A Handbook of Art Smithing

^
l_f^)
AHANDBOOK
OF
IKT SMITHING
HANDBOOK
OF
ART SMITHING
FOR THE USE OF
PRACTICAL SMITHS, DESIGNERS OF IRONWORK
TECHNICAL AND ART SCHOOLS, ARCHITECTS, ETC.

BY
FRANZ SALES MEYER

PROFESSOR
IN THE SCHOOL OF APPLIED ART AT KARLSRUHE AUTHOR OF "A HANDBOOK OF ORNAMENT" ETC.
TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND AND ENLARGED GERMAN EDITION

WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION
BY
J.
STARKIE GARDNER
CONTAINING
214
ILLUSTRATIONS
B. T.
LONDON BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN

1896.
SEEN BY
PRESERVATION
SERVICES
Printed in
Germany
by
RAMM
& SEEMANN, LEIPZIG.
CONTENTS.
page
INTRODUCTION.
I.
CONCERNING THE MATERIAL.

1.
Iron in general
Pig-,
4 6
2.
and
cast-iron
3. 4. 5.
6.
Steel
8
9
Wrougt-iron Malleable cast-iron
12
in
The various kinds of iron used
trade
by
Artistic
Iron-
Workers. Bar-iron, Fancy-iron, Sheet-iron, Iron-wire, Iron-tubes
12
II.
TOOLS AND WORKMANSHIP.

1.
2.
Tools and Machinery
19
3.
4.
The Manipulation and Treatment of wrought-iron The ordinary Iron Combinations The Minutiae and Details which occur most frequently
Artistic Iron-work
.
....
in
36
40
44
III.
THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ARTISTIC SMITHING.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
The The The The The The The
Antique Medieval
Renaissance
51
53
60
69 73
styles
Baroque Rococo
Louis
XVI and Empire
80
80
present day
IV.
THE PRINCIPAL SPHERES OF THE SMITH.

1.
Grilles
and balustrades
88
Ill
2.
Doors and gates
IV
3.
CONTENTS.
page
4.
5.
Hinges and Mountings Locks and Keys Gargoyles, and hanging Signs
Candelabras, Candlesticks, Chandeliers, Coronas and Lanterns Wash stands and Flower stands
Crosses for Graves and Towers
.
128
139
146
151
107
6.
7.
8.
180
183
194
9.
Arms and Armour
10. All other Objects in iron
SUPPLEMENT.
Tables of Weights and Measures
a.
203
b.
c.
German German
sheet-iron scale
203
.
.
wire-scale (millimeter-scale)
203 204 204 205 200
Table shewing the dimensions and weights of wroughtiron gas-barrel Table of weights of round bar iron
d.
e.
f.
Table of weights for square bar iron Table of weights for flat bar iron per linear meter in
kilogrammes
>
INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

Professor Franz Sales Meyer's previous works on the Science of
in
Ornament, of which his "Handbook of Ornament", in the best known his views and writings to respectful this country, entitle
attention,
though
his
knowledge of smith-craft
to
is
theoretical rather
,
than
practical.
proved a serious difficulty,

atmosphere
acquainted
would have less highly trained but brought up from his cradle in an of technical education, he has made himself thoroughly
This,
one
with
the
metier
of
which he
treats.
Passing from the
Teachers Training College at Meersburg to the Technical Academy at Carlsruhe, he has been successively appointed teacher in the Art Trade School and the Building Trade School, and finally, in 1879
age of thirty, Professor at that establishment.
joint author,
at the
He
has also produced as
handbooks treating of metal work, cabinet work, carpento English craftsmen,
tering, and painting. Of these, the present work
is,
undoubtedly
the most interesting.
confined exclusively to
Addressed especially to art workmen and designers, though not German examples, the work is written from the
standpoint,
German
which
differs in
many
respects from the English.
The actual technical operations are of necessity the same, but the tools differ somewhat.* A large part of the book and of the illustrations
is
devoted to modern
German productions and
design, and in view
somewhat severe competition the English smith is experiencing, and must anticipate in the future from his confreres on the Rhine,
of the
this section is not
without
arts
its
special interest.
crafts
The ironworking
and
have
been at
contact
all
times most
earnestly pursued in Germany.
The
earliest
of Roman armies
with the Teutonic nations
found them well equipped with iron for and the middle war, throughout -ages, references to the steel weapons of Cologne, Passau, Innsbruck and other centres of manufacture are
scarcely
disguised
by the quaint
spelling.
little
later
we
find
* Mr. John J. Holtzapffel has kindly revised this section of the book which must greatly enhance its value to English readers.
VI
great

quantities
of
"Almagne
stores
rivetts",
bills,
&c.,
entered
in
the
inventories
settled
of
military
in
this
country;
and
Henry VIII
German
to
workmen
revive
in
Southwark
craft
and
in
Greenwich,
England.
in
when
Finally
Paris,
endeavouring
the
armourers
costly
we now know
that the most
suits
of
armour
the
Madrid, and Vienna collections were produced in Augsburg, Nuremberg and Munich, whose master armourers achieved world -wide celebrity.
The most distinguished

Diirer,
artists
of the day,
Wohlgemuth, HolAldegrever,
encrusting
bein,
Miehich,
designs.
Schwarz,
Hirschvogel,
arts
Flotner,
furnished
the
To the
of
embossing
and
armour with precious metals, known to antiquity, these masters added engraving and etching the steel, besides practising those of painting,
tinning,
and
gilding
iron
known
to Theophilus.
art of iron casting
was
re -discovered in
Germany,
Probably too, the for cannon of the
largest calibre were being cast at Erfurt long before the close of the
The art of drawing wire is also credited to one 14th century. Rudolf of Nuremberg, who introduced it soon after the year 1300. It is certain that German ironworkers were peculiarly expert and painstaking before, as well as after the Renaissance, and among the marvels they produced, besides the exquisite shields, sword-hilts and pierced horsemuzzles, the beautiful
work put
into domestic utensils,
tools,
instru-
ments of torture even, strong boxes, statuettes carved from the solid, and such tours-de-force as the throne presented to Rudolph II by
the Augsburgers in 1574,
It is not
now
in this country, are
most remarkable.
however only the beauty of the productions themselves While that makes German ironwork so peculiarly worthy of study.
in England, France,
Spain,
Italy,
and the
Low
Countries, the iron
industries ebbed and flowed with changing fortunes, so that they were
at times in full
and active swing, and

they
did
at other times
dormant almost
to the verge of extinction:
the
13th century,
and
except
enjoyed
not languish in Germany from continued and boundless prosperity
without a break,
invasions of the
first
during the 30 years war, almost until the Napoleon. Nor were the opportunities for deve-
lopment afforded to German iron industries limited to time alone: for they had space and the advantages of racial divergencies as well,
it
in appears that blacksmithing at least was practised ubiquitously the land from the Rhine to the farthest limits of Prussia and Austria,
and from the confines of Denmark to the Italian
frontier.

Of the
earlier styles of
VII
German ironwork we know
little.
Of the
Romanesque doors which have preserved their iron hinges and guards, some resemble in a remarkable manner the rude contemporary work
of central
France,
whilst others
It
is
imitate the
more
carefully designed
swaged work
of Paris.
only in the
13th century that black-
smithing begins to exhibit any independent characteristics in Germany. At Marburg, Magdeburg, and many other places we meet with rather
elegant branching strap- work on 13th century doors, ending in singular
little fleur-de-lis
and vine leaves
still
derived, but diverging considerably,
from the
centuries
divergence continued during the next two and resulted in some rich and characteristic foliated orna-
French.
The
ment, always based on the vine, mingled with fleur-de-lis and tracery After nearly two centuries, and on the eve of the Renaissance, forms. a new style of work appears, at first apparently in Cologne, based
on the
thistle.
The origin
of
this
may
safely
be assigned to the
singular renown achieved by the Matsys family of smiths of Lou vain, a specimen of whose work exists in the celebrated Antwerp well-cover.
The
Fig.
thistly look of the foliage
in
this
example
is
well
rendered in
46 and 48, and some

it
designs face
Mixed
thistle
of the corresponding German thistle on page 62, and appear in the lantern, figure 179. and tracery designs held the field until supplanted by
Renaissance ornament.
The Renaissance work

it
is
fully illustrated
by Prof. Meyer, and

presents a perfectly
It is in the
crafts.
is
at this period
field
more
especially that
Germany
unique
first
for
the
study of the ironworkers

that
in
place to be
observed
left
the
at least,
was entirely
the
the
development, blacksmithing hands of the workmen themselves.

of note
of
Except as designers of armour,

the
artists
did not meddle with

the
ironworker,
architects
even,
giving
smiths
free
hand and apparently imposing no conditions as to design. There were no factories, and the nearest approach perhaps to any teaching school was the concert of a master smith with his numerous apprentices and
assistants.
Of designers of ironwork,
master
smith
as designers there
were probably
none, the
setting the task
and directing the work on
strictly traditional lines,
with such modifications only as the moment The work may, in most cases, have been produced with suggested. out drawings, for ironwork designs followed certain definite lines of
precedent, which might be modified
within limits,
but were not de-
VIII

Thus
Grilles
parted from.
centre of
were
often
worked from a threadeled
more or
less complexity,
in traditional floriated ornament.
with the loose ends of bars finishing Progress was mainly if not wholly
confined to increasing the technical difficulties to be overcome by the

smith.
Not an
illustration or
drawing of any scrap

has
of
blacksmith's
a fact most
work, drawn
for its
own
sake,
come down
to us;
remarkable in an age so prolific in studies and designs for the work of the gold and silver smith. Those among us who desire to see
this state of things reestablished
among
the craftsmen of the present
day, cannot do better than study attentively the progressive development
of
the style
German ironworking, from the close of the mediaeval period until known as Baroque began to change the current of smithing.
The
new
style
came
from
across
the
French
frontier
and
over a large part, if not the whole of Germany, the of the design and modifying considerably all character changing the traditions of the smith's craft. It was however but a mere wave
spread
eventually
of fashion compared
to
the
overwhelming
swept alway
change
every
Rococo
smith.
which
followed
and
wrought by the landmark of the
The
lilies
and
spirals
which had been
and passion-flowers, the tricky interlacings, threadles his peculiar pride, and the round bar
trained professional designers became indispensible,
times. Highly numbers of pattern books were published in imitation of the French, and the smith as creator and designer became extinct. The individual fancy of the
itself
disappeared at once, only to reappear in our
own
workman
the
Germany could in most limited extent. The

in
future only be indulged,

designs
of
if at
all,
to
but-
modified in the directions
both
extra
were essentially richness and

is
French,
less restraint.
Though
the
the skill and smithcraft in the finer examples
simply superb,
names of the smith's who produced them are never, unless acciWhether this complete revolution was for good dentally, recorded.
or
ill
is
a debatable question.
29 Albert
Embankment
S.
London,
E., March,
1896.
J.
STARKIE GARDNER.
INTRODUCTION.
The universal importance of iron at the present day is all question. Two words ''Railway" and "Steam Engine" suffice to prove this. It is impossible to conceive modern life without The plough that tills the land and the weapons that defend it iron. The number of articles formed out of this civilising are made of iron. medium in every imaginable field is incalculable. The armour-plated colossus that cleaves the waves, the Eiffel-tower with which the modern Babylon has surpassed all pre-existing buildings on earth, the death
beyond
dealing giant -gunnery, impress us on the one hand, while the steel pen, the needle, and the watch-spring, are our indispensable servants on the other.
for
Iron has been called the proletarian of metals, and this, evidently reason that it is to be found everywhere, in worked or unworked state, furthermore, because it is in itself both unimposing and of low value. But on the other hand it has been found that work ennobles
the
this
It does not, like its more distinguished relative, proletarian. gold, present itself to the seeker in a pure and perfect state, and only by the employment of a mighty amount of physical and mental power
has
mankind been able

Its
to
disassociate
it
from
its
normal
associates.
toughness allied to great elasticity and flexibility, and the many-sidedness of its qualities have made it what it now is to us, and have gone so far that its different forms Steel and Iron enrich our language with the roots of words. Iron is in a certain sense a Culture -Gauge. It has been utilised and turned to account during, in round figures, 5000 years;
great
powers
of
resistance
its
it
has risen
sation, first
in importance in proportion to the progress of civilislowly and then ever quicker and more uninterruptedly,
1
M eyer,
Smithing-art.
INTRODUCTION.
produced far more than all the preceding centuries put together.*) As figures are accepted as the best evidence, a few may be quoted here, in order to give a general idea of the role iron plays in the
so that the present century has
The production of raw iron for a year in the whole present age. world was estimated (1882) at 21,000,000 Tons, or 420 million Cwts. By refining the raw material we obtain the following increase in
Whereas a ton of iron in the ore represents about 5 s., a ton in round figures, while the same raw iron costs about ^2.15. un of malleable iron already shows a value of about wrought weight
value.
of
5^7.10.
**).
If the latter
is
converted into
Ijnife
blades
its its
value
becomes about
will even reach
j2000,
if
into
the finest watch-springs

latter figure represents a
worth
-
^5,000,000, which
all
million
fold fructification of the

Iron
is
raw material.
of
Its
our
not
planet. Iron -oxide surface.
ores
metals the greatest factor in the composition of are found in countless places on the earth's
or combinations of oxygen unimportant element in the rocks forming The yellow and red colourings in the deposits chalk and sandstone, are the results of admixtures
with
the
iron
earth's
form
crust.
clay,
it
of loam and
of iron.
When
is
considered that
than that of the

the
specific earth's crust
the
interior would render, oxygen impossible, one is forced to the conclusion that there must be
weight of the earth's mass is greater and that the increase of heat towards at a limited depth, combinations with
in
considerable
quantity
of iron
an
unalloyed
condition
in
the
interior of our planet.

is
That iron also forms a constituent part of other heavenly bodies proved by the spectral analysis of our sun, and of other central bodies of the universe, such as Sirius and Aldebaran. In confirmation of this conclusion, meteorites fall from time to time out of space on to our planet. These straying visitors, which one may assume
*)
The increase
the
following figures.
in the last decade but one may be gathered from The out-put of raw -iron in Germany, including
Luxembourg, amounted 110000 Tons in 1834 905000 Tons to in 1864 to 171 000 1874 1906 000 * 1844 * 1854 369000 1884 3,527 000 The production of this metal, therefore, formerly about doubled itself
,
with each decade, while in the course of 50 years it has increased as nearly as possible 32-fold. **) Germany's production, Luxembourg included, shows the following
results
:
Year
Iron-ore
Raw-iron
Forged iron
INTRODUCTION.
to
be
native
fragments of fixed stars or of comets, sometimes consist of iron, and point to homes where the atmosphere must be
wanting in oxygen and composed of hydrogen. If we, after these few remarks about iron in general, turn to the real aim of this manual, the first points to consider are its production and properties, and more particularly those of malleable- iron. These are dealt with in the first section, which entitled The technology of the material". The second is section deals concisely with the manipulation of malleable iron and the requisite working tools. The third section treats of the historical development of smithing. The fourth, last, and at the same time most comprehensive section, is that relating to the principal applications of art smithing and the chief productions of art smiths arranged under chapters. At the end of the manual are various tables of weights and measures, calculations, &c. Such a supplement hardly seems necessary, nevertheless it will doubtless be welcome to many who find use for a book of this In like manner the list of works relating to iron and kind. artistic smithing may prove welcome to some readers. This catalogue may at the same time be regarded as a concise list of the sources from which this work has been compiled.
'
;
SECTION
I.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE MATERIAL.

i.
IRON IN GENERAL.
called
(Fe
arts
=56)
Iron (German: Eisen, Latin: ferrum) is classed among the so base metals. Chemically pure iron is an element or base which has only a scientific interest. The iron used in
and manufacture is no more chemically pure than that which is found in nature. The iron ores are, on the average, combinations of When this oxygen is expelled by means of heat iron with oxygen. in coal fires, carbon is absorbed into the metal and technical iron
is
the result.
The greater or
less
proportion of carbon
is
of chief importance
in determining the technical quality of iron, whereas other alloys are less useful and in many instances diminish, or even destroy, the utility
of the material. Eaw, or pig and cast iron contain, speaking generally, the largest proportion of carbon, malleable iron the least, while steel stands in this respect between the two.
The
1.
Magnetic iron- ores
iron- ores to be principally considered are: (with 72/ of iron), best and most prized is the Swedish iron;
of which,
the
2.
Red hematite ores (with 70/ of iron). The principal forms of this are iron-glance (Sweden, Lapland and Elba) and red iron ore (Germany, France, England, Spain and
Africa);
3.
Brown iron-ore
form
is
(with 50 to 60 / of iron). peculiar the so called pea -ore (Luxembourg, Lorraine, Rhine-
land, Thuringia, Carinthia,
Bohemia and Belgium);

4.
Sparry iron-ore
only yields up to
(Siegerland,
(Carbonate
of protoxide
iron,
of iron).
This
48/
and
of
but
Styria
Thuringia).
forms it is called Spherosiderite. and the Blackband are most used in England;
5.
good as a flux In kidney and ballThe clay iron-stone

is
Bog
iron-ore.
Silesia,
This
is
iron contained in fenny waters.
formed by the precipitation of the Low lying plains of North
Germany,
Holland, Russia &c.
These ores are widely distributed over the earth's surface. The manufacture of iron is carried on principally by England, North America, Germany, France, Belgium, Austro- Hungary, Russia and
Sweden*). After the iron -ore has been broken up by stamping, crushing, or rolling, sorted and picked by manual labour, and assisted by previous exposure to the weather or by calcination, either in open hearths or in kilns, the mechanical operation of mixing and getting This means the mixing of rich the ores ready for smelting follows. and poor ores together in the right proportions, or in case of need, the admixture of earthy substances (deads) in order to ensure the proper slag which is of the utmost importance in the next operation. Fluor-spar, lime, clay, quartz and marl are the most used fluxes. In
addition to the iron ores old iron
of the
is
used to
facilitate
the extraction
raw iron. The smelting of ores was originally effected in open hearths, or bloomeries by which, however, not raw, but malleable iron or steely malleable iron was produced. Smelting-furnaces came into use
the
about the end of the 15th century, and from these modest beginnings blast-furnaces now in general use have gradually been deve-
loped.
The smelting-process
in
blast-furnaces
or
is
effected
air
by
introducing a continuous
current of hot-blast
heated
(the
The
blast-furnaces remaining in continuous use for from 1 1/ 2 to 20 years). ores and combustibles are charged from, above through the
mouth
(also called throat and furnace -top) together with the flux; the smelted iron is run off every 12 to 24 hours from below through the tap ping -hole. In earlier times charcoal alone was used as fuel. When the
cheaper
coals
were
introduced,
smelting works were removed from
The production for the year 1882 gives the following figures: Great Britain 8620000 Tons 463000 Tons Russia 4700000 United States 399000 Sweden
.
.
Germany
France Belgium Austro-Hungary
.....
.... ....
-
3172000 2033000
717000 530000
Spain
Italy
Other Countries
120000 25000 102000
6
the richly
SECTION
wooded
districts to
I.
the coal basins.
It is
of the greatest
advantage to find deposits of iron-ore and coal together. Coal is converted into coke for use in smelting, in a manner similar to the conversion of wood into charcoal. One Cwt. of raw iron requires in smelt3 ing about ! /io Cwt. of coke.
determines
before mentioned, the greater or less proportion of carbon the difference between the three principal sorts of iron. the limits of variation are not determined by this alone, for other
As
But
alloys,
such
as
manganese,
phosphorus,
silica,
arsenic and sulphur,
greatly affect the quality of iron. Iron may be described as malleable when, on being quenched in water, it does not gain materially in
hardness
and is capable of being welded. iron becomes steel when by tempering it
Malleable and weldable

is
sparks from flint. Raw-, pig-, or cast-iron neither hammered nor welded.
hardened and strikes is that which can be
Until quite recently the various kinds of iron were classed under these three principal heads. However, the progress made in the field of iron production, and the numerous new processes of manufacture
have created a number
of intermediate and transition forms, so that the old fashioned classifications are no longer pertinent, although they may still remain in use in ordinary parlance. For this reason, before
the
various
kinds
of
iron
are
discussed,
next
in
page
showing the terms
now
given on the and recognised generally adopted

a table
is
modern usage.
2.
PIG-,
AND CAST-IRON.
Pig-, and cast-iron

the
first
and the an admixture
(German: Roh- or Guss-Eisen) bears name while in the form of unmanufactured blocks (pigs), It contains last when representing manufactured articles.
of
carbon
of
from
3
/j
to to
it
melts at
^from
1050
is,
to
1300
of Celsius
(=
1858
generally speaking, lighter in weight Its specific weight is from 6 7 / 10 percentage of carbon it contains. 25 8 Th e pressure resisting power or an of 7 to 7 / 10 average / 10 oA peculiar is comparatively great, the tension power relatively small. property of cast-iron is its swelling, which is produced by heating and which remains after cooling. Mottled Cast Iron is classed as hard white or soft grey. is between the two, and is strong or weak mottled accordpig-iron
ing
to
of Fahrenheit) and in proportion to the higher
2308
the preponderance
brittle
from 2
crystalline, to
and
.
2 1/ 2
or grey-pig. White-pig is a and has shrinkage of specifically heavy Grey-pig has a granular fracture, is specifically
of
white-
lighter,
softer, tougher it is more fluid and in
and better to manipulate than the white-pig;
consequence
fills
the
mould
better in casting.
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C3
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Its
1
SECTION
I.
shrinkage averages l /2/oin the form of graphite.

