Basic Elec 3
Basic Elec 3
Basic Elec 3
• When we do not get specific resistor values we have to either use variable resistors such as
potentiometers or presets to obtain such precise values. Pots are too expensive to use for
every case.
• Another scheme is to combine two or more resistors to obtain the necessary precise values.
•Then the question arises as to how one should combine these resistors, because, they can be
Series Combination
R Total = R1 + R2
• Calculating values for two or more resistors in series is simple, add all the values up.
• The connection ensures that the SAME current flows through all resistors.
• In this type of connection RTOTAL will always be GREATER than any of the included resistors.
Even if we have more than two resistors the total resistance is the sum of all the resistors connected in series:
R Total = R1 + R2 + R3 + • • • • •
RESISTORS IN SERIES
V .R2
V2 = I.R2 =
R1 + R2
• The total voltage is
V V
V = V1 + V2 = .R1 + .R2
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
• If for example, V=6V and the two resistors are 1k each, then the current in the circuits is
(6V/2k)=3mA.
• Instead, if the two resistors are 1k and 2k then the current is (6V/3k)=2mA. The voltage across 1k is
1.The same current flows through all the resistors connected in series, and
3.Series resistors divide the total applied voltage proportional to their magnitude.
RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
PARALLELCOMBINATION:
• If the two resistors are equal the current will divide equally and the RTOTAL will be exactly half
of either resistor or exactly one third if there are three equal resistors.
• In general,
1 1 1
= + +…..
RTOTAL R1 R2
R1 . R2
RTOTAL =
R1 + R2
• Let us try a numerical example:
The current through each resistor will be (6V/1k) = 6mA. Hence the total current is
(6mA+6mA=)12mA.
• Hence the effective resistance when two 1k resistors are connected in parallel is 0.5k.
» ; R= (1x1/1+1)k=(1/2)k or 0.5k
R1 R2
RTOTAL =
R1 + R2
• Now if two different resistors are used the current will still split, but not equally.
• More current will take the path of least resistance and less current will take the path of higher
resistance.
• The total current is still always less than would be for either resistor alone.
Thus the parallel connection is characterized by:
1. The same voltage exists across all the resistors connected in parallel, and
2. The reciprocal of resultant resistor is the sum of reciprocals of all resistors in parallel, and
3. Parallel resistors divide the total current in an inverse proportion to their magnitude.
• When a set of resistors are connected in parallel, the effective resistance is always smaller then the
• For example: 1k and 10k are parallel (say).Then the resultant is (10/11)=0.9k which is smaller than
1k ( the smallest).
• When 1k and 100k are used, then resultant is (100/101)k=0.99k which is smaller than 1k
POTENTIAL DIVIDER
Since series resistors divide voltage, this idea an be used to get smaller voltage from a power supply
output. For example, we have a power supply with 10V fixed output. But we want only 5V from it. How to
get it?
Vin
• The current I=
R + R
1 2
• Which is to be used?
• Observe, the current I flowing through the Load will also pass
through R1.
• Hence R1 will have to be chosen carefully. If we need more current
• But too small a value will cause energy drain on the power supply.
Power Dissipation:
• It is also worth noting that when two resistors are in parallel then their overall power rating is increased.
• If both resistors are the same value and same power rating, then the total power rating is doubled.
• If parallel resistances are not equal, then the resistors with smaller values will be required to handle
more power.
RESISTORS
• Four identical 0.25W resistors can be wired in parallel to give a resistor with one fourth the value in
• This is most useful when we require higher power handling, but don't want to go out and buy more
P=V*I
• We have already seen earlier, that the power (in watts) can be calculated by multiplying voltage by
current.
• By using ohms law, the parallel or series resistor formulas and the above formula, a minimum power
• If this is exceeded the resistor is likely to get hot and hopefully quietly breakdown. It could even start a
fire.
CAPACITOR
The function of the capacitor is to store electric charge or in effect electrical energy. It is very useful as a
ε0ε r A
C= d
Where A is the area of the plates, d is the spacing between them, ε0 is called the permittivity in free space
• Just as the charges get accumulated on the plates there is a current flowing in the circuit. But as the
capacitor gets charged the current gets reduced and when it is fully charged, the current becomes zero.
• When we measure the resistance between the leads of a capacitor it will show infinite resistance.
• However, when AC voltage or current is applied it will pass. The reactance offered by a capacitance is
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πfC
The unit for capacitance is Farad ( F ) for some capacitors and they are called as “Super Capacitors”.
