carried out on-site. Probably the
most frequently used of these processes is manual metal arc (MMA) as this
is versatile, portable and readily applicable to many alloys because of the
wide range of off-the-shelf consumables. Repairs almost always result in
higher residual stresses and increased distortion compared with first time
welds. With carbon-manganese and low/medium alloy steels, the application
of preheat and post-weld heat treatments may be required.
There are a number of key factors that need to be considered before

undertaking any repair.
The most important being a judgement as to whether it is financially

worthwhile. Before this judgement can be made, the fabricator needs to
answer the following questions:
1 Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?

2 Are there any alternatives to welding?
3 What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
4 How is the defect to be removed and what welding process is to be
used?
5 Which non-destructive testing (NDT) is required to ensure complete
removal of the defect?
6 Will the welding procedures require approval/re-approval?
7 What will be the effect of welding distortion and residual stress?
8 Will heat treatment be required?
9 What NDT is required and how can acceptability of the repair be
demonstrated?
10 Will approval of the repair be required - if yes, how and by whom?
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2
Although a weld repair may be a relatively straightforward activity, in many

instances it can be quite complex and various engineering disciplines may
need to be involved to ensure a successful outcome.
It is recommended that there be an ongoing analysis of the types of defect

carried out by the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for their
occurrence, (Material/process or skill related.)
In general terms, a welding repair involves:
1 A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the defect. This

may involve the use of a surface or sub-surface NDT methods.
2 Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint grease etc)
3 Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and
marked out.
4 An excavation procedure may be required (method used ie grinding,
arc-air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
5 NDT should be used to locate the defect and confirm its removal.
6 A welding repair procedure/method statement with the appropriate*
welding process, consumable, technique, controlled heat input and
interpass temperatures etc will need to be approved.
7 Use of approved welders.
8 Dressing the weld and final visual.
9 NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to ensure that the
defect has been successfully removed and repaired.
10 Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
11 Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out after heat
treatment requirements.
12 Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate’ means suitable for the alloys being repaired and may not
apply in specific situations)
1 Production Repairs
Repairs are usually identified during production inspection and evaluation of
the reports is usually carried out by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator.
Discontinuities in the welds are only classed as defects when they are
outside the permitted range permitted by the applied code or standard.
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be fulfilled:
Analysis
As this defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion face the
problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion. If the defect is found to
be cracking the cause may be associated with the material or the welding
procedure, however if the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be
apportioned to the lack of skill of the welder.
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3
Assessment
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, magnetic particle
inspection (MPI) or dye penetrant inspection (DPI) may be used to gauge
the length of the defect and ultrasonic testing (U/T) used to gauge the depth.
A typical defect is shown below:
Plan view of defect
Excavation
If a thermal method of excavation is being used ie arc-air gouging it may be
a requirement to qualify a procedure as the heat generated may have an
affect on the metallurgical structure, resulting in the risk of cracking in the
weld or parent material
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Weld Repairs
4
To prevent cracking it may be necessary to apply a preheat.
The depth to width ratio shall not be less than 1 (depth) to 1 (width) ideally 1
to 1.5 would be recommended (ratio: depth 1 to the width 1.5)
Side view of excavation for slight sub surface defect

W
Side view of excavation for deep defect
Side view of excavation for full root repair
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5
Cleaning of the excavation

At this stage grinding of the repair area is important, due to the risk of
carbon becoming impregnated into the weld metal/parent material.
It should be ground back typically 3 to 4mm to bright metal.
Confirmation of excavation
At this stage NDT should be used to confirm that the defect has been
completely excavated from the area.
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6
Re-welding of the excavation

Prior to re-welding of the excavation a detailed repair welding procedure/
method statement shall be approved.
Typical side view of weld repair
NDT confirmation of successful repair

After the excavation has been filled the weldment should then undergo a
complete retest using the same NDT techniques as previously used to
establish the original repair, this is carried out to ensure no further defects
have been introduced by the repair welding process. NDT may also need to
be further applied after any additional post-weld heat treatment has been
carried out.
2 In-Service Repairs
Most in-service repairs can be of a very complex nature, as the component
is very likely to be in a different welding position and condition than it was
during production. It may also have been in contact with toxic or combustible
fluids hence a permit to work will need to be sought prior to any work being
carried out. The repair welding procedure may look very different to the
original production procedure due to changes in these elements.
Other factors may also be taken into consideration, such as the effect of
heat on any surrounding areas of the component ie electrical components,
or materials that may become damaged by the repair procedure. This may
also include difficulty in carrying out any required pre- or post-welding heat
treatments and a possible restriction of access to the area to be repaired.
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take place on-site
and without a shut down of operations, which may bring other elements that
need to be considered.
Repair of in service defects may require consideration of these and many

other factors, and as such are generally considered more complicated than
production repairs.
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Weld Repairs
7
Joining technologies often play a vital role in the repair and maintenance of
structures. Parts can be replaced, worn or corroded parts can be built up,
and cracks can be repaired.
When a repair is required it is important to determine two things: firstly, the

reason for failure and, secondly, can the component actually be repaired?
The latter point infers that the material type is known. For metals,
particularly those to be welded, the chemical composition is vitally important.
Failure modes often indicate the approach required to make a sound repair.
When the cause-effect analysis, however simple, is not followed through it is
often the case that the repair is unsafe - sometimes disastrously so.
In many instances, the Standard or Code used to design the structure will
define the type of repair that can be carried out and will also give guidance
on the methods to be followed. Standards imply that when designing or
manufacturing a new product it is important to consider a maintenance
regime and repair procedures. Repairs may be required during manufacture
and this situation should also be considered.
Normally, there is more than one way of making a repair. For example,
cracks in cast iron might be held together or repaired by: pinning, bolting,
riveting, welding, or brazing. The method chosen will depend on factors
such as the reason for the failure, the material composition and cleanliness,
the environment and the size and shape of the component.
It is very important that repair and maintenance welding are not regarded
as activities, which are simple or straightforward. In many instances a repair
may seem undemanding but the consequences of getting it wrong can be
catastrophic failure with disastrous consequences.
Is welding the best method of repair?

If repair is called for because a component has a local irregularity or a
shallow defect, grinding out any defects and blending to a smooth contour
might well be acceptable. It will certainly be preferable if the steel has poor
weldability or if fatigue loading is severe. It is often better to reduce the so-
called factor of safety slightly, than to risk putting defects, stress
concentrations and residual stresses into a brittle material.
In fact brittle materials - which can include some steels (particularly in thick
sections) as well as cast irons - may not be able to withstand the residual
stresses imposed by heavy weld repairs, particularly if defects are not all
removed, leaving stress concentrations to initiate cracking.
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?

