Geo Notes

Chapter 1 World, Earth Geo/graphy to study/write

Environment o o o History Culture Economics o o o Physical Biological Urban People

Key Terms Geography is the study of the earth Population Density is a number calculated by dividing the population of a region by the regions area, calculated in square kilometres, 3.1 people/km squared in Canada Geographical Systems are various interconnected systems that shape our world Global Connections are economic, political, and geographic connections between and among countries around the world Statistical Analysis is studying collected data for the purposes of summarizing info to make it more useable and for making generalizations Geotechnologies are new geographical technologies such as remote sensing, GPS, and GIS, that have revolutionized the field of geography Mental Maps are maps in our mind of places we know Gross Domestic Product, per capita (GDP) is the indication of the total wealth of a country, calculated by dividing the GDP by the population of the region Absolute Measure is the type of measure that does not consider total amounts in relation to population sizes Relative Measure is the type of measure that considers total amounts in relation to population sizes Human Development Index (HDI) combines measures in three critical areas; health, wealth, and education Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is the index that is designed to indicate the amount of economic and political power that a countrys women have; rated from 0 (no power) to 1 (equal power as men) Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) predicts the ability of each of the worlds countries to protect the environment in years to come; combines 76 separate measurements into one value per country Reasons Why Canada uses a lot of Energy 1. Highly industrialized country 2. Big size- harder to transport goods and people 3. Climate is very cold, we use a lot of heat; climate is also very warm, use a lot of air conditioning 4. We are wealthy and energy is cheap

Notes

Geography is the study of Earth It began with the ancient Greeks Greeks used geo because they needed more land to control their over-crowded country They went around traveling and exploring to find new places The duty of a geographer is to explain how and why places are different, and to determine any similarities Maps show the distribution of land, water, vegetation, settlement patterns, etc. The interaction of man and his environment develop a landscape Geo is useful because we can better understand people in different countries Knowing geo promotes better understanding of books and newspapers

Five Focus areas important to geographers in trying to understand all the connection in the world are: 1. Reasons why things are located where they are 2. Geographical systems that shape our world, ex. Understanding earthquakes 3. Interactions between people and the environment they live in 4. Global connections between regions and countries, ex. Studying the impact of foreign tourism on the economy of a region or country 5. Special tools and skills that geographers use Canadian Extremes Canadas largest province- Qubec Canadas largest river- Mackenzie Largest of the 3 prairie provinces- Alberta Canadas most easterly province- Newfoundland Canadas most easterly point- Cape Spear, 53.5 degrees west Most northerly island- Elsmere, 83 degrees north Most westerly- Yukon/Alaska border, 141 degrees west Most populated city- Toronto Most southerly city- Windsor Largest ice field in the Rockies- Columbia Largest Great Lake- Superior Most bilingual city- Montreal Most northerly provincial capital city- Edmonton Largest city in area- Timmins Most northerly community- Alert Largest lake completely within Canada- Great Bear Largest island- Baffin Smallest province- P.E.I Highest mountain in Canada- Mt. Logan, 6050 metres Shallowest of the Great Lakes- Erie Most populated province- Ontario Most Southerly Island- Middle, 41 degrees north Province/territory with coldest recorded temp. - Yukon Largest island of the west coast- Vancouver Smallest provincial capital city- Charlottetown

3 Most Populated Cities in Canada % of growth 1. Toronto 2. Montreal 3. Vancouver 5.6 3.7 7.1 Population 5,741,000 3,859,000 2,231,000

Eventually, Vancouver will surpass Montreal; and Toronto later on This shows that that distribution of population is uneven in Canada Highly urbanized Focused on larger cities

Canadian Quiz Greatest Canadian of all time is Tommy Douglas William Lyon Mackenzie King was prime minister for 3 separate terms of 21 years Nunavut is Canadas newest territory, established April 1st, 1999; before they were a part of the Northwest Territories Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949 Highest award in Canada is the Order of Canada The longest river in Canada is the Mackenzie Mount Logan in Yukon is the tallest mountain 5 Great Lakes Lake Huron Lake Ontario Lake Michigan Lake Erie Lake Superior

