HARD ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Riverbank and shoreline stabilization techniques that remediate erosion are important tools to restore natural vegetation and protect water quality. Certain methods and practices are preferred to restore or protect ecosystem function and integrity, and shoreline stabilization can be accomplished through soft and hard engineering techniques or a combination of both methods. When dealing with hard techniques it must be noted that these are the more expensive techniques, but are known to persist longer in the environment. These types of techniques include retaining walls, stone riprap, gabion walls and baskets, articulated concrete revetment mats, geotextile tubes, and biologs. (Reston, 2008). This section will briefly discuss the main principles of each type of hard engineering techniques, as well as outline the major advantages and disadvantages associated with each method.

Retaining Walls

In some cases, retaining walls are required to protect and enhance the shoreline. This is usually the case when severe erosion has taken place or where building foundations have been built too close to the water and are threatened by shoreline erosion (FOC, 2008). A retaining wall is basically a vertical structure that is implemented to hold back a slope and prevent further shoreline erosion. The use of sheet steel or cement in retaining walls is the common building material, but produces a sterile, vertical, flat faced structure, which is of little use for fish or other aquatic organisms (FOC, 2008).

Furthermore, retaining walls tend to deflect energy rather than dissipate it, which usually results in erosion problems elsewhere. Thus, the use of vertical retaining walls for river stabilization is not encouraged and generally not approved (FOC, 2008). However, where vertical retaining walls are the only option, they are more stable if stone riprap is placed at the foot of the wall to prevent erosive forces from cutting under the wall and the stone riprap should be placed to form a 45-degree angle to the wall (FOC,2008).

Stone Riprap

The implementation of stone riprap to stabilize river continues to be the most common type of river stabilization. In general, rock rubble embankments are constructed so that the final

slope is at least 1 to (vertical: horizontal); that is, for every one foot in height, the rock should extend two feet out (FOC, 2008). By designing rock embankments with slopes, waves hitting the slope will roll-up the slope rather than crashing into it and this will maximize the life of the slope.

Example of stone riprap in a river setting to reduce erosion issues.

When using stone riprap, the rock needs to be sized appropriately so that wave & current action or fluctuating water levels will not move them. Furthermore, often a filter cloth is placed under the stone riprap to prevent underlying sediments from being eroded away (FOC, 2008). Also, the planting of vegetation, especially deep-rooted species, above and immediately behind the rock will greatly increase the life span of the wall, as well as increase biodiversity. The placement of stone riprap below the high-water level directly affects fish habitat by covering over areas of natural lake or river bottom and may result in in-filling of habitat (FOC, 2008). However, in some cases, the placement of stone riprap can increase habitat diversity and provide spaces in which fish can find food and hide from predators. (FOC, 2008).

Gabion Walls and Baskets

The method of using gabion walls and baskets involves the placement of rocks into closed wire cages and then placing these structures along the shoreline (FOC, 2008). Gabion baskets are an effective and relatively inexpensive type of shoreline stabilization, they are easily

transported and installed, can be purchased in various sizes to accommodate the project, and little maintenance is required after installation (OMAFRA, 2008). Unfortunately, the durability of these baskets is questionable when they are exposed to the elements and can pose a serious health risk to uneducated people using an area where these have been installed (FOC, 2008). Other associated problems with gabion baskets include the ability to find the appropriate gabion rock for the project, and this type of method is limited to intermittent flows and small drainage areas (OMAFRA, 2008). Lastly, the fish habitat provided by gabion baskets is marginal and the use of this type of technique for river stabilization is generally not encouraged anymore (FOC, 2008).

Articulated Concrete Revetment Mats

This type of river stabilization can be very time consuming, costly and is generally used for large-scale projects. Many companies have specialized in manufacturing and installing concrete mattresses and new technologies are always being developed in this field. Revetment Mats which is an articulating concrete mat used primarily for pipeline protection, erosion control, and river stabilization (Submar, 2008). These mats can provide essential structure to reduce erosion and have several innovative designs. If the stream undergoes significant changes, the mats can be repositioned to compensate for changing flow patterns (Submar, 2008). Furthermore, the mat has open areas that allow re-vegetation through the mat and the design for matted areas includes a rapid return to a natural appearance to increase aesthetics (Submar, 2008). Lastly, overtime these concrete mats will blend in with natural riparian corridors and wildlife habitat & diversity will be increased in turn (Submar, 2008).