3.
Grey-pig contains some of
its
carbon
STEEL.
contains
Steel (German:
0.6 to 2.3 o/o
;
Stahl)
carbon to the extent of from

to
it
melts at from
1300
1800
3208
of 7.7.
Fahr.).
Its
specific gravity is
from 7.4
to
of Celsius (2308 to 8.0 or an average
Under the original mode of working iron in open hearths or bloomeries and in small furnaces, steel was to a certain extent the result of accident, as the iron was then of a more or less steely character (Bloom- steel). The present methods of producing steel can, in the main, be classified as of three kinds. Firstly steel may be
produced by withdrawing a portion of the carbon contained in the melted iron, by means of a blast of air. This is effected either by puddling in hearths or furnaces with a moderate blast under cover of slag (puddled steel), or by an air-blast which is forced through molten iron contained in pear-shaped retorts, this consuming a portion of the carbon and expelling the incombustible impurities and slag (Bessemer steel). In this operation by sampling the slag and also by spectral analysis, the progress of the process is ascertained.
The second kind
consists
in
adding the necessary proportion
of carbon to malleable iron (which is notably poorest in carbon) and For this purpose thus imparting to it the character of steel.
malleable iron bars are placed in closed boxes filled up with cementing powder (azotic coal; charcoal, horn- and leather- waste, &c.) and
kept exposed in roasting ovens at a white heat as long as

to perfect the transformation (cementation steel). third method of producing steel is to
is
necessary
extent
a
certain
Malleable and pig-iron combination of both of the above processes. are blended in such manner that steel is the intermediate result. The circumstance that both the so called shear steel, which is produced from puddled steel by welding, hammering and rolling. and the cementation steel do not give perfect uniformity of texture, has led to the remelting of these kinds of steel into a compact, even, homogenous mass (cast- steel, crucible -steel), the perfecting of which is completed by means of powerful pressure on the still glowing casting by the steam-hammer.
Uchatius-steel
is
the
result
of the practical working-out
of
previous attempts to produce steel from the smelting of iron with The iron must be granulated for this process. iron -oxides. Martin steel is produced by converting pig-iron, with addition
of sparry iron-ore, into malleable iron and melting again with admixture of pig-iron.
The strength or tenacity of
steel (absolute,
relative
and reactive)

is
9
of
steel
But the, technically speaking, great. consists in its changeability in

of
it
most
important
quality
hardness, which permits

one
side,
respect of degrees of made extremely elastic on the being
Red-hot steel that is alexcessively brittle on the other. lowed to cool gradually becomes soft and easily workable, whereas if rapidly cooled it becomes hard, so hard even that it may be powdered.
by
This remarkable material thus admits of being worked, filed, bored, &c. tools of the same material. Gentle heating (tempering) makes brittle The degrees of temper are measured by the steel elastic or pliant.
steel
colour the
pale yellow
puts on.
These grades are as follows:
at
10
SECTION
I.
It becomes first red- and then temperature increases. white-hot, the colour rising from dark red to the most dazzling white. When white-hot malleable-iron becomes so soft that it may be bent, stretched and otherwise worked with the greatest ease; it then becomes
weldable,
into
i.
e.
separate
pieces
of iron
may
be
hammered together
This weldability is one of the most important piece. for technical qualities purposes. While still glowing, the outer surface of malleable -iron oxidises; iron -scale or hammer- dross forms and
falls
one
the material loss resulting herefrom is called scale. the methods of producing malleable -iron, the old The doughopen- hearths and bloomeries must first be mentioned.
off;
As touching
like
lumps of iron produced from the iron
ores, in charcoal fires,
with
the aid of a direct air-blast, were called blooms, and were forged into shape by the hammer. As this process gives but small results
and
consumes
much
charcoal,
it
is
superseded by the puddling process, pig into malleable iron.
very nearly obsolete, and now i. e. converting white or grey
The pig is melted in Refining is effected on a refining-hearth. a charcoal fire aided by a strong blast, through which the drops fall deprived of carbon to coalesce in dough-like lumps below; these are
mechanically separated, turned over, &c.,
air-blast.
and again subjected to the
refining process at the same time refines and frees If first class raw material is used, the .iron from other impurities. With inferior raw material the one operation completes the process. iron is incompletely refined and must be treated a second time.
The
third refining may be necessary, the second only making it steel-like, and the third converting it into malleable iron. The conversion of pig into malleable - iron by puddling is
to
effected in puddling-furnaces by coal-fire; the coals not being allowed come in contact with the iron in consequence of the sulphur they The raw material is melted in a furnace by a current of contain.
intensely heated air and flame, and stirred mechanically through small apertures, or by rotation of the whole vessel, until converted into the
dough-like bloom.
The blooms, whether obtained by refining or puddling, are, while intensely heated, squeezed, cut up, welded together, packeted, brought into prismatic form, rolled into bars, &c. and thus purified from slag. The tilt-hammer worked by water power in former times, has of late years been replaced by the far more advantageous steam-hammer. As a rule the refining process gives a purer, closer and tougher iron
than
is
operation
obtained by puddling, while, on the other hand, the puddling is cheaper and more resorted to, inasmuch as inferior
qualities of
raw pig may be treated by it. Malleable -iron produced by puddling has of late met with severe
obtained
competition from iron
by the Bessemer process, that
is

by forcing
in
11
air through molten cast-iron to burn out the carbon, as the production of steel. Through refining, or repeated re-heatings, hammerings and rollings the material becomes tough and flexible and the granulated texture
changes into one that is fibrous and interwoven. By running the iron thus obtained through different rolling-mills it becomes closer grained and takes the forms required in commerce, such as, bar-iron, sheet-iron, iron-wire or tubings. As in
rolling the widely set rollers are gradually followed by others running closer and closer together, so also in wire -drawing the material is drawn through conical holes in steel - plates such holes gradually
,
diminishing in size. Oft-repeated drawings necessitate pauses in order to anneal and scour the metal. As malleable - iron takes so many
forms, according to the requirements of trade and of workshops, it is discussed more specifically in a later part of this work, so that the general outline here given may suffice for the present.
Malleable -iron as used in trade may, as will have been gathered from the foregoing, be of very different qualities. This depends on the nature of the raw material, the method of preparation and the
Iron is classified as, soft proportion of impurities. soft and brittle on the one side, and as hard and
and fibrous, tough, hard
and inflexible and hard and brittle on
the other.
Good malleable - iron must possess the following characteristics: when broken it must show a dull gloss if of light colour, and
a
bright gloss
if
of a
dark colour.
If the break is white
and
It must shining, or grey and dull, it is indicative of a low quality. not have been overheated and burnt, must have an equal structure and be free from slag, flaws, cavities, and other imperfections.
Forged
iron shows, under otherwise equal circumstances, a more Rolled-iron should granulated break, rolled-iron a more fibrous one. show externally a blue -grey to black -grey tint, as a red tinge points
to cold rolling
other hand,
is
and a low degree of tenacity. nearly always reddish, because
Forged iron, on the

it
is
treated at lower
temperatures.
The most salient faults in malleable - iron are flaws, cinderholes, scabs and scales (produced in rolling), longitudinal cracks
(from imperfect welding), defective
(spots of unequal hardness), cold-short-iron and too much silicon, phosphorus and sulphur).
edges (produced in rolling), veins red-sear (due to
Besides the
are also used:
a
1.
inspection
of the
dropping
broken parts the following tests the iron -bar which is to be tried from
given height on to an edged block or anvil, when no break must occur; 2. dropping a weight on to the suspended bar; 3. bending a firmly fixed bar backwards and forwards until it breaks; the number
of bendings required to break the bar determining the quality, hard
12
SECTION
I.
iron crackles in breaking, soft iron does not; 4. hammering the iron out while red hot, which must, if of good quality, give a knife-like
edge; 5. filing the iron bright and biting it with diluted acid whereupon the veins and cracks become plainly visible. Furthermore, the degree of tenacity may also be ascertained by weighting, and also by an examination of the uncut ends of the bar. Practical smiths rely mostly on the "right feel", which is sometimes satisfactory, but as often the reverse. The sizes and correctness of the desired sections
are determined with the caliper or the standard gauge, &c.
5.
MALLEABLE CAST-IRON.
refining process, and by puddling, pig iron is decarbonised while in a molten condition, a similar result with castings can be obtained by means of the malleable cast-iron process,
Whereas by the
which
is as follows: small pieces of casting composed of mottled castiron with the addition of malleable-iron, are slowly heated to redness and cooled in cast or wrought- iron chests filled with iron oxide (pure
red hematite powder, rust, or iron-scale is generally used), whereby portion of the carbon is absorbed by the oxygen. physical change seems to go hand in hand with the chemical one, in a manner similar to that which in the tempering of steel reduces its brittleness.
Decarbonised castings, finished articles, balusters, mountings, &c. become, as it were, intermediate between cast and malleable - iron and may be treated accordingly. The process is not new, although it is
only of late years that
in character of the metal
it is
has come generally into use. The change greatest at the surface and does not pene-
trate far, so that only objects of not too great thickness can be usefully subjected to it.
As locksmith's work and mountings (iron door furniture), fancy spikes and such -like embellishments for railings, balustrades, &c. are principally subjected to the above process, and such-like malleable - iron castings have long been known to the smith they must
,
find
mention here.
6.
MERCHANTABLE IRON USED BY THE SMITH.
Malleable - iron comes to market in the shape of bars of round, rectangular or fancy section, sheets, wire and tubings. The
may
kinds most used in smithing are bar- and sectioned-iron. These be in charcoal-iron or ordinary iron, forged or rolled. These are again classified according to their subsequent uses into bars
for rivets, for railings, wheel-tire-iron, &c.; or, according to measure and weight, into Fine and Coarse iron, or, according to quality, into Extra- quality, Merchantable iron, &c. The particular names used are
however
chiefly determined
by the
cross-sections.
13
is
A word with reference to the production of these kinds of iron however in place here. Whereas Square - and Flat-iron (bars and
produced by rolling but also by forging (Bar-, and Nail -rod iron) or through the slitting of plates (Edge-tool These iron), fancy sections are produced exclusively in rolling-mills. mills, speaking generally, consist of cast-iron or steel rollers which are set in contrary revolution by means of powerful machinery. The rollers lie with their axes parallel in iron frames or beds so that a space exists between them proportioned to the "section" to be produced. Ordinary plain cylinders are used for plate production, whereas
sheets) are not only
Slit-
for section
the necessary forms. into the opening it
pressed to generally not enough, the bar has to pass again as often as necessary and be reheated if it has cooled. As the change of form from the
upper surfaces of these rollers are grooved to the glowing mass of metal is introduced is seized by the rollers, pushed through and imthe section. But, as one passage through the mill is
the
work
When
bar to the perfect section is a gradual process, there are a of rollers, each with a more developed section than the other, through which the iron passes in turn. Where one pair of rolls will not suffice, two or more frames are united to form a "train". Reversing rolling-mills are such as run both backwards and forwards so
plain
number
that the
work is carried on alternately from either end. In ordinary rolling-mills the work must be brought back again to the only available side. As the rollers in the reversible mills run first in one
direction and then in the other, the reversing gear is in regular use. trains, in which three rollers
The most complete are the three high
are placed vertically above each other in the same housings. The lower and middle rollers draw the iron in one direction, while the middle and upper-ones work it back again; this saves time, besides
having other advantages. Round bars (G-.: Eundeisen) are circular in section. They are made in thicknesses of from 5 millimetres or about 3 / 16 of an inch upwards. The diameters increase by millimetres up to 30 mm, and by 2 millimetres between 30 and 80 mm, and beyond 80 by 5 The principal defects are imperfect roundness and gradation. striae on the surface (mostly on spots opposite to each other as the
mm
mm
consequences of flaws in the
rollers).
Square bars
(G.:
Quadrateisen) are square in section.
The
sizes
are similar to those of round iron.
warped
striae and
or
twisted lengths, projections milled in
faulty shape, sunken sides, blunt angles, on the surfaces and especially on
The
defects are:
the edges.
Flat-iron (G.: Flacheisen) comprises in its broad sense every right angled section; in its narrow sense it only applies to thicknesses of not less than 3 mm, an eighth of an inch, and not more than
14
SECTION
inches, broad.
I.
150 mm, 6
called
When
less
than 3
mm
in thickness
it
is
Hoop-iron
(G-.:
Bandeisen).
of
The
faults of flat,
and hoop-iron
are similar to those
but less frequent. square iron The thicknesses of hoop-iron increase from l/ 4 by A / 4 mm; 00.1 of an inch; those of flat-iron increase by millimetres. The widths increase
at first
round
and
by one millimetre, then by 2, and lastly by 5 mm. Up to the present time there is no universally adopted scale of sizes. Hoop-iron 1 x 3 is often described as l /^ l /2' ! /4 2-fold, meaning that the width is 10, 1 5? i 7 i/ 2 or 20 times 12i/2
,
its
thickness.
When
the breadth exceeds six inches

classed as sheet iron.
is
this iron is
Under Fancy-iron bar-iron which shows
classed all other
a definite profile in section, and serves for specific trade There are many forms of it, purposes.
only
few
of
which
are
mentioned
here, as they are used
exceptionally in
hexagonal and octathe quar1), ter, half and three-quarter round (d, e, f\ hollow half-round, ovaland half-oval iron (g, h, i), casement iron (7, m), channel (/c), cover-joint iron (w), equal and unequal angleiron (o, p), short and long double-T or j(q, r), (J-iron(f), -|- -iron (w) and quadrantiron (v), which last-named is much used
smithing, namely:
(a,
b,
gonal
see Fig.
in America.
Fjg. i. Cross Sections of Fancy-iron,
Fancy-iron is classed as ornamental and constructive (builders'

iron) according to its kind and use. As touching the latter, so called standard
use,
sections have recently been adopted. The lighter kinds of iron in common
iron,
such as rod- and hoop-
into bundles in definite lengths, while heavier sorts and Fancy -iron are sold per bar and by weight.
are put
up
The prices for the various kinds of iron mentioned, are so arranged that to the fluctuating basis or minimum price are added percentages in permanent ratio for smaller sections, pattern, better These extra prices vary according to the manufacquality &c. turing districts and individual iron- works; it would lead too far to
discuss this subject in detail.
15
Fig.
2.
Railing
made
of Mannstaedt-Iron.
16
SECTION
Forged iron
is
I.
only preferred to rolled iron at present for cer-
tain special purposes. Only Austro- Hungary in any considerable quantity,
now
supplies forged iron
The sources of supply are distinguished according to kind, It is usual in this respect to designate iron object and district. according to the district where it is produced, for instance, Lorraine, Westphalian, Styrian, Upper- Silesian Iron, or else specifically after
the
the Rolling-mills of L. Mannstaedt & Co. of near Kalk, Cologne, produce various kinds of ornamental sections that are of no small importance to the smith. The handsomely profiled bars whether smooth, or decorated with the Vitruvian scroll twists,
foliations,
name of the Stumm's Iron. Of late years
works
or
their
owner,
such
as
Burbach
Iron,
&c. are rolled while glowing, and constitute Fancy-iron of
the
sort. The manufacture does not, of course, permit of undercutting in patterns, but it gives a sharper relief than casting. These bars may, moreover, be bent, twisted and split up as required, so that Mannstaedt's Ornamental Iron is in every respect preferable to the cast-iron strips formerly in use, the more so as the cost is moderate. Fig. 2 shows part of a railing made with the enriched
higher
to, from a design by H. Seeling. Sheet-iron (G.: Bleche) is either forged or rolled. The forging or rolling from blooms or slabs is either performed singly or else several layers, separated by a surfacing of loam, are worked simulta-
bars referred
neously.
come
sions
to
market
After the sheets are cut, annealed, cleaned and smoothed, they For ordinary dimenfor sale singly or in bundles.
are charged; for sheets of special better dimensions, larger sizes, qualities or given fashion, extra-prices are added.
and qualities standard prices
according to their thickness as heavy, Under the first are numbered armour plating, ship sheathings, boiler plates, tank plates; the medium and fine sheets are either black, or white when coated with tin, zinc
are
classed
Sheets
medium
or
fine.
or lead. They are often known, not by their thicknesses in mm, but by marks, or the numbers of a particular centre of production. The German Standard Gauge has 26 numbers. No. 1 is 5.5 mm thick, while No. 26 is only 0.375 mm thick. The intermediate thicknesses do not increase in regular gradation, smaller additions being made to
the thinner than to the thicker kinds.
(See Table in Supplement.) Besides the ordinary sheets (lock-plates, roofing-sheets, sheets for pipes, &c.) probably only the perforated sheets are used in art-
These are used partly for technical ends and partly for smithing. decorative purposes, some of the designs being very pleasing. The defects found in sheet-iron are scales, bubbles, cinders, cracks and double-plates (the last in consequence of incomplete
17
Imperfections are detected by tapping with a hammer, weldings). The quality may also be tested by a dull sound is emitted. it must be mentioned that the tenacity is on which point bending,
when
greater in the direction of the rolling than transversely.
and steel -wire (G.: Stahldraht) is (G-.: Eisendraht) either from malleable - iron or steel. like It is first sheets, produced, rolled and then through holes bored in steel -plates; the holes
Iron -wire
drawn
being conical and diminishing gradually in diameter; and then reeled, like cables, into coils. The wire is bright, if not annealed after the last
drawing, and
also
is
more
elastic
than the dull or black kind.
Wire
is
Faultless wire must often tinned, zinced, coppered, or nickeled. show a regular cross section; it must have no scale on the surface
and no
sections
reft
inside.
The ordinary
for
special
profile
of wire
It
is
round.
for
Other
are
made
purposes.
may
here be mentioned
rectangular
that
the
Chinese
and
Japanese
have
preference
sections.
The various sorts of wire are often named after the purposes for which they are used, thus: nail wire, field wire, pianoforte wire, shot
wire, horticultural wire; or else according to familiar or technical terms, such as: chain rope and hoop wire, or Malgen & Memel wire, or 1st binding wire, 2nd binding wire, &c.; or according to the numbers of one of the centres of manufacture. The German Gauge
100 Nos besides some further intermediate Nos. Dividing Wire No. by 10 gives the thickness of the wire in mm. No. 100 has consequently a gauge of 10 mm, while No. 24 is only 0.24 mm
Scale has
the
Only the thicker kinds of wire are used in art smithing. Tubings are either cast, which is the case principally with those of considerable dimensions, or rolled out of malleable iron or steel. Under the latter operation the smaller diameters are welded
thick.
together with butted edges, whereas in the larger sizes the edges are This manufacture is principally carried on overlapped and welded. The price list is generally a fixed one; in England and Germany.
the
market fluctuations are shown by periodical discount lists. The various articles used in joining tubings such as sockets, socket -ends, The graL and joints and bends are supplied with the tubings. dations in size increase by x 8 th of an inch at a time (English), the
measurement being taken

scale
and millimetres
The tubings are gas and water-works and fittings, boiler tubes, &c., but artistic smithing often finds use for them, as with chandeliers, brackets, railings, &c.
The comparison between the English shown in a special table in the Supplement. made exclusively for technical purposes, such as
inside.
is
The manufacture of tubings is on the eve of an important revolution. The Brothers Mannesmann have succeeded through the invention
of conic rolling- machinery in converting bar iron direct into tubing. As only the best material can be used in this operation, and as the
Meyer, Smithing -art.
18
welding
drive
is
SECTION
I.
done away with, the Mannesmann tubing will certainly This of tubing hitherto in use out of the market. special tubing is also of importance to smithing inasmuch as rosettes and tendrils can be produced by splitting, bending, &c. Experiments have been made in Munich in this direction with surprisingly favourable results. (See the Journal of the Bavarian Art Trades Association,
the kinds
Year 1892,
p.
13.)
The remarks contained in this present section, if taken in connexion with the Tables given in the Supplement, may perhaps suffice to enable the builder's smith, as also the designer, and others to obtain an accurate knowledge of these materials, and also serve to furnish We may therefore pass the layman with the information he seeks. to the second section, wherein the tools used and the manipulation
of the materials
come under
discussion.
SECTION
II.
WORKING TOOLS AND MANIPULATION.

i.
WORKING TOOLS AND MACHINERY.
it
Before proceeding to consider the working tools and machinery desirable to make a few remarks about the most important appliances necessaiy to the carrying out of the art smith's craft. These are the Hearth or Forge, together with the requisite The forge is built of bricks or made of iron. It is an open tools.
is
hearth with a fire -pit in which the fuel Above the hearth there is usually is put.
(charcoal, coal or coke) a projecting sheet iron
hood leading to a flue to receive and carry off the smoke and gases In order to produce and maintain a fierce fire, bellows evolved. are fixed so as to introduce the blast either from the side or The bellows were formerly similar to those in from below. domestic use, but they have been of late years greatly superseded by The bellows, made of wood and air blasts worked from an engine.
leather, are called pointed, parallel or cylindrical according to their form. They generally consist of two parts, namely the suctionbellows and the regulator, so that they are, in fact, double or com-
pensation bellows capable of giving an uninterrupted blast. This latter is however obtained better by a less cumbersome fan -wheel or some similar arrangement which, like the bellows, can be set in motion by the
fuel
foot,
hand or machinery.
a
found, as a rule,
further
quenching trough,
and slack. As belonging mentioned the sprinkler or brush, poker, the shovel, and the fire -hook which are respectively used to damp, feed and rake the fire.
2*
In the front part of the forge are hollows and receivers for direct to the forge itself must be
20
SECTION
The tools and appliances work to be executed.
setting
II.
to
the
to be discussed vary greatly according First come those used in measuring,,
the
Next the supports and means of holding work. then the various kinds of hammers used in forging, welding, &c.; the tools for cutting and dividing; the drills r borers, punches, the screwing- tools, and lastly all that appertains to.
and
out
objects
securely;
Fig. 3.
Examples of Slide-gauges.
cold-working and surface finishing.
The most important of these
tools
will be discussed shortly in the order above mentioned.
a.
Apparatus for measuring,
setting out, &c.
The Measures for length are similar to those in general use r namely: wooden or metal rods or rules, folding, or tape measures. Tbe Slide-gauge used in measuring thicknesses and to deter-
1
iiiiiiiin
J
Fig. 4.
Set gauge.
mine bulk and capacity
The socket is geneis shown in Fig. 3. If the socket is the and of slide cheeks steel. of brass, being rally scaled as well as the slide the tool can also be used for minute
For measurements. with a vernier.
more exact measurements the gauge
is
made
21
The Set gauge serves
to
plain one with regulating screw
ascertain the depth of drillings, &c. is shown in Fig. 4.
Wiregauges are
and
Sheet-
oblong plates of steel with square or rounded corners having notches along
their edges,
which are made
according to a given scale of dimensions, increasing

gradually in size. By inserting the wire or sheet into such
--o
Fig. 5.
gauge the thickness of the

article
is at least approxiascertained mately (see Fig. 5).
Wire, Sheet, or Hoop iron gauges.
All plates,
&c.
with notches
or
elsewhere,
along their edges,
which serve to measure standard dimensions and forms are classed

as
gauges.
To these belong
there-
fore the locksmith's gauges which serve to determine the thickness
and sections of the wards, size of the shaft or barrel of a key, &c. As a substitute for such gauges
lead or
wax
is
often used.
Gauge -pins
(cylindrical rods
fine the
and
-rings
and hollow cylinFig. 6.
ders of steel) serve
of
to fix or dediameters of holes, sizes These are cylinders, &c.
Goniometer or angle measurer,
either specially named according to their uses, or generalised

as calibre gauges.
Various instruments serve to measure angles. The most
commonly recurring right-angle

is
steel
gauged by a simple iron or angle made out of one
of metal, one of its branches generally being longer than the other. For the reducpiece
tion and
of
measurement of angles and 60 a right angled triangle of which the
30, 45
-
angles
of the hypothenuse reFig.