Chapter 2
Key Terms Map is a representation of Earths features drawn on a flat surface Scale is a measurement on a map that represents an actual distance on Earths surface Small-Scale Map shows small amount of detail in a large area Large-Scale Map shows a large amount detail of a smaller area General-Purpose Map provides many types of info on one map Thematic Map shows very specific info on one map Topographic Map uses symbols to show a variety of features Digital Mapping is the location of geographic data (lines, points, areas, elevations; and numerical data such as census info)

Notes Maps cannot show you how the land looks Maker of any map must choose which features to include and what to not include Map requirements- legend, title, data, scale, date of publication, drawers name, direction, border Types of Maps Small-scale maps shows small amount of detail in a large area ex. Wall maps of Canada/ the world Purpose- to show general info such as political, physical, and economical boundaries Large-Scale Map shows large amount of detail of a smaller area Ex. Hiking maps Purpose- detailed tasks, hiking, residential planning, military operations

General Purpose provides many types of info on one map Features- bodies of water, roads, parks, elevations, latitude/longitude, political boundaries Thematic shows very specific info about a place Shows info on one topic or theme Easy to understand Topographic Uses symbols to show a variety of features Uses contour lines to show elevation and grid system to locate things

Small scale will be anything that is greater than 1:250,000; large scale will be 1:50,000 or lower

Useful for characteristics of small area on Earths surface in detail Many types of geotechnology are now in use Map is the actual data, not the piece of paper Map exists in computer programs, handheld devices, and the Internet A map is not 3-D, so it wont be very correct They cannot show a lot of detail, such as valleys and hills The world cannot be flattened into a map

Map Projections Impossible to accurately represent the spherical surface of the earth on flat piece of paper A globe large enough to display most features of ear that a useable scale would be large to be useful, so we use maps Depending on the purpose of a map, the cartographer will attempt to eliminate distortion in one or several aspects of the map Not all aspects can be accurate so the map maker must choose which distortions are less important Four ways to distort a map: 1. Shape- the shapes of places are accurate 2. Distance- measured distances are accurate 3. Size- areas represented on the map are proportional to their area on the earth 4. Direction- angles of direction are portrayed accurately Geradus Mercator invented his famous projection in 1569 Used to aid navigators Lines of latitude and longitude intersect at right angles, thus the direction of travel- the rhumb line- is consistent

Chapter 3
Key Terms Latitude is a distance north and south of the equator Longitude is a distance east and west of the equator Compass Point is the direction on a compass Compass Bearing is the degrees on a compass Compass Rose is the diagram showing points and bearings Grid is a network of two sets of parallel lines that meet at right angles Alphanumeric Grid is a grid that uses letters and numbers to identify squares in a grid pattern Map Grid is a series of lines that can be used to locate any place on a map Easting is the first 3 figures in a map reference giving the east-west location Northing last 3 figures in a map reference giving the north-south location Prime Meridian is a line of longitude that joins North and South Poles and runs through Greenwich England, Longitude is measured 180 degrees east and west from this line (0 degrees) Global Positioning System (GPS) is a system that gives you the exact latitude and longitude of any place on Earth Waypoint is a fixed location with latitude and longitude coordinates that are stored in a GPS unit Telematics is a GPS technology that is integrated with computers and mobile communications equipment Notes GPS allows you to determine the exact location of your car You need a minimum of 3 satellite connections in order for a GPS to work You are able to store waypoints Waypoints show your location in relation to various landmarks 1 degree is 60 minutes 1 minute is 1.85 km Latitude vs. Longitude Latitude Runs east and west Parallel to each other Located approx. 111km apart on Earth Never touch Goes from 0 degrees to 90 degrees North and South Longitude Runs north and south