Repairs of one sort may have been routine for many years. It is important,
however, to check that the next one is not subtly different. For example, the
section thickness may be greater; the steel to be repaired may be different
and less weldable, or the restraint higher. If there is any doubt, answer the
remaining questions.
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Weld Repairs
8
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?

The original drawings will usually give some idea of the steel involved,
although the specification limits may then have been less stringent, and the
specification may not give enough compositional details to be helpful. If
sulphur-bearing free-machining steel is involved, it could give hot cracking
problems during welding.
If there is any doubt about the composition, a chemical analysis should be

carried out. It is important to analyse for all elements, which may affect
weldability (Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, V, Nb and B) as well as those usually, specified
(C, S, P, Si and Mn).
A small cost spent on analysis could prevent a valuable component being

ruined by ill-prepared repairs or, save money by reducing or avoiding the
need for preheat if the composition were leaner than expected. Once the
composition is known, a welding procedure can be devised
What strength is required from the repair?

The higher the yield strength of the repair weld metal, the greater will be the
residual stress level on completion of welding, the greater the risk of
cracking, the greater the clamping needed to avoid distortion and more
difficulty in formulating the welding procedure. In any case, the practical limit
for the yield strength of conventional steel weld metals is about 1000N/mm2.
Can preheat be tolerated?

Not only does a high level of preheat make conditions more difficult for the
welder; the parent steel can be damaged if it has been tempered at a low
temperature. In other cases the steel being repaired may contain items,
which are damaged by excessive heating. Preheat levels can be reduced by
using consumables of ultra-low hydrogen content or by non-ferritic weld
metals. Of these, austenitic electrodes may need some preheat, but the
more expensive nickel alloys usually do not. However, the latter may be
sensitive to high sulphur and phosphorus contents in the parent steel if
diluted into the weld metal.
Can softening or hardening of the heat affected zone (HAZ) be

tolerated?
Softening of the HAZ is likely in very high strength steels, particularly if they
have been tempered at low temperatures. Such softening cannot be
avoided, but its extent can be minimised. Hard HAZs are particularly
vulnerable where service conditions can lead to stress corrosion. Solutions
containing H2S (hydrogen sulphide) may demand hardness’ below 248HV
(22HRC) although fresh aerated seawater appears to tolerate up to about
450HV. Excessively hard HAZ’s may, therefore, require post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT) to soften them but provided cracking has been avoided.
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9
Is PWHT practicable?
Although it may be desirable, PWHT may not be possible for the same
reasons that preheating is not possible. For large structures, local PWHT
may be possible, but care should be taken to abide by the relevant codes,
because it is all too easy to introduce new residual stresses by improperly
executed PWHT.
Is PWHT necessary?
PWHT may be needed for one of several reasons, and the reason must be
known before considering whether it can be avoided.
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?

If the repair is in an area, which is highly stressed by fatigue, and particularly
if the attempted repair is of a fatigue crack, inferior fatigue life can be
expected unless the weld surface is ground smooth and no surface defects
are left. Fillet welds, in which the root cannot be ground smooth, are not
tolerable in areas of high fatigue stress.
Will the repair resist its environment?

Besides corrosion, it is important to consider the possibility of stress
corrosion, corrosion fatigue, thermal fatigue and oxidation in service.
Corrosion and oxidation resistance usually requires that the composition of

the filler metal is at least as noble or oxidation resistant as the parent metal.
For corrosion fatigue resistance, the repair weld profile may need to be
smoothed.
To resist stress corrosion, PWHT may be necessary to restore the correct

microstructure, reduce hardness and reduce the residual stress left by the
repair.
Can the repair be inspected and tested?

For onerous service, radiography and/or ultrasonic examination are often
desirable, but problems are likely if stainless steel or nickel alloy filler is
used; moreover, such repairs cannot be assessed by magnetic particle
inspection. In such cases, it is particularly important to carry out the
procedural tests for repairs very critically, to ensure that there are no risks of
cracking and no likelihood of serious welder-induced defects.
Indeed, for all repair welds, it is vital to ensure that the welders are properly
motivated and carefully supervised.
As-welded repairs
Repair without PWHT is, of course, normal where the original weld was not
heat treated, but some alloy steels and many thick-sectioned components
require PWHT to maintain a reasonable level of toughness, corrosion
resistance etc. However, PWHT of components in service is not always
easy or even possible, and local PWHT may give rise to more problems
than it solves except in simple structures.
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Weld Repairs
Section 22
Arc Welding Safety

1
1 General
Working in a safe manner, whether in the workshop or on site, is an
important consideration in any welding operation. The responsibility for
safety is on the individuals, not only for their own safety, but also for other
people’s safety. The Visual/Welding Inspector has an important function in
ensuring that safe working legislation is in place and safe working practices
are implemented. The Inspector may be required to carry out safety audits
of welding equipment prior to welding, implement risk assessment/permit to
work requirements or monitor the safe working operations for a particular
task, during welding.
There are a number of documents that the inspector may refer to for
guidance:
• Government legislation – The Health & Safety at Work Act.

• Health & Safety Executive – COSHH Regulations, Statutory instruments.
• Work or site instructions – permits to work, risk assessment documents
etc
• Local authority requirements.
There are four aspects of arc welding safety that the Visual/Welding
Inspector needs to consider
• Electric shock
• Heat and light
• Fumes and gases
• Noise
2 Electric Shock
The hazard of electric shock is one of the most serious and immediate risks
facing personnel involved in the welding operation.
Contact with metal parts, which are electrically hot, can cause injury or
death because of the effect of the shock upon the body or because of a fall
as a result of the reaction to electric shock.
The electric shock hazard associated with arc welding may be divided into
two categories:
• Primary voltage shock - 230 or 460V

• Secondary voltage shock - 60 to 100V
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Arc Welding Safety
2
Primary voltage shock is very hazardous because it is much greater than

the secondary voltage of the welding equipment. Electric shock from the
primary (input) voltage can occur by touching a lead inside the welding
equipment with the power to the welder switched on while the body or hand
touches the welding equipment case or other earthed metal. Residual circuit
devices (RCDs) connected to circuit breakers of sufficient capacity will help
to protect the welder and other personnel from the danger of primary electric
shock.
Secondary voltage shock occurs when touching a part of the electrode

circuit - perhaps a damaged area on the electrode cable - and another part
of the body touches both sides of the welding circuit (electrode and work, or
welding earth) at the same time.
Most welding equipment is unlikely to exceed open circuit voltages of 100V.