7.
Various compasses or calipers.
22
SECTION
II.
and 45. For measuring other angles present 30 and 60, or 45 The indicator works on the instrument shown in Fig. 6 is useful.
a pin and
is
fixed
by an adjusting screw.
is
The number of degrees
in the desired angle

are:
read from the scale.
Of the many Compasses and Calipers in use the most common (see Fig. 7) the ordinary calipers and compasses (a, b
or without adjusting arrangement; the calipers for c) with measuring ihe diameter of cylinders, &c. (d)\ the same combined with
and
Fig. 8.
Plane table scribing block.
legs for measuring
ends
the
equally
it
wide
is
from which
insides (e) (by keeping the points at both apart measurements can be obtained in positions impossible to withdraw calipers while open); and
the
compasses for determining round and cylindrical dimen(/"),
sions
one end
of
which
fixes
the diameter and or
the
other the
circumference. In transferring, pricking, are used:
drawing
the
following tools
The Drawing-table, a thick right-angled iron plate which mus'* be absolutely smooth and level because it serves as a base (see Fig. 8)
23
The Centre-punches. These are small punches with conical points which serve to mark the lines to be followed with dots (see Fig. 9). The Drawing -needle, a slim steel pencil for dotting and Brass points are sometimes used. tracing lines. The T- Squares, Set-Squares, &c., made of iron or steel. The Parallel-rule, an instrument made in various forms to facilitate drawing lines parallel with the drawing table. To determine the centre of a circle (which is essential with work that has to be turned on a lathe) the following are used,
namely
:
the
Centre punch, an ordinary
centre
punch moving
(see Fig. 10,
in
a
6),
cylindrical
box with the end conically widened
a and
and
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Centre punch.
Instruments for centering cylindrical objects.
the Set angle by which 2 straight lines may be ruled in any direction across the circle, the intersecting point of which will be its centre.
In the fitting-up of machinery, &c. the perpendicular and horizontal plane are abtained by the use of: the Plummet, an elongated metal knob finishing in a point and attached to a string;
the Plumb-line,
a familiar tool,
consisting
of an
equi- lateral
triangle with plummet; and the Spirit-level known
to us in its square
and tubular forms.
1}.
Blocks, anvils and gripping

is
tools.
The Anvil, which

or supporting
made
to
of
wrought
the
material
be wrought.
iron, serves for bearing Its upper face consists.
24
of a welded steel-plate
sizes
SECTION
which
is
is
II.
smooth
vary.
The anvil
fixed either to a
and slightly domed. wooden-block or else
The
set in
filled with pressed sand. Smaller ones are fastened to the bench or remain unfixed. There are beakless, one -beaked and twobeaked anvils (Fig. 11, a, fc, c). The beaks are conical continuations of the face or hammering surface and assist in forging rings, Anvils of smaller and mostly square faces with 2 long curves, &c. beaks are sometimes called beak -irons or bickerns (Fig. 11, d and e). Those of cubic form are called stakes (Fig. 11, /"). Anvils often have holes in the face to receive tools or swages for moulding iron in relief.
a cask
Fig. 11.
Various Anvils.
Swages
are used
when
the object to be produced
is
too difficult
or complicated for ordinary forging on the anvil, as in making three sided and half-round rods, rounded bodies, grooved forms, and ornaments in relief of various kinds. Half-round and 3 -sided rods, rods
and plates ornamented on one

like, only require one is steeled on the face
side only,
half-round bodies, and such
of wrought iron, and set in the anvil. The iron, which has been roughly worked into an approximate form beforehand, is hammered into this swage while red-hot. Whole round forms, bosses, six- and eight-sided rods, &c., necessitate a pair of swages or top and bottom tools, which together may form a closed box or tubular shape.
swage, which being made
The upper swage
is
generally
shaped
articles being forged are either kept in
The like a set-hammer. one position, or turned about

in
25
to
the
swage,
pushed
lengthwise
forward, &c.,
according
their
The swages are made by filing and turning, or by introducing a steel core between the red-hot upper and lower swages
character.
Fig. 12.
Vices.
which take
tools
its
fit
form under the hammer.
In order that top and bottom

the
properly and not be displaced during are either secured by grooves or held by a spring.
may
work they
In order to hold the metal fast the
Vice is required, made in various forms and sizes.

It has two cheeks or jaws, one is fixed to the
bench or to a special support; the other

is
connected
and adjustable. The jaws are opened and shut by means of a

with
it
horizontal screw which

is
C.
set
in
motion
by
the
iron pin. the jaws
spring keeps In the open.

(Fig. 12, a)
J
Fig. 13.
smith's vice
the moveable jaw describes a curve, consequently the

inner jaw- surfaces are only parallel at one particular
width.
Hand- and
tail-vices.
This disadvantage has brought about the parallel vice (see Fig. 12, fc) which Further kinds of vices are: according to various systems.
is
made
lead,
False Vice jaWS or clamps.
These
are
made
of
iron,
26
SECTION
II.
wood, &c. and are sometimes held together by a spring. They fit between the jaws of the vice, their use being to protect the object held from indentations, &c.; a Chamfer -clamp is a hand -vice, the jaws of which rise obliquely. This in certain work, such as the removal of sharp edges, is more convenient than those with perpendicular jaws. For small objects use is made of the: Hand -vice, for hand use, a small unfixed vice, which is opened and closed by means of a key or flanged screw (Fig. 13, a, &). The Tail- vice is a hand -vice fitted with a handle, which latter is sometimes hollow in order to permit of manipulating long articles,
wire, &c. (see Fig.
13,
c).
Fig. 14.
Tongs and
pliers.
Next
to vices,
come the most important group

of:
of shop tools for
holding objects, the various kinds
TongS.
articles
The Smiths' Tongs serve to introduce and withdraw from the fire, and to hold them while being forged. They
comparatively large and have the ordinary form, or the jaws may be curved sideways &c. (Fig. 14, &, &, c, d). Closed or open rings, driven with the hammer on to the shanks of the tongs, lighten the
are
task of continuous gripping. The smaller Flat-nosed pliers used especially in the manipulation of cold metal, have straight roughened jaws and bent shanks
(Fig.
14,
e).
The jaws of Parallel pliers whether open or closed (Fig. 14, f).
remain
parallel
to
each
other

Wireinter alia, to
27
and
serve,
or
Round- nosed
pliers
(Fig.
have
14,
g).
conical jaws
bend or twist wire
c.
Various kinds of hammers.
Leaving aside the crank-hammer, which is worked with the and the stamp- and tilt-hammer which are worked by wateror steam-power and which (in spite of their advantages) have not come into general use, we still find an exceedingly large variety in the form of Hand-hammers. These are made of wrought - iron and generally have two hardened steel surfaces, a hole at their centre of gravity
foot,
30
2
Smith's or hand-hammers.
Fig. 15.
and a handle of white thorn or some other tough wood of a round

or
elliptical
section.
If
the
steel
surface of the
it
hammer
is
broad,
it
either circular, or quadrate at both ends narrow, angular or oval at one end it
also distinguished according to
sizes,
is
called a face; if
is
is
a "pane".
Hammers
are
thus:
the
Sledge-hammer
30
to
is
from
6 to
is
20
handle from
40 inches long and
Ibs. in weight, has a used or swung with both
hands; the Smith's hand-hammer is from 2 to 5 has a handle 12 to 16 inches long;

the
Ibs.
in weight
and
Engineer's
hammer
weighs up to
lb.
and has a pro-
portionate handle.
The crOSS pane Ordinary
Hammers
15,
1;
have a face and a
pane
at right-angles to the handle (Fig.
30 and
99).
28
In Straight
SECTION
panes
the
II.
pane runs
2).
axe -ways parallel with the
direction of the handle (Fig. 15,
The Block hammer has two slightly domed faces. The Flat hammer has two flat faces. The Hollowing" hammer has two rounded convex faces, &c. Set- hammers are not actual hammers as they are not used for Their forms are those of hammers. direct striking. They are held in loose handles and serve, like chisels and punches, to cut, round Set-hammers are distinguished as straight, oblique, off, make holes, &c. with handles, handled chisels, and as cold-chisels round, &c.;
hollow chisels, chamfering hammers, and such
like.
u
Fig. 16.
Chisels.
d.
Cutting tools.
Besides
the Set -hammers other tools are used for
cutting and
chiselling. Cold- or cutting -chisels. These are classed as straight or flat chisels with a broad edge (Fig. 16, a), cross cut chisels with a narrow edge (Fig. 16, 6), half-round chisels (Fig. 16, c), and gouges (Fig. 16, d). Chisels are made of steel with hard tempered cutting edges, but not hardened heads, and are from 3 to 8 inches long. The Cutting -chisel is wedge-shaped and has a shank, which is
set in the anvil
These are:
under
both
can
be
done
on
the object to be cut (Fig. 16, e). The cutting a cold or hot set sides simultaneously,
being used. Small and thin iron, and wire are cut with,
Cutting plyers
sharpened
steel.
or
nippers,
the
blades
of
which
are
of

Shears
29
are used to cut sheet metal, hoop and flat iron, as well There are lever shears, the cutter of which works on a pin in a fixed lower jaw; parallel shears which work parallel with a drawing motion, and circular cutting pliers or nippers, the
as
wire:
Fig. 17.
Shears and cutting-pliers or nippers.
jaws of which are round,

moderately.
work on
a centre -pivot and overlap but
-shears, serving to cut off small and thin pieces of metal, are similar to ordinary scissors, only proportionately stronger in the
Hand
Fig. 18.
Metal saws.
flat
front part; the hinder parts being like those of the

(Fig.
-nosed pliers
17,
a).
Stock -shears
jaw,
(Fig.
are
used to cut heavier metal and have aTfixed

pin like a hinge
^4*
over which a
17,
b).
one-armed lever works on a
30
Fig. 17, clear
SECTION
JI.
the action of which c, shows a pair of Wire-pliers, by the drawing. Circular and parallel Shears are mostly powerful tools and are also much used in machine - work, serving to cut strong sheets, &c. Saws are little used in art smithing. Metal saws have a more or less hollow bow, or rib, like the well known cock -saw. The blade is narrow, has small, unset teeth and is generally thinner at the back than at the cut (Fig. 18). Cock -saw work is about the same in metal
is
made
as in wood.
>!
Fig. 19.
Drills.
e.
Punches and
drills.
There is a difference between drifting, punching and boring. In the first a hole is driven into or through the metal without loss In the last the metal is cut out and removed. of weight. The Bolt- chisel is generally a half-round chisel which is driven with the hammer. The enlarging and correct formation of the hole is continued by means of Steel punches, round square or rectangular, &c. in shape and of various sizes. The lower end is set in the anvil; these tools taper towards the point. The hole is driven first from one side and finished
from the The
other.
Punch
(used with or without handle) serves to
make
holes.
31
Under the iron that is to be pierced is placed a hollow iron cylinder, the opening of which is somewhat larger than the diameter of the The enlargement of the hole may also be effected intended hole. with the punch.
Thin sheet- and hoop -iron may
Hollow-punch,
in
lead
or
also be pierced by means of a wood being put underneath. The hollow
the punch
is
circular.
The
and
are
discs
fall
shaft as fresh holes are cut
Punching -machines
punch,
cut out gradually rise in the out through the top end. often combined with shears. The
according to the nature of the machine, is worked up and down by a screw and centrifugal balls or with hand lever or by some similar contrivance. Such machines are also used for pressing and stamping sheets. Whereas in drifting (except with the hollow
punch) no metal is lost, while in punching the piece comes out entire; in drilling, which is done by a rotating and pressing motion, the material comes away continuously in the form of small chips or powder the drill falling through the hole. The motion is generally
,
imparted
to
the
tool,
With
power
the
light
and
simple
heavier
machinery
drilled. very rarely to the article being machines the motive power is the hand; may be run by hand, by foot or by mechanical
(steam, &c.). Drills are made
of steel
tri-
and hardened to yellow temper.
At
shoulder they are
and tapered, this part different forms have distinguishing names. The best known and most
used are:
the
it
or quadrangular, or pyramidal or conical The being fixed into the tool or machine.
Lip
drill (Fig. 19,
A\ which
cuts either to right or to

is
left;
an imperfect tool; the Flat drill (Fig. 19, J5), cutting in one direction only and 5 making holes up to about / g ths of an inch in diameter;
the Centre -bit (Fig. 19, governs the motion; the
only serves for making small holes and
and
_D),
with a centre point which
Half-round Bit
(Fig.
20),
used at the turning - lathe and

is
producing a smooth wall or side;

the
Twist
drill (Fig.
off.
21),
which
the best, most rational and

to put drills in
throws the chips well

be mentioned:
Of the number of contrivances used

the
motion may
the
The gut -string of drill, used for very small holes. twisted round the roller of the drill, the rotary motion is imparted by drawing the bow backwards and forwards as in playing the fiddle;
Fiddle
is
bow
the
si
Archimedean
drill,
obtained by running a loose socket up and
also for small holes only. The motion down a spiral shaft;
32
SECTION
II.
the Hand -brace, so called because the necessary pressure derived from the weight of the chest against the knob;
is
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Bit.
Fig. 22.
Half-round
Twist-drill.
Ratchet
drill.

the Angular brace for boring in a corner is in The motion is not direct, but transmitted; the Ratchet drill, named in Germany from a when in use. Fig. 22 shows one of its many forms.
is
33
various forms.
noise
rattling
The
drilling
by intermittent motion, the ratchet wheel or pinion checked by a spring detent, serving to prevent a backward motion of the levQr. Drilling -machines are constructed in so many forms that a full description of them here is impossible. These machines are classed as hand or automatic; and are further distinguished as independent,
effected
fixed,
portable, &c.
In boring holes of large diameter the cut is annular and leaves a round core in the centre. Sunk holes, that is holes with the widest part at the bottom, are bored with
unsymmetrical drills. Soft cast-iron and brass are drilled dry; malleable -iron and steel require lubrication with oil or soap and water.
Eoughly punched smoothed with

the
or drilled
holes
are
Rimer
borers
or
Broach. These are

various
tapering
handles,
of
slightly with sections
by which the defective hole is smoothed (Fig. 23, a). The best cross sections are those shown in Fig. 23, & to d. The Counter- sinks may be mentioned
in conclusion as tools serving to produce the holes intended to receive flush - screw - heads.
Fig. 23, Fig.

-drills
e,
shows a rose-bit for conical, and
heads;
23, /", a sinker for cylindrical screwinstead of the first named ordinary
of larger size are sometimes used.
Broaches, Fig. 23. ro se - bit chainferingauger or sinker.

,
f.
Screw-making apparatus.
Inasmuch as screws play only a subordinate part in art smithing a few remarks concerning them must suffice. Two parts are requisite in screwing, namely: the screw, a bolt
with a spiral thread, and an internal screw or hole (generally some part of the object under manipulation) with a corresponding spiral groove. There are right- and left-hand threads; the former being in most general use. In both the internal and external screw the thread and grooves succeed When the threads and grooves are triangular each other regularly. the screw is described as sharp cut; when the section is square it is termed a flat or square -cut screw. Sharp-cut screws are generally used, especially in small sizes and where they are required to
34
secure objects firmly.
SECTION
II.
Flat -cut screws are suited to large dimensions,,
more particularly where motion is to be produced. Leading screws are sometimes dual or compound, the spiral thread being once or twice grooved. Whereas wood Fastening screws are always simple. screws taper (screws for fixing wood), metal screws (for fixing metals) in addition to other peculiarities are always cylindrical. The
diameter
ions of
nternal screw
felative
is that of the thread; the diameter of the that of the channel or groove. The various descripsharp-cut screws are determined by the diameters and the is
of a screw
acuteness
of
the above mentioned

is
English
forms
its
or
Whitworth screw
is
The triangular thread. the most used; an angle of 55
basis.
The screw- stock -and -die

of the internal screw in the die
is
used in making screws. The thread cut by means of a
Screw-tap. These are separated into the taper tap, second tap and plug tap, or at least into the first and last. Small screw-taps are worked with the hand vice, larger sizes with special tap-wrenches.
The threads of external screws

the
are cut with
Screw-plate
this
screw-holes,
tool
only
or die, a hardened steel plate with tapped serves for small sizes. Larger ones are
made with
the Screw-Stock, the forms and make of which are numerous. They have generally one feature in common, namely, that two, three or more taps with the cutting mother- thread are set in a frame which is screwed up from both ends. There are hinged, oblique,. Whitworth and other screw-stocks. The lathe is also used in making all varieties of screws, the cutting-tools consisting of an inside and an outside cutting-steel..
Screw-cutting machines
are also in use.
g.
Appliances and tools for working cold surfaces.
The most important tools for finishing-off work are the files.. These are made of hardened steel and are only smooth where they
Good files are pale grey in colour. They are cut by the file-cutter in fine grooves or teeth set forward and then hardened. Single -cut files are grooved, as they have parallel cuts in one direction only, while double-cut files are teethed inasmuch as the first cut is followed by a second diagonal and somefit
into the handle.
first
what narrower upper-cut. The number of cuts to the inch, giving the degree of fineness or coarseness to the file, is determined by the size and the purposes for which it is intended. These tools are
known
as
divisions of
rough, middle, bastard and second cut, and the smooth- files (smooth, dead smooth, extra smooth).
sub-

The forms of files are also numerous and vary according The most common forms are: Flat files rectangular in section, somewhat bulged
35
to their
respective uses.
in
the
If of equal direction of their length, tapering, and cut on three sides. breadth throughout they are called equalling and parallel files;
tapering towards the point they are termed cotter files. Triangular files are equal- sided in cross section and taper to a point; the are known as 3 -square taper, and Saw files.
if
Square files are Knife files, look

in
four- sided in cross section, bulged and tapering. like a coarse knife blade and are trapeziform
cross section.
Round files are circular in cross section; they are bulged, tapering, and have mostly a single-cut (rat -tail files). Half-round files are semi-circular or show a smaller part of a
circle in cross section, tapering, a double -cut on the flat side.
with a single-cut on the round and

elliptical
Entering Or cross
The object
files are
in cross section.
generally held in a vice, and the file pressed in a forward direction, a backward or a double stroke being The coarse files are first used and afterwards the rarely resorted to.
to be filed is
finer sorts, the finishing
work being sometimes lubricated with

in
oil.
Of machines used
important
the
is
working and finishing

to
surfaces,
the
most
work-
Lathe.
This
is
be found
in
most
lock-smith's
shops. It serves not only for turning round objects and surfacing, but also for various other kinds of work, as screwing, counter-
sinking, spinning, drilling, grinding and polishing. The motion is obtained by means of a treadle worked by the foot or by mechanical force. The forms and construction of a lathe are various.
or
Some general bed is the
points
fixed
must be noted.
On
in
the left side of the
headstock
set
motion
by a
small
frame wheel
connected with a larger disc below (serving as fly-wheel), and to the lower frame by a strap or cord. On the right is found the slidingpuppet or loose headstock with back centre which can be moved on the slide or cheek of the frame. The work is fixed between the fixed and loose headstocks, between which is the hand rest, When the work serving to steady the hand and the turning tool. is not the hand but by mechanical means the sliding by guided rest replaces the hand rest. If the shifting of the support is
shifting is self-acting ing-gear through a
If the engine is called a hand-rest-lathe. by means of a rack (connected with the drivconducting -spindle) the machine is called a self-acting-slide-lathe. Lathe tools serve for cutting. The hand tools have wooden For handles; the slide rest tools are arranged for setting (fixing).
effected
by hand
the
3*
36
both
SECTION
II.
uses there are Gouge-tools with curved cutting edge for the preliminary work, Point-tools of square steel cut diagonally with oblique edges running to a point, and Flat-tools with straight, chisellike edges for finishing work, and, besides these there are Inside-tools for hollow turning.
cutting and
Planing machines and Shaping machines are not indispensable in ordinary smiths' and skilled lock-work, so that only a brief reference is made to them here. In the former the work is fixed to a table
which moves
backwards and forwards in grooves on a bed beneath the fixed cutting-tool, the cut being one way only. The motions by which the object is gradually cut smooth, &c. are regular and automatic.
The shaping-tools are edged in various forms, set in revolution by the machine and serve to cut grooves, headings, &c.
2. THE MANIPULATION AND TREATMENT OF WROUGHT
IRON.
in the
The processes used in wrought iron -work, not described

treated in this.
preceding chapter, such as drilling, punching, swaging, &c. are briefly
The Forging of iron on the

satisfactory are forged
anvil
with the
hammer
is
most
pieces
when
the metal
is
heated to a
bright red. Small
by a single workman; larger ones require one or more The red-hot iron is cleansed from cinder by knocking it on the anvil and giving it a few light taps with the hammer; the neglect of this precaution may cause the cinder to be worked into the metal. If the latter is to become hard and elastic the forging
strikers.
continues until the iron cools,
wetted.
or else both
a
hammer and
anvil
are
Wet forging
also
gives
smooth surface.
i.
have become too hard are annealed, and allowed to cool gradually.
e.
Objects that reheated to a faint red
Welding, i. e. forging two separate pieces into one, is done under strong white heat. Both pieces must be equally hot. As the parts to be welded must be as clean as possible they are sprinkled with loam, arenaceous quartz, borax, sal-ammoniac or some other substance which prevents oxidation. The striking should be quick light at first and gradually heavier, and proceed from the middle outwards so that the slag may be thoroughly driven out and uneven spots be prevented. Welding by overlapping naturally forms a better
junction than butt welding when the ends are only brought together: this is a reason why the parts should be prepared as above de-
The scribed, spread out, thinned, &c., prior to the actual joining. welding together of iron and steel (which takes place principally in tool making) is called steeling, and requires great care and specia
welding powder.
37
Flattening or taking down is equally necessary for lengthening The blows given with the narrow edge of or widening an object. the hammer are more effective than those with the broad face. The grooves wrought by the former are smoothed out by the latter.
Upsetting, or jumping is the exact reverse of flattening; it means both thickening and shortening. It is effected by striking the
red-hot piece on the anvil or on a special jumping-block, or by hardhammering on the end. Bent or twisted pieces are straightened to the right shape. It is generally done with the hammer on the anvil, but sometimes a
special straightening -plate is used; the process may be effected in either hot or cold state. Flattening, jumping and straightening require a certain dexterity in handling which is not easy to describe.
Bending may
angles
is
also be
done
warm
or cold.
Bending
at right-
hammering
done over
by an
edge of the anvil, or

the square part of its beak, or with the aid
Curves are produced on the round end of the beak or on a conical mandrel. In curved bends a
of a vice.
scroll-horn
is
also
used. occasionally This is a tool which