Geotextile Tubes

As development continues, geotextile tube technology continues to evolve as a versatile construction alternative for both river protection and restoration applications (Gaffney, 2003). This concept is basically a horizontally lying geotextile tube that is deployed near the river and then filled with soil or debris to reduce wave action and erosion. This type of method is utilized in coastal protection, river construction, erosion management, and in foundation engineering (Gaffney, 2003). Most projects rely on sand-filled geotextile tubes as a main structural component, but some include a geotextile armour layer to increase durability and

aesthetics of a restoration project. Geotextile tubes, when uncovered, are susceptible to debris damage and this is why many projects include the armour layer (Gaffney, 2003). Furthermore, a woven, vinyl-coated, polyester fabric has been used in many projects to act as the armour layer because it is superior to woven polypropylene and doesnt have the negative aesthetic disadvantage (Gaffney, 2003). One interesting aspect of this stabilization method is the ability to use biodegradable materials in the construction of the geotextile tube and armour layer. The tube casing is designed to degrade over a period of years, adding biomass to the fill material and the tube produces natural vegetation and adapts to the surrounding environment (Gaffney, 2003). This technique is growing rapidly in restoration and river stabilization projects and has many beneficial uses in wetland restoration, river & estuary shoreline protection due to the fact it utilizes hard and soft engineering techniques.

Biologs

This river stabilization method can be described as cylindrical rolls of packed coconut fibre bound together by twine also made from coconut (Reston, 2008). The logs usually come manufactured 12 in diameter and 20 feet long and biologs protect river by reducing wave energy and containing lakeshore substrate/soil behind them (Reston, 2008). Furthermore, biologs are staked at the toe of the slope so that approximately to of the log is below normal lake elevation (See Figure 2). The physical structure of the log functions as a wave breaker preserving easily eroded river and in instances where the eroded river is higher than the height of the log, multiple biologs can be stacked on top of each other (Reston, 2008). Biologs trap sediment and nutrients from land runoff, which helps decrease sedimentation and eutrophication. Furthermore, the coconut fibre provides a medium for the establishment of aquatic vegetation, which is continually enhanced by trapped sediment and nutrients (Reston, 2008). Also, many types of plants can be used in biologs, thus creating an aesthetically pleasing shoreline stabilization application. Lastly, vegetated biologs benefit river ecology by providing food, cover, and substrate for a variety of organisms (Reston, 2008). Therefore, biologs are an excellent alternative to conventional river stabilization techniques and the concept acts as a hard engineering technique, while incorporating the main as aspects of soft engineering methods.

Cross sectional view of biolog installation.

SOFT ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Soft engineering offers a different, more natural approach to preventing the erosion of riverbanks and shorelines. Through growing vegetation and applying ecological principles the remediation of banks and river can be successfully achieved in a more environmentally conscious way. This form of engineering offers many advantages over the traditional methods that have little respect and compatibility with nature. The primary concept behind soft engineering is the use of plant material as well as other natural materials to secure the soil in place, thus preventing erosion. These techniques must be conducive to site characteristics in order for them to work effectively.

One of the primary advantages that can be achieved through soft engineering techniques is an increase in the sites biodiversity. Rehabilitated sites tend to have a larger diversity because of the vegetation that establishes over time. Primary production encourages other species to inhabit an area as it provides them with all their survival necessities. With this increase in lush biodiversity, also comes an increase in the aesthetic value also adding to the techniques appeal. The vegetation however, does more to an ecosystem then make it visually appealing and attract it new species, it also acts as a filtration system that purifies runoff water before it can enter the stream at full concentration. The final advantage to soft-engineering techniques is its relatively low economic cost, should free resources be available (cuttings, timber, labourers etc) than the project should be of low expense.

Soft engineering techniques are normally used alongside each other but can also be used a long side hard engineering techniques as well. When deciding which technique is most

appropriate for use it is important to look at the site characteristics and determine the most effective method, this is because not all techniques are suited to repair the various erosion scenarios possible. Soft engineering when conducted correctly provides a natural, effective, visually appealing, inexpensive and environmentally beneficial solution to stabilizing riverbanks and shorelines that have been degraded by soil erosion.