Touch at the poles Also called meridians of latitude 111km apart at the equator

Important Lines Earths Tilt- 23.5 Tropic of Cancer- 23.5 North Tropic of Capricorn- 23.5 South South Pole- 90 South North Pole- 90 North Antarctic Circle- 66.5 South Arctic Circle- 66.5 North Canadian Time Zones Pacific- 3 pm Mountain- 4 pm Central- 5 pm Eastern- 6 pm Atlantic- 7 pm Newfoundland (not used unless it is in the specific question)- 7:30 pm Provincial Capitals Pacific Time zone: Victoria, Vancouver, Whitehorse Mountain Time zone: Calgary, Edmonton, Yellowknife, Saskatoon, Regina Central Time zone: Winnipeg, Iqaluit, Churchill Eastern Time zone: Toronto, Ottawa, All of southern Ontario, Quebec City, Montreal Atlantic Time zone: Charlottetown, Fredericton Halifax, Labrador City Newfoundland Time zone: St. John's

Compass Rose

Compass Bearing
N 0 337.5 315 022.5

045

292.5

067.5

W 270

E 90

247.5

112.5

225

135

202.5

S 180

157.5

Chapter 4
Key Terms Scale: a measurement on a map that represents an actual distance on Earths surface Direct Statement Scale: a scale that uses words to describe a relationship between a distance on a map and a distance on Earths surface Line Scale: a line divided into units of distance (km) that represents the actual units on the earths surface Representative Fraction Scale: a scale on a map given as a ratio of distance on a map of distance on the earths surface Notes Scale shows the relationship between the distance on a map and the actual distance on Earths surface Small distance on a map represents a much larger distance on Earths surface Scale can be represented in 3 ways: 1. Direct Statement Scale 2. Line Scale 3. Representative Fraction Scale Direct Statement Scale uses words to describe the relationship between a distance on a map and a specific distance on Earths surface ex: 1cm to 1km means that 1cm on the map is equal to 1km on the earths surface Line Scale is a special kind of a ruler that is divided into units of distance used to find the distance between 2 places 5 Steps: 1. Mark the locations of 2 cities on the edge of a sheet of paper 2. Place the edge of the paper against the line scale on the, first mark at 0 3. Make a mark on your paper at the right end of the scale 4. Move the mark from step 3 to 0 on the line scale&measure the remaining distance 5. Calculate the total distance between the 2 cities by adding together the distances you measured Conversions 1km=1000 1hm=100 1dm=10 1m=1

1dm=0.1 1cm=0.01 1mm=0.001

Representative Fraction Scale a scale on a map given as a ratio of distance on a map of distance on the earths surface means that 1 unit on the map represents 50,000 of the same units on Earths surface the terms MUST have the same units and this scale is universal 1 : 50 000 Second Term of Ratio

First Term of Ratio

always 1 represents distance on map in units of choice

represents distance on earths surface same units as 1st term

no decimal

Chapter 5
Key Terms Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is an integrated software package used for the input, management, analysis, and display of spatial info Base Map is a map providing only an outline of the most basic features of the mapped area Database is a table of info in computer program that can be searched for particular values or rearranged in a variety of ways Geospatial is pertaining to the location of items that can be located on Earths surface Graduated Colour Map is a map in which a range of colour shades is used to indicate different values Geomatics is the science and technology of gathering, analyzing, and manipulating geographic info Notes GIS was created by an Italian cartographer named Coronelli GIS has the ability to produce 3-D maps, graphs, and diagrams Purposes of GIS: To link geographic location to descriptive info To create maps with many different pieces of spatial info arranged in layers on top of one another To help users analyze spatial info, GIS can manipulate spatial data to help users answer important questions or reach conclusions about geographical issues GIS combines features of a database program with those of a drawing program The database program contains geospatial data Eight tools used in ArcView: 1. Identifying- info is displayed such as cities, provinces, lakes, rivers, etc. 2. Labelling- when you click the label command, it automatically adds name of highlighted features to your map 3. Charting- feature allows you to create charts from the data in which you are working on 4. Graduated Colour Mapping- different shades of a colour indicate different values of same measurement 5. Single Symbol Mapping- shows one feature such as locations of cities and rivers 6. Zooming- you can zoom in to enlarge part of your map, and display it at a larger scale 7. Querying- allows you to ask questions about your data 8. Measuring- allows you to determine distance between any 2 places