is
Fig. 24.
Snarling tool.
fixed into the vice
and has two cylindrical prongs forming a fork. For spiral windings and other forms which occur frequently in art smithing, special scroll tools, pins, &c., round which the object is twisted, are called into use. These tools have the same form that the piece being handled
to take; the latter is generally of thickish flat iron. Large flat curves are produced by placing the iron on two raised and separated Sheet iron is best supports and striking downwards in the middle. bent and turned over on bending and tilting machines.
is
By Embossing
bumps
called
is
understood
"bosses".
the punching out of rounded The iron may be bossed out when red hot
by driving it into a suitable cavity or swage. Bosses are produced by hammering the iron when cold, with suitable ball hammers, upon
an under-layer of wood or lead. Large flat domes are obtained by hammering out the sheet-iron gradually and from the middle towards the edge. In finer work small
bosses are produced
tool,
shown
in Fig.
by means of a special instrument, 24 and is made fast in the
called a snarling vice or onto a
38
special block.
SECTION
II.
By
arm
the tool the

cussion
the
striking with the hammer near the fixed vibrates and its bent striking end produces
in the
end of
bosses
metal exposed to
its
blows.
are
part serves as a gauge for the right place.
ensuring that the bosses
by perThe upper formed in
Impressing sheet iron into hollow and rounded forms is effected with the lathe by tool pressure. Punching is done with tools of like name, which are short steel bars rectangular in section, with the edges taken off and tapering towards the point, which is of many shapes. Small bosses can be made with them and the punching - hammer in sheet -iron, as well as bead - like or ribbed surfaces. Whereas thin sheets are generally punched from the back so that the bosses appear in relief, with thicker sheets the ornament is indented with punches or chisels.
Engraving
consists
in
cutting
flat,
mostly linear, designs in
by means of the graver, or graving-tool. This is generally done by pressure of the hand; more rarely (when the work is heavier) with the aid of a hammer. When the latter is used and especially when curves are made it is called
the surface of the sheet
Iron cutting, engraving and chasing, that is or hammered parts either with the graver. or with punches or other tools, are usually only used in iron in small artistic objects. These constitute an art in themselves and are rarely performed by the skilled smith or even locksmith.
Cutting
in iron.
the
finishing off of cast
Etching
is
effected
by means of
acids.
The sheet
is
first
co-
vered with a layer of protective wax, asphalt, or some suitable varnish; the parts to be etched are then deprived of the protective agent and the acid eats into them to the desired depth. Where the surface
is not to be etched is smaller than that which is to be affected the reverse operation sometimes occurs, i. e. the protecting material is painted or otherwise laid on in the necessary places only. When the acid has acted enough it is cleaned off with turpentine. Etching is principally used to ornament smaller artistic objects, such as
which
arms, &c. Sometimes the etched parts are colour - varnished so as to give the effect of Niello, or Enamelling. Niello -WOrk means that the metal basis is engraved in the
as in copper -plate engraving, and that the parts cut are filled with a substance compounded of sulphur, silver, copper away and lead. In melting in the niello compound the metal work must
same manner
not be made red hot or it would waste and become holed. In Inlaying or hammering metal into metal, as gold and silver on iron, the parts to receive the inlay have a dove -tail cut (wider at the base than at the surface), which is produced with a chisel and into which the softer metals are hammered. A simpler and cheaper, but also less durable way, is to hatch, and to cut in lines with the

graver, and
39
hammer
The unembellished parts
the precious metal on to the roughened foundation. are afterwards made smooth,
e.
Enamelling,
exclusively
i.
the
melting on of vitreous paste,
is
almost
applied at present to cooking utensils, baths, advertisements, &c., and therefore to useful rather than artistic purposes*). Completely smooth and bright surfaces are produced by planing,
grinding and polishing.
^ Planing is done with the plane, which is made in various The elevations forms, but must always have a sharp, faultless edge. to be removed are most easily detected by moving the surface under
manipulation backwards and forwards on a perfectly level,
straightening plate.
-
painted
Grinding is effected either with hand- grindstones or with a wet or dry revolving grindstone. Discs of emery, pumicestone, emery-paper and cloth, emery-powder or iron-scale are also used with oil, on wood, leather or lead. Polishing gives the object that degree of smoothness which may Is is produced by continuous friction with be described as glint. fine powder that is taken up by soft leather or wool, moistened with
Lime, rotten-stone, putty powder and crocus, among other things, as polishing powder. Burnishing tools and agates are also used; these also serving to press down inequalities in the metal. The shapes of the steels, which are set in wooden Round or cylindrical bodies are best handles, depend on the work.
spirit or oil.
serve,
polished on the lathe. As iron and steel easily rust under the influence of the air, especially of moisture and wet, the surface is protected sometimes by means of other metals, or by bronzing, blackening or tempering, or
In every one of these proand a metallically pure surface must first be obtained if the result is to be satisfactoiy, and rust must not be allowed to set in beneath the covering material. This is done by pickling or removing the surface with diluted suloil-colour.
scale,
by coating with varnish or

cesses a thorough cleansing
from
&c.
phuric acid; or by reheating and also by brushing and scraping. A coating of lead, zinc, tin, copper, brass, nickel, silver or gold may be deposited either by "dry process", in which
dipped red hot into the molten meta], or by "wet are dipped into liquids which contain the metals and chemicals in solution necessary to effect their union; or
the articles
are
process",
when they
through precipitation by galvanic action; or by plating, when the covering -metal is pressed or rolled on to the iron in the form of thin sheets or plates. With regard to gilding it must be mentioned
*)
The iron-works
at
Gaggenau
in
Baden have of
late
produced
artistic
enamelled iron ware.
40
SECTION
II.
that other processes are known, namely mercury gilding, in which gold in amalgam with quicksilver is laid on and the latter evaporated by
heat; and leaf-
gilding, in which the gold-leaf is pressed onto a roughened metal surface and polished with a steel prepared burnisher; or merely attached by size in the ordinary way.
and
Browning
dised
(It is
or
bronzing
oxide
surface,
the
consists in creating an artificially oxiprotecting the metal from further rusting.
Blackening
specially applied to fowling-pieces, &c.) consists of smoking the article over a fire of resinous
wood and then brushing; or the articles and this is burnt off over a fire.
are smeared with linseed oil
Varnishing with
turpentine
protects
transparent
mixture
of
linseed
uncovered surfaces.
Oiling,
or
oil and smearing with
tallow may be substituted*). Varnishing with iron-, asphalt-,
or tar-varnish, or coating with oil-colour is chiefly confined

to
coarser articles
less
having
carefully
worked surfaces and to

objects that are exposed to the weather. Before
the actual painting takes

place
a
ground coat,
consisting of lead paint or graphite is laid on.
In former times decoraFig. 25.
Specimens of weldings.
five
effects
were
some-
times produced by polychromatic treatment, and of late attempts are being made to revive There is scarcely any objection to be raised to this the fashion.
from the point of view of by good taste.
style,
provided always that
it
is
governed
3.
THE ORDINARY METHODS OF JOINING

IRON -WORK.
Various methods are used to unite and fasten together separate pieces of iron; the most important of which to the smith must now
be briefly enumerated.
The Welding together of separate parts

and the means
best suited
to
is
the most effective,
the
smith's craft,
although
it
is
not
*) A preventative against rust, called "Mannocitin", firm of Ed. Miiller & Mann in Charlottenburg. has been much of late.
made by the recommended
41
it
always the easiest method. As this process has already been described, may suffice here to remark that for railings, balustrades and similar artistic ironwork, welding is principally adopted where scrolls or
other forms of ornament consist
of
two or more parts

(in
as
shown
to
in
Fig. 25.
Brazing
or
Hard -soldering
contradistinction
"soft-
soldering" with tin) forms a junction which will bear a certain degree of hammering and bending: copper, brass, and, where in finer work
the red or yellow colour would disturb the effect, silver, are used. The parts to be soldered must be metallically clean and free from
oxide; these parts are packed in loam which is made more adhesive by the addition of horse-dung, and, as an adjunct to the solder, borax Red heat is necessary to soldering. or powdered glass is used.
Small objects are soldered with the aid of the blow-pipe; larger The junction occurs when the ones 'require a charcoal or coke fire.
solder
begins
to
melt,
denoted
turns
to
when
the flame
keep
green. the
In
order
in
parts
position while being soldered, they are bound
together
with
temporarily
wire, or riveted tod.
gether, and so on.
Puttying and ce-
Fig. 26.
Rivetiugs.
only secure a firm connexion when the individual parts already fit into each other, as with various sized tubings, and have of themselves a certain hold. Cementing is also employed to set iron in stone or other material.
menting
Riveting is a method most frequently used. It will either render parts immoveable or act as a pivot on which they may turn. Either one part is tenoned to serve as rivet-pin while the other is
drilled for the
rivet -hole (Fig. 26,
),
or which
is
the most
common,
The rivet both parts have holes through which the rivet is passed. is either a cylindrical pin which is hammered out broad at both ends (Fig. 26, fc), or it has a head at one end, while the other end is hammered flat (Fig. 26, c), or else clinched into a shaped head with
the riveting- set (Fig. 26, cT), or lastly both heads may be sunk, in which case the rivet -holes are conically widened or countersunk
Small objects are riveted cold, larger ones at red heat. is more especially used in cases where it may be Either one part holds necessary to take the work to pieces again. the male- and the other the female - screw, or both parts may have an internal screw into which a separate external screw is driven. The screw may either have a cut- head, sunk or raised, and the tail end filed
(Fig.
26,
e).
Screwing
42
off flush
SECTION
II.
with the surface; or it can have a head like a rivet, with under which a disc of tin is sometimes placed, fixing the other end. The first mentioned screws are made fast and loosened with the screw-driver, which resembles a chisel; whereas the nut is fixed and loosened by means of a wrench or spanner. This tool is made in specific sizes. There is also an adjustable screw-wrench which can be set to any desired size. Riveting and screwing occur also, without mentioning countless other instances, when pieces of iron are drawn down and lapped
a screw-nut or
butted
together.
Drawing down
principally
and riveting often replaces welding and

flat-iron
is
adopted
in
scroll-work.
It
consists
in
placing
Fig. 27.
Various
a
piece
methods of fastening ironwork together.
which
is
brought
down
to
thin
edge
against
another
If the piece that is to be so fixed is not thinned oif, (Fig. 27, a). or only partially so, a step -like cut is made at the place where it
is
to join (Fig. 27,
&).
Intersecting, especially when flat- or square -iron pieces cross each other, may be done without thinning either of the parts, which are bent outwards (Fig. 27, c), or each part is thinned or cut away to the extent of one half, so that they are flush on both sides
(Fig.
27,
d).
/",
g)
For passing one bar through another a must be punched or drifted.
fitting hole
(Fig. 27,
e,

Tenoning and pinning
1
43
cast iron spear -points

(Fig.
are adopted more particularly to fix and pine -apples, &c., to balustrades, railings, &c.
27, h,
i).
much used mode

is
of fastening, where two or several parts are

is
to be fixed together,
the Collar.
in section (Fig.
The iron used

28,
a,
&,
c,
generally rectangular or half-round
d, e).
Fig.
'28.
Collars and wedges.
(Fig.
Sometimes the collars are tightened by means of a Wedge The wedge is an effective mode of joining and can be 28, /").
easily loosened again, but it is mostly used to finally tighten
up work
(Fig. 28,
g,
ft).
Fig. 29.
Folds.
By Shrinking on
rings,
hoops,
&c.
collars is meant the hammering of red -hot over the parts to be secured. As they shrink in
cooling they give a firm hold.
Folding
is
only used in sheet-iron.

(Fig.
and double -folds
29,
&)
There are single- (Fig. 29, and overlapping folds (Fig. 29, cj.
a)
44
SECTION
II.
4.
WORK DETAILS OF MOST FREQUENT OCCURRENCE

IN
THE
SMITHS' ART.
is
Although the number of these
materially in style with the various periods of art; constantly recurring and form, as it were, the language" of the smiths' art, may be mentioned.
almost countless and they vary some, which are of the "form-
ABC
completeness
is
made, yet such
as are
referred
to
No may
first
pretence to prove useful

consider
to those desiring to
make
practical use of this manual.
Let us
the
ornamentation
tions.
of
bars,
beginning with the cross secThe rolling-mills of

the
present day are able to produce fancy bar -iron with stellate, cruciform, and many other such sections. These
are, however, not frequently used and were formerly unknown. In the middle -ages
d.
e.
was not bar- or rod -iron seldom ornamented by chiselling and punching simple patterns into it (Fig. 30, d), or the edges were fretted (Fig.
30,
e).
regularly
ances
30,
to
f).
the use of swages shaped protuberwere produced (Fig. Swages are also used
By
produce
(Fig.
is
moulded swell-
ings
this
less
Of late 30, g). done more simply, if genuinely and solidly, by

malleable
cast-iron
&c. over the bar and
slipping
Fig. 30.
Ornamented
bars.
sockets,
riveting
them
(Fig.
30,
li).
good, effective and long -known process is the Twisting of while red hot, which can be done with the aid of the tongs in bars of a screwlight work, but which in heavier work requires the help
stock or wrench (Fig. 30,
varieties of these.
i,
).
Scrolling into volutes

or round
a
scrolling
is
universally practised.
There are many

scroll
Thus the bar may be bent with the

iron without
wrench
varying the section of the bar thus varying the (Fig. 31, a), or it may be drawn down or snubbed, cross section (Fig. 31, 6), or it can be slit into 2 or 3 volutes

(Fig. 31, c). a rosette or
45
The inner end of the volute
is
often ornamented with
knop
1
(Fig.
31, d).
as
The Slitting and opening out
break in the length of a

of round
bar
is
effective
but
uncommon
(Fig.
31, 31,
e).
Spindle-shaped spiral twists,

thick wires, are more
especially
f).
rods
and
common
(Fig.
Fig. 31.
Bars scrolled into volutes, slits, interfacings, spiral-twists; forged flat ornaments.
Repeated interfacings,
The
leaves,
a kind of plaiting, are favourite forms

g,
in the renaissance style (Fig. 31,
h,
i).
Hammering
out of bars
into
Flat ornaments, such
as
or grotesques, also often recur in the same period of art (Fig. 31, &, I, m). The outline is cut out with the chisel or shears and then finished off with the file.
masks,
The Beating of scroll ends

carries the
art a step farther,
into forged or embossed leaves and reached great technical perfection
46
SECTION
II.
CKJ
03
47
Fig. 34.
Examples of
rosettes.
Fig. 35.
Spear-heads and knops.
48
SECTION
II.
.acanthus.
in the baroque and rococo ages. The principal natural motive is the Fig. 32 shows a number of foliage patterns (a to f).
Fig. 36.
Cartouches, shields and masks.

here.
The Acanthus husks may be mentioned

ornamental envelopes
to
i).
They serve
as
the
them
(Fig 32,
#,
h,
One
bars, or as free ends, or cappings often finds in the latter position
to
Fig. 37.
Wreaths and
sprays.
Lilies (fleur-de-lis); these were often used as motives in the They are tniddle-ages and frequently recur later (Fig. 33, a, I, c). only one of the peculiar forms of

the
Fig. 33,
49
are
Flowers used
d,
.e,
in
smithing of which
others
given in
Rosettes are to a certain extent fanciful renderings of flowers. and richer examples. Whereas formerly Fig. 34 shows simple these were all forged in swages, or embossed by hand, they are now The latter work is more uniform, often stamped out by machinery. and also more monotonous.
Fig. 38.
Specimen of Applied work.
The
like
may
be said of Spear-heads and
Knops, which
serve
to finish off the tops of railing bars and the like. These heads were formerly forged by hand, while at the present time they are largely stamped out of red hot iron or produced in malleable or common
.cast -iron.
Examples are shown
in Fig.
35.
Fig. 39.
Ornamental chains.
of sheets, bent, embossed, and often used as decorations to
Cartouches and Shields cut out

ornamented
grilles
(see
with
Fig.
scrolled
volutes,' are
36,
a,
and
c).
Lockplates, Escutcheons and

renaissance, Meyer, Smithing -art.
similar objects were in the middle-
the
baroque,
and
rococo
periods
mostly pierced
4
50
into open work,
SECTION
II.
slightly chased, embossed, &c. Fig. 36, f shows an example from Wertheim on the Maine. Masks and grotesques, occur not infrequently in richly forged work, and are mostly embossed out of sheets, less frequently forged from the solid (see Fig. 36, d, e). Such details require a very skilful hand and artistic capacity, if they are to prove satisfactory, otherwise they are best left alone. Herein the limit, of that which appeared to be feasible, both in respect of material and of technic, has been
reached,
- -
if
not already overstepped.
Garlands, festoons, wreaths and sprays representing natural flowers also require skill and taste. They are in other respects easy to make and rarely fail in producing a good effect. They appear in grilles as subsidiary and ornamental embellishments, and on wroughtiron works of larger dimensions. Fig. 37 shows three specimens coming under this heading.
By Applied work
bars and
stout
is understood the process whereby sectioned ornamental details are applied to smooth iron surfaces or
iron
sheets
as
shown
in Fig.
38.
Such applications are most
frequent in locks and their mountings. Lastly, reference must be made to
Ornamental chain work, which may take very many forms and styles, according to the purpose for which it is intended, and to the dimensions required. It is used
for
hanging coronas, chandeliers, wall-lights, &c.
The foregoing almost exhausts what

will,
is
(see Fig. 39). to be said concerning the
individual forms and types in general use. with the aid of their illustrations,
elucidation of
The
sections
furnish
further
which follow data in
what has already been
said.
SECTION
III.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART
OF SMITHING.
i.
THE ANTIQUE.
Although it will be endeavoured in this section to give a picture of the historical development of the technics of smithing, no attempt will be made to deal with the question of how iron was produced
in earlier times, about which only incomplete information has come down to us, and especially as archaeologists and experts are in some in disagreement regarding it. respects Those, however, who are
interested in this part of the subject are referred to the highly meritorious work written by Dr. Ludwig Beck on the History of Iron,
in its relation to technical and historical culture development, published by Vieweg & Son, Brunswick. It is now known that the production of iron and its use are
of very ancient
date,
far
older than has usually been supposed and
In the British certainly dating back to prehistoric times. a piece of iron is to be seen which an Englishman, J. R. Hill, found
in one of the inner
Museum
masonry joints of the great pyramid of Cheops. a working tool probably shows the greatest, Articles of historically proved antiquity, namely about 4000 years. iron found in other places and the wall-paintings on their graves show that the ancient Egyptians used iron weapons, sickles and other tools, ship sheating, &c., which they must either have made themselves, as was probably the case in most instances, or which they drew from Ethiopia, the inhabitants of which pursue the iron industry
This
broken
part
of
to this day.
4*
52
SECTION
III.
things iron finger-rings, Victor Place bracelets, weapons, chains, hammers, knives and saws. even found a complete iron store at Khorsabad. The principal part,
Iron was equally known in excavations have brought to light
ancient Assyria
and Babylon.
The
among other
estimated at
as
358 tons, consisted of pieces of iron pointed towards each end and having a hole near the one end, which were identified
un wrought
The perforation was probably to facilitate transingots. by stringing the blocks together. In Phoenicia and Palestine iron also came early into use. In
port,
the Bible (Genesis Ch. 4, v. 22) one reads that Tubal-cain, the son of Lamech and Zillah, was "an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron". The like was the case in Persia, India, China and Japan.
The Chinese claim that steel was invented 2000 years B. C., and Indian steel was also favourably known long before our chronology. Further evidence of the antiquity of iron-working is found in philological comparisons.
The Sanscrit word

"ais",
for iron is "ayas", the Persian
(Zend) "ayanh",
Old High German "aisin", "isan", "isen", Anglo-Saxon "iren", English "iron", Old Norse "iarn", Swedish "jarn", Spanish "hierro", Italian "ferro", Latin "ferrum" and French Old Gothic
"fer" (see
Beck's work).
came from the East, from Egypt and from Western Greece and thence to Italy, and after what has been said above, it would be too strange to even suggest that the Greeks and Romans did not know and utilise iron. That they did know it and understand how to work it, is shown in many of their writings; it
Culture
Asia to
is
made evident by
Iron
ty
their painted vases and bas-reliefs and the (few) iron articles which have been discovered.
it is
proved
and
iron
steel
were
in
already
known
and
to
Homer.
Glaucos
Schliemann
of
disinterred
objects
Troy
Mycena.
Chios
(600 years B. C.) is held to be the inventor of welding or soldering iron. Not only were weapons of attack and defence, agricultural implements and all sorts of objects made of iron; the metal was used also for ornamental vessels and statues, the latter being made of embossed pieces which were afterwards put together. Thus, we hear
of an artistically wrought-iron base to a silver vessel at Delphi, of an iron statue of Hercules, &c. Various Greek cities, as Corinth and
Athens, had recognised markets for ironwares.
Although the best
steel
came from Chalybes and

also
prized represent anvils, hammers, pincers, &c., and even their bellows are to all intents and purposes the same as those in use at the present day.
India, Smiths' tools, as
the Laconian and Lydian steels were they are pictured on Grecian vases,
The articles found in Etruscan and Roman graves, the excavations Pompei, Vulci, Cervetri, Caere and many other places have also brought iron weapons and utensils to light. Searing-irons, fire-hooks, tripods, locks, keys, brasiers, money -chests were often made of iron;
at
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART OF SMITHING.
53
so likewise were the weapons for use, whereas those for ornament were made of bronze or brass. It was customary to wear iron rings as the insignia of a free-man and, probably, also for use in sealing
up
doors, &c.
Even if in the early ages iron was principally imported in Italy from the Island of Elba, the Romans, on the other hand, after having acquired the sovereignty of the world, most undoubtedly produced and worked iron in various provinces, for instance, in Spain, on the Rhine, in Garinthia, and it may well be assumed that they found this industry
already in existence in such parts.
When we
up the
attempt,
and
it
is
almost in vain to do so, to
sum
position of the smith's art in antiquity, the following points are salient. First, iron is very much more sensitive to oxidation and
powder and
The most of that found has actually turned to and that which still exists is eaten away and unattractive. There can be no doubt that the ancients, as the rule and not theexception, only used iron and steel where probably no other material would so well answer the purpose, such as for tools and weapons, and these of the simplest forms that would serve the purpose. For show and for articles of luxury the brilliancy of bronze and of the precious metals was given the preference. Ordinary labour was performed by the slave; skilled labour could be undertaken by the freeman: We thus find a second reason for assuming that things which were to show artistic finish, such as bronze lamps and vessel?, were hardly ever made of iron. In any case, that which modern museums have to show of antique iron -work cannot be for one moment held in comparison with the bronze- and brass-work, the ceramic and similar arts of the same period.
to rust, than bronze.
dust,
The
state
of the
ancient iron industry
may
be briefly
summed
up. Greeks and Romans knew iron; they produced it in open hearths or in small ovens with the aid of natural wind draught or by bellows; they thus produced a material bearing sometimes the character of malleable - iron, and sometimes that of steel; they usually employed it for articles which could not well be made of other material and
only very exceptionally gave these To cast-iron and to the production known to the present age they were the then state of science and of its
to
objects a distinctly artistic form. of malleable - iron and of steel as
remain so. Antiquity has development of the smith's -art and

