15.

Parallel Axis Theorem and Torque

A) Overview
In this unit we will continue our study of rotational motion. In particular, we will
first prove a very useful theorem that relates moments of inertia about parallel axes. We
will then move on to develop the equation that determines the dynamics for rotational
motion. In so doing, we will introduce a new quantity, the torque, that plays the role for
rotational motion that force does for translational motion. We will find, once again, that
the rotational analog of mass will be the moment of inertia.

B) Parallel Axis Theorem
We have shown earlier that the total kinetic energy of a system of particles in any
reference frame is equal to the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the system, defined
to be one half times the total mass times the square of the center of mass velocity, plus
the kinetic energy of the motion of all of the parts relative to the center of mass.
CM REL lab system
K K K + =
,

For a solid object the only possible motion relative to the center of mass is
rotation. Therefore, the kinetic energy relative to the center of mass is just equal to one
half times the moment of inertia about a rotation axis through the center of mass times the
square of the angular velocity about the center of mass.
2
2
1
2
2
1
, CM CM CM lab system
Mv I K + =
We can use this result to calculate the moment of inertia about a chosen axis if the
moment of inertia about a parallel axis that passes through the center of mass is known.

For example, Figure 15.1 shows the
thin rod from the last unit rotating about an
axis perpendicular to the page at a distance
D from the center of mass. We can describe
this motion, as the center of mass rotating
about the axis with angular velocity , plus
the rod rotating about its center of mass
with that same angular velocity . Thus,
for every rotation the center of mass makes
about the axis, the rod makes one revolution
about its center of mass.

We start from our previous result that the total kinetic energy about the chosen
axis can be written in terms of the moment of inertia about that axis.
2
2
1

total total
I K =
Now we know this kinetic energy must be equal to the sum of the kinetic energy of the
center of mass and the kinetic energy relative to the center of mass.
2
2
1
2
2
1

CM CM total
I Mv K + =
Figure 15.1
A thin rod rotates with angular velocity
about an axis perpendicular to the page
located a distance D from the center of
mass of the rod.
Now the velocity of the center of mass in the lab frame is just equal to the product of D
and , and the kinetic energy relative to the center of mass is just equal to the product
of the moment of inertia about this parallel axis and the square of the angular velocity.
2
2
1
2
2
1
) (
CM total
I D M K + =
We can cancel a factor of one half omega squared from each term in the kinetic energy
equation to determine that the total moment of inertia about the chosen axis is just the
moment of inertia about a parallel axis passing through the center of mass plus the
moment of inertia of the center of mass, treated as a point particle, about the chosen axis.
CM total
I MD I + =
2

This result is known as the parallel axis theorem and it will prove to be very useful in the
next few units. You can verify that this parallel axis theorem predicts the relationship we
obtained last time for the two moments of inertia for a thin rod.

C) Example: Moment of Inertia of a Dumbbell
We can now use this parallel axis theorem to calculate the moment of inertia of a
dumbbell made up of two solid spheres connected by a solid rod about an axis that is
perpendicular to the rod and passes through its center as shown in Figure 15.2.

Well start by using our result from the last
unit that the moment of inertia of the
dumbbell about the given axis is equal to the
sum of the moments of inertia of its
components, the rod and the two spheres,
about that same axis. To find the moments of
inertia of the spheres about the axis through
the center of the rod, we will apply the parallel
axis theorem we developed in the last section.

Namely, we know that the moment of inertia
of a solid sphere about an axis passing through
its center is equal to 2/5 the product of its
mass and the square of its radius.

2
,
5
2
MR I
CM sphere
=

Applying the parallel axis theorem, we see
that the moment of inertia of each sphere about the given axis is just given by:.

2
2
,
2 5
2
|

\
|
+ =
L
M MR I
axis sphere

To find the total moment of inertia of the dumbbell, we just add the contributions from
the two spheres to the moment of inertia of the thin rod about its center to get the result:

(
(

\
|
+ + =
2
2 2
2 5
2
2
12
1 L
M MR d m I
rod dumbbell


Figure 15.2
A dumbbell composed of two spherical
masses of radius R and mass Mseparated
by a distance d are connected by a rod
with mass m
rod
.
D) Torque and Angular Acceleration
So far in our study of rotations, we have made explicit connections to the
kinematics of one-dimensional linear motion and the concept of mass. We will now use
Newtons second law to develop the equation that describes the dynamics of rotations.

Figure 15.3 shows a point mass, constrained to move in a circle being acted upon
by an arbitrary force F. We choose to use polar
coordinates (r and ) to describe this motion
since r will be constant Since the mass is
moving in a circle, we know there must be a
component of the net force acting on the mass
that is radial to supply the radial acceleration
(v
2
/r). In addition, there may be a component of
the net force that is tangential which will result
in a non-zero tangential acceleration. This
tangential acceleration is simply related to the
angular acceleration of the rotation.


mr ma F = =
We know that the rotational analog of
mass is the moment of inertia, which in this case
is just equal to the product of the mass of the
particle and the square of its distance from the
axis of rotation.

2
mr I =
If we now multiply both sides of our force
equation by this distance r, we find that the
product of r and the tangential component of the
force is equal to the product of the moment of
inertia of the object about the rotation axis and
the angular acceleration.

I rF =
The right hand side now looks like a rotational
version of Newtons second law: namely, the product of the rotational mass (the moment
of inertia) and the rotational acceleration. It would be natural to identify the left hand
side of this equation as the rotational force. Indeed, we will identify the product of the
tangential force and the distance between the application point of this force and the
rotation axis as the torque, the quantity that plays the role of force in rotational dynamics.

rF
IN the next sections we will formally define torque as a vector quantity and will arrive at
a general vector equation that is the rotational version of Newtons second law.