Electric shock, even at this level can be serious, so the welding circuit
should be fitted with low voltage safety devices, to minimise the potential of
secondary electric shock.
A correctly wired welding circuit should contain three leads:
• A welding lead, from one terminal of the power source to the electrode
holder or welding torch.
• A welding return lead to complete the circuit, from the work to the other
terminal of the power source.
• An earth lead, from the work to an earth point. The power source should
also be earthed.
All three leads should be capable of carrying the highest welding current
required.
In order to establish whether the capacity of any piece of current carrying

equipment is adequate for the job, the Visual/ Welding Inspector can refer to
the Duty Cycle of the equipment.
All current carrying welding equipment is rated in terms of:
Duty cycle
All current carrying conductors heat up when welding current is passed
through them. Duty cycle is essentially a measure of the capability of the
welding equipment in terms of the ratio of welding time to total time, which
can be expressed as:
Duty cycle = Welding time x 100

Total time
By observing this ratio the current carrying conductors will not be heated
above their rated temperature. Duty cycles are based on a total time of 10
minutes.
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Arc Welding Safety
3
Example
A power source has a rated output of 350A at 60% duty cycle.
This means that this particular power source will deliver 350A (its rated
output) for six minutes out of every ten minutes without overheating.
Failure to carefully observe the duty cycle of a piece of equipment can over
stress the part, and in the case of welding equipment cause overheating
leading to instability and the potential for electric shock.
3 Heat and Light

3.1 Heat
In arc welding, electrical energy is converted into heat energy and light
energy, both of which can have serious health consequences.
The welding arc creates sparks, which have the potential to cause
flammable materials near the welding area to ignite and cause fires. The
welding area should be clear of all combustible materials and it is good
practice for the Inspector to know where the nearest fire extinguishers are
situated and know the correct type of fire extinguisher to use if a fire does
break out.
Welding sparks can cause serious burns, so protective clothing, such as

welding gloves, flame retardant coveralls and leathers must be worn around
any welding operation in order to protect against heat and sparks.
3.2 Light
Light radiation is emitted by the welding arc in three principal ranges:
Wavelength,
Type
nanometres
Infrared (heat) >700
Visible light 400-700
Ultraviolet radiation <400
3.2.1 Ultraviolet radiation (UV)

All arc processes generate UV. Excess exposure to UV causes skin
inflammation, and possibly even skin cancer or permanent eye damage.
However the main risk amongst welders and Inspectors is for inflammation
of the cornea and conjunctiva, commonly known as arc eye or flash.
Rev 1 July 2008

Arc Welding Safety
4
Arc eye is caused by UV radiation. This damages the outmost protective

layer of cells in the cornea. Gradually the damaged cells die and fall off the
cornea exposing highly sensitive nerves in the underlying cornea to the
comparatively rough inner part of the eyelid. This causes intense pain,
usually described as sand in the eye. The pain becomes even more acute if
the eye is then exposed to bright light.
Arc eye develops some hours after exposure, which may not even have
been noticed. The sand in the eye symptom and pain usually lasts for 12-24
hours, but can be longer in more severe cases. Fortunately, arc eye is
almost always a temporary condition. In the unlikely event of prolonged and
frequently repeated exposures, permanent damage can occur.
Treatment of arc eye is simple: rest in a dark room. A qualified person or

hospital casualty department can administer various soothing anaesthetic
eye drops. These can provide almost instantaneous relief. Prevention is
better than cure and wearing safety glasses with side shields will
considerably reduce the risk of this condition.
Ultraviolet effects upon the skin

The UV from arc processes does not produce the browning effect of
sunburn; but does result in reddening and irritation caused by changes in
the minute surface blood vessels. In extreme cases, the skin may be
severely burned and blisters may form. The reddened skin may die and
flake off in a day or so. Where there has been intense prolonged or frequent
exposure, skin cancers can develop.
3.2.2 Visible light

Intense visible light particularly approaching UV or blue light wavelengths
passes through the cornea and lens and can dazzle and, in extreme cases,
damage the network of optically sensitive nerves on the retina. Wave-
lengths of visible light approaching the infrared have slightly different effects
but can produce similar symptoms. Effects depend on the duration and
intensity of exposure and to some extent, upon the individual's natural reflex
action to close the eye and exclude the incident light. Normally this dazzling
does not produce a long-term effect.
3.2.3 Infrared radiation

Infrared radiation is of longer wavelength than the visible light frequencies,
and is perceptible as heat. The main hazard to the eyes is that prolonged
exposure (over a matter of years) causes a gradual but irreversible opacity
of the lens. Fortunately, the infrared radiation emitted by normal welding
arcs causes damage only within a comparatively short distance from the
arc. There is an immediate burning sensation in the skin surrounding the
eyes should they be exposed to arc heat. The natural human reaction is to
move or cover up to prevent the skin heating, which also reduces eye
exposure.
Rev 1 July 2008

Arc Welding Safety
5
BS EN169 specifies a range of permanent filter shades of gradually

increasing optical density which limit exposure to radiation emitted by
different processes at different currents. It must be stressed that shade
numbers indicated in the standard and the corresponding current ranges are
for guidance only.
4 Fumes and gases

4.1 Fumes
Because of the variables involved in fume generation from arc welding and
allied processes (such as the welding process and electrode, the base
metal, coatings on the base metal and other possible contaminants in the
air), the dangers of welding fume can be considered in a general way.
Although health considerations vary according to the type of fume
composition and individual reactions, the following holds true for most
welding fume.
The fume plume contains solid particles from the consumables, base metal
and base metal coating. Depending on the length of exposure to these
fumes, most acute effects are temporary and include symptoms of burning
eyes and skin, dizziness, nausea and fever.
For example, zinc fumes can cause metal fume fever, a temporary illness
that is similar to the flu. Chronic, long-term exposure to welding fumes can
lead to siderosis (iron deposits in the lungs) and may affect pulmonary
function.
Cadmium, however, is a different story. This toxic metal can be found on

steel as a coating or in silver solder. Cadmium fumes can be fatal even
under brief exposure, with symptoms much like those of metal fume fever.
These two should not be confused. Twenty minutes of welding in the
presence of cadmium can be enough to cause fatalities, with symptoms
appearing within an hour and death five days later.
4.2 Gases
The gases that result from an arc welding process also present a potential
hazard. Most of the shielding gases (argon, helium and carbon dioxide) are
non-toxic. When released, however, these gases displace oxygen in the
breathing air, causing dizziness, unconsciousness and death the longer the
brain is denied oxygen.
Some degreasing compounds such as trichlorethylene and perchlor-

ethylene can decompose from the heat and ultraviolet radiation to produce
toxic gases. Ozone and nitrogen oxides are produced when UV radiation
hits the air. These gases cause headaches, chest pains, irritation of the
eyes and itchiness in the nose and throat.
Rev 1 July 2008

