Registers

Each flip-flop is a binary cell capable of storing one bit of information. A Register is simply a group of flipflops. An n-bit register has a group of n flip-flops. The basic function of a register is to hold information within a digital system so as to make it available to the logic elements during the computing process. Since a register consists a finite number of flip-flops and as each of those flip-flops is capable to store a single 0 or 1, there are a finite number of 0-1 combinations that can be stored into a register. Each of those combinations is known as state or content of that register. With flip-flops we can store data bitwise but usually data does not appear as single bits. Instead it is common to store data words of n bit with typical word lengths of 4, 8, 16, 32 or 64 bit. Thus, several flip-flops are combined to form a register to store whole data words. Registers are synchronous circuits thus all flip-flops are controlled by a common clock line. As registers are often use to collect serial data they are also called accumulators. There exist several types of registers as there are [edit]Shift

Registers

Information often comes bitwise i.e. one bit every clock pulse. To store such data shift registers are used. A shift register has one input. Every clock pulse one bit is loaded into the first flip-flop of the register while all the actual flip-flop contents are shifted and the oldest bit got dropped. If the output of all flip-flops (and therefore the registers complete content) are read from the lines Q1 to Qn the register is used as Serial In Parallel Out (SIPO). A typical purpose for such a SIPO register is to collect data that is delivered bitwise and that is needed in n-bit data words (e.g. to convert the signals from serial ports of a computer: the line transports 1 bit a time, the computer uses 8, 16 or 32 bit data words). Shifting bits are important for mathematical operations: if the output of the whole register is interpreted as a dual number, shifting by one bit corresponds to multiplying or dividing by 2 (depends on which flip-flop is interpreted as MSB). [edit]Cyclic

Registers

Sometimes it is necessary to recycle the same values again and again. Thus the bit that usually would get dropped is fed to the register input again to receive a cyclic serial register [edit]Parallel

In-Serial Out

As there is a need for serial parallel conversion the inverse operation is equally required. It is done by a Parallel In Serial Out register (PISO) that allows loading data as whole data words and serial shifting. For this operation it needs two control lines: one to trigger the shifting and one to control when a new data word is loaded to the register . it is prepared by clearing allthe status of the flipflops output by using a clear function i.e. each flipflop is equals to 0 then shifting it by taking a single bit of the given input that input is shifts the present bits in the flipflop to the next flipflop [edit]Barrel

Shifters

A barrel shifter is a digital circuit that can shift a data word by a specified number of bits in one clock cycle. It can be implemented as a sequence of multiplexers (mux.), and in such an implementation the output of one mux is connected to the input of the next mux in a way that depends on the shift distance. For example, take a 4-bit barrel shifter, with inputs A, B, C and D. The shifter can cycle the order of the bits ABCD as DABC, CDAB, or BCDA; in this case, no bits are lost. That is, it can shift all of the outputs up to three positions to the right (and thus make any cyclic combination of A, B, C and D). The barrel

shifter has a variety of applications, including being a useful component in microprocessors (alongside the ALU). A common usage of a barrel shifter is in the hardware implementation of floating-point arithmetic. For a floating-point add or subtract operation, the significand of the two numbers must be aligned, which requires shifting the smaller number to the right, increasing its exponent, until it matches the exponent of the larger number. This is done by subtracting the exponents, and using the barrel shifter to shift the smaller number to the right by the difference, in one cycle. If a simple shifter were used, shifting by n bit positions would require n clock cycles. [edit]Cascade [edit]Counters A counter is a sequential circuit that counts. That means it proceeds through a pre-defined sequence of states where the state of the circuit is determined by the states of all its flip flops. As every state of the circuit can be given a number we can say that a counter produces a sequence of numbers. A commonly used approach is to interpret a circuits state as dual number, so if flip-flop A,B and C are all 0 the counters state is 0. if A is 1, B is 0 and C is 1 the counters state is 101 = 5 and so on. The most basic counters will simply increment by 1 with every clock pulse, so after state 100 it will go to 101; the next pulse will let it switch to 110 etc. It is possible to design counters with any needed counting sequence. Even though asynchronous sequential circuits are not subject of this course the asynchronous counter is presented here exceptionally to give a slight impression on how

Shifters

[1] [edit]Basically

counters are of two types:

1. Asynchronous or ripple counter 2. synchronous counter [edit]Asynchronous

counter

For these counters a external clock signal is applied to one flip flop and then the output of preceding flip flop is connected to the clock of next flip flop. [edit]Synchronous

counter

In synchronous counter all the flipflop receive the external clock pulse simultaneously. Ring counter and johnson counter are the examples of synchronous counters. in synchronous circuits, the external clock applied to all the flip flops is in synchronisation with the circuit.