1 Complex Numbers

1.1 Introduction
The complex number system is an extension of the real number system. It unifies the mathematical
number system and explains many mathematical phenomena.
We introduce a number i defined to satisfy the equation x2 = −1. (As soon as we introduce this
number, there is some ambiguity, for x = −i also satisfies x2 = −1!)
The complex numbers are defined as all numbers of the form a + bi where a and b are real. We write

C := {a + bi : a, b ∈ R}.

A complex number of the form z = a + bi is said to have real part a and imaginary part b.
Any “number” can be written in this form. The number i has real part 0 and is said to be “purely
imaginary”; the number 5 has imaginary part 0 and is “real”. The real numbers are a subset of the
complex numbers.
The conjugate of a complex number z = a + bi is z̄ = a − bi. Thus the conjugate of i is ī = −i and
the conjugate of 5 is merely 5.

1.2 Basic Operations

We give the complex numbers a natural addition, subtraction and multiplication.
We add and subtract complex numbers just as we would polynomials, keeping up with the real and
imaginary parts. For example,
(3 + 4i) + (7 + 11i) = 10 + 15i
and
(3 + 4i) − (7 + 11i) = −4 − 7i.

We multiply complex numbers (a + bi)(c + di) just as we would the polynomials (a + bx)(c + dx) except
that we remember that i2 = −1.
For example,

(3 + 4x)(7 + 11x) = 21 + 28x + 33x + 44x2 = 21 + 61x + 44x2 .

So
(3 + 4i)(7 + 11i) = 21 + 61i + 44i2 = 21 + 61i − 44 = −23 + 61i.

There is a natural understanding of division, but we want all our complex numbers to be written in
“Cartesian form” a + bi so there is a little twist involved.
Note that if z = a + bi then z z̄ = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2 .
So if we are dividing by z, we may view z1 as
1 z̄ a b
= = 2 2
− 2 i.
z z z̄ a +b a + b2
Computationally, this means that anytime we have a fraction involving a complex number z in the
denominator, we may multiply both numerator and denominator by z̄ and simplify.
For example,

3 + 4i 3 + 4i 7 + 11i (3 + 4i)(7 + 11i) −23 + 61i −23 61

= · = = = +i .
7 − 11i 7 − 11i 7 + 11i (7 − 11i)(7 + 11i) 170 170 170

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1.3 Geometric interpretation
Mathematicians began to recognize the complex numbers sometime back in the Renaissance period (fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries) but it was not until there was a geometric interpretation of the complex
numbers that people began to feel comfortable with them.
We may view the complex numbers as lying in the plane. Let the traditional x-axis represent the real
numbers and the traditional y-axis represent the numbers of the form yi. We equate a complex number
x + yi with the point (x, y). (So the imaginary numbers yi are “at right angle” to the real numbers!)
For example, 2 + i can be graphed as the point (2, 1).

The Cartesian plane (Argand diagram)

In the Argand diagram, the complex number z = a+bi is equated with the point (a, b) in the Cartesian
plane. So i = 0 + 1i is equated with the point (0, 1) and the number√1 = 1 + 0i is equated with the point
(1,
√ 0). The point (2, 1) represents the number 2 + i. The number ( 3 + i)/2 is equated with the point
( 3/2, 1/2). The x-axis is called the “real” axis and the y-axis is called the imaginary” axis.

1.4 Polar coordinates

As soon as we have the geometry of the Cartesian plane at hand, we have a variety of powerful mathemat-
ical tools available. In particular, instead of using rectangular coordinates, we could use polar coordinates
instead! √ 2
Notice that the number ( 3 + i)/2 is on the unit √ circle x √ + y 2 = 1 which is at an angle of 30
degrees (= π/6) from the x-axis. In other words, ( 3 + i)/2 = 3/2 + i/2 has polar coordinate form
(r, θ) = (1, π/6).
In general one can change a point (x, y) in the plane into polar coordinate form (r, θ) by noticing that

tan θ = y/x (1)

(elementary trigonometry) and
r 2 = x2 + y 2 (2)
(the Pythagorean Theorem).
One changes polar coordinates r and θ into Cartesian coordinates (x, y) by using the trigonometric
definitions cos θ = x/r, sin θ = y/r, and so

x = r cos θ (3)
and
x = r sin θ (4)

2
 A point (x, y) can be written as (r cos θ, r sin θ) where r and θ are the polar coordinates of the point.
In summary,
x + iy = (x, y) = (r cos θ, r sin θ) = r cos θ + i r sin θ.
√
3 1 π π
For example, + i = cos + i sin .
2 2 6 6
The value r represents the distance from the origin 0 to the point (x, y). This is called the modulus
or absolute value, |z|, of the complex √number z = x + iy.
3 1 π π
For example, the modulus of z = + i = cos + i sin is 1 since z is on the unit circle.
√ 2 2√ 6 6
2
The modulus of z = 3 + i is 2 since 3 + 12 = 22 . And the modulus of z = 3 + 4i is 5 since
32 + 42 = 52 .