Chapter 11
Key Terms Tsunami is a long, high sea wave caused by underwater earthquakes Continental Drift is the theory by German scientist Alfred Wegener stating that 300 million years ago all of Earths land masses, which were in constant motion, collided to form one supercontinent called Pangaea. About 200 million years ago Pangaea broke apart and the continents have drifted apart to their present locations. Pangaea is the supercontinent that included all of Earths land masses Plate Tectonics is a theory that states the Earths outer shell consists of plates that move causing earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and the formation of new crust Convection Currents is a circular movement in a gas or liquid created by uneven heating Erosion is the wearing away of Earths surface followed by the movement to other locations of materials that have worn away Geologic Time is the history of Earth from its formation to present day Eras are major divisions of geologic time Sediments are eroded material that is deposited by water, wind, or glacial ice Glaciation is the formation of massive ice sheets that extend from each pole to cover their land Canadian Shield is a large area of Precambrian rock that forms the core of Canada Geoscience is a general term used to describe a wide range of specialized scientific fields within the broad area of geology and resource management Glaciers are slow-moving masses of ice Notes Earths planet is made of rock Beneath Earths surface, the liquid rock is very dense, and thick Movement of Earths plates is due to heat currents that start in the very centre of the Earth Movement of the plates is responsible for 30,000 earthquakes every year If it occurs under the sea and has the strength, it can cause a tsunami Earthquakes occur where there is movement of the plates that make up the Earths crust Wegener had 4 proofs to prove his theory Most scientists did not accept this theory because Wegener couldnt explain what force was powerful enough to move Earths continents Theory of plate tectonics is that Earth was made up of 20 plates. Most of these plates are made up of oceanic and continental crust. They are floating on a layer of hot rock. The movement of the plates is cause by convection currents.

Wegeners Four Proof: 1. He Saw the jigsaw fit between South America and Africa 2. He found fossils of the same animals and plants on both continents. He believed that they could exist in both places only if the continents were once joined together 3. There are mountains similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic Oceanthe Appalachians in the eastern US and Canada, and the Caledonian Mountains in the northern British Isles and Europe. They formed about 300 million years ago when North America collided with Europe and northern Africa. 4. Ice sheets covered parts of southern Africa, India, Australia, and South America about 250 million years ago. Only explanation is that they were all close to the South Pole. Geologic Time Earth is 4.6 Billion years old Each era represents a time of major sediment deposition and plate movement Checklist for Understanding the Creation of Canadas Landform The land is built up by tectonic forces such as volcanoes and the collision of plates that creates new mountain ranges. Volcanic activities create new igneous rocks from magma from under Earths surface. The land is worn away by the forces of erosion. These forces break down rock and move it to a location that is usually at a lower elevation. Erosion results from the action of moving water, freezing and melting water, wind, glaciers, precipitation, and chemical action such as water on limestone or the effects of acid rain. There is constant conflict between the forces that build up the land higher and those that wear it down. When the former are more active, the land will rise. When the erosional forces are more active, the land will wear down. In general, land building happens quickly over a shorter time while erosion is a slower but continuous process. Eroded sediments will eventually become sedimentary rock. Creation of sedimentary rock occurs in the ocean and on land. Tremendous weight of the sediments causes lower layers of sediment to be compressed into rock. Both igneous and sedimentary rock can be changed into various kinds of metamorphic rock when they are exposed to great heat and pressure under Earths surface. Economic activity in a particular location is related to the type of rock in that location. There is much clearer evidence of more recent geologic events than of those that happened in the distant Precambrian era. Earths history is so long that what were once huge mountain ranges have been worn away leaving no evidence behind that they ever existed. Defects of glaciation are central to the appearance and structure of Canadas landforms not because the power of glaciers were so overwhelming, but because glaciation occurred very recently in geologic time

