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MAT Exam Expository Papers Math in the Middle Institute Partnership

1-1-2008

The Square Root of i

Tiffany Lothrop
University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Lothrop, Tiffany, "The Square Root of i" (2008). MAT Exam Expository Papers. Paper 25. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/mathmidexppap/25

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The Square Root of i

While Girolamo Cardano was working on solving cubic and quadratic equations in 1539, he encountered some formulas that involved square roots of negative numbers. In 1545 Cardano published Ars Magna, where he presents the first recorded calculations that involve complex numbers. Then in 1572, Rafael Bombelli published the first three parts of his Algebra. He is known as the inventor of complex numbers, because he identifies some rules for working with them. Bombelli also shows how complex numbers are very important and useful. From Bombellis list of rules for adding, subtracting and multiplying the complex numbers, he was able to analyze the cubic equations that Cardano was trying to solve in his paper Ars Magna. Bombelli was able to use his rules for operations with complex numbers to solve the cubic equations that produced an expression that contained a square root of a negative number. The next big discovery in complex numbers was made by Abraham de Moivre. De Moivre published papers in 1707 and in 1722 where he used trigonometric functions to represent complex numbers. He developed the representation [r (cos x + i sin x)]. This was a very important in the development and theory of complex

numbers. However, it was Leonhard Eulers publications that really brought complex numbers to the forefront. In 1748, Euler published Analysis of the Infinite. Mathematical analysis is said to have started with Euler where he used Bernoullis ideas of functions and refines them. From this mathematical analysis Euler based his study on functions and introduced the formulas

e i = 1 and

eix = cos x + i sin x . Then in 1751, Euler published his theory of logarithms of
complex numbers and introduced the symbol

to represent

1 . Still, most

mathematicians of that day rejected the notion of complex numbers, despite Eulers publications. In 1799, Caspar Wessel published a paper giving a geometrical representation of complex numbers. This was not a well know paper and was not even published in English until 1999, 200 years after its first publication. Jean Robert Argand rediscovered Wessels work in 1806 with his publication of the Argand diagram. In this geometrical representation of complex numbers, Argand interpreted rotation of 90o. Complex numbers are of the form

as a

x + iy

where x and y are real numbers and

is the imaginary part. The diagram below is the Argand diagram that shows a

graphical representation of a complex number. The x-axis is the real number line and an ordered pair that represents a point on this line has coordinates (x, 0) or the

complex number

x + 0i .

The y-axis is the imaginary axis and an ordered pair that

represents a point on this line has coordinates (0, y) or the complex number a pure imaginary number.

0 + iy ,

This graph gives us a two-dimensional view of a complex number. Using the complex

plane, or Argand diagram, de Moivres formula and Eulers formula we now have

z = x + iy = r(cos + i sin ) = rei , where

. In this equation, multiplication by about the origin, or

results in a counter-clockwise rotation of 90o

radians. So, when we look at the geometric representation of

i 2 = 1 , it is shown as two 90 o turns (180o) or radians.

3

Complex Numbers
a + bi where a,b R Ex. 3 + 2i, 7i, 5 + 0i,
i 2 , 5,
3

5, ,

2 , 5.67 7

Real Numbers a + b i, b = 0 2 , Ex. 5, 3 5 , , 7 5.67 , 2

Imaginary Numbers a + b i, b 0 2 1 Ex. 3 + 2i, i , i 2 3 2

Pure Imaginary Numbers a + bi, a = 0, b 0 Ex. 7i, i 2

Rational Numbers

a , b
Ex. 5,

Infinite & non-repeating decimals

Irrational Numbers Ex.

5, ,

2 , 5.67 7

Now using our knowledge of complex and imaginary numbers where

i = 1,i 2 = 1 we can look at basic operations with them.

Finding square roots of some negative numbers: a)

5 = 1 5 = i 5

b)

25 = 1 25 = 5i
e)

c)

50 = 1 25 2 = 5i 2

d)

16 49 = 1 16 1 49 = 4i 7i = -3i

2 + 18 = 1 2 + 1 9 2 = i 2 + 3i 2 = (1 + 3)i 2
=

4i 2

f)

4 25 = 1 4 1 25 2 = ( 1) 2 5
= -10

g)

i 2 i 3 2 = i 23 = 1 6
= 6

h)

2 i 3i i 2i = 3i 2
2i 3(1)

2 3i

i)

6 2 6 = i 2
6 i 2 = i 2 i 2 6i 2 = 2i 2
= =

j)

2x2 + 19 = 3 2x2 + 19 -19 = 3 - 19

-16 2x 2 = 2 2

= =

x 2 = 8

2 i 3

6i 2 2(1)

x = 1 4 2

3i 2

x = 2i 2

Some basic operations with complex numbers: Sum of Complex Numbers (a + b i) + (c + d i) = (a + c) + i(b + d) Ex. (3 + 6i) + (4 + 2i) = (3 + 4) + i(6 + 2) = 7 + 8i Ex. (3 + 6i) + (4 2i) (3 + 6i) + (4 + -2i) = (3 + 4) + [6 + (-2)] i = 7 + 4i Product of Complex Numbers (a + bi)(c + d i) Differences of Complex Numbers (a + bi) - (c + d i) = (a - c) + i(b - d) Ex. (3 + 6i) - (4 + 2i) = (3 - 4) + i(6 2) = -1 + 4i Ex. (3 + 6i) - (4 2i) (3 + 6i) - (4 + -2i) = (3 - 4) + [6 (-2)] i = -1 + 8i Quotient of Complex Numbers

a + bi c + di

= ac + bd i 2 + ad i + cbi

(a + bi)(c di) (c + di)(c di) ac bdi 2 adi + cbi c2 d 2i 2

= ac + (-1)bd + i(ad + bc)