ceptible.
2.
strangers, and, in consequence of technical appliances had naturally thus but slightly affected the later
its
influence
is
therefore imper-
THE MIDDLE-AGES.
During the collapse of the universal sovereignty of Rome and in the confusion arising from the migration of races a great portion of
54
SECTION
III.
antique culture became lost and therewith much of the highly deveBut this statement loped technic both of art and of manufacture. can scarcely be said to apply to the art of smithing. First of all, as seen in the last chapter, the iron industries of the ancients were, in respect of art, of an entirely subordinate nature, and, on the other
side, the unending campaigns and wars, which arose in the stage between the old and new periods of culture, were enough to secure the progress of at least one branch of smithing, namely the armourers, which necessity compelled for good or evil to stride in the direction
of development. Even admitting that the requirement of such times the quality of the material used, and its practical fitness to the ^aim in view, rather than mere external forms, the chief question, yet
made
nevertheless the seeds of further development were sown, even of the very forms used in later and more peaceful times.
work
The middle -ages thus had the privilege of introducing smiths' into the regions of architecture and to some domestic uses, and of
In this mediaeval discovering styles suitable to these requirements. Artistic smithing of the nations were successful in a high degree. middle -ages has indeed handed down to us specimens which show
But our wonder is inastonishing skill and a fine sense of form. creased when we realise the exceeding simplicity of the appliances wherewith such results were brought about, and when we reflect that
hammer and
anvil were, as a rule, the only tools used, and that each rod, each wire, each sheet had to be wrought, and that neither these nor the rolled material obtainable now in every form and size, were to be had
ready-made when they were produced.
It must, however, be remarked that perfecting the technical means of production does not invariably tend to render the artistic Closer consideration makes wares of handicraftsmen more perfect. It must, among other analogous examples, this truth more apparent. be obvious that repeated forging and welding improves the quality of iron; but, not only did manual labour furnish a better iron than that
averaged by the mechanical operations of the present age; but the external appearance of handwork has something fresher, more original and interesting than machine productions, although the latter are unLet hand-needlework deniably neater and more exact in appearance. be compared with machine embroidering, and the same conclusion
follows,
and this applies to
other
branches of art with equal force.
But then, hand work with the comparatively simple tools employed demanded also a great sacrifice of time. Machinery, as the substitute
for handicraft, owes its existence to the striving after shortening and lightening of labour and to the ensuring cheapness of production. For these, as well as for other technical reasons, the older manual work was not in a position to produce objects of large dimensions;
55
when these were here and there successfully accomplished the results are surprising and entitled to the highest appreciation. Putting the armourer's art aside for the present, the fourth section of this manual being specially devoted to it, the smiths' work of the
middle-ages in connection with architecture and industry commenced from about the 10th century to deserve notice. At least it is to
this
back.
period that the oldest work which has come down to us dates In the 12th and 13th centuries the smiths' productions become,
church enlisted art into her service and gave the most important orders. Let us first take note of the ornaments for doors and gateways, and for chests and presses, of the window-fastenings and grilles, of standard and hanging candelabra
already highly important. Here too it was that the
Parts of Romanesque door-furniture. Fig. 40. The Cathedral of Puy en Velay by Ebreuil. b. The church of Blacincourt, Gironde. c. The church of the holy sepulchre, Neuvy. 12^ century.
a.
From
For secular purposes,
such
as
Viollet-le-Duc.
the
embellishment
of castles and of
corporation buildings, we find other important items including firedogs and other hearth -furniture, wall-anchors, door-knockers, &c. The external appearance of the smiths' work of the Romanesque
age presents little that is elegant; the forms are full, heavy, and give the impression of great solidity. They accord in their simplicity with the styles of architecture and ornamentation prevalent at the
same period, and present similar characteristics. The most elegant and the richest work is found in door-furniture, belonging especially to the latter part of the Romanesque age and in the period of transition to Gothic.
It corresponds
its
with the wooden construction of the
small, grooved and tongued narrow boards, which, in themselves, afforded little scope for ornamentation until ironwork began to be spread over the large flat surfaces. Although the original pur-
middle-ages with
pose
may
only have been to join the
wood -work
well and securely,
56
SECTION
III.
the spirit of decoration soon assumed the foremost position. Instead of the simple tongue, angle, and cross garnet hinges, and the crescentshaped straps, which were especially favoured in the earliest part of
this period, rich scrolls,
twining
over the whole of the door and forming a peculiar ornamentation, began to appear. Noteworthy door - furniture of this kind is found in the cathedrals of Paris, Liege, and Rouen, all of which date from the 13th century.
Characteristic features of
Romanesque
of bars
iron
work
are the
slitting
and
scrolling the parts (see Fig. 40, &), the welding together of separate bars into
bars, the forging in swages of ornaments, such as rosettes, stars, &c. r and also the peculiar conformation of the leaves, with their hollo wings and
complex
rounded contours
Fig. 41. Detail of door-furniture,
(see
Fig. 41).
This
work was
i.
a11
'
to use
the
now
current
Liege cathedral. 13th century,
expression, "forged out of the piece", e. it consisted of one whole, made

of
rivets, &c.
up of many parts welded together, and without the aid Most distinctive is the technic of the forged
screws,
grilles
and
Fig. 42.
Details of a
Romanesque
fire-guard.
13^
century,
of the implements
.of period; together with nails are bound with ties or collars (see Fig. 42).
that
which
instead
of being secured
57
In the transition to Gothic the technics were changed and deveBesides "forging out of the piece" and welding up, coldloped.
^>A<^
J4K,
Fig. 43.
Detail of Gothic grille from St. Denis.
14th century.
Fig. 44.
Fig.45.
detail.
a.
Door-handle of St.Peter's,
Gothic ornamental
Strasbourg, 15th century, backed with red cloth.

b.
Gothic ornaments from Minister in Westphalia.
58
SECTION
III.
riveting was also employed; individual swages, or loose forgings were riveted onto the principal parts (see Fig. 43). The section of the leaf -work became altered; the bars being
to thin sheet -like metal and cut into definite outlines, as well as bent, stamped out, or embossed (see Fig. 44). Bars were also twisted. Graving tools chisels and punches are added to the
,
hammered out
Fig. 46.
Gothic details in wrought-iron.
tools in use.
The complete effect becomes richer and more animated. This improvement increases gradually till Gothic art reaches its zenith. Boldly curved, long drawn out designs, crab like leaf forms characthis period,
in
which already all sorts of articles were made and lanterns and even iron -furniture. Much flat ornament was required for lockwork. Keys were also someThe embellishments were tastefully fretted and times ornamented.
terise
of
iron;
elegant
chandeliers
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ART OF SMITHING.
59
their effects
(see
Fig.
45).
enhanced by a backing of coloured cloth or leather, &c. Scarcely any other material was so well adapted as
Fig. 47.
Late Gothic door-knocker. 15th century.
In private ownership at Augsburg.
Fig. 48.
b.
From
a. Details of the well cover near the Cathedral at Antwerp, the Cathedral at Prague. 14th century, c. Late Gothic door ring.
wrought -iron
to the principles of decoration used in the nobler periods
of Gothic art (see Fig. 46).
60
SECTION
III.
The later degenerate Gothic style created much that is not decidedly tasteful or consistent, inasmuch as it shows the stilted and heavy work, introducing the fish -bladder and other unsuitable motives
to the graceful styles of wrought -iron work (see Fig. 47). It was at this period also that a questionable naturalism was introduced, in the
shape of gnarled branches serving as door-knockers, &c. (see Fig. 48). The production of stone and wooden profiles in iron will be discussed in the next chapter. If we summarise the results of the
development of wrought -iron work during the middle -ages, it will be seen that, with comparatively simple appliances, work on an important scale was executed; that in respect of technical routine, and richness and variety of artistic effect, it did not equal later styles; though on the other hand, it carried the constructive principles of
to a degree of perfection that has hardly been equalled moreover, clear that the middle -ages are entitled to the credit of having made the first attempts to treat wrought -iron polychromatically, to give it the effect of colour by means of paint and at the same time by such means to afford it protection from the
wrought -iron
It
is,
since.
destructive influence of rust.
An
exhaustive
and richly illustrated description of the smiths*
work of the middle-ages is given by Viollet-le-Duc in his "Dictionnaire raisonne de 1'architecture", volume 8, under the heading of "Serrurerie" (Locksmith's work), to which work special attention
is
called.
3. It follows as
life
THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD.

a matter of course that as the mental
and cultured
of a people rises or sinks, so the arts advance or recede in symThis is seen in the transition from the antique culture to pathy.
that of the middle -ages;
and even
more
in the
mighty progressive
change from the latter to that of the renaissance period. The struggle for mental freedom, the striving to substitute a principle allowing of life-like and fancy-free action for one confined within a strict, dry and narrow set of rules, finds most vivid illustration in the emanciIf this was not equally pation of the arts during the renaissance. the case in each particular branch of art, this arose from the fact
that
many varying
transition in greater, or less, degrees. whether the technical results in any

their
extraneous circumstances influenced the process of We have to consider carefully
particular field of art reached highest point, or only a stage in the process of development, Further it is a long recognised fact that the during the transition. minor arts are dependent on their mother and teacher, Architecture, for their growth, just as children are dependent on their parents. The
minor
arts,
exercised
speaking generally, require a generation for the influence upon them by architectural changes to be felt to the full

extent.
61
The
art.
traditions of handicrafts are
more unyielding, than those
of high
On these and other grounds changes in style are not accomplished suddenly and violently, but by degrees; a mixture is found,
an
intercalation,
or amalgamation
of the preceding with the succeedThis amalgamation ing styles. brings together things of doubtful style with those which are naive
and charming in the highest degree, and to which a certain originality We see this cannot be denied. particularly in the ornament of the transition from Komanesque to Gothic; but it is still more pronounced in that between Gothic
and renaissance,
;
or,
as
it is
called,
'the
early renaissance". Breaking offthese observations

to
Fig. 49.
Details of a late-Gothic
in order
revert to
the
object
bracket,
15th century,
of this manual, it must be understood that, while in architecture and wall-painting, art reverted to antique models (hence the term "renaissance", meaning a new
Fig. 50.
birth), latter
Keys of the
loth, 16th a nd 17th centuries.
such could not be the case with smithing, simply because this branch of art was, comparatively speaking, very little developed
62
SECTION
III.
in the antique. Hence it was compulsory to retain and follow up the highly developed smith-craft of the middle -ages. The changes which appeared were due principally to the outward changes of form and fancy, to which art as a whole had to adapt itself. Side by side
however with the new, the
earlier traditions held their ground for a long time, so that in iron-work, Gothic details are by no means rare
Fig. 51.
Link-holders and horse-rings in the courtyard of the Bargello 15th century. in Florence.
until,
and even beyond, the end of the 15th century. Fig. 49 shows a portion of a large bracket belonging to this period. The Gothic filling of the spandrel stands in contrast with the outer scroll-work which already half belongs to the renaissance style. In Fig. 50, a,
6
and
are
shown three keys of which the
first
belongs to the 15th,
the second to the 16th
and the third to the 17th century. Whereas

the
first
63
b still
a is strictly Gothic; the second Gothic in its details; the ornament
of the third c is already "baroque"; the fundamental form being in all three the same. In Italy, where the Gothic never
secured a real footing, or,
as
Semper
where its principles were puts it, neither recognised nor understood, Gothic models were not forthcoming for the
use of the smith in the same degree as
in France and in
Germany. The wroughtrenaissance

itself,
is
iron
work
of the Italian
consequently
peculiar
Oriental, old Italian,

cressets
with Byzantine and even

to
The link-holders, for burning pitch, horse -rings and door-knockers of Italian palaces are often remarkably simple in appearance;
antique reminiscenses.
their ornamentation being frequently
flat,
and produced by geometrical punchings (see Fig. 51). Richer designs sometimes take an architectonic character which is far better suited to stone than to wrought iron work (see Fig. 52). Late Gothic iron work both in France and Germany however was being equally forced into the same
direction as is
shown by
further
Fig. 53.
Fig. 52.
development of Italian renaissance a much greater freedom in form soon became apparent. Correct form is found in the organic volutes and tendril-like ornament (see Fig. 54); the addition of grotesques and emblems led to creations which were both rich in fancy and charming in effect. Speaking
generally,
Italian
With
the
Wrought-iron lantern, Florence. 15th century. (After Semper.)
smithing
retained a
tasteful simplicity, without overloading, whereas in the more northern countries
was developed. and tangled forms of the late Gothic followed on French and German soil designs which were certainly clearer and nobler in detail, but which, on the whole, produced a no less
far greater richness
The
crisp
Fig. 53.
Details of Gothic
wrought-iron work.
SECTION
III.
Fig. 54.
Altar rail at Santa Maria degli Scalzi in Venice.
ito
Fig. 55.
Circular grille in Augsbirrg.

rich
65
and
much
wider.
brackets
The field open had become (see Fig. 55). objects were introduced, such as panels, door grilles, with guild - shields and tavern - signs gargoyles, font -coveropulent effect
New
brackets, reading-desks, wash-stands, towel -holders, weather - cocks r grave crosses and finials, as well as utensils of the most varied kinds. Ornamentation changed greatly in style owing to the changes in
connexion with wood -work. In the place of the tongued and grooved of the middle -ages, the joinery of the renaissance was framed and mortised. This brought about the disappearance of the long strap
work
hinge, which was replaced by the dovetail or swallowtailed butt hinge, all parts of which could be made to serve decora tively (see Fig. 56).
With regard
to
locks and keys a notable apparatus
is
introduced on
the scene; curious alike in respect of external finish and as regards the mechanism. Whereas we now prefer the simplest and
safest locks and the smallest keys, it would seem that then exactly the reverse was
the case,
The production of weapons reached the highest perfection during the renaissance. Those of defence and offence, armour for
man and charger were of the most solid and luxurious description. The incrusting and covering with gold and silver, the niello and engravings, the etching, embossing and fretting rendered them art triumphs. These processes, some of which were old and derived from the East, were further
taste applied in new these ways and, finally, purely armourers Fig. 56. Butt hinge. arts were adapted in greater or lesser degree renaissance, to architectural smiths' work. Above all the
developed in the
new
German
glinting embossings of the armourer came especially to other uses. The principal centres of the armourer's art, such as Nuremberg, Augs-
burg, Innsbruck, Munich, &c., also became those of the general smithcraft. As with weapons and armour so also with grilles, embellish-
ments and utensils the designs and drawings were made by celebrated
artists.
Characteristic
of renaissance
grille
work
are
the bars
scrolled
into volutes, the numerous instances of threading or interpenetration, the hammering of the ends into flat ornaments in the form of
in
grotesque masks and fantastic animals, and furthermore, the free endings the forms of conventional flowers (see Fig. 57 and 58). The flowers especially are among the finest features of the smithing of
this period
(see Fig.
59).
The bars often received a
sort of profile
5
66
SECTION
III.
by being forged in swages by the lathe (see Fig. 60). favour. The cutting of the recalling the antique. The
enhanced in richness and
Colouring was resorted to
resembling knops and mouldings turned Eound iron above all came into especial acanthus leaves was excellent and simple,
open
either
effect
by embossing and
elegant tendril -like ornaments were lining, or etching.
completely or else in combination
Fig. 57.
Iron
German renaissance. 16th grille. The Ammerling collection, Vienna.
century.
with partial fire gilding. Combinations of wrought -iron with brass and bronze came into use, especially in Italy; thus key bows are sometimes of brass or bronze while the remainder is of iron. In the middle and notably at the close of the 17th century a material change of style began to be felt, which will be treated of in the next
chapter.
bb
68
SECTION
III.
While the middle -ages raised
retrospect of the renaissance period gives the following results: art smithing, from the constructive
Fig. 59.
Wrought-iron flowers.
German and Belgian
renaissance.
point of view, to the highest point, it was reserved to the renaissance to sweep away the formal degeneracy of the late Gothic, to bring about
69
simplicity and refinement, and finally endow the art with the highest perfection of beauty of form of which it is capable. The renaissance also had the privilege of greatly popularising the armourer's craft and
of opening up the widest fields to wrought -iron work generally. This period materially enlarged the field of operations, especially in ornamental work and small work, by introducing a general application
The renaisof embossing, engraving, etching, inlaying, and gilding. sance divided the work of the smith into distinct guilds with advantageous results. It enjoyed material advantages over the middle -ages, inasmuch
Fig. 60.
Sconce.
German
renaissance.
as better material, in the shape of bars, sheets and wires, was already obtainable. The introduction of iron -casting is also due to this period, though it could in its primitive stage in no wise compete with
wrought iron, and was in and stove plates.
fact limited almost exclusively to fire backs
4.
THE BAROQUE PERIOD.
The "baroque" and "rococo" periods have long been regarded of decadence following upon the renaissance, and consetreated with proportionate contempt. One is more tolerant quently of late. It is now, on closer examination, admitted that they, too, have their proper peculiarities and good points, among which art One has become accustomed to smithing takes a foremost place. The present manual adopts this regard them as independent styles. view all the more readily as its subject specially justifies their
as periods
separation.
The learned are by no means in agreement as to whence the name "baroque" is derived. The term "baroque" is commonly understood to mean "oval, distorted, &c.", in so far applicable to this
70
particular
SECTION
III.
squeezed together, volutes form style as the adpressed, This style is specially distinguishing features of it (see Fig. 68). emphasised in architecture in the buildings erected for the Society of Jesus, whence it is not uncommonly called the Jesuit style.
The
transition
is
from true renaissance
to baroque was,
naturally,
no sharper, and
the renaissance.
far less denned, than that
between mediaeval and
pally that described below.
The influence of the new style upon the smiths' art is princiThe pompous taste of the time which
verged on overloading in architecture, obtained a hold on this branch In technique it stood at its highest point, but became of industry. even more refined and eclectic in appli-
The first aim was to obtain great and sumptuous effects; hence it was used on a larger scale, and in relation to brass and bronze. Bound iron gave place to rectangular and especially to square iron.
cation.
^) [y/L ^ ^vVNv^^:
^W
S/-
)1
^e
to
me t n0(l of threading bars through each other, or interpenetration, gave place
halving and oversetting. Forgings applied on sheet iron backings (see Fig. 38), became more freely used. Bars were often
bent into angles and formed peculiar geometric interweavings (see Fig. 61). The contour of leaves became bolder. Leaves and volutes were scrolled forward beyond the plane of the grille towards the spectator
(see
Fig.
62).
Moulded iron was

into favour for cross-
more used and came

ties
Fig. 61.
and for developing forms corresponding with the open-work pediments found in
architecture
(see
Panelled
profusely.
grille.
Baroque.
Fig.
63).
Rosettes,
knops and acanthus husks were used more
Front and back elevations differed materially, i e. the application of decoration to one side only found favour. Flowers became more naturalesque in style. Wreaths and festoons came into
vogue.
Certain
parts of the grille were treated as back-grounds, with narrow crossing rods, ornamented with small rosettes at their intersections (see Fig. 64 and 68, 6). Crowns, often far too in sheet-iron, did large, cartouches, initials and coats-of-arms wrought more harm than good. Little balls and rings were placed as connexions where scrolls and bars did not come into direct contact (see Fig. 65). With heavy iron for the constructive parts, slighter metal served for the ornament, and while renaissance grilles were often made out of one kind of bar, the baroque grille frequently required half-a-dozen
and
filled

and more
different sections
71
of bar-iron.
While the middle-ages and
the renaissance aimed at producing uniform effects by even distribution, the baroque concentrated its rich effects in prominent places, leaving
subordinate ones empty and plain in appearance and even reduced to That grilles, to which the foregoing straight bars (see Fig. 66). remarks chiefly apply, and balconies, balustrades, &c., should follow the
Fig. 62.
Balcony.
French.
curves and contours of buildings, often presenting not surfaces, was necessary to fit them to the architecture.
flat
but convex
to
As framings
Fig. 63.
Details in wrought-iron.
Baroque.
parkland other large entrance -gates, and breaks in railings, architectural pilasters with their capitals and bases were reproduced in wrought-iron, and that mostly with taste and success (see Fig. 67). Similar in treatment, although less important and striking, arethe changes to be noted in smaller objects, such as ornaments and utensils. Retrogression rather than progress is shown in these fields.. Much that was made of wrought-iron during the renaissance was now
72
produced
in
SECTION
III.
other materials. The baroque style as shown by the was intrinsically opposed in principle to small productions, foregoing, and in this respect the result is but a logical sequence. Fig. 68 in
conclusion, presents a series of details which are characteristic of the period now discussed.
striving after
pomp, opulence and grandeur, an
eclectic refined

technique, often
it
73
may
be said inflated and hollow, characterise the

Its
smithing of this period.
most striking
efforts
were produced in
the service of courts and princes.
5.
THE ROCOCO PERIOD.
The baroque style was followed in the 18th century by that known as Rococo, which found its
principal fields in stucco-decoration, the "ameublement" and furni-
ture of castles
and palaces of the
Regency
Louis
XIV
following the death of of France, and during
the reign of Louis XV. The word rococo is derived from "rocaille",
meaning grotto and shellwork, and

indicates certain salient peculiarities in the style and decoration. During the reign of Louis XIV the socalled
Fig. 65.
Wrought-iron
detail.
Baroque.
pig- tail style came into vogue, often confounded with the rococo, though it is more correct to regard it as a style distinct in itself, as in comparison with the rococo, it shows a sobering down and return to symmetry and straight lines. Both styles are, however, highly decorative and are less apparent in external architecture than in interiors and furniture. They find expression in modelled and in plastic materials, and in these latter wrought -iron takes a high rank. ^3 German renaissance smithing stood completely on ground of its own. The consequences of the 30-years-war were that in after times, if the independence of the craft remained, its peculiar taste and style were lost. Art found patrons almost alone in princely courts, where it became impregnated not only with French virtues and vices but also with French taste. The result was that art on German soil fell greatly into the hands of French artists. Cheerful and light, trifling and voluptuous, as the character of the society of the courts, so was the art of this period. The strictly architectural lines of buildings were lost in decorative frame -work, and unconstrained flourish. Tedious symmetry was shown the door. Decorative effects were produced without rules or The wrought -iron work of the rococo is dainty lace -work, limits.
a
web, that no longer recalls the firmness of the material employed but rather offers evidence of its great pliability. The grilles of the rococo leave, from the technical side, all that had gone before far behind them; but as to fitness of design, &c., opinions may
hazy
fe
Fig. 67.
Wrought-iron
capitals.
After Jean Berain.
17th century.
Fig. 68.
Various details of wrought-iron work of the Baroque.
76
greatly
period.
SECTION
vary,
this
skill
is
III.
Method and
in
not however the place to discuss the question. manipulation reached their climax during this
The applications of iron -work during both the baroque and rococo covered about the same ground. Grilles and sign brackets were the chief items in use. Door and cabinet enrichments became small and
Fig. 69.
The insignia of a guild. Middle of 18th century. Royal Art and Industrial Museum, Berlin.
they were
least
unimportant;
at
reserved and
it
made
of bronze
or brass
by
preference, materials were