E) Example: Closing a Door
Weve just seen that a torque, the product of a tangential force and the distance
between the application point of this force and the rotation axis, produces an angular
acceleration. As a concrete example, Figure 15.4 shows the overhead view of an open
Figure 15.3
A point mass costrained to move on a
circle of radius r is acted upon by a
force F. The tangential component of
this force, F

, gives rise to an angular

acceleration .
door. To close this door, you need to push on it. Here we
see a force F being applied a distance r from the hinge.
The door is heavy and barely moves as you push on it.
What would you change about the way you are pushing in
order to close it quicker? Your intuition tells you that you
would either push harder, or you would push on the door
at a point further from the hinge. You would certainly not
try pushing closer to the hinge, and you would also not
change the direction you were pushing to be more parallel
to the door. In other words, the biggest effect you can
have on the door is to push on it as hard as possible, in a
direction perpendicular to the door, at a point far from the
hinge.

The equations we derived in the previous section tell us
exactly the same thing! We expect the angular
acceleration to be biggest when the torque is biggest in
other words the door will close fastest when the torque is
large. The torque is largest when the distance r between the axis and the perpendicular
force is biggest, and when the perpendicular force itself is biggest. If we push parallel to
the door, there is no perpendicular force component and we dont expect the door to start
moving at all!

In the next section we will generalize this description of rotations by defining
torque, angular velocity, and angular acceleration as vector quantities and by defining the
cross product of two vectors..

F) Torque and the Cross Product
Figure 15.5 shows a spinning top. So far, we have described this motion in terms
of one dimensional variables, the angular displacement, the angular velocity and the
Figure 15.4
An overhead view of a closing
door. The force F applies a
torque about the hinge which
causes an angular acceleration.
Figure 15.5
A top spins on its axis. A counterclockwise rotation is defined to be positive.
angular acceleration, all defined relative to the axis of rotation. We will need to
generalize this description to three dimensions when we allow the direction of the
rotation axis itself to change.

If a rotating object is viewed in a reference frame in which the rotation axis is
perpendicular to the page, as shown in Figure 15.5, it is conventional to define a counter-
clockwise rotation as positive and a clockwise rotation as negative. We adopt this
convention in order to match the usual measurement of the angle theta relative to the x-
axis in a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system.

There is a simple rule involving the right hand that can be used to define the
directions of the angular velocity vector. Namely,
if you curl the fingers of your right hand in the
direction of rotation of the object, your thumb will
point in the direction of the angular velocity
vector of the object. In other words, if some object
is spinning in the counter-clockwise direction in
the x-y plane, curling the fingers of your right
hand in this direction results in your thumb
pointing in the +z direction which we define to be
the direction of the angular velocity vector.
Similarly, if the object is rotating in the clockwise
direction, the same exercise results in your thumb
pointing in the z direction.

We use the same right hand rule to define
the direction of the angular acceleration. For
example, if the magnitude of the angular velocity
increases in time, then the angular acceleration
vector has the same direction as that of the angular
velocity. If the magnitude of the angular velocity
decreases in time, then the angular acceleration
vector has the opposite direction as that of the
angular velocity.

One nice feature of using the right hand rule to define the direction of vectors in
systems involving rotation is that these vectors then do not rely on the choice of a
coordinate system at all; the rotation vector becomes a property of the object itself.

Now that we have defined the direction of the angular velocity and angular
acceleration vectors, we will now define the torque as a vector quantity and obtain the
vector equation that determines rotational dynamics.

We have shown that the magnitude of the torque is given by the product of the
length of the line connecting the axis to the point where the force acts, r, and the
component of the force F that is perpendicular to this line. If we define as the angle
Figure 15.6
The right hand rule for determining
the direction of the angular veloicty
: Curl your fingers in the direction
of rotation and your thumb will
point along the direction of .
between this line and the force as shown in Figure 15.7, then the perpendicular
component of the force is just equal to the product of F and sin.

If we consider the line connecting the rotation axis to the force as a vector then
the magnitude of the torque is given by the magnitude of the vector F times the
magnitude of the vector r times the sin of the angle between them. We write it in this way
because there is a mathematical construct called the cross product that has exactly this
same property. Namely, given two vectors A and B, the magnitude of AXB is given by
this same form.
sin AB B A =


The direction of AXB is perpendicular to both A and B and is given by the right hand rule
shown in Figure 15.8. If you point the fingers of your right hand in the direction of A and
curl them toward the direction of B, then your thumb points in the direction of AXB.

Using this definition of the cross product, and what we already know about the
right hand rule, we can write a vector equation that neatly summarizes everything we
know so far.


I
Net
=
On the right hand side we have the angular acceleration vector, whose direction is found
by applying the right hand rule. On the left hand side we have the torque vector, whose
direction is also found using the right hand rule.

In the example shown, we see that the directions of the torque and the angular
acceleration are the same; they are both parallel to the rotation axis pointing out of the
page. This equation, the net toque about an axis is equal to the product of the moment of
inertia about that axis and the angular acceleration, is totally general. This equation is
just Newtons second law applied to a system of particles in rotation!

Figure 15.7
The magnitude of the torque exerted by
force F is equal to rFsin.
Figure 15.8
The direction of the cross product of two vectors A and B is
given by a right hand rule: point the fingers of your right
hand in the direction of A and curl them toward the direction
of B, then your thumb points in the direction of AXB.