Eras

Cenozoic (recent life)

Time period (millions of years ago) Began Ended 66 ----

Major Geologic Events

Major Biological Events

Ice sheets covered much of north America Continents take on their present shape Formation of the Rocky Mountains completed Formation of the Rocky Mountains begins Innuitians formed Shallow seas in the interior of North America at various times Periods when large parts of North America are covered by shallow seas Appalachians formed

Humans beings develop Age of mammals Modern forms of life evolve

Mesozoic (Middle life)

245

66

Age of reptiles, such as dinosaurs First flowering plants - First birds and mammals Age of amphibians an fish first insects Large swamps- coal formed from this vegetation First plants and animals appear on land First multi-celled organisms First single-cell organisms

Paleozoic (Ancient life)

570

245

Precambrian (Earliest Life)

4600

570

Precambrian Shields, such as the Canadian Shield, Brazilian Shield, African Shield, and Australian Shield are formed

Region Canadian Shield

When Mountains Formed Precambrian (570-1500 million years ago)

Appalachian Western Cordillera

Paleozoic (245-570 million years ago) Late Mesozoic and early Cenozoic (30-100 million years ago)

Appearance Ancient mountains that have been levelled by erosion, leaving rock covered by thin soil and many lakes Significantly eroded to rounded mountains and hill Slightly eroded mountains with jagged high peaks

The Rock Cycle

Sediments Erosion

Compression

Erosion

Erosion

Sedimentary Rock

Heat&Pressure

Igneous Rock

Heat and Pressure Melting

Metamorphic Rock

Cooling

Magma and Lava

Melting

Melting

Chapter 13 Canadas Climate

Key Terms Weather: combination of temperature, precipitation, cloud cover and winds experienced daily Climate: weather conditions of a place averaged over a long period of time Air Mass: large body of air having the same moisture and temperature conditions throughout Prevailing Winds: winds that are most commonly found in an area Polar Front: stormy boundary between cold, dry polar air and warm, moist tropical air Jet Stream: west to east movement of air in the mid-latitude flowing at speeds of up to 400km/h at an altitude between 8000 and 15 000 m Condensation: process whereby water vapour is cooled and changes from an invisible gas to liquid water Relief Precipitation: precipitation created when an air mass rises to cross a mountain barrier; also called orographic precipitation Convectional Precipitation: precipitation caused on hot days, when heated lad causes the air above it to rise by convection. As the air rises, it cools and condensation occurs Continental Climate: climate type that develops away from the influence of the ocean Maritime Climate: climate type that is influenced by the closeness of body of water; high precipitation Moderating Effect: total effect on the economy caused by an expansion or contraction in one art of it Four Facts to Remember Canadas Climate 1. Very large country 2. Different elevations produce different climate conditions 3. Coastal regions have different climates from inland regions 4. Wind & air pressure systems move weather conditions from one part of the country to another Factors That Affect Climate 1. Latitude 2. Ocean Currents 3. Wind & Air Masses 4. Elevation (Altitude) 5. Relief 6. Near Water Latitude Most Northern Point in Canada: Alert, Nunavut (Average Temp. -18C) Most Central Point in Canada: Yellowknife, Northwest Territories (Average Temp. -5C) Most Southern Point in Canada: Pelee Island, Ontario (Average Temp. 9C) Solar energy delivered by sunlight varies with latitude At higher latitudes, solar energy is less concentrated & spread over a larger surface area, cooler At lower latitudes, solar energy is more concentred & spread over a smaller surface area, warmer The solar energy level is different in certain places because of the Earths curvature and tilt of 23.5C