= ac bd + i(ad + bc)

ac (1)bd + i(cb ad) c 2 (1)d 2

ac + bd + i(cb ad) c2 + d 2

Product of Complex Numbers Ex. (6 + 4i)(2 5i) =(6)(2) + (4i)(-5i) + (6)(-5i) +(2)(4i) = 12 - 20i 2 - 30i + 8i = 12 20(-1) - 22i = 12 + 20 - 22i = 32 - 22i

Quotient of Complex Numbers Ex.

(6 + 4i)(2 + 5i) (2 5i)(2 + 5i) 6 2 + 4 5i 2 + 6 5i + 4i 2 = 2 2 (5)5i 2 =

6 + 4i 2 5i

12 + 20(1) + 30i + 8i 4 + 25(1) 38 8 = + i 21 21 8 17 = + 1 i 21 21 =

The algebra of complex numbers involves treating i as a number and using the basic number and operation properties (such as the distributive, associative, and commutative properties) to rewrite the expression in the form a + b i. We can use the information about complex numbers and operations, along with formulas such as de Moivres formula and Eulers formula, to study

i.

Evaluating

i.

We begin by reiterating that any complex number, z, can be written as z = a + b i. We also note that the complex numbers we are looking for will satisfy the equation z4 + 1 = 0, which, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, has four

solutions (two of which satisfy z2 - i = 0, two which satisfy z2 + i = 0). Then, applying Eulers formula for writing complex numbers, we can write z as:

z = rei ( n ) = (ei )n = cos(n ) + i sin(n ) = (cos + i sin )n

From the first part of Eulers formula we write

i=e

i 2

. Then, proceeding formally

(and admittedly abusing some notation) we take the square root of both sides:
i 2

i= e
= =

i 1 2 2

i 4

= cos(

1 1 ) + i sin( ) 4 4
y

The radius of the circle is 1 unit.

sin =

opposite hypotenuse cos = adjacent hypotenuse

sin

cos

Thus we need to evaluate the sine and cosine of /4. Since

o o o

= 45o , the reference

triangle for our calculations is an isosceles, 45 -45 -90 triangle. To find the length of each side of the triangle we use Pythagoreans Theorem a2 + b2 = c2; the hypotenuse is 1 unit and we let the legs each be of length x units. Then solving for x we have:

x 2 + x 2 = 12
2x2 1 = 2 2

x2 =

1 2

x2 = x= 1 2

1 2

x=
Thus,

cos

1 1 1 1 and sin = , so we write i = cos + i sin . 4 4 4 2 2

1 2

However, we stated previously that we were actually looking for four complex numbers of the form z = a + bi which satisfy z4 + 1 = 0. Based on the calculation

1 1 1 1 i, i. 2 2 2 2 To determine which are actual answers to i , I will square each and solve for 1 1 + i, 2 2
which should equal

above, it makes sense to consider four possibilities for z =

1 1 + i, 2 2

i ; specifically

1 .

Does
2

i=

1 1 + i ? 2 2
2

Does

i=
2

1 1 + i? 2 2
2

1 1 i = + i 2 2

1 1 i + i2 2 2 1 1 1 1 i + i = i + i2 + i 2 2 2 2 1 1 = i2 2 2 i=
1 1 2 2 = i 2 2 2

1 1 i = + i 2 2 1 1 i = i + i2 2 2

1 1 1 1 i + i = i + i2 + i 2 2 2 2

2i

1 1 2 = i 2 2
1 1 2 2 = i 2 2 2

2i

1 = i 2
1 1 + i 2 2 1 1 + i ? Does i = 2 2 2 1 1 2 i =( + i) 2 2 i=

4i 1 = i 2
1 1 + i 2 2 1 1 + i? Does i = 2 2 2 1 2 1 i =( + ) 2i 2 1 1 i = i + i2 2 2 1 1 1 1 i + ( + i) = i + i 2 + ( + i) 2 2 2 2 1 1 2i = i 2 2 2 1 1 (2i ) 2 = ( i 2 ) 2 2 2 i

i=
i+(

1 1 1 1 i) = + i + i 2 + ( i) 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 = i 2 2 1 1 ( ) 2 = ( i2 ) 2 2 2

1 1 + i + i2 2 2

1 = i 2 1 = i
i=

1 1 + i 2 2

4i 1 = i 2 4i 1 = i
i

1 1 + i 2 2
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Therefore there are two solutions to

i;

they are

i=

1 1 + i and 2 2

i=

1 1 + i. 2 2

The two complex numbers which are solutions to question: Is there a pattern for finding the nth roots of I will return to the case where n = 2, the square root of

i lead us to consider the

i? i:

To look for a pattern

i= e

( )

1 i 2

=e2
2
radians

I can rotate any point in the complex plane about the origin by 360o or

and return to the same location on the Argand diagram. Likewise I can rotate the point again by 360o for a total of 4 radians. Each time I perform this rotation I need to take

times k, where k is the number of times I have gone around the

circle. Thus, I can write

+ 2k . When calculating a root, I need to check

where

is less than

because the sine and cosine functions are periodic with a

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period of 2 . Thus, to determine all values for

(since we are considering the

square root) we consider

1 + 2k , where k = 0, 1, 2, . 2 2

So, for the specific cases where k = 0, 1, and 2 I calculated the following:

1 + 2k for k = 0 2 2 2 1 = + 2(0) 2 2 2 1 = 2 2 2 =

< 2

1 + 2k for k = 1 2 2 2 1 = + 2(1) 2 2 2 1 5 = 2 2 2 5 = < 2 2 4 =

1 + 2 k for k = 2 2 2 2 1 = + 2(2) 2 2 2 1 9 = 2 2 2 =

9 > 2 4

Thus I need only consider the cases where k = 0 and k = 1, since for larger values of k I have

> 2

. Now, replacing

with

and

5 , I can return to the formula 4

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and calculate the following:

1 1 i = cos + i sin 4 4

5 5 i = cos + i sin 4 4

i = cos 45 o + i sin 45 o
i= 1 1 + i 2 2
i

i = cos135 o + i sin135 o
i= 1 1 + i 2 2

These are the same values for

that I found before.

I can extend this idea to calculate the cube root of

3

i.

I begin by writing

3 number of rotations, k, for which 1/3 ( + 2k) < 2 :

i= e

( )
i

1 3

=e

and rotating

around the unit circle. Then I determine the

1 = + 2 k for k = 0 3 3 2 1 = + 2(0) 3 3 2 1 = 3 3 2 3 =

1 = + 2 k for k = 1 3 3 2 1 = + 2(1) 3 3 2 1 5 = 3 3 2 3 = 5 < 2 6

< 2

13

1 = + 2 k for k = 2 3 3 2 1 = + 2(2) 3 3 2 1 9 = 3 3 2 3 = 9 3 = < 2 6 2

1 = + 2 k for k = 3 3 3 2 1 = + 2(3) 3 3 2 1 13 = 3 3 2 3 = 13 > 2 6

Thus, I only need to consider the cases where specifically when formula

1 = + 2 k for k = 0, 1, 2; 3 3 2

is

5
6 6 ,

and

3 . Then, substituting these values into the 2

leads to the following calculations:

3

1 1 i = cos + i sin 6 6

5 5 i = cos + i sin 4 4

i = cos 30 o + i sin 30 o
i= 3 1 + i 2 2

i = cos150 o + i sin150 o
i= 3 1 + i 2 2

3 3 i = cos + i sin 2 2

3
3

i = cos 270 o + i sin 270 o

i = 0 + (1)i
14

Therefore,

i = i,

3 1 3 1 + i, and + i. 2 2 2 2

Now I can generalize this idea to find the solution set for any root of

i.

From the previous two examples, I noticed that the number of rotations, k, is always one less than the root that I am trying to find. This will allow me to list a complete set of the values of :

1 + 2 k for k = 0, 1, 2, , (n-1). n 2
n

Then the complex solutions to the equation z given by

n

+1=0

(i.e. the nth roots of

i ) are

i = cos + i sin n n

where

2n

(1 + 4k ) for k = 0, 1, 2, , (n-1).

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Bibliography

Brown, R.G., (1992). Advanced mathematics: precalculus with discrete mathematics and data analysis. Geneva, IL: Houghton Mifflin Company. Brown, R.G., Dolciani, M.P., Sorgenfrey R.H., & Kane, R.B., (1994). Algebra and Trigonometry: Structure and Method. Geneva, IL: Houghton Mifflin Company. Answers Corporation. (2006). Complex Number. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www.answers.com/topic/complex-number. OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Abraham de Moivre. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/De_Moivre.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Caspar Wessel. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Wessel.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Girolamo Cardano. Retrieved on July\ 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Cardan.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Index for the Chronology. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/Chronology/index.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Jean Robert Argand. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Argand.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Gauss.html

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OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Leonhard Euler. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Euler.html OConnor, J., & Robertson, E. ( 2006). Rafael Bombelli. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from http://www-history.mcs.standrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Bombelli.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2003). Argand Diagram. Retrieved on July 17,2006 from MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArgandDiagram.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2004). Complex Number. Retrieved on July 17,2006 from MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ComplexNumber.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2000). de Moivres Identity. Retrieved on July 17,2006 from MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/deMoivresIdentity.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2004). Euler Formula. Retrieved on July 17,2006 from MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/EulerFormula.html Weisstein, Eric W. (2003). Trigonometry AnglesPi/4. Retrieved on July 17, 2006 from MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TrigonometryAnglesPi4.html

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