Arc Welding Safety
6
To reduce the risk of hazardous fumes and gases, keep the head out of the
fume plume. As obvious as this sounds, it is a common cause of fume and
gas over-exposure because the concentration of fumes and gases is
greatest in the plume.
In addition, use mechanical ventilation or local exhaust at the arc to direct

the fume plume away from the face. If this is not sufficient, use fixed or
movable exhaust hoods to draw the fume from the general area. Finally, it
may be necessary to wear an approved respiratory device if sufficient
ventilation cannot be provided.
As a rule of thumb, if the air is visibly clear and the welder is comfortable,
the ventilation is probably adequate.
To identify hazardous substances, first read the material safety data sheet
for the consumable to see what fumes can be reasonably expected from
use of the product.
Refer to the Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) as defined in the COSHH

regulations which gives maximum concentrations to which a healthy adult
can be exposed to any one substance.
Second, know the base metal and determine if a paint or coating would
cause toxic fumes or gases.
Particular attention should also be made to the dangers of asphyxiation

when welding in confined spaces. Risk assessment, permits to work and
gas testing are some of the necessary actions required to ensure the safety
of all personnel.
5 Noise
Exposure to loud noise can permanently damage hearing. Noise can also
cause stress and increase blood pressure. Working in a noisy environment
for long periods can contribute to tiredness, nervousness and irritability. If
the noise exposure is greater than 85 decibels averaged over an 8 hour
period then hearing protection must be worn, and annual hearing tests
should be carried out.
Normal welding operations are not associated with noise level problems with
two exceptions: Plasma arc welding and air carbon arc cutting. If either of
these two operations is to be performed then hearing protectors must be
worn. The noise associated with welding is usually due to ancillary
operations such as chipping, grinding and hammering. Hearing protection
must be worn when carrying out, or when working in the vicinity of, these
operations.
Rev 1 July 2008

Arc Welding Safety
7
6 Summary
The best way to manage the risks associated with welding is by
implementing risk management programmes. Risk management is a
method that requires the identification of hazards, assessment of the risks
and implementation of suitable controls to reduce the risk to an acceptable
level.
It is essential to evaluate and review a risk management programme.

Evaluation involves ensuring that control measures have eliminated or
reduced the risks, and review aims to check that the process is working
effectively to identify hazards and manage risks.
It is quite likely that the Visual/Welding Inspector would be involved in

managing the risks associated with welding as part of their duties.
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Arc Welding Safety
Section 23
Appendices
Appendix 1
CSWIP Senior Welding Inspector
Question:
You are required to visit a site on which your inspection team have been working. The
fabrication is now completed in accordance with a nominated specification and is
awaiting your final inspection/approval.
Prior to signing the Certificate of Conformance;
1) What questions do you ask?

2) What measurements would you take?
3) What documents would you review?
Typical answer:
Prior to the site visit it is vital to spend some time planning the visit in order that a logical
approach be made and that important details are not overlooked. Knowledge of the
standard used and an idea of the service conditions would be useful in assessing the
fitness for purpose of the product. A list of all personnel in the inspection team(s) and
contact details of team leader(s) will ensure that relevant personnel are available to
answer questions as required. Types of questions may include any difficulties
encountered with the job, particularly attention being given to those concerning the
contractor. Further information regarding repair rates, safety standards on-site and the
general moral and standard of work amongst the inspection team(s) throughout
production. Any unusual incidents may also need to be investigated. The availability of
quality plans will help greatly in the planning of the audit. The review/audit of all relevant
documentation is a major requirement prior to signing any Certificate of Conformance
or compliance. In some major standards/codes the list of documents to be included
within the fabrication file are listed. In the absence of such the following could be
considered a basic guide to these documents for review/audit:
1) A review of the quality plan and inspection check list to ensure all stages are
completed and signed off.
2) Material certificates, mill test reports, and material traceability records are
documented and accepted. (This may include welding consumables.)
3) Process control procedures should be reviewed for adequacy, accuracy and

approval. These should include approved procedures for cutting, welding, repair,
NDT, heat treatment, coating etc.
4) Review of qualifications should include welder approvals, NDT operator or

technician approvals. All inspection approvals should be in date at time of
fabrication and as identified and described within the contract documents.
1
5) Inspection reports should be reviewed and should include visual inspection, NDT,
dimensional control, painting/coating etc.
6) If the product is pressure containment ie pressure vessel or high pressure pipeline

etc. then hydrostatic testing procedures and a test report/acceptance reports should
be reviewed, along with test gauge calibration certificates and any associated
documentation.
7) As built drawings showing materials and weld maps should be reviewed for
completeness.
8) Finally, transit and tie down procedures should all have been approved by the
relevant engineer prior to the final acceptance of the product and issue of any signed
certificate of conformance.
2
Reference to the specification
As-built weld maps weld traceability log
Weld numbers
Welder numbers
Material classification and certification
Welding procedure numbers (WPS PQRs) and documentation
Material traceability and material certificates
Consumable control procedures and consumable certificates
Welder’s register and all approval certificates
Weld visual inspection procedures and visual inspection reports
List of NDT operators and approval certificates
NDT procedures
NDT Procedures:
NDT reports
R/T report numbers
U/T report numbers
MPI report numbers
Dye/pen report numbers
Dimensional control procedures and dimensional control reports
PWHT procedures and PWHT reports + calibration certificates
Hydrotest procedures and hydrotest reports + calibration certificates
Painting procedures and painting conformance reports
Non-conformance reports
Load out procedure
Engineering queries
As-built drawings
3
Appendix 2
Senior Welding Inspector
Technical Notes Rad. U/T MPI & Penetrant
Radiography:
X ray:
KV as low as possible = best definition. Generally 60kV lowest is OK for lower density
aluminium. Normally a minimum of 140kV is required for steels but must be increased
as thickness increases
Focal spot: The larger the focal spot the longer must be the FFD
Gamma: SFD typically 500mm but varies greatly,

double the distance = 4 x original exposure
Typical source size of 1.5mm x 1.5mm
Ytterbium: Used on thickness under 12mm (costly)
Iridium 192: Used for applications thickness 12-60mm
Cobalt 60: Used on thickness over 40 -200mm
Lead screens: 0.1mm front and 0.15mm back but often 0.125 front/back
Used on all gamma and X-ray above 120kV
Development: Typically 4min at 20 ºC
Density: Typically 2-3.5
Sensitivity: Typically 2% or less. (IQI dameter of smallest wire/

thicknessx 100)
Viewing light conditions: 20 Lux. Viewer able to view up to density of 4.