Given any complex number z = x + iy we can change it into the polar coordinate form

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

which depends only on r and θ.

Some call this the “cis” form (cos + i sin) form.) In this form
√
3 1 π
+ i = cis
2 2 6
and √ π
z= 3 + i = 2cis .
6
But there is an even better way to write complex numbers! That will be the subject of the next
section.

3
 Complex Numbers Worksheet 1
Basic Computations

Perform the indicated operation. Simplify your answers so that the answers are in the form a + bi where
a, b ∈ R.

1. (2 + 3i) + (4 + 5i).
√
2. (2 + 3i) + (−2 + 5i).
3. (2 + 3i) + 3(4 − i).
4. (2 + 3i) − 5(4 + 5i).

5. 5(2 + 3i) − 8(4 + 5i).

6. (2 + 3i)(4 + 5i).
7. (2 + 3i)(2 + 3i).
8. (2 + 3i)(2 − 3i).

9. (3 + 4i)(3 − 4i).
10. (1 + i)(1 + i).
1
11. .
1 + 2i
1
12. .
3 − 4i
1 + 3i
13. .
1 − 2i
2 + 3i
14. .
4 + 5i
2 + 3i
15. .
2 − 3i
16. Write both square roots of -4 as complex numbers.
17. Find all solutions to x2 + x + 1 = 0. Then use those solutions to factor x2 + x + 1.
18. Find all solutions to x6 − 1 = 0. (Recall that A3 ± B 3 factors as A3 ± B 3 = (A ± B)(A2 ∓ A + 1.)
19. Compute (3 + 2i)(7 − 3i).

20. Find the real and imaginary parts of (3 + 2i)/(7 − 3i).

21. Simplify 1/i.

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 Complex Numbers Worksheet 2
Polar Coordinates
1. Change the following rectangular coordinates into polar coordinates
(a) (3, 4)
(b) (0, −1)
√
(c) (−1/2, 3/2)
(d) (3, 4)
√
(e) ( 3, 1)
√
(f) (− 3, 1)
√ √
(g) ( 2, − 2)
(h) (5, 12)
(i) (−3, −3)
(j) (1, −1)
(k) (0, 0)

2. Change the following polar coordinates into rectangular coordinates

(a) (r = 2, θ = π/4)
(b) (5, tan−1 (3/4))
(c) (2, −π/6)
π
(d) (1, )
4
3
(e) (5, tan−1 )
4
π
(f) (2, )
6
7π
(g) (2, )
6
601π
(h) (2, )
6
601π
(i) (−2, )
6
√ 7π
(j) (−2 2, )
4

3. Give the Cartesian form (a + bi) of the following complex numbers.

π
(a) cis( )
4
3
(b) 5 cis(tan−1 ( ))
4
π
(c) 2 cis( )
6
7π
(d) 2 cis( )
6
601π
(e) 2 cis( )
6
601π
(f) −2 cis( )
6
√ 7π
(g) −2 2 cis( )
4

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1.5 Euler’s formula and the right way to use complex numbers
The value of complex numbers was recognized but poorly understood during the late Renaissance period.
The number system was explicitly studied in the late 18th century. Euler used i for the square root
of −1 in 1779. Gauss used the term “complex” in the early 1800’s. The “Argand diagram” or “Gauss
plane”, was introduced in a memoir by Argand in Paris in 1806, although it was implicit in the doctoral
dissertation of Gauss in 1799 and in work of Caspar Wessel around the same time. (See [Eves, Howard
An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, 6th ed. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York, etc, 1990.,
page 479] for more historical notes.) √
3 1 π π
Notice the following remarkable fact that if z0 = + i = cos + i sin then z03 = i. (Multiply it
2 2 6 6
out and see!) Thus z012 = 1 and so z0 is a twelfth root of 1.
Now the polar coordinate form for z0 is r = 1, θ = π6 , that is, z0 is exactly one-twelfth of the way
around the unit circle. z0 is a twelfth root of 1 and it is one-twelfth of the way around the unit circle.
This is not a coincidence!
DeMoivre apparently noticed this and proved (by induction) that if n is an integer then

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ. (5)

Thus exponentiation, that is raising a complex number to some power, is equivalent to multiplication
of the arguments. Somehow the angles in the complex number act like exponents.
Euler would explain why that was true.