Live Stakes

Live staking is the simplest and most straightforward soft engineering technique. This technique involves the planting of a woody cutting into the ground. The live cutting then develops an intricate root system over time, which binds the soil together stabilizing the earth. The roots also assist in stabilizing soil conditions by removing the moisture from the soil (Redfield, 2008). Woody bushes and shrubs are the recommended vegetation for staking; species such as red-osier dogwood and willow are favoured for their fibrous root system which effectively stabilizes the soil, as well as their ability to thrive in areas of high moisture. Live staking can be of little expense if the cuttings are obtained from a free site and the installation is completed by volunteers. Live staking is conducive on the eroded banks of rivers that have: high stream velocities, extensive toes and stream level erosion as well as those that may suffer from the odd heavy flow (IDNR, 2006). This technique is commonly used in conjunction with other soft-engineering techniques in order to establish the most effective design.

Figure 3. Image of a live stake

Live Fascines A live fascine is a long bundle of woody vegetation that is buried within a shallow trench running parallel to the flow of the river. These plant bundles take root and start to grow, the roots then start to spread out and secure surrounding soil in place as the plant develops above ground preventing surface erosion. The plants are tied into bundles approximately 6-8 inches in diameter and 4-20 feet in length (Ohio, 2008). These bundles are placed in a tiered design in order to create shorter slopes and prevent overland flow, which reduces the erosion occurring across the bank. This method works particularly well in rivers that have occasional heavy flows as it tolerates the high flow velocity relatively well (Iowa, 2008). This technique is commonly used in combination with riprap and live staking to produce a design that would most effectively remediate the degraded site (Redfield, 2008). Live fascines can be constructed and installed with little expense if the plant material is free and volunteers are available. The long-term maintenance cost of live fascines is low (Iowa, 2008).

Figure 4. Cross sectional view of live fascine installation.

Brushlayers

Brush layering is different from live fascines in the sense that instead of planting the roots vertically into the bank, they are planted horizontally into the bank. This technique creates stability by preventing both above and below ground erosion through the capture of sediments by surface vegetation and the root systems. The surface vegetation catches the runoff before it is lost to the river (Gaffney, 2003). This technique is ascetically pleasing due to the lush vegetation that colonizes itself over time, and the equally lush biodiversity of animals, insects, fish etc, which now can find refuge living within the well-vegetated ecosystem. This method is also simple and straightforward enough that if there are free resources available (materials and labourers) such as in the previous methods, live stakes and

live fascines, a lot of money could be saved. This method is labour intensive during the production and installation process and is not suitable for river systems with a high flow velocity (Gaffney, 2003). This vegetation in turn provides the essential needs of survival to a variety species that now can inhabit the area. The vegetation provides good shelter, nesting, and feeding opportunities for a variety of species that may not have been able to thrive in the ecosystem during its degraded stage.

Live Soft Gabions

Live soft gabions, also known as vegetated geogrid , use non-living material in conjunction with living material to stabilize a slope. A geotextile is used to hold the soil in place until the plants roots have enough time to develop and start securing the soil on their own. This method however involves the movement of large quantities of soil and thus requires the use of heavy equipment making it one of the more expensive soft engineering techniques (Redfield, 2008). This technique involves alternating layers of live branch cuttings and soil with geotextiles

Figure 6. Image of installed live gabion. This alternating design is constructed to trap the sediment as it washes down the slope and progressively rebuild the riverbank. Although this technique is expensive, its structure is appropriate on steep slopes and it has a good tolerance of high flow velocities, it is also noted as being comparable in strength to various hard engineering techniques. (Redfield, 2008). This technique provides a good base for vegetation to colonize and the opportunity for more species to inhabit the site. As well, the more vegetation that colonizes the site the more stable it will become which mean it is a lot less likely to erode. This method, like all man-made structures must be monitored occasionally over time for any damages, or maintenance. Once the slope is established, the cost of maintenance is lessened.

Brush Mattresses

Brush mattresses are a natural solution to stabilizing riverbanks effectively and inexpensively. They contain a layer of interwoven live branches that are planted into the slope. This method uses live fascines, which are joined to the mattress by wire and live stakes, and is placed, along the eroding bank. This design structure slows the water velocity on the bank where it gathers sediment rather than loose it. The vegetation once again allows the opportunity to increase site biodiversity. Encouraging primary production along shorelines and riverbanks improves the quality of the water entering the waterway, as the plants filter out any pollutants. The mattress can be used on banks with a relatively steep gradient as well as a fast flow velocity (Fischenich and Hallis, 2001). This technique is not suitable for sites that experience surface erosion problems such as landslide.

brush mattress installation.