Minimum screen luminance 100,000 cd/m2
1
Appendix 2
Ultrasonic:
Probes:
Check for lamination 0º compression probe
Plate thickness <10 mm 70º
Plate thickness 10-15mm 60-70º
Plate thickness 15 + mm 45- 60º
Plate thickness >50 mm 45º only
MHz: Normal welds 4-5MHz larger grains lower value.

Higher value = less pen
Record crystal size
(usually 10mm) single or twin?
Sensitivity: Which calibration block V1/V2?

Hole diameter + depth (side-drilled hole)
Couplant: Record of the type used
2
Appendix 2
Magnetic Particle:
Through paint up to 50 microns
With DC sub-surface defects can be detected approximately 2mm deep

(depends on strength of current)
Above 50ºC up to 3150C usually dry powder
Yokes: No current recorded lift off of > 4.5kg

Normally AC but can be DC
Prods: 6 amp/mm of space ie 200mm = 1200 amps

Space and amperage must be recorded. 7.5–20cm (75–200mm)
All must record 2 directions at 90º Burmah Castrol Strip type 1 indications
of 3 lines
3
Appendix 2
Penetrant:
Temperature: 10-50 ºC
Dwell/Contact time 5–60 min
Evaluation time 10–30min
Viewing Light Conditions for Penetrant and MPI:
Normal light: 500 Lux minimum
Fluorescent: Use UVA lamp minimum power 1000 microWatt/cm2
Light levels: Below 20 Lux ambient light
4
Appendix 2
AUDIT of NDT Reports
Reports Check List
RT Radiographic testing
1) Material type (all types)
2) Time/stage of inspection
3) Place of inspection
4) Procedure/standard number given
5) Radiographic technique (eg DWDI)
6) Screens (type & thickness)
7) Type of radiation (gamma/X-ray)
8) Type/strength of source or Kva
9) SFD
10) Type and range of IQI
11) Speed of film (characteristic curve)
12) Sensitivity as % (below 2%)
13) Density range (2-3.5)
14) Focal spot size
15) Geometric unsharpness (υg)
16) Exposure time
17) Development method and time
18) All defects Identified, sized and located
19) NDT technicians qualifications and name
20) Signed stamped and dated
21) BS method BS 2910 (pipe) BS 2600 (plate)

Now replaced by BS EN 444
Appendix 2
Reports Check List
UT Ultrasonic testing
1) Material type (large grain lower Hz)
5) Shear/compression probe
6) Probe size (usually 10mm) and type
7) Probe frequency (4-5MHz < 3 for Cu/SS)
8) Probe angle <10 =70º /10-15 = 60º-70º >15 = 45º -60º
9) Calibration block (type and hole used)
10) Calibration range
11) Scanning method
12) Surface finish
13) Type of couplant
14) Type of equipment
15) Scanning sensitivity
16) Recording level
17) Joint configuration and area of weld tested
18) All defects identified, sized and located
21) BS method BS 3923
Now replaced by BS EN 585 and BS N 1714
Appendix 2
Reports Check List
MT Magnetic particle testing

1) Material type (ferritic steels only)
5) Method (wet/dry fluorescent/contrast etc.)
6) Method and standard of surface preparation
7) Method of magnetisation (direct current etc)
8) Equipment type (prod/yoke/magnet/bench)
9) Prod spacing/amperage (7.5 amp/mm)
10) Contrast paint (type and application
11) Test sequence (2 x directions at 90°)
12) Poor surface finish may mask indications

13) Sub surface imperfections (2mm max)
14) Black light 20 Lux or 1000μW/cm2
15) Contrast light minimum 500 Lux
16) Flux measurement strips/kg force etc
17) > 50°C dry powder inks are used
19) NDT technicians qualifications & name
21) BS method BS 6072 & inks BS 4049
Now replaced by BS EN 571
Appendix 2
Reports Check List
PT Penetrant testing
1) Material type (non-porous only)

5) Method (colour contrast/fluorescent)
6) Method & standard of surface preparation
7) Surface finish is critical (EB as welded??)
8) Shelf life of chemicals (normally 1 year)
9) Penetrant application method (spray/tank)
10) Penetrant dwell time (5-60 minutes)
11) Method of penetrant removal
12) Type and application of developer
13) Evaluation time (10-30 minutes)
14) Black light (20 Lux or 1000μW/cm2)
15) Contrast light (minimum 500 Lux)
16) Operating temperature range (5-50°C)
17) Surface breaking only imperfections
21) Method BS 6443 22)
Now replaced by BS EN 9934 Parts 1-3
Appendix 2
NDT Reports: Quality Check List
Radiographic testing
BS EN 1330 Terms used in NDT radiological flaw detection
Replaces BS 3683 Part 3
BS EN 1435 Methods for radiographic examination of fusion-welded butt joints in

steel plate/pipe. Replaces BS 2600 Parts 1 –2
BS EN 444 Methods for radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints

in steel pipe. Replaces BS 2910
BS EN 462 Part 1 Image Quality Indicators and recommendations for their use
Replaces BS 3971
BS 2737 (current) Radiology of internal defects in castings as revealed by radiography.
1) Focal spot or source size and strength should be displayed on the apparatus and
evidence of this should be available.
2) Calibration of densitometers using a traceable film density strip
3) Regular checks to be carried out on safe lights.
4) Records to be kept of processing solutions including replenisher.
5) Lead and salt screens to be checked regularly.
6) Characteristic curves, exposure charts and IQI charts should be available.
7) Metals strip wedges should be available.
8) Radiation safety measures should be employed to the latest regulations.