iron
where
was
for
also
preferred
a question of rich effects. These chandeliers and other furniture:
was no longer distinguished enough. The proletarian among metals was commonly used only where no other material would serva
the purpose.
77
less
Window - grilles became scarcer. As the times But, on dangerous they were no longer necessary. balcony railings and balustrades became all the Churches and palaces were, as heretofore, provided
had become
the
other hand,
more numerous. with large pom-
Fig. 70.
Panel for
stairca&e.
18 th century.
pous- looking iron opened up a wide
field
But, above all it was the parks which gates. for grilles and railings, as may be observed
Fig. 71.
Wrought-iron
details.
Rococo.
As regards tavern and Wiirzburg and Schwetzingen. craftsmens' sign brackets and signs for guilds, there was an increased rather than decreased demand. Wrought-iron became more popular
at Versailles,
than ever in this particular branch. Nearly every little town, every The same is the village, can still show suchlike art blossomings.
78
SECTION
III.
case with regard to fan-light grilles and, at least in certain districts, to crosses for steeple and churchyard. On investigating the characteristic features of the wrought -iron
work of the rococo period the first thing that strikes the eye is the abandonment of symmetry already referred to (see Fig. 69). Another
Fig. 72.
Wrought-iron
detail.
Rococo.
These are only repoint is the marked avoidance of straight lines. tained when the nature of the construction positively required them,
Fig. 73.
Wrought-iron
detail.
Rococo.
or the use intended, precluded other treatments. geometric design is only found as a rule when the work is but a poor skeleton arrangement, or where in isolated parts it serves as a reposeful contrast.
In
its
place
we have
arbitrary, disordered and wild scroll-work (see
Fig. 70). Flat
bars
with rectangular section came into favour.
Volutes
79
and foliage were treated more luxuriantly and thrown into more daring relief. Acanthus foliage was, as in the Gothic, once more drawn out, and deeply cleft with peculiar outlines (see Fig. 71, a). Unmeaning, indefinable
elements
appear
is
in
the
decoration
(jsee
Fig.
71,
c).
The
crinkling of the foliage
also peculiar to the period (see Fig. 71, d).
Fig. 74.
Grave-cross.
It is evident that this
as
much
as possible
and
was produced in the desire to avoid flat surfaces to throw more life into the work by simple
means.
This process recalls the "rustic" and the "Vermicelli" carving of stone in architecture and wall - decorations of the same period.
Characteristic, again, is the pleasing interspersion of naturalistic flowers and fruits. Sprays, garlands and festoons fill up every empty
80
space and
illustrate
SECTION
the
spirit of the
III.
craftsmen of the period in an
eminent degree
(see Fig.
72).
the art -smith of the 12th century have said could he have seen such a specimen of work as this! Then again, and these are very characteristic, meandering, interwoven, wavy, and similar
What would
borderings on a small scale are introduced in the winding outlines of the general ornament, and thus apparently played about the same But part as the balls and rings used in the boroque (see Fig. 73).
these things belong to a comparatively speaking, later date. are either of the Louis XVI style, or link it with the rococo.
They The
highest development and luxuriance in point of technique, the abandonment of architectural and constructive rules, in favour of arbitrary,
exuberant decoration and a gradual giving up of the smaller kinds of
work
in the service of architecture,
form the characteristic features of
the rococo period.

6.
THE LOUIS XVI AND EMPIRE STYLES.
plicity.
These two periods are condensed into one for the sake of simThe rococo had reached the culminating-point: all had been The reaction was now in favour of simdone that could be done.
af a return
to
Not much good came of it. it was the result of be Architecture fell would back necessity. upon classical, but ofttimes tedious, styles, and it was, of course, the same with art- smithing. Antique vitruvian scrolls, interwoven and flowery borders were introduced into grilles. The foliage became stiff and small; attenuated laurel garlands and wreaths with manifold bows and ribbons, enframed plain elliptic shields. Grave -crosses and tavern signs became extremely From afar they look quite pretty and lead one to expect sober.
plicity,
the older ways.

original
The movement was not of
growth;
something satisfactory; but, on nearer approach, they are commonly not worth the trouble of drawing. Everything continued to degenerate from the beginning of the reign of Louis XVI until the Philistine stand-point is reached which, in general, characterised the second quarter of the present century.
Figure 74 shows a grave-cross dating from this period.

7.
THE PRESENT DAY.

to
The breaking out of the French revolution seems
have been
a turning-point in the history of art just as it was in the history The waves of this mighty movement carried away the of nations.
is
It prevalent styles as it reduced many other things to mere ruins. true that the revolution did not directly affect the majority of races, but it materially broke down French influence, or, where that
remained,
new
roads,
nevertheless,
became opened up.
The time of

the
81
rest of the, artistically speaking, almost dormant the 19th century, failed to give any fresh impulse to The Empire was too classic the nearly defunct craft of the smith. and sedate and the remaining time was too prosaic for this. The technical progress made during the said half- century was devoted to
Empire and the

half of
first
ironworking and ironsmelting and utilising cast-iron to the utmost, to and to attempts, by means of improvements in iron - casting
,
render
it
the
medium
it
for
art
work
in place of wrought-iron.
And
seemed as if such would be the case. However, with the re- awakening and revival of art handicrafts during the last decade, which have been brought about by schools for art industries and by museums, the conclusion arrived at is that, in spite of all its advantages and notwithstanding the high perfection to which it has been brought, iron -casting must always remain suited to partiThe fact that castings aim at the exclusion of cular purposes only.
for a long time
undercutting, that the skin of cast-iron is of such a nature as the subsequent manipulation a matter of great difficulty, has brought about the conviction that wrought-iron offers, in almost
all
to render
every respect, a material which is far more plastic and, decoratively And thus it has happened that speaking, effective than cast-iron. the latter, in spite of the advantage of cheapness, has already been driven out of many a position where it had, to all appearances, taken
firm root.
The
originality of
handwork has triumphed over mechanical
Even when the smith's hand-wrought object of art is factory-work. dozens of times, each individual copy retains some individurepeated
ality,
and
is
contrast
certain
this is exactly what cannot be the case with castings. The like that between the music of an orchestra and that of
if
A such a far-fetched comparison be permissible. and rightly, always be left open to iron-casting such for instance, as for stoves, the pillars and bearers used in build- - and in commercial art fields it will remain a cheap substitute ing
an orchestrion,
domain
will,
for the results of
manual labour.
once the dead point was overcome the smith's art revived with great rapidity, far more quickly indeed than would have been the case if the revival had taken place two or three decades later,
When
were not altogether forgotten. who had in his apprentice-years obtained a thorough and practical training, so that, comparatively speaking, in a very short space of time the long dormant exercise of the art awoke and the desired skill was brought
for the reason that the old traditions
Here and there was
still
to be found an old master- smith,
once more into activity. And, at present, in the days when this manual is being written, modern smithcraft is producing everything What was formerly made can be made now, even if possible to it. it has not yet been made, because the general appreciation and
enlightenment of the age Meyer, Smithing -art.
is
not sufficiently advanced
to
inspire the
82
SECTION
III.
public to give such orders, though that stage may be attained in the course of a few years. If we ask whether modern smithing has already found a style of its own, the question may undoubtedly be answered in the affir-
Fig. 75.
Ornament by
F.
Brechenmacher of Frankfort on the Maine.
mative, even the contrary.
although superficial appearances would seem to assert We are too closely surrounded by our present artto be able to take so comprehensive and undisturbed a productions view as those presented by more distant ages. Let any one examine a good piece of wrought -iron work of the present day and one of
83
former times. Will he ever mistake one for the other if he has even a limited knowledge of the matter? Certainly not, but why? Firstly, because modern industry works with very different means;
ARL SItBl+C'
Fig. 76.
embossed
Portrait in Relief of the Grand Duke Frederick of Baden, in iron by Professor Rudolf Mayer of Karlsruhe.
tools; the present ability to the machine-made rivets, knops, many forms, contemporary smithing a modern imprint and
machinery has altered and multiplied the

obtain rolled-iron in so
rosettes,
&c. gives to
6*
84
SECTION
III.
leads to different combinations and constructions.
Secondly,
its
field
in part entirely new. Let us, for instance, consider lighting-apparatus. In the place of oilare found lamps and candles, or, at least concurrently with them
of
employment has materially
altered
and
is
gas- and
light
electric-lighting.
Now,
these
newly introduced sources of

divergent
character.
require
supports
of
materially
Thirdly,
our views as to style, and external form, are different. Modern times have often been branded as without style simply because work is done in all styles, and all possible periods are drawn upon for models. This revival of the various styles of former days, this universal manysidedness, this adapting of a medley of styles to modern requirements, will alone suffice to set a peculiar stamp on the style of to-day. Two distinct ways are clearly recognisable as those by which
the smiths' art

these
is
has reached
its
present state
of efficiency.
One of
found in the circumstance that from the plain railing and all purely grille work, which, until a few decades back, answered and door and the rich fan-lights, grilles elegant purposes, practical &c. now to be found were developed by a very gradual addition of The other way was by directly imitating and copying ornament.
It has become a fashion to copy as exactly as possible, old models. retaining both their good and bad points, the known and recognised objects which are stored up in our museums, and to sell the same
to lovers of art
first,
has
many
as
associations of art and industry unite to raise the art of smithing to she utmost point of their power, they will be but But the basis of all success fulfilling their duty and obligations.
schools,
lies
means and
and connoisseurs. This course, as compared with the dangers, nevertheless it must be recognised as serving If the administrations of our museums, to an end.
in the
workshop and
it
is
deserving of the highest recognition
that masters, such as Puls, Gill a r in Vienna and others
as
Kramrne
it
made
in Berlin, as Milde, as their task already in early days
to restore smithing once more to its right position. In 1887 the Baden Art-Industry Association offered a prize for finished smiths' work and collected the competing exhibits, together
with
various
things
connected with the art in a special exhibition.
About 60 exhibitors, hailing from all parts of Germany, sent in over 300 objects made by them, and some of the work was of the highest This exhibition was exceedingly interesting and exactly excellence. calculated to afford a picture of what the modern smiths of Germany The picture was most pleasing and proved clearly could produce. that the efforts made on all sides to return to genuine smithing and
to restore the craft to its original and early state, were being crowned new feature, which is likely to have a future, was with success.
presented in the shape of articles made of embossed and forged delta metal, a kind of bronze of most beautiful colour.

This
is
85
not the place to

articles
discuss
the
exhibition in detail.
The
most important
were photographed and reproduced in photosection
type for publication.*)
We
illustrate
this
of the
historical
development of the
art
of
smithing
with
two
of
the
objects
from
this
exhibition
*) Modern German Art- Smithing in 7 parts, each with 6 plates in phototype at 5 marks each. Bielefeld's library (Liebermann & Co.), Karlsruhe.
Fig. 78.
Smiths'
work by Cassar of Frankfort on the Maine.

represented
tendril
in
87
autotype.
One
is
an
of
by
F.
Brechenmacher
ornamental piece of detail, a Frankfort (see Fig. 75). This
in smithing and can, inranked as high as any work of the last century. is (see Fig. 76) a profile -portrait in relief of the Grand Duke Frederick of Baden. With this piece of work, which was not for competition, Professor Rudolf Mayer of Karlsruhe, who chased it, showed what a high degree of artistic capability there and how much can be done with it by duly in wrought - iron is prize
work shows extraordinary boldness

,
be controvertibly The second object
skilled hands.
Since the
first
appearance of this book the smithing- art has not
been
'good
idle.
Brechenmacher's laurels gave such an impetus that The smithing is now nearly everywhere actively cultivated.
number
of real art- smiths has so increased in this short time that The space available for illustrations all be named here. cannot they specimens of all the is, moreover, too limited to permit of showing various kinds of objects for which wrought-iron is suitable. Figures 7 7 and 78 furnish examples which accident has placed at the author's
disposal,
SECTION
IV.
THE PRINCIPAL FIELDS OF ART SMITHING.

GRILLE
i.
WORK AND BALUSTRADES.
section, the fields for the application different periods and styles to have been subject to certain changes and vicissitudes. Among the objects which were almost without exception and in all times made of wrought-
of
As shown in the preceding wrought -iron appear under
iron,
This at least balustrades and closing grilles may be counted. holds good from the time of the middle -ages up to the present day. The antique, however, seems to have made no use of wrought -iron
railings,
inasmuch as no reference is made to them by old writers and no specimens have come down to us. Where railings are depicted on vases or on sculpture they are of such a nature as to exclude the idea of wrought -iron having been the material employed. From the early mid die -ages we find, on the contrary, that wroughtiron grilles or railings were introduced, at first, as was natural, in simple and inartistic form, windows and other orifices for light were small and often consisted of loop-holes only, so that grilles could under no circumstances assume large dimensions. The finishing -off of parapets, balconies and such -like was executed in massive stonework, so that in these again wrought -iron could play no part. Then again, for doors and gate -ways grille work hardly even entered into consideration, as the times demanded them to be closed with heavy wooden folds studded with iron for defensive purposes. The first attempts at artistic grille work are probably to be found in firescreens and articles of furniture of a similar nature. Already in the of a out screen is It 42 such shown. is piece and Fig. wrought dates, to all appearances, from the 13th century.

The
ment.
ised
grille
,
89
destined for interiors,
work of the earlier middle - ages setting aside work was intended for protection rather than ornaSuch work is strong and massive and menaces the unauthorimpalement
i
trespasser, by the pointed bristling ends, with * with injury to body and raiment as the penalty of attempted intrusion. This barbaric direction is opposed to aesthetic feeling and reminds one to a certain extent of our modern fencings of A few examples of such work, spiked wire.
or
Due, are shown in Fig. 79. Later on, in the Gothic period, grilles became more frequent. They were used in
after Viollet - le
-
Fig
79.
Details of grilles of the middle-ages,
from
"Viollet-le-Duc.
the churches to close in chapels, altars,
monu-
The wells in cloisters and courtments, &c. Grilles yards of castles were often railed -in.
gain at the same time in richness and elegance. Altar and chapel grilles become comparatively The high, much above the level of the eye.
prevalent form consisted of a row of perpendicular bars fastened into a few cross bars of iron
which formed together the frame -work, and between which the pieces to serve as decoration were placed. (Compare Fig. 43 on p. 57 with Fig. 80 on this page.) The upper ends of the bars were generally finished off in the form of fleurs-
Fig. 80. Gothic tomb railing in the church of Breda. 15*1' cent<
90
SECTION
IV.
de-lis (see Fig. 80 and 81). Square-iron was almost invariably used. The ornamental parts were mostly made of thinner flat -iron. The vertical bars placed anglewise, passed through holes either punched
or chiselled in the cross rails.
In the late -Gothic period another style

ing,
of grille
is
found,
in
addition to the above.
As
in carv-
geometric patterns were produced in flat iron which recall the wall-painting and textile art of the same period, and for the most part worked out evenly without any This form special right way up.
of
grille
requires
work is very effective, only simple work and is
especially suited for large pieces. The task of finishing the top of a grille of this kind is far more
difficult
than
in
the
first
-named
bar
kind,
Fig. 81. Cresting of grille in the Cathedral, Toulouse. 15 th cent. From Viollet-le-Duc.
in
which every
vertical
a rule, only the main bars of such even surfaced

its
had
free end.
As
geometric
grilles,
which divide them
into regions, finish in lilies or other flowers, &c.
independent cresting having no connection with the other parts was sometimes placed over
An
a.
b.
Geometrical designs of grilles. Chapel screen in the Cathedral at Perugia. From the Campo Santo at Santa Croce, Florence.
a.
Fig. 82.
the geometric areas. Fig. 82 shows two geometric railings of this kind, the basis being in both the quatre foil. The employment of grille work increased further during the
renaissance, and this not only in churches but also in private and in public buildings, such as Townhalls, Exchanges, &c.
homes
Low
91
Stairbalustrades are also to be found along with the high grilles. cases and flights of steps as also the approaches to chancels and plat-
forms, offered welcome opportunities for the use of balustrades. Oriels and alcoves were often divided off from the principal appartment by
The window openings and fan-lights were richly grilled. Square and angled iron became replaced by preference with round iron. In order to avoid needless repetition, the reader is referred back to what is said in section 3 with regard to the remaining changes in styles and periods of work.
-
grilles.
may
Renaissance be classed
grille
work
three
under
First the early style groups. of grille formed of bars was

retained, together with the same kind but with added ornament, and such modifications as the new style demanded. Fig. 83
gives two examples of this class. The one on the left still exhibits Gothic reminiscences, alit belongs, both in respect
though
of time
and in
its
foliage,
to
the renaissance.
The second group
consists
of the further development of geometrical tracery, carried out

in
the
flat.
In combination
with
foil
the predominant quatredesigns of the Gothic period
are to be found
varieties, trellis in
numerous other
parallel
such as the diagonal
which
bars
cross
obliquely. Varieties belonging to the second group are shown in Fig. 84
each
other
a.
and 85, the last being taken from the author's "Manual of Ornamentation".
filled
Renaissance grilles, Fig. 83. Grille closing a chapel in Freibur th cent. cathedral, Bad. End of 16
b.
From
St. Mary's church, Dantzig. th cent. Beginning of 17
The third group comprises the Panels consisting of framework in regularly with some specific pattern. Inasmuch as these
rarely
occur in the styles of the middle -ages they may be counted as belonging to the innovations introduced under the renaissance. The
form of the
filling
is
of course
governed by the position
it
is
to
92
fulfil.
SECTION
Along
IV.
with the vertical and horizontal rectangular filling be found the square, the circle, the ellipse, the stilted and depressed arch, the semicircle and the lozenge which for the most part form the basis of the pattern. The right angle, square, circle and
are
to
are principally used in door and window fillings while the and depressed arches, and the semicircle, are adapted to fanlights. Lozenge shaped panellings and those with irregular angles are found almost only in staircase - balustrades where the slanting
ellipse
,
stilted
position following the steps necessitates such change of form. Besides these are occasionally to be found all sorts of arbitrary
forms, of which the regular
and irregular polygons and the spandrel forms are entitled to special mention.
Two
serve
to
principal features form a basis for
the classification of panellings.
The design may show a distinct top and a bottom end, when it is simply symmetrical. Or
again, the ornament may be developed from the centre in
all
directions in equal pro-
portions,
when it is bi-symmetrical or repeating. In the
first case we have an upright, and in the last a central The middle of a filling.
central
filling
is
not
un-
commonly
distinguished
by
a rosette. Little divergencies from absolute symmetry and

perfect regularity often occur so far as to affect detail
Fig. 84. Repeating designs for wrought-iron panels,
a.
At Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome.

b.
c.
From
Venice.
only without disturbing the effect of the whole, regular D T In flll fillm S sci nares the
.
At the Ospedale Maggiore, Milan.
natural lines which
govern
the ornament are the diavertical and horizontal lines. The square thus divides into 8 equal triangular spaces filled with the ornament. Fig. 86 shows some square panels with ornament belonging to the renaissance period.
gonal,
Inasmuch
the filling -in
is
as
the circle presents no ready lines of subdivision, usually by radial lines dividing it into any number
Fig. 85.
Various Repeating designs in wrought -iron.
94
of equal parts.
SECTION
IV.
The commonest subdivision is into three, four, six and eight (see Fig. 87, &). Sometimes the circular panel is filled wholly with an upright, symmetrical design (87, a).
Elliptical window - openings, sometimes erroneously called oval, appear sometimes with upright and sometimes with horizontal axes. The large and small axes suggest the natural lines whereby the
ellipses can be It is the
divided into four equal parts (see Fig. 88).
same with panels which have somewhat the same form
a.
and
b.
Fig. 86. Square panels in wrought -iron, French Renaissance, c. and d. German Renaissance.
elliptical
as an ellipse with
(see Fig.
ends and with or without parallel sides
89).
The stilted and the depressed arches and the semicircle, which are used in fan-lights, are sometimes filled in with an upright,
symmetrical ornament, or, and this is specially the case with semicircles, with many radial subdivisions, but in such cases, in order to avoid the inelegant meeting of the radial bars at one centre, a smaller open semicircle, or one which is ornamented independently, is introduced. It also happens occasionally that the semicircle is divided into separate zones, each one of which is treated as a band of ornament

iii
95
itself. Fig. 90 shows a depressed arch; Fig. 92 represents two stilted arches and Figures 91, 93 and 94 are specimens of semicircular fillings. Diamond or Lozenge shapes are less often used as a panel of this because shape
window - opening
so rarely
"
occurs in architecture. The} are more often to be found

7
in joiners - work and doors. The ornamentation is either
diagonal from point, or it is
central
symmetric
It
is
and
vertical.
not
uncommon
in grille
work
formed by the crossing of diagonal bars, to find the logenze- shaped subdivisions
filled
in, in
order to pro-
more variety in what would otherwise present a monotonous appearance.

duct
1
When
the
a
distribution
is
judicious
good
effect is
produced. Fig. 95 shows some specimens of lozenge shapes filled in. Similar in treatment to
the
lozenges,
which
are
nearly always placed with the axes vertical and seldom

horizontal
are the squares
placed
on the angle. The ornamentation is almost invariably from the centre