Ocean Currents The temp. of an ocean current affects the temp. of the air above it The temp. of an ocean current in comparison to the surrounding water determines whether it is a cold or warm current Moisture Content o m = maritime (wet formed over water) o c = continental (dry - formed over land) Temperature o T = tropical (hot formed near the tropics) o P = polar (cold formed between 55N and 66N) o A = artic (very cold formed over the artic) Cold Ocean Current = Cold Surrounding Air Warm Ocean Current = Warm Surrounding Air Wind & Air Masses Air Mass: large body of air having the same moisture and temperature conditions throughout An air mass passing over an ocean current is moist An air mass passing over land, the moisture is released in precipitation An air mass passing over land far from the ocean is dry Takes the climate conditions from one place to another There are high and low pressure belts that have created a pattern of prevailing winds Prevailing Winds: winds that are most commonly found in an area The boundary between the cold, dry polar and warm, wet tropical air is called the polar front In the atmosphere above it is a current of fast-moving air called the polar-from jet stream Polar Front: stormy boundary between cold, dry polar air and warm, moist tropical air Jet Stream: west to east movement of air in the mid-latitude flowing at speeds of up to 400km/h at an altitude between 8000 and 15 000 m The polar front is responsible for producing the rainfall in Canada Elevation As air rises, it expands because of lower air pressure and cools When it cools it becomes condensation (rain/snow/hail cloud) Rate of temperature before condensation = 1C/100m Rate of temperature after condensation = 0.6C/100m

Part A

Expands Cools

Air Contracts Gets Warmer Drier Rain Shadow

Part B

Wind Warm

Relief Differences in elevation Relief Precipitation o precipitation created when an air mass rises to cross a mountain barrier; also called orographic precipitation o created by mountain barriers o As moist air rises up the windward slope of a mountain range, it expands and cools o As air cools the rate of condensation increases o The result in an increase of water droplets in the air o In colder temp. the water vapour sublimates into snow o As cold air descends on the leeward slope of the mountain, it contracts and becomes warmer o More evaporation than condensation takes places as the air descends & condensation decreases o This results in a rain shadow on the leeward slope Frontal Precipitation o Occurs along the polar front o Affects most of Canada all year round Convectional Precipitation o precipitation caused on hot days, when heated lad causes the air above it to rise by convection. As the air rises, it cools and condensation occurs o it is responsible for the fact that most parts of Canada get more precipitation in the summer than the winter Near Water areas located in the interior of large land masses have a continental climate Continental Climate: climate type that develops away from the influence of the ocean The temperature range in these areas is great because there is no large water body to moderate hot temp. of the summer and cold temp. of the winter Low amounts of precipitation because it is far from sources of moisture costal locations have a maritime climate Maritime Climate: climate type that is influenced by the closeness of body of water; high precipitation The rage between the highest and lowest average monthly temp. is small b/c of the moderating effect of the large body of water Moderating Effect: total effect on the economy caused by an expansion or contraction in one art of it High level of precipitation because of the proximity(closeness) of a large water body

Chapter 15 Canadas Ecozones

Key Terms
Ecozone: distant ecological region determined on the basis of physical, biological, and human factors Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total value in goods and services produced within a country per person

Canadas Ecozones Canada has 15 ecozones, each classified by their physical, biological, and human factors Many of them differ in some characteristics but may be similar in others Mixedwood Plains Plains, Great Lakes Coniferous & deciduous Leached, wet Toronto, Montreal Atlantic Maritime Hills, plains Coniferous Leached, wet Halifax, Fredricton Boreal Plains Plains Coniferous & deciduous Rich Hinton Boreal Shield Plains Coniferous & deciduous Leached Sudbury, St. Johns Prairies Flat Grassy areas Rich Edmonton, Calgary

Landforms Vegetation Soils Urban Areas

Montane Cordillera Landforms Vegetation Soils Urban Areas

Landforms Vegetation Soils Urban Areas