Evidence of radiation monitor calibration should be available.
9) Film storage.
10) Certificate of competency.
11) Film test strips should be used for both manual and automatic systems.
1
Appendix 2
Ultrasonic testing (manual operation)
BS EN 12668
Part 1 Assessing the performance characteristics of UT equipment
Part 2 Electrical performance of UT equipment
Part 3 Guidance on in-service monitoring of probes

(excluding immersion probes)
Replaces BS 4331 Parts 1–3
BS 2704 (current) Specification for calibration blocks for use in U/T
BS EN 585 Parts 1-5 Method of UT examination of welded structures
BS EN 1714 replaces BS 3923
Part 1 Manual examination of fusion welds in ferritic steels

Part 2 Automatic examination of fusion welded butt joints in ferritic steels
Part 3 Manual examination of nozzle welds
1) Evidence should be available that regular checks carried out to BS EN 12668
2) Correct calibration blocks are available with evidence of dimensional checks having
been carried out
3) Check evidence of certified personnel
4) Identification of equipment and probes, beam plots if appropriate
2
Appendix 2
Penetrant testing
BS EN 571 Part 1 Penetrant flaw detection
Replaces BS 6443
BS EN 3059 Measurement of UV A radiation (black light) used in NDT

Replaces BS 4489
BS EN 1330 Terms used in NDT: penetrant flaw detection

Part 1 Replaces BS 3683 Part 1
1) Vapour degreaser for acidity.
2) Date stamp aerosol cans. (1 year life for red dye)
3) Check fluorescent and red penetrant comparison of filter papers by eye or black light
monitor. Check for water contamination. Add 50% by volume to manufacturers
quoted water tolerance. If penetrant turns milky it is above the water tolerance
specified.
4) Remover is self-checking. Failure to wash properly.
5) Check temperature of wash water max 35ºC (Use thermometer)
6) Check cleanliness of compressed air line. (Use filter paper at 30cm)
7) Check for contamination of developer as follows:
a) Wet developer (Visual inspection for red. Black light inspection for fluorescent)
b) Dry developer (Visual inspection for dampness eg.Grey in colour, not fluffy. Black
light inspection for fluorescent
8) Air circulating oven. Check thermostat . Maximum permissible temp 85º C
9) Black light. Check minimum intensity depending upon type eg 20 Lux or

1000μW/cm2
10) Check level of white light for red dye operation (Minimum 500 Lux)
3
Appendix 2
Magnetic particle testing
BS EN 9934 Parts 1-3 Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection + Inks and Powders
Replaces BS 6072 and 4049
BS EN 3059 Measurement of UV A radiation (Black Light) used in NDT

Replaces BS 4489
BS EN 1330 Terms used in NDT Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection

Replaces BS 3683 Part 2
BS 5044 (current) Contrast aid paints used in MPI
BS 89 (current) Specification for direct acting indicating electrical measuring

instruments and their accessories
1) Vapour degreaser for acidity
2) Ammeter checks. Difference between check ammeter and m/c ammeter shall not
exceed 10% of scale reading. Note check ammeter shall be calibrated to traceable
standard
3) Magnetic Ink composition:

Non-fluorescent inks not less than 1.25% and not more than 3.5% by volume
Fluorescent inks not less than 0.1% and not more than 0.3% by volume
Other solids if present not more than 10% by mass of ferromagnetic content
Particle size in at least 99% of a representative sample no particle shall exceed
100μm
Powders in at least 99% of a representative sample no particle shall exceed 200μm
4) Test for solid content and general condition of inks, agitate ink, place sample of
100ml into settlement flask, allow to settle for 60 minutes. Read off result to nearest
0.1 ml. Record as solid content by volume. Special test for fluorescent inks: Check
ink for evidence of yellow – green fluorescence in the supernatant liquid. If observed
discard the ink
5) Functioning test for magnetic inks and powders.

Use ring piece Fig 2 BS 4069. Using 750 amps (RMS) at least 2 holes should give
an indication. Residual magnetism technique for powders:
Use test piece Fig 3 BS 4069 Mount test piece on an insulated rod, apply 500
Amps DC through threading bar and apply dry powder to each hole in turn
commencing with the hole nearest the surface. powder should be applied at a
distance of 200–300mm At least 5 holes should give an indication
4
Magnetic flow technique for inks and powders: Use test piece Fig 4 BS 4069
Magnetise test piece parallel to coil axis or use electro-magnets. The hole should
give and indication. Aerosol containers should be date stamped
6) Corrosion test: Use low carbon steel bar 150mm long 12.5mm Ǿ with surface
texture of 3.2 μm RA. Partially immerse the bar in ink sample form minimum of 12
hours at 25 ºC There should be no evidence of corrosion
7) Black light: Check minimum intensity depending on type:

20 Lux or 1.0mW/cm2 or 1000μW/cm2
8) Check level of white light: Minimum 500 Lux
9) Permanent magnet + DC magnets Maximum pole spacing of 150mm

For pole spacing less than 75mm the lifting capacity shall be not less than
0.24kg/mm of pole spacing. If greater than 75mm lifting power shall be >18kg
AC electromagnets: For pole spacing of 300mm or less lifting capacity shall be
4.5kg
5
Appendix 3