96).
(see Fig.
In
Regular poly-
the angles and the centre points suggest points of departure for lines passing Fi through the centre and di-
gons
'
87
b>
'
P an ?
a.
>
German Renaissance,
s,
viding
spaces,
them
a
Saint Saviour
into
Prague.
house.
1550.
equal
From an Augsburg
radial
arrange-
ment again being most effective (see Fig. 97). The Rectangular is by far the most frequently used form of
frame -work, as will be readily understood. This is used, both vertically and horizontally, according to whether the wings of the design
96
SECTION
IV.
Fig. 88.
a.
Elliptical Panels,
b.
From
Pisa,
Via
S.
Martino.
From Verona,
c.
From
Venice.
Fig. 89.
Wrought-iron Panels from Venice.
Italian Renaissance.
97
are higher or broader. Rectangles are as well suited to a central as to an upright symmetrical design. In centred designs the transverse lines uniting the outer bars of the frame at their centres form the Less principal guiding lines.
useful are the diagonal lines as The the angles are unequal.
Tect- angle is almost universal for door, window, and parapet
98 shows Fig. panellings. horizontal rectangular panels, one with an upright, the other
with
Pig.
a
central
filling,
while
shows perpendicular panels, one with an upright, the other two with central
99
fillings.
The
staircase
-
Ehomboid
panel or only used for balustrades the rise
Oblique
is
of the steps necessitating this form. The fillings are generally

arbitrary
Fig.
and
irregular
(see
100, a and 6). If such a panel approaches the lozenge lines shape diagonal may be found useful (see Fig.
,
100,
c).
division in Fig. 100,
The horizontal cross d is very

staircase
-
remarkable.
The
balustrades
already referred to consist mostly of many panels placed alongside of each other. The same
to
arrangement
is
sometimes seen
where large closing grilles are formed of a number of rectangular panels placed together. In such case the principle of an unvaried series of repetitions is abandoned in favour of another whose mass is formed of an
assemblage of separate panels. As the frequent repetition of one and the same filling pro-
Meyer. Smithing -art.
Fig. 91.
Fan-light.
German
Renaissance.
Fig. 92.
Fan-lights,
a.
Venice,
b.
Innsbruck.
Fig. 93.
Fan-light.
99
Fig. 94.
a.
Fan-light.
b.
At
S.
Giovanni in Monte, Bologna,

c.
At
Sta.
Maria Formosa, Venice,

Antonio, Pisa.
At
via Garibaldi, Perugia,
d. At. S.
100
SECTION
IV.
Fig. 95.
Lozenge Panels.
In the
c.
Renaissance.
a.
and
b.
Town
Hall,
Wiirzburg.
From Rome.
Fig. 96.
Quadrate Panel, from the Campo Santo, Bologna.
101
duces a somewhat monotonous effect, variations of a given design are introduced or quite as often designs entirely differing from each other.
Fig. 97.
Octagonal Panel in
S.
Petronio, Bologna.
Fig. 98.
Rectangular horizontal Panels.

a.
Renaissance,
Italy.
From
Schlettstadt.
b.
From
This free treatment
more
is shown in Fig. 125, which will be discussed under the closely heading of doors and gateways. But Fig. 101
Fig. 99. Upright rectangular Renaissance Panels, a. From the Abbey of Strahow, Prague, b. In the Church of St. Blasius, Miihlhausen in Thuringia, mid 17th century, c. From Padua.
Fig. 100.
Staircase Panels, a. and b. From the house "Zum alten Limth burg", Frankfort on the Maine. 16 century, c. and d. From the Cathedral of Thann in Alsace. 16* h century.
104
already
SECTION
IV.
shows a very finely designed and executed grille which, the same kind of variation. It represents the celebrated railings round the monument to the Emperor Maximilian in the Franciscan Church at Innsbruck and shows among other things what
presents
Fig. 102.
effects
Cresting to the Augustus Fountain, Augsburg.
be produced by rhythm and contrast, inasmuch as the geometrical ornament alternate with those in which The same example also shows how organic plant forms predominate. such grilles may finish in
may
spaces
with
crestings
or terminals.
The
failed
reader
will
not
have
to notice that various details
forming parts of this glorious of specimen wrought iron work have been used in
preceding illustrations.
Fig. 102 shows part of the cresting to the Augustus
The Fountain at Augsburg. and balustrades work grille of the baroque have been
discussed in the third section
in connexion with changes in As the smiths' art of style.
this
period
was
the
exercised
service of
principally in
Fig. 103.
Side-sections of window-railings
grilles and princely courts, gates for garde ns and parks take the leading position.
Church
grilles.
exteriors
and interiors
architecture
also present specimens of magnificent
In
wealthy,
balconies are
which now
palaces and the residences of the in importance, and the window grilles, take peculiar forms. These window grilles are often bowed
the
of
next
105
out in their lower part so that the outlookers might have a wider This bulging -out converts the window grille into a range of view. sort of case or cage, the sides of which present opportunities for These sides have for us a elegant ornamentation (see Fig. 103).
for consoles
present interest, inasmuch as viewed horizontally they furnish ideas and wall-brackets.
Detached closing grilles often present the character of vertical bar-railings into which ornament is only introduced here and there walks (see Fig. 66), and this was necessitated by the great extent of the and pleasure-grounds they enclosed. Such railings, unless the architecture
itself
imposes
-
division
into
separate
parts,
are
divided
at certain distinct intervals
polation
of
open
by stouter iron-uprights or by the interThe tops of the individual bars work pilasters.
Fig. 104.
Cresting of grilles at Halle on the Saale.
About 1740.
are finished in the form of spear-heads, &c., and often two or more bars are combined in order to form a terminal (see Fig. 104). Grilles with endless geometric figures, such as those common in
the Gothic and Renaissance periods, went almost out of fashion, and that which has been previously said with regard to symmetrical grilles
remains applicable.
For
instance, Fig.
105 and 106 present examples
belonging to the Baroque period. The contours were In fan-lights, too, stately work was done. partly taken from those known in the renaissance, as, for instance, the semicircle (see Fig. 107). Moreover, the frame -work was often in and sportive outline, and sometimes the grille was even capricious
without any actual, definite frame, fan-light in Fig. 109.

of
separate
as
seen in
the illustration of a
The renaissance mode of composing large and complex grilles panels was pursued further but with this difference,
Fig. 105.
Baroque panels,
a.
b.From
a house in Freiburg, Switzerland,
From a gate finished in Oxford in 1713. c. From Vienna, d. From Padua.

namely:
that,
107
as a rule, they were not built up of several equally forming a whole; but of small panels alternating with The crestings large, narrow with broad, plain with rich ones, &c. those prefrom often distinct are not them to materially belonging viously in use (see Fig. 108 and 110). A fashion of grille, a part of whose design was made up of rods intersecting each other at right angles, so as to leave empty rectangular spaces of different sizes, whilst the remainder was composed of scrolls, rosettes, &c., must have appeared a new departure. Fig. 98
large panels
illustrates this style.
Finally, the designs shown in Fig. 112 represent several baroque panels in the then prevalent taste. Straight lines and pronounced structural features disappeared during the transition from the baroque to the rococo period and made way
Fig. 106.
Baroque Panel.
This indicates at the same time
for frames of scrolls
and nourishes.
that panel
balustrades.
work formed the
principal feature in railings, grilles and Bars were necessarily retained for park railings and other
large enclosures, but these were combined with the arrangements and distribution peculiar to the baroque, to suit which the details of the
were equally modified. designs were gradually discarded in favour of asymmetrical, this was the case even with fan-lights and window openpilaster,
cresting,
&c.
Symmetrical
ings where such an arrangement was hardly tolerable. In Figures 113, 114 and 115 three panels are
shown which
belong partly to the transition from the baroque to the rococo, and partly to the latter. Fig. 70 also represents an example belonging
to this period.
As
far as regards the grille
work of the present
age, it consists
108
partly of partly
SECTION
more or
less direct
IV.
this applies principally to
copies of specimens of earlier styles, and work of a plainer kind of designs of modern specifically
character.
In
the
latter
clearly shows the endeavour to produce
the
work
a good and rich effect with the least possible expenditure of time and
The set - square money. and compass play the chief

part
in
the
drafting
of
and designs, and stripsheet-iron are frequently the

only materials used in the
execution.
fields
for the
The principal employment
of modern gates and grilles are garden and tomb rails,
rectangular
door - panels and fan-lights, balconies, window- grilles and stairrails.
The wrought - iron baluster-rails, which follow

each other in regular order, and support and join the steps with the hand rail,
re3all the time
when
iron-
was in the ascendency. Timid attempts are

casting
also occasionally
made
to
introduce grille work into furniture. Such experiments go hand-in-hand with the
prevalent fashion, in rooms, alcoves, antechambers, bay-
windows,
Old
-
<fcc.,
which aim
style.
at reproducing the so-called
german
The
space to which this manual must be confined does not
admit of illustrating
this
all in
the
Fig. 116 to 121, however, give some modern art.
connexion. idea of the direction of
Fig. 108.
Cresting to the Hercules Fountain at Augsburg.
Fig. 109.
Fan-light grille in S* John's Church-yard, Leipzig.
1734.
Fig. 110.
Cresting to the Hercules Fountain at Augsburg.
Fig. 111.
Window
grille,
S* George's church, Halle on the Saale.
1744.

2.
Ill
DOORS AND GATES.
Setting aside the question of wooden doors embellished with iron -work, which can be better dealt with in the next chapter, and
G;
00
&S
Fig. 112.
Patterns of Baroque
grilles, a.
San Martino,
Pisa. b.
and
c.
Venice.
treating
only of
little
ages present
open-work iron doors and gateways; the middlefor consideration, inasmuch as wooden doors were
Fig. 113.
Fan-light grille to a house in Como.
Fig. 114.
Fan-light from Innsbruck.
J
Fig. 115.
Rococo panel from Schoenenberg, near Zurich.
113
Fig. 116. Modern Meyer, Smithing -art.
railing,
designed by the Author. 8
114
SECTION
IV.
principally used at that period. Where iron gates are found in chapel, grave, and similar enclosures, the style is generally simple in character. part of the fixed grille of vertical bars is bound together and
13
<D
revolves with the aid of pins and sockets. Where grilles are formed of multitudinous repeating ornaments a sufficient portion is securely fastened
geometric together and utilised as the gate.
While
vertical
Fig. 118.
Modern tomb-railing, by Professor Th. Krauth, Karlsruhe. 8*
Fig. 120.
Modern
grille,
designed by the Author.
118
SECTION
IV.
bars are carried through and thus form their own crestings it is not necessary in the other class of grilles to make the gate of the entire When carried up to the full height, however, the gate was height.
surmounted with a cresting of special ornamental character, or else the cresting is fixed to a horizontal bar forming a lintel so that it does not move with the gate.
Independent iron gates were used commonly until the renaissance. This applies as much to the bar as to the geometric
not
fillings
Independent rectangular adapted for the ornamentation of doors. A frame

designs.
are best
strong enough to prevent any sagging is filled with the grille work
and hung on pivots or hinges and can be made fast by means of

buttons, latches, Where the door
bolts
is
or
locks.
not
indepenit
dent, as for instance

it
when
forms
part of a chancel-grille, and where

is incorporated in larger works, the ornamentation of the gate is
generally in the same taste as the rest of the design, but made richer
in
order to
distinguish
it
some-
what from the mass. more particularly to

is
This applies
crestings
and
especially appropriate where the door is central and dominates
the wings (see Fig. 122). When the door filling presents lines which are not in accord
with the general design, they are frequently constructional and are
Fig. 121.
a.
Modern
Grilles.
and
b.
By
F.Kiefhaber, Magdeburg, c. From Venice.
required to counteract the tension and to prevent the door from
sagging
through
its
own
weight.
runs diagonally from the lower hinge or angle to the opposite top angle. In double As this doors the two diagonal ties constitute a symmetrical figure. doors symmetry is usually restored by is not the case with single additions that are not actually needed, the simplest taking the form The sagging of heavy doors is most easily of the St. Andrew's cross. prevented by means of a roller fixed beneath the free end of the door,
line of stress
The
119
and running on a rail. Double doors require stops, unless they close in a complete frame, either a vertical fixed middle bar, or since this
120
SECTION
IV.
would usually be in the way, an iron stop rising slightly above the ground (the bottom end of a middle bar) or a sill, against which at least the bottom of the door may stop. Where the leaves do not close on each other they cannot be secured by ordinary fastenings (at
least not
wicket-gates
by ordinary locks). These remarks do not apply to renaissance hung in larger doors or gates, to doors of furniture,
reliquaries and shrines, &c., because these were of too insignificant a weight to make stops requisite.
Fig. 123.
Tabernacle door from the Minster, Villingen.
The bulky locks of the renaissance sometimes produced very disturbing effects in open ironwork grilles, especially when the doors were single. In order to remedy this drawback as much as possible a broad, horizontal connecting-band was frequently introduced at the
height of the lock, and such band bore not only the lock, but also a door-knob, or ring. (Compare the two chancel doors, Fig. 123 and 124.)
as large doors are often divided into a
This cross -band divided the door into two separate panels, just number of panels (see Fig. 125).
THE PRINCIPAL FIFLDS OF ART SMITHING.

The baroque
in
121
and rococo periods produced the most important As a rule in these eras connexion with doors and gates. works of this kind were created on a far larger scale than in other ages. The doors of churches, palaces and castles, the gates of courtyards and parks
work
furnished occasions for grand and magnificent
designs.
They mostly
consisted
each of which was leaves, secured to a dressed - stone pillar. The centre is fitted with a broad pilasterof two
like
slam -bar.
gates is firmly as the closing bar.
the
The transome above fixed and serves A rich crown of

transome
a not less
work is placed above the when the gates are free, or
rich over-grille is introduced for gates set in an arch. cross-band, already
referred to, is often found as a lock rail at the height of the lock, or else symmetrical ornaments are wrought to
the
right
and
left
of the
slam-bar.
Occasionally playful feeling is shown by making the open-work of the gates

to represent perspective interiors. The intention in such cases is to create
an appearance of space. This leading idea, which is also found in the reduced
perspectives introduced into stair-balustrades and entrance halls of the same
f
period
is
as
bold
as at
it
is
inartistic.
The Theresianeum
Constance
instances
Vienna and the

both
contain
grille
-
Cathedral
of
such
perspective
work. Doors and gates are also grouped

at
times by placing single gates at the sides of double ones (see Fig. 127). This idea of a monumental entrance
is
already
seen
in
the
Triumphal
Arches at Rome. Baroque and rococo gates and doors are still found existing in large numbers in the places where they were originally erected, namely in castles and
Fig. 124. Chancel door from the Minster, Thann (Alsace). 16th cen t. (Industrial Hall.)
Fig. 125.
Gate to the Silver Chapel, Franciscan Church, Innsbruck.
Fig. 126.
Gate, 1751.
Art- Industry
Museum,
Leipzig.

parks,
125
palaces and churches in and about Vienna, Munich, Dresden, Wiirzburg, Schwetzingen, Karlsruhe, &c. The illustrations of these two periods are limited to one example
for the
baroque and one for the rococo
(see Fig.
126 and 127).
are,
gates, as seen in garden- entrances, cemetery-railings, &c., The generally speaking, modest and unimportant in character. general design of the railing is usually repeated at the gateway where
is
Our modern
it
often
made somewhat
richer in execution and strengthened with
126
stays.
SECTION
IV.
It is only quite recently that one occasionally finds richer ornamental gates in private and public buildings in the larger cities.
Fig. 129.
Modern
gate, designed
by Peter
Sipf,
Frankfort on the Maine.
the modern
These are in part imitations' of earlier periods and partly executed in Fig. 128 and 129 give style of wrought -iron work. example? of such modern gates.
127
At Fig. 77 is represented a specimen of a gate top, and three other examples which are available either for gates or for balustrades,
are represented in Fig.
130, 131 and 132.
128
SECTION
IV.
3.
MOUNTINGS.
Wrought -iron mountings

and furniture.
are principally used for doors, windows These were used most lavishly in the middle -ages and
Fig. 132.
Cresting of
grille.
Meyer
Smithing -art.
130
SECTION
IV.
the renaissance period so that, on the average, somewhere about one tenth part of the wood work was covered. From that time mountings became gradually reduced in quantity; they continued to lose in importance until by the time the rococo was reached only about /25o tll and later a still smaller fraction of the wooden surface was covered
1 >
by them.
petition
Moreover, brass and bronze entered into formidable comwith wrought -iron for mountings. It is only in the last decade that wrought -iron has resumed its post of honour in this respect, although it cannot be pretended that the demand for it, as yet, stands on anything like an equal footing with that of either the
mediaeval
or the
evident that
periods.
renaissance eras. From what has been said it is our attention must be mainly directed to such former
our minds in the first place to Door furniture we kinds of Strap-hinges, Door-rings, and Door-knockers, as well as Locks. As the next chapter is devoted to the last-named, only the former will be treated of here. Wooden doors were made out of grooved and tongued narrow boards during the Romanesque and Gothic periods. The hinges generally covered the whole surface of the door; these served partly to bind the wood -work firmly together and partly to form the connexion with the pivots on which the doors turned. These last-mentioned hinges generally stretched across the door and are called Strap hinges owing to their long, narrow form. If another band of iron is run perpendicularly over the other and either rivetted or screwed on at the crossing -point, frequently embellished, with a rosette the Cross-band is produced. Bands to strengthen the door -corners at
Directing
across
come
various
right angles are called
Angle-bands,
&c.
These hinges and mounts served two purposes; both to strengthen the door, and to ornament it; the more necessary since the woodwork presented in itself but little scope for embellishment. Doors were consequently sometimes entirely covered with open - work ironplates, good effects being produced in such cases by judiciously placing the nails, by clever spacing and by embossing or appliques. These effects were enhanced, particularly when painted or heightened with a background, such as cloth or leather. As, during the renaissance, flat grooved and tongued wood -work
gave place to
consisted of a
mortised,
or
in
other
filled
wooden frame-work
words, the renaissance doors with panels, hinges could no
This was also no longer longer cover the whole surface of the door. from the decorative of necessary point view, since the panels were made ornamental by marqueterie or inlay. The development of the
hinge had to be confined to the narrow frame -work and became broader than long. The Butt or Hinge, as this form is called, was often ornamented by fretting and lining, by carving and
Fig. 133.
Door hinges.
9*
132
chiselling,
SECTION
IV.
ving,
etching,
embossing from the back or chasing particular parts, engraThe butts or the pivots were also frequently &c.
Fig. 134.
Door hinges, Liege Cathedral.
13th century.
ornamented
as
they became of more importance owing to the narrowing
of the wings or straps of the hinge. discussion of the details of form and style may justly be omitted as these have already been referred to in Section III. Fig. 133
THE PRINCIPAL FIELDS OP ART SMITHING.
133
brings together a number of hinges and parts of hinges which suffice as illustrations of the subject. (Thus, for instance, in Fig. 133,
Fig. 135.
a.
Wrought-iron door-knockers.
b. Berlin
Augsburg, 15th century,
Museum,
d.
c.
Munich National-Museum,
16th century,
7
17th century.
and 8 represent ends of strap hinges, 9 a "cross -band" hinge, 10, 11 and 12 are butt hinges; also showing the ornamentation of
Fig. 139.
j[
Window
fastenings of the middle-ages, after Viollet-le-Duc.
Fig. 140.
Renaissance hinges &c.
Fig. 141.
Chests, of the middle-ages, after Viollet-le-Duc.
137
the pivot and its support. Again Fig. 134 represents a very handsome piece of door furniture at Liege cathedral, of 13th century work and the transition between Romanesque and Gothic. to Doorbelonging
knockers and -rings were other ornaments almost imperative in the middle -ages and the renaissance. The hammer of the knocker and the closing handle were often one, but sometimes they were
.
separate.
Door-knockers were
already in use in ancient times, as is evidenced by a specimen
Medusa -head and ring

at
found
of
Capua;
the
periods
having been the Romanesque, Gothic and renaisIn the present day it sance. has almost become obsolete and matter of history, owing to bellother methods of pulls and Three different types ringing. of knockers can be distinguished. One takes the form of a ring or
greatest use
loop held by a rosette, a lion's

head, &c. In this form, it also serves as door-handle or closing ring and is still in use for the
latter purpose.
(Compare Fig. 47
and 135.)
The second type takes the form of a hinged hammer, which is more or less ornamented (see Fig. 137). The third type is practia loop drawn out into somewhat the shape of a lyre and in which snakes, human masks and other embellishments
cally
not
infrequently
136).
play
part
Late Gothic press pig 142 n the Germanic Museum, Nuremberg,

.
(see Fig.
But, inasmuch as these figured and modelled door-knockers make too much demand upon the smith's powers, they are often made of
bronze, as is evidenced by many specimens of the Italian renaissance. In all three kinds the moveable portion strikes on a metal protuberance or knob, by which means the necessary noise is produced. In
the third group the plate affixed to the -door of minor importance, whereas such plate is,
is
in
generally treated as the other instance.
138
SECTION
IV.
and
to take the first place therefore turned into elegant open-work with a back -ground.
is
often
made
As regards Window fastenings the interest is centered more

in the mechanical execution
in
artistic
-
than
finish.
is
window frame
The wooden too narrow to
allow of an unhindered spreading out of the ornament. Butt- and other hinges were therefore used
in order
to
secure
the
windows
to the frame; angled- strips streng-
thened
the
corners,
while turn -
buckles, bolts, latches, catches, espagnolettesand other contrivances served for opening and shutting
the windows. Fig. 139 shows a few specimens of mediaeval window furniture from Viollet - le - Due
;
while Fig. 140 represents others of the renaissance.