Let f (z) be a differentiable function and let f (n) (z) represent the n-th derivative of f (z) with respect
to z.
The Maclaurin polynomial (Taylor polynomial around zero) of degree n for f (z) is defined as

z2 z3 z n−1 zn
f (0) + f (1) (0)z + f (2) (0) + f (3) (0) + ... + f (n−1) (0) + f (n) (0) .
2 6 (n − 1)! n!

Here is an exercise which follows work first done by Euler in the 1700’s. Let us find the Taylor
polynomial of high degree (say of degree 9?) around zero for the following functions.
1. f (z) = exp(z) = ez
2. f (z) = cos z
3. f (z) = sin z

4. f (z) = exp(iz) = eiz .

Using the work, above, write a formula for exp(iz) in terms of cosine and sine.
We see, after this exercise, that the Taylor series of eiz is the same as the Taylor series of cos z + i sin z,
that is,

eiz = cos z + i sin z (6)

If you recognize that (eiz )n = einz , then you have the DeMoivre formula in (5).
This explains the “coincidence” above. If z = cos π6 + i sin π6 is one-twelfth of the way around the unit
circle then raising z to the twelfth power will simply multiply the angle θ by twelve and move the point
to the point with angle zero: (1, 0) = 1 + 0i.
We may use Euler’s formula and write a formula for cos z as a sum of exponential functions. Since
eiz = cos(z) + i sin(z) then

e−iz = cos(−z) + i sin(−z) = cos(z) − i sin(z). (7)

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Add the expressions for eiz and e−iz to get

eiz + eiz = 2 cos(z) (8)

and so
eiz + eiz
cos z = . (9)
2
If we subtract the equation e−iz = cos z − i sin z from Euler’s equation (6) and then divide by 2i, we
have a formula for sine:

eiz − eiz
sin z = . (10)
2i

Euler’s formula writes the exponential function in terms of trig functions; now we have written a trig
function in terms of exponential functions.
The exponential and trig functions are very closely related. Trig functions are, in some sense, really
exponential functions in disguise!

Complex numbers v. Real numbers

Here are some things one can do with the real numbers:
1. Find an infinite set of numbers, x, such that sin(x) = 1/2.
2. Find a number x such that ex = 200.

3. Compute ln(2).
Here are some things that require complex numbers:
1. Show that f (x) = ex is periodic with period 2πi, that is, f (x + 2πi) = f (x).

2. Find an infinite set of numbers, x, such that ex = 1/2.

3. Use Euler’s formula to create the formula for sin z as a sum of exponential functions.

4. Find a number x such that sin(x) = 200.

5. Compute ln(−2).

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 Complex Numbers Worksheet 3
Euler’s Formula

1. Put the following complex numbers into polar coordinates reiθ Give two different answers, using
different values of θ.
(a) 3 + 4i
√
(b) 3+i
√
(c) − 3+i
√ √
(d) 2 − 2i
(e) 5 + 12i
(f) −3 − 3i
(g) 1−i
(h) 0

2. Write the polar form reiθ for the following complex numbers.
(a) −1.
(b) 2i.
√ √
(c) 2 + i 2.
√ √
(d) 2 − i 2.
√
(e) 3 − i.
√
(f) − 3 + i.

3. Write the polar form reiθ for the following complex numbers. Then give your answer in Cartesian
form z = x + iy.
√
(a) (1 + i 3)3 .
√ √
(b) ( 2 − i 2)6 .
√ √
(c) ( 2 + i 2)84
√ √
(d) ( 2 − i 2)−24
√
(e) ( 3 − i)300
√
(f) (− 3 + i)300
√
3
4. Compute ( 2 + 12 i)120011 .
5. Write the polar form reiθ for the following complex numbers. Then give your answer in Cartesian
form z = x + iy.
(a) (8 + 8i)10
√
(b) (2 3 + 2i)18

6. Write the polar form reiθ for the following complex numbers. Then give your answer in Cartesian
form z = x + iy.
(a) (−1 + i).
(b) (−1 + i)20 .
(c) (−1 + i)1/3 .
√
(d) i.