• Since the value of capacitance is very small, units such as microfarad ( 10-6F ), nanofarad ( 10-9F )
• Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two ways of
writing it one by using letters and numbers, the other by using only numbers depending on the
manufacturer.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES
• OR C1 C2
CTotal =
C1 + C2
CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
C1
• When capacitors are connected in parallel the resultant is
given by:
CTotal = C1 + C2 C2
BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE
The maximum voltage which can be applied across a capacitor – breakdown voltage. The breakdown
voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric (insulator) inside the capacitor to break
down and conduct. It depends on the kind of capacitor being used. The failure can be catastrophic.
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
The important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have a positive and a
negative electrode. Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Electrolytic
capacitors range in value from about 1µF to thousands of µF. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a
ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc
CAPACITORS
• When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure resistance, is connected to a 10
microfarad (µF) electrolytic capacitor, a current will flow, but only for a moment.
• When we connect the meter's probes to the capacitor in reverse, we will note that current once again
• Once again, when the capacitor has fully charged, the current stops flowing.
TANTALUM CAPACITORS
•Tantalum Capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that use a material called tantalum for the electrodes.
•They are superior to aluminum electrolytic capacitors in temperature and frequency characteristics and
therefore expensive.
•They are used for circuits which demand high stability in the capacitance values.
Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in high frequency
applications.
• Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency signals to ground.
•They should not be used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal.
100pF “103”
10 x 103pF
0.01 µF( 6 mm).
The component shown has a red color due to the copper leaf used for the electrode. The silver color is due
to the use of aluminum foil as the electrode. These devices have no polarity
ELECTRIC DOUBLE LAYER CAPACITORS
This is a “Super Capacitor” and the capacitance is 0.47 F (470,000 µ F). The capacitor is more like a
short circuit. A protection circuit needs to be set up. The size is small in spite of capacitance. Physically,
the diameter is 21 mm, the height is 11 mm. Care is necessary, because these devices do have polarity.
There is no change of capacitance in these devices if they are used with frequencies of 100KHz or less.
MICA CAPACITORS
These capacitors use Mica for the dielectric. Mica capacitors have good stabilitybecause their
temperature coefficient is small. Because their frequency characteristic is excellent, they are used for
They have very good insulation, and so can be utilized in high voltage circuits. It was often used for
vacuum tube style radio transmitters, etc. Mica capacitors do not have high values of capacitance, and
no polarity.
VARIABLE CAPACITORS
Variable capacitors are used for adjustment of frequency mainly. The value of the capacitor can be
affected by the capacitance of the screwdriver we use so we have to use a special screwdriver.
20pF
(3pF - 27pF 30pF
Blue: 7pF (2 - 9), white: 10pF (3 - 15), green: 30pF (5 - 35), brown: 60pF (8 - 72).
These capacitors are used for radio tuners.The capacitance is varied by turning the spindle which changes
The symbol .
• The more turns the coil contains, the stronger its characteristics become.
• If a coil is wound around an iron rod, or ferrite core (strengthened with iron powder), the inductance of the
• Self inductance is a measure of a coil's ability to establish an induced voltage as a result of a change in its
current.
• Its symbol is "L". The unit of inductance is the Henry (H). Coils can have wide range of values from a few
• When current begins to flow in the coil, the coil resists the flow. When current decreases, the coil
makes current continue to flow (briefly) at the previous rate. This is called "Lenz's law". The direction
of induced current in a coil is such that is opposes the change in the magnetic field that produced it.
TRANSFORMER
• The change in current of one coil affects the current and voltage in the second coil and this phenomenon is
RESONANCE
When a coil and a capacitor are combined, the resulting circuit (tank circuit) has special characteristics.
The impedance (resistance to current flow) of the circuit changes with the frequency of the voltage. The
tuning circuit that select a particular radio station utilizes this characteristic.
COILS
Coils for high frequency
high frequency transformers
resonance,
or for detecting intermediate frequency
high frequency (455KHz)
turning it with a screwdriver. By moving the ferrite core in or out of the coil, the value of the coil's
inductance can be changed. The value of inductance can also be changed by changing the number of
turns of wire that comprise the coil. Eg. The tuner of an FM radio.
THE TOROIDAL COIL
The toroidal coil consists of copper wire wrapped around a cylindrical core.
It is possible to make it so that the magnetic flux which occurs within the coil doesn't leak out, the coil
efficiency is good and that the magnetic flux has little influence on other components.