Fractured Surfaces
TWI WIS10 Preparatory for CSWIP (3.2) Exam
Fatigue Failure
Fatigue is a mechanism of failure experienced by materials under the action of a cyclic
stress. It involves initiation and growth of a crack under an applied stress amplitude
that may lay well within the static capacity of the material. Discontinuities such as
changes in section or material flaws are favoured sites for fatigue initiation. During
subsequent propagation the crack grows a microscopic amount with each load cycle.
The crack so-formed often remains tightly closed, and thus difficult to find by visual
inspection during the majority of the life. If cracking remains undiscovered, there is a
risk that it may spread across a significant portion of the load-bearing cross section,
leading to final separation by fracture of the remaining ligament, or another failure mode
may intervene such as jamming of a mechanism. Fatigue occurs in metals, plastics,
composites and ceramics. It is the most common mode of failure in structural and
mechanical engineering components. Fatigue failure is synonymous with the aviation
industry where square window frames within the initial design of the first commercial jet
airliner the Comet 4 C caused fatigue failures and tragic loss of life on 2 full commercial
aircraft at around 10,000 hrs of flight time before the fracture mechanism was fully
identified and re-mediated and is the reason why we look out of oval windows whenever
we should fly by jet aircraft.
The phenomenon has been investigated extensively over many decades, particularly in
metals and alloys. As a result, design guidance is readily available in many texts and is
widely codified. Joints in materials are particularly susceptible to fatigue and therefore
need to be designed with care for cyclic loading. Fatigue design rules for welded and
bolted connections in steel can be found in many national standards, e.g. BS 7608 and
BS 5400 widely used in the UK.
Morphology
Fatigue cracks generally exhibit a smooth surface and propagate at 90° to the direction
of applied stress. The initiation points can usually be identified as weld flaws/features,
machining marks or geometrical stress raisers. In some instances striations and beach
marks can be seen. Striations can be viewed using and electron microscope and are
records of the crack growing under each loading cycle. Beach marks can be view with
the naked eye and can indicate a change in loading pattern. Both of these phenomena
can be used to estimate the fatigue crack growth rate. Fatigue cracks continue to grow
until the increasing level of stress cannot be supported with the final few cycles inducing
larger amounts of fracture surface and final fracture occurs.
1
The final fracture surface will show an area of fatigue failure emanating from the fracture
initiation point, with the fractured surface characterised by beach marks. These beach
marks may no longer be visible due to burnishing caused by metal/metal contact,
though the final beach mark at the point of final failure is as a rule generally always
present.
Striations (x1500)
Beach marks – initiation site arrowed
Fatigue design
The standard method of representing fatigue test data is on an S-N curve. This plots
either the stress or strain range on the y-axis and the number of cycles to failure on the
x-axis. The lower the stress range, the more cycles are required to cause failure. When
potted on logarithmic axes the data for a particular specimen type can be approximated
to a straight line between 105 and 107 cycles. Under constant amplitude loading
conditions most materials exhibit a fatigue limit. It is believed that tests performed at
stress ranges below this limit will never cause a fatigue failure. For un-welded steels the
fatigue limit occurs at approximately 2 million cycles, for welded steels and aluminium
alloys this is closer to 10 million cycles. Because of the relatively low fatigue limit,
aircraft components made from aluminium alloys have a finite lifespan, after which they
are replaced. Fatigue is generally independent of rate of loading and temperature
except at very high temperatures when creep is likely. However, the presence of a
2
corrosive environment (e.g. sea-water) can have a significant detrimental effect on
fatigue performance in the form of corrosion fatigue.
log (stress or strain)
Strain control
Load control
R = -1
S-N curve
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
log (life in cycles, N)
Typical S-N curve
Flaw assessment
In welded joints, fabrication flaws may give rise to premature fatigue failure, particularly
planar flaws such as lack of fusion. Using fracture mechanics, the rate at which fatigue
cracking will grow from such features can be estimated, and in this way tolerable flaw
sizes can be derived. British Standard 7910 provides detailed guidance on this method
of assessment.
Factors to be considered when investigating a fatigue failure

Fatigue cracks initiate at areas of stress concentration such as discontinuities,
weldments or sires of mechanical damage. They are a result of cyclic loading and can
occur at stress ranges well below the material’s UTS. It is of prime importance to
understand the nature (vibration, thermal, mechanical etc.) and magnitude of the
loading in order to prevent failure. Often the final failure of the component/structure will
be due to brittle or ductile fracture, therefore the fracture surface will show a
combination of failure modes.
Remediation
For weldments where fatigue is known to be a problem, life extension techniques such
as weld toe burr machining, TIG dressing and peening can be used. These are effective
but labour intensive and therefore expensive.
3
Brittle fracture
Brittle fracture is the rapid run of a crack(s) through a stressed material. There is very
little prior plastic deformation and so failures occur without warning. In brittle fracture the
cracks run close to perpendicular to the applied stress, leaving a relatively flat surface at
the break. A brittle fracture surface may exhibit one or more of the following features.
Some fractures have lines and ridges beginning at the origin of the crack and spreading
out across the crack surface. Others, some steels for example, have back-to-back V-
shaped ‘Chevron’ markings pointing to the origin of the crack. Amorphous materials
such as ceramic glass have a shiny smooth fracture surface and very hard or fine-
grained materials may show no special pattern.
Chevron fracture surface
Radiating ridge fracture surface
In common with fatigue fractures all brittle fractures require a point of initiation, and
therefore generally formed at areas of high stress concentration. This could be from a
weld toe, undercut, arc strike, or could possibly be at the tip of a freshly initiated fatigue
crack, as is though to have been the case with the Liberty Vessels sunk during the
Second World War and which often sailed through the icy cold and tempestuous Arctic
Ocean in order to avoid detection and destruction from the German U Boat torpedoes.
Fatigue cracks are though to have initiated at the square hatches through bad design,
as in order to increase shipping production faster than shipping losses due to sinking
the Liberty Vessels were the first welded vessels in the history of ship construction.
4
Ductile Fracture
When compared with brittle fractures, ductile fractures move relatively slowly and the
failure is usually accompanied by a large amount of plastic deformation. Ductile fracture
surfaces have larger necked regions and an overall rougher appearance than a brittle
fracture surface. The failure of many ductile materials can be attributed to cup and cone
fracture. This form of ductile fracture occurs in stages that initiate after necking begins.
5
Plane strain effect
A condition in linear elastic fracture mechanics in which there is zero strain in a direction
normal to both the axis of applied tensile stress and the direction of crack growth. Under
plane strain conditions, the plane of fracture instability is normal to the axis of principal
stress. This condition is found in thick plates. Along the crack border stress conditions
change from plane strain in the body of the metal towards plane stress at the surface,
this is displayed by the appearance of thin bands, caused by intense shear, that break
through to the free surface. The structure now becomes a mechanism, and where
plasticity breaks through to the surface shear lips will be observed.
Plane strain fracture: - plastic zone diameter ro much less than sample thickness
Synopsis
1) Fatigue failures
Generally produce beach marks indicating boundaries of plastic slip, generally > x 1 x 106
cycles. The fracture initiation point forms generally from a stress concentration ie weld
toe, crack, or an abrupt change in section and can generally be identified at the epicentre
of the beach mark/radii. Never the final, but very often the first mode of fracture, fatigue
failures are generally normal (90°) to the plain of the applied cyclic stress.
2) Ductile failures
Generally occur at 45° to plain of the applied stress with the fracture surface having a
rough or torn appearance. They may often occur as the second or final mode of failure
in a fatigue specimen where the CSA can no longer support the load and are generally
accompanied by shear lips. (Local plastic deformation)
6
3) Brittle failures
Generally occur at 90° to plane of the applied stress with the fracture surface having a
smooth crystalline appearance. Again the fracture initiation point forms generally from a
stress concentration ie welded toe, crack, or abrupt change in section and can be often
be identified by the presence of chevrons, which point to the fracture initiation point.
Failures that initiate as brittle fractures are unlikely to show evidence representing any
other forms of fracture morphology upon their surfaces.
When in initiated as brittle fractures these surfaces do not show any plastic indications
and if initiated as such will remain purely as brittle fractures, traveling in excess of the
speed of sound.
4) Plane strain effect

Flat areas occurring at 90° indicating plane strain effect may also appear centrally
upon fractured surfaces, and are caused by the inelastic behavior in larger material
thickness, in otherwise ductile specimens. It is thus possible to find a single fracture
surface showing 1 2 and 4 of the above characteristics, as in the ductile CTOD or crack
tip opening displacement test shown below.
1 1. Machined notch
2
2. Fatigue crack
3. Plane strain effect

4 3 4
4. Ductile plastic failure
4 indicating shear lips
7
Ultrasonic Inspection Report
Reference Number: IR 7 Sheet: 1 of 1
Weld Reference: wn10 Welder No: 1
Weld Preparation Material Type: Carbon Mn Steel (Plate)
40
Surface Condition: As Welded
Welding Process: M.M.A

2
Ultrasonic Unit: USM 3
Couplant:
Probe and Frequency Size Sensitivity Setting

70º 4 MHZ MAP F.S.H From 1.5mm Hole
60º 10 MHZ MAP F.S.H From 1.5 mm Hole
Report:
Longitudinal and Transverse carried out from surface side only. Lack of side wall fusion
located using 60º probe.
Action:
Name: Signature: Date:
Qualification Details:
Place
stamp
here
Radiographic Report
Reference Number: IR 12 Sheet 1 of 1
Weld Reference: wn 10 Welder No: NA
Weld Preparation Material Type: Carbon Mn Steel (Plate)
Welding Process: Sub-Arc 2nd Side Back Gouged.

35 5.0
Radiographic Equipment/Gamma: Co 60 KV: 150 Source Strength: 100C
MA________ FFD/SFD: 30cms Exposure Time: 1Hr
Film Type & Size: AGFA D4 Focal Spot/Source Dimensions: 3x3mm
Development time & Temp: 8min @ 16ºc Screens: 0.125 Lead-Rear Only
Radiographic Technique: DWDI IQI Type: 13 Cu EN 462
Film Identification Sensitivity Density Comments Action
A-B 1.9 2.5 150mm From A, Lack of Penetration
B-C 1.9 2.2 3mm from B Transverse Crack, or Film Mark
C-D 1.9 2.2 No Defects Observed
Name: Tom Farthing Signature: T. Farthing Date: 19/06/08
Place
Qualification Details: PCN Stamp P
PC
P CN
C N
N
Here
Magnetic Particle Report
Reference Number: MT 101 Sheet 1 of 1
Weld Reference: wn 78 m Welder No:
Weld Preparation Material Type: Carbon Mn steel (Plate)
20 Welding Process: GTAW
Method of Magnetisation Dye Penetrant Method
Parallel Conductors, AC Yoke 240v, Spacing 4inch Not Used
One Direction used only.
Black Ink to BS4069
Report:
Slight Sub-Surface indication 157mm from datum
Action:
No action required
Name: Robert Staines Signature: S. Staines Date: 30/04/08
Qualification Details:
Place
Stamp here

Cswip 3.2 Book

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Cswip 3.2 Book

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SENIOR WELDING INSPECTION

1.0 Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector

Duties of the Senior Welding Inspector

The skills required for the development of leadership include:

• A willingness and ability to accept instructions or orders from senior staff

Rev 1 July 2008

Certain areas where additional knowledge is required are:

• A knowledge of quality assurance and quality control.

5 Knowledge of Normative Documents

Specified normative documents (specifications, standards, codes of

BS EN ISO 15614 / ASME IX Standards for welding procedure

Rev 1 July 2008

See unit: Planning for more detailed information.

To do this effectively he needs skills in man management.

Rev 1 July 2008

• Has he the ability to work on his own initiative?

11 Morale and Motivation

Low morale can lead to among other things:

• Poor productivity, less good workmanship, lack of diligence, taking short

He must keep them motivated by:

• His own demeanour – does he have drive and enthusiasm or is he

Rev 1 July 2008

He must have a clear understanding as to the limits of his authority –

The usual stages of disciplinary procedure are:

• The quiet word

It is of vital importance that the company rules are rigorously followed as

In dealing with disciplinary matters the SWI must:

Some matters of discipline may well arise because of incorrect working

Rev 1 July 2008

• First establish the facts – by interviewing staff, from the relevant

• Embracing facts and realities.

Rev 1 July 2008

Terms and Definitions

Rev 1 July 2008

Corner joint A connection between the ends

Edge joint A connection between the edges

Cruciform joint A connection in which two flat

Lap joint A connection between two

Rev 1 July 2008

Butt weld Fillet weld

Butt weld In a T joint

Rev 1 July 2008

1.2 From the penetration point of view

Partial penetration weld:

2 Types of Joint (see BS EN ISO 15607)

Rev 1 July 2008

Heat-affected zone (HAZ):

Excess weld metal:

Rev 1 July 2008

Rev 1 July 2008

4.1 Features of the weld preparation

Rev 1 July 2008

Gap Root face

The V preparation is one of the most common preparations used in welding;

Rev 1 July 2008

U preparation can be produced only by machining (slow and expensive).

Rev 1 July 2008

Usually this type of preparation does not require a land (exception:

Single V preparation with backing strip

Single bevel preparation

Rev 1 July 2008

All these preparations (single/double bevel and single/double J) can be used

For further details regarding weld preparations, please refer to BS EN ISO

Rev 1 July 2008

Actual throat Design throat

Partial penetration butt weld

Actual throat Design throat

Actual throat thickness = design throat thickness + excess weld metal.

Full penetration butt weld ground flush

Actual throat thickness

Butt weld between two plates of different thickness

Design throat thickness

Single run weld Multi run weld

Rev 1 July 2008

Single side weld Double side weld

6.1 Size of fillet welds