Fittings were much used in furniture. In addition to the hinges,
locks,
other
that
chests
objects
looped- and knob handles, were added that
served no
of
practical
purpose
Presses
ornament.
but and
were especially subjects for
rich
ornamentation, and, in these again, the greatest wealth of decois
ration
found
the
in
the
middle to
ages
and
transition
the
The style of decoration is shown in Fig. 141 and 142 which represent respectively two chests and a linen press.
renaissance.
These ornaments, especially in

the later period, were frequently tinned in order to give a more
appearance and to preserve In the baroque rust. and rococo periods the hinges, lockplates, the plates beneath the handles, &c. were cut out of thin sheets
brilliant
them from
139
and richly embossed. They assumed the character of stamped work, which certainly produced an opulent, sumptuous character, but did not equal the solidity and beauty of the more substantial works of
the earlier period (see Fig. 143).
4.
LOCKS AND KEYS.

and Romans,
but
also
That not only the Greeks Egyptians understood the use of locks, is evidenced
the
ancient
by among other things, the discovery of keys and of parts of locks. These mechanisms, were relatively however simple and very different from
,
those
now in use. As they only have an archaeological
interest those who desire to look more closely into the
question
special
ject,
are
referred
to
works on the subamong which Ernst
Notling's "Studies concernold Roman door and trunk -locks" (published by J. Schneider, Mannheim 1870) must be specially named. The mediaeval and renaissance periods were very inventive with regard to complicated cunning and
ing
lock-construction, though the trouble devoted thereto did
not always coincide with the degree of security actuCertain it is ally attained. that the present day proFig. 144. Mediaeval locks. duces far greater results a Beginning of 15th century fit Sigmaringen. b. 13th century. (After Viollet-le-Duc.) with much simpler means.
,
But,
on
the
other
hand,
these earlier periods
generally speaking,
feature has, the essentially practical side. It would lead us too far were all the different constructions of
artistic effects with locks and keys which, seek in vain at the present day. The main in modern times, been transferred from the artistic to
showed
we
140
SECTION
IV.
earlier locks to be described.
few remarks must
suffice.
Even
in
early times a sort of padlock was in use, which had a moveable hasp, which hooked into the trunk -lock and into which the bolt or catch
was
Sometimes the method was reversed, so that one end of shot. the hasp was attached to a bolt, while the other entered the lock and was secured (see Fig. 144, &). In the latter form it could also be
used
while the ordinary form was only suited to The external change of form to which this kind of lock was subjected by suppressing the hasp and causing the bolt to shoot into a separate bolt or box Staple can be recognised by Locks made in comparing the two specimens shown in Fig. 145. the manner shown at b are called Box- or Case-locks, because the mechanism is concealed in a case; this distinguishes them from the
as
door -lock
chests and trunks.
Fig. 145.
a.
Munich,
Chest-lock, 15 th century. In the Bavarian National b. 13^ century-lock, Angers (Viollet-le-Duc).
Museum,
Open Spring, Catch

posed
or
Snap-locks, the work

lock -case
is
of which
in such
is
ex-
enlarged (see Fig. 146). as to cover the staple (and thus prevent the bolt from being pushed back, the possibility of which is also done away with by a box staple)
If the
manner
a complete
rim lock
so-called
is
the
result.
The more ancient locks

i.
close
is
by means of a
Spring
or
Shooting-bolt,
e.
the bolt
pressed forward by a spring and the turning of the key is necessary These locks are to unbolt the lock and to open the door or lid. called German locks in order to distinguish them from the French Tumbler lock (invented by Freitag at Gera in 1724), the kind now
in universal use for house -doors.
complete door -lock
is
made up
bolt is called dormant of a latch, Bolt and a Night-latch. when it is shot out of the catch by a turn of the lever; it is called
Fig. 146.
Old German snap-lock.
142
a
SECTION
IV.
it is pushed backwards and forwards horizontally the of a The motion is by pressure spring, like an ordinary bolt. given by a latch, or bar, lever, or knob -handle. bolt is single- or double - turned according as to whether it
Spring-bolt when
has one or two -front wards. (Front -wards are the places cut out of the bolt which the key must catch into in order to effect the A lock may be made to open from both sides or from leverage.) In order to secure the bolt when it is shot home one side only.
Tumblers
are
used.
These are checks
or
catches
fitting
into the
bolt and lifted out of the
same by the action of the key.
Fig. 147.
a.
From
Cologne,
b.
From Prague,
Mediaeval escutcheons, c. to e. 14th and 15th century.
The Night-bolt can only be set in motion from one side. A protruding knob can be pushed backwards and forwards by the hand, or the motion is produced by turning a knob &c.,
As modern
of ornament
locks,
bination-, trigger-,
of which there are many varieties (such as comBrahma-, Chubb -locks, &c.), are generally devoid the
external
the discussion may be confined to connected with the construction of ancient locks.
parts
The next point
to
consider
is
that
affecting
Key-plates
or
These conceal the places where the woodwork is cut away in order to make room for the key and they also in certain cases (sunk locks) serve for the lever -pin of the bolt; they are often made the subjects of much ornamentation (see Fig. 147 and 148).
Escutcheons.

Besides the cartouche and foliage
it is
143
not
uncommon
to find figure
grotesque designs, as, for instance, the forms of armoured knights, &c., serving as key -plates. Almost all the latches in the older door -locks took the form of
and
they were also often ornamented, although such embellishments did not, as a rule, make their use more easy, so that the modern, plain, unornamented door-handles are certainly far more
a sort of door - handle
;
a.
and
b.
Renaissance escutcheons. Fig. 148. In the collection of antiquities at Stuttgart, National Museum, Munich.
c.
In the
Fig. 149 shows an ornamented door-handle of the time of the renaissance.
convenient.
The Lock -case is, in its simplest form, prismatically quadrangular and is made up of the lock -plate and sides. These last-named form the Rim and the one in the front, through which the bolt is shot is called the Front -stile. The case may also be made in the form of a very low truncated pyramid as is shown in the locks illustrated by Fig. 145. In richer lock -work the rectangular case is This figure shows at the replaced by curved forms (see Fig. 150).
144
SECTION
IV.
same time pretty clearly how these lock plates were ornamented.
Etching,
engraving,
part gilding
and
also
open-work were resorted to.

the visible parts are the ones which
InOpenlocks
of the works
applies to
are often ornamented.
The same
Puzzle -locks and Essecret escutch-
cutcheon locks,
eons being often added in order that only the initiated may be
able to insert the key. Fig. 151 represents a modern, open lock constructed in the style of old
German locks, the mechanism being shown in the illustration. (Compare this with Fig. 146.) The Key itself has still to be
mentioned. This, so far at least as ornamental specimens are concerned, consists of 4 parts, viz. the Bow, the Boss, the Barrel
'
-,
Fig. 149.
, Door-handle and key-plate ,, ,-,. T;., and the Blt ( see Fl S at the Industrial Hall, Wertheim on the Maine. Bow, i. e. the handle,
1 O 152 )'
m u The
sometimes
Fig. 150.
Ornamental cases to old German
locks.

called the
145
Ring,
is
take
as
sorts of shapes, so that monograms, as figure work,

all
annular in the plainest specimens, but it may it is found as open-work rosettes, and even in architectural shapes.
The
material
is
not
always
fixed
brass or bronze
bows
to
iron only, as wrought -iron
it
is
common
to
find
is
barrels.
The Boss
Fig. 151.
Open door-lock designed by Director Hammer of Nur
the
neck forming the junction between the bow and be very plain or even be dispensed with entirely, but it may also be richly ornamented (see Fig. 152 and 153, c). The Barrel retains its name whether hollow or solid. Keys with hollow barrels are called German or female keys; those which are solid are known as French or male ones. Hollow barrels are
moulded
It
barrel.
may
10
146
SECTION
IV.
mostly round in section, but specimens with triangular or quadrate or

stellate
sections,
&c. are also found.
as
Cylindrically hollow keys are described bored; if the section of the barrel
shows any other form they are called Such barrels, which are not fancy. easy to make, were much in vogue during the middle-ages and the renaissance.
Solid
barrels
or
bit
extended
facilitate
beyond the
their
in
stems are order to

key-
insertion
into the
hole,
whereas hollow-barrelled keys pass
over the drill-pin of the lock. The Bit generally appears quadrate (seen from the front), whereas it may show different shapes when looked at from
above
letters,
bearing resemblances to numerals, Where the lock countains socalled wards the bit has so-called wards,
,
&c.
and guards, and steps, or a combination (Fig. 153, a has only wards, the others showing combinations of wards and Those shown here and previously steps.)
of these.
in Fig. 50 will doubtless suffice to an idea of the characteristics of keys
give
the artistic point of view. keys used to show the calling of the guild and the beakers made in key -form may be
from The enormous
mentioned before quitting the subject.

5. GARGOYLES, BRACKETS AND HANGING SIGNS.
As
is
well
to
known,
it
was formerly the
allow the rain-water collecting practice in the gutters of the roof to discharge itself through gargoyles directly into the
street instead of carrying
Fig. 152.
it
ground by means of pipes,

Key, 17th century,
case.
street.
as is
down to now
the
the
These gargoyles projected over the

It is less the
aim
to discuss these
water -spouts which, taking the forms of dolphins, masks, &c. were mostly made of sheet -iron, than to discuss the wrought -iron bearers and stays which supported them. These bearers were mostly plain, rod -like props or stays, but often they were richly ornamented,

the
Fig.
lines
147
ornament:
of stress commonly governing those 154 shows such an ornamentation.
of the
Fig. 153.
Renaissance keys.
Wrought-iron brackets were used for

the most varied of purposes. ally served as bearers, the
They generobject
to
be
supported being either placed upon the free end or hung from it, the other end of the bracket being fixed to the wall in such wise that it was either rigid or else worked on pivots. In the mediaeval age large brackets were often put up in the churches to re-
move
covers
the covers of baptismal fonts. These were either raised by means of a

a
aside
chain running through
moved
pulley, or else of a swinging bracket. portion of one of these brackets has already been shown in Fig. 49.
by
means
At
served
The
same period brackets already candle - sticks (see Fig. 155). idea of bracket - lights retains its inthis
as
fluence to the present day. Fig. 156 presents an example in the Italian late-Renais-
sance
shows us style, while Fig. 157 handsome modern gas -bracket.
154
10*
of a stay
late Renaissance.
German,
148
SECTION
IV.
The bracket was also frequently used in early times as the bearer of guild- and trade-signs. Locksmiths were particularly given to show their calling by hanging out a key, as may be seen in Fig. 158. The like idea was adopted for inns and taverns, the signs being
sometimes painted and sometimes executed in relief in wrought - iron, according to the nature of the design. Fig. 159 and 160 show such
Fig. 155.
Gothic candle-bracket.
End
of 17th cent.
Germanic Museum, Nuremberg.
Fig. 156.
Gilt Light-bracket.
Verona Cathedral.
tavern - signs. Wall - brackets generally take the form of a console or of a right-angled triangle. The first - mentioned form (see Fig. 163) is the more effective from an aesthetic point of view; the last is the more constructive, as the principal rod running out from the wall is
supported by a stay set at an angle, thus leaving a triangular space to be filled in with ornamentation (see Fig. 161 and 162). The main arm is also frequently supported from above, in which
case the triangle is formed on the upper side. These supporting stays are ornamented similarly to those of gargoyles.
149
Brackets are much used in modern times for supporting sign-boards serving as trade -advertisements, &c. These tablets may be made rectangular, circular, elliptic or any other shapes according to fancy, the frame being suitably embellished. Cartouches with enrolled volutes make satisfactory designs for such signs; moreover, these scrolled ornaments, cut out of
Fig. 157.
Modern gas -bracket, designed by Ad. Haas.
sheet -iron, are easily made. Some modern sign -boards are shown in Furthermore Fig. 167 illustrates a rich frame for Fig. 164 to 166. a sign without the bracket.
In order to prevent sign -boards from swaying in the wind they made completely fast to the bracket, even when they As it produces an inelegant effect to run the appear to hang loose.
are
usually
150
SECTION
IV.
bracket direct and crudely out of the wall a back-plate is generally introduced to which the arms are secured either in form of a flat bar fixed to the wall, or a small cartouche is employed. Where the main iron of the bracket is inserted into the wall a rosette may also serve to
remove the impression of bareness. When a bracket is used for gas or electric light a tube is employed in order to supply the gas or
carry the wires.

6.
151
CANDELABRAS, CANDLESTICKS, CHANDELIERS, CORONAS AND LANTERNS.

Wrought -iron was employed
,
for various illuminating - apparatus
in very early times as a material because like other metals its in-
Fig. 159.
Modern tavern
sign, Renaissance style, designed C. Schick, Cassel.
by Director
The form combustibility makes it specially suited to the purpose. and finish of the apparatus varied of course with the progress of Oil- or time as much as the method of lighting itself changed.
152
SECTION
IV.
lamplight, candle- and torchlight, gas- and electric light, each require The more ancient appliances for specific and distinct arrangements.
giving light stand in certain contrast to those
of the
present
day,
which
finish
arises from the fact that the first often combined high artistic with great imperfection from the practical point of view, whereas modern lighting - apparatus immensely surpasses the ancient in respect of technique and utility, but does not, as a rule, equal
them
in respect of art.
Fig 161.
Renaissance-wall-bracket, from Innsbruck.
Fig. 162.
Baroque bracket, from Zurich.
Fig. 163.
Bracket, designs from Vicenza and Innsbruck.
154
If the
SECTION
IV.
types
will
various lighting - appliances are classified, appear distinct from each other, namely:
the
following
the
upright
candle -stick, which, in larger sizes, is also known as a standard candelabra, the hand- or portable candlestick, the bracket-
light,
the
coronas and
lanterns and hanging or suspended lamps, the the modern petroleum lamps. Let these be discussed
in their order.
The upright or standing candlestick was the candle - holder of

the
mediaeval
155
times.
The word
and renaissance periods and is derived from candela

-
=a
is
still
that of
candle.
modern The middle-
ages gave the preference to
age
is
more
conically tapered prickets; the present inclined towards cylindrical sockets in which the candle
Fig. 165.
Modern
sign board, designed
by
Prof. Th. Krauth, Carlsruhe.
is
fixed.
nozzle.
The candlestick generally The first is often round and
consits
flattish,
of a
base,
shaft
and
The nozzle
style of the antique candelabra feet, at the top generally finishes off
or else a tripod in the in order to secure greater firmness.

If this saucer
in order to catch the melted drops.
with a candle pan or plate is removable it is
156
SECTION
IV.
called a "bobeche". In standing candelabra the upper part spreads out into branches provided with candle - sockets. In mediaeval times comparatively high candelabra were not uncommon, especially in
Fig. 166.
Modern
sign board, designed
by E.
Crecelius.
The renaissance and baroque periods show churches (see Fig. 168). very handsome and rich specimens, for instance that of the 17th Earlier ages also furnish us with models for century (Fig. 169).

imitation
157
(see Fig. 170 and 171), the former representing a small candlestick, the latter a large upright candelabrum, both from the workshop of E. Puls of Berlin.
modern
Fig. 167.
-
Sign board frame.

is
Designed by the Author.

a portable of modest size
candlestick
By Hand candlestick
understood
It
is
frequently provided with a handle.
and dwarf
Fig. 169.
Three branched candelabrum, Baroque.
Fig. 168.
Candlestick in San Pedro, Tarrasa, Spain,
14 th century.
Modern
Fig. 170. candlestick; by E. Puls, Berlin.
Fig. 171.
Modern candelabrum, designed by Architect Zaar, executed by E. Puls, Berlin.
Fig. 172.
Renaissance candlestick.
17th century.
Fig. 175.
Modern
candlestick, designed
by Ad. Haas.
Meyer,
Smithing-art.
Fig. 176.
Modern
candlestick, designed
by the Author.
163
The renaissance was much given generally broader than its height. them and developed a great wealth of designs. Candlesticks in the The socket holding the style of Fig. 172 are frequently met with. candle could be moved spirally up and down, according to the length
to
justable
Invention was active at this period in devising admechanism to such kinds of utensils (see Fig. 173). Sometimes an extinguisher was added, as shown in two of the modern examples shown in Fig. 174 and 176. Wrought -iron portable candlesticks have of late come much into fashion and offer occasion for very
of the candle.
original designs.
Wall lights are, as the term implies, lighting appliances which are fixed to walls pilasters, columns, &c. Sometimes they are secured permanently, so as to be immoveable, at other times they are made
Fig. 177.
Candle bracket, German Renaissance. National Museum, Munich.
moveable on a pivot or hinge. They may be made to hold one or many lights. In arrangement and finish they are usually similar to the brackets, already discussed, the branches being fitted with prickets or sockets, or with the requisite burners, according as to whether they are to serve for candles, oil or gas, &c. Compare Fig. 60, 155, 156 and 157. Fig. 177 shows a further specimen of
ordinary renaissance form, while Fig. 178 represents a modern swinging bracket for one candle ornamented with flowers and foliage.
Hanging lamps
and
air
and lanterns
may
be open or closed, that
is
glazed with glass. They are the outcome of the necessity of having a light which could not be upset, which could be raised and lowered
which
could
be
protected
against
the
influence
of
wind and
open
draughts.
Hanging lamps and lanterns are
uses, corridors, vestibules, came into use in early times and are
specially suited to stair cases and similar spaces.
They
capable of being produced in 11*
164
SECTION
IV.
handsome, elegant designs without any difficulty. Owing to the great improvements made in glass manufacture of late years it has become possible to produce ball -shaped and other forms of bent glass and
Fig. 178.
Modern candle
bracket, designed
by the Author.
thus,
with
where so desired, to dispense with the box -like shapes glazed sheet glass to which former times were confined. Fig. 179
to
shows an open Gothic lantern made
hold a number of candles,
while Fig. 180 depicts a closed modern lantern glazed with roundels.
165
Coronas arose through the desire to have a number of lights In the middle -ages the lights arranged in a circle and suspended. were preferred on one horizontal plane, as shown in the renaissance
181. example Fig. Later styles preferred
them in several tiers and this principle holds

good with regard to gas and other chandeliers
to
the
present
day.
effects
Very pleasing
are
produced
of
is
when
the
lights in
number each row
properly proportioned, dandle and oil coronas may he hung with

chains
running on a
as
pulley so
to
per-
mit
being raised or lowered. In
of
their
gas coronas the chain is replaced by the pipe
which supplies the gas, necessary movement being effected by means of a cup and ball joint and a stuffingbox. More than 5 or 6 arms are rarely set in the circle; where more are lights desired the arms are
the
subdivided into smaller

branches,
as
is
com-
monly done with the

ordinary
bracket Gothic lantern German work. (Formenschatz.)
lights. Fig. 182 shows two simple modern
Fig. 179.
hanging
lamps
in
wrought-iron.Fig. 183
and 184 show two other, somewhat richer examples which were shown at the Carlsruhe Art smith's work Exhibition. The modern Petroleum lamp has also proved an incentive to
experiments in wrought - iron
,
though
this appliance
does not appear
Fig. 180.
^Modern lantern, by Emil Bopst,
Berlin.

to be well
167
it
suited
to
iron
work
many
offences against style
and has moreover brought with and good taste.

,
7.
WASH STANDS AND FLOWER

first
STANDS.
in
The renaissance smith had evidently the antique tripod
mind
when he
attempted to design the three-legged
wash
stands.
Fig. 181.
Wrought-iron Renaissance corona.
Such
and
articles are
they
frequently
often found on Italian, as well as on German soil, show great richness combined with excellent
is
workmanship.
The frame -work

is
generally
made of square
iron r
while the ornamental additions

nation with this
are of slighter bar -iron. In combioften found a holder for a water -jug; and even
a place for hanging towels. Fig. 185 shows a wrought -iron tripod of Italian origin dating from the 17th century. This is already very
Fig. 1S2.
Modern
G-asaliers.
(Krauth and Meyer's work on locksmithing.)
Fig. 183.
Modern
chandelier,
by
F.
Lang, Carlsruhe.
Fig. 184.
Modern
chandelier,
by H. Hammer, Carlsruhe.
Fig. 187.
Modern flower
stand, designed
by the Author.
Fig. 188.
Aquarium
stand,
designed by F. Miltenberger
Fig. 189.
designed
Modern hat and

coat stand,
by
E. Zeissig;
executed
by
F. Kayser,
Leipzig.
190.
Modern hat and coat
stand, designed
by
Prof.
Th Krauth.

rich
in
style
175
and
it
must be
admitted
that
more simple designs
generally give better outlines.
Such tripods have greatly come
into fashion of late years; they
Fig. 191.
Venetian
'"landier". 1577.
Austrian Museum.
serve as wash stands, as stands for wine-coolers, take the form of flower stands, occasional tables, &c. Painted porcelain plates, rich majolica ware, or metal trays are used with them as card trays,
and
table -tops.
Flower
tables,
on the other hand, are
fitted
with
Fig. 192.
Various crosses for towers and graves.
177
sheet -metal revolving trays, &c. by which, the flower -pots can be turned towards the light without the necessity of moving the whole
Fig. 193.
Grave
cross.
Art-Industry-Museum, Berlin.
illustrate
tier.
Renaissance.
stand.
Fig.
186 and 187
two modern flower - stands
one
being earned up into a second
Fig. 188 shows a wrought -iron stand for an aquarium; approMeyer, Smithing -art. 12
Fig. 194.
Grave cross designed by Prof. Krauth.

priate to its purpose
top.
it
179
Similar forms are employed for reading-desks, such case the top is sloping instead of flat.
takes the form of a high table with a small only that in
Fig. 195.
Modern grave
cross,
designed by the Author.
This is the place to mention the hat and coat-stands which have of late been frequently made of wrought -iron and which often 12*
180
SECTION
IV.
combine a stand for sticks and umbrellas r when the tripod gives place to a sheet-iron tray. Two specimens are shown in Fig. 189 and 190. There are no old models for such furniture and it is improbable that
they were known.
Finally,
reference
often
may
of
be
which where
made
made to andirons or fire-dogs, wrought -iron during the middle -ages,
the profile frequently taking the appearance of standards (see Fig. 191). As with the open fire-places, these utensils have fallen into disuse.
8.
CROSSES FOR GRAVES AND TOWERS.
In early times, from about the end of the middle - ages, the latin form of cross was made ornamentally of wrought -iron in order to provide finials for the summits of towers, spires and gables of churches and chapels. This symbolic ornament was often very simple, though no less frequently very rich and elegant. The actual construction of the cross was generally of stout bar -iron, while the ornamental additions were of lighter make. The arms of the cross were generally finished off with leaves or flowers, in plainer work with spear -heads
or lance - points the upper arm was also frequently made to serve as a vane or weather - cock. The rectangular spaces between the arms were ornamented with rings or scroll designs, which served at the same time to strengthen the whole. Whereas the crosses on gables
;
were, almost without exception flat, and on one plane, spires, &c. were sometimes fitted with crosses, the arms of which were not only directed
to right
and left, but to the front and back, radiating from the centre and thus producing a richer perspective effect. During the renaissance it was also customary to decorate graves
A very great number of these grave - crosses may with iron crosses. be found in old German churchyards. The baroque and rococo periods and also that of Louis XVI retained this practice; later on stone monuments took the place of such crosses, and it is only quite of late years that the old custom is being revived. Grave - crosses differ from crosses for spires, &c. in more ample detail, since they may be inspected closely and moreover they bear memorial tablets. These tablets are often placed inside a metal case for the sake
of protection; they frequently contain, in addition to name, dates of birth and death of the deceased, a religious or secular quotation, as,
for instance:
(on the outside) "Fear and love for God he ever bore; Stranger, now unclose the door!
(on the inside)
Here he
rests from earthly pain; Stranger, close the door again!"
Fig. 196.
Grave
cross,
by
P. Marcus, Berlin.
Fig. 197.
Grave
cross,
designed by E. Bopst, Berlin.

Is
183
not this both naive and pious at the same time and a wellplanted hint to the inquisitive to close the door of the tablet in order to secure a longer duration to the record of the departed?
Among the illustrations to this chapter Fig. 192 shows a sheet from the author's work on "The science of ornament" on which two old grave crosses are seen with some old and modern spire crosses. Fig. 193 to 197 represent five other grave crosses, one old and four modern, of which the last has, in addition to the memorial- tablet- case, In certain districts are also found ara basin to hold holy water. to receive flowers, candles, &c., according to the customs rangements
prevalent in such parts.
9.
ARMS AND ARMOUR.

of prominent interest even although the specimens may no longer directly serve as
is
The chapter on arms

still
very many models for the smith-craft of the present day. The manufacture of modern weapons is quite different, and generally speaking devoted strictly to mechanical accuracy so that the old masterpieces apart from their historical interest, only furnish ornamental studies applicable to other branches of the art. The armourer's art is of the oldest and was already highly Damascus was one of the cities where it developed in antiquity. was first practised. Damascus - blades have a world -wide reputation that extends back for thousands of years. Their elasticity and toughness was obtained through repeated weldings and blendings of small, thin
metal-plates or wires of iron or steel of various degrees of hardness. The patterns brought out on the surface by etching with acids is the
extant
"damask grain", and these patterns vary greatly according to in which the metal has been worked. The armourer's art passed on from Damascus and from the East in general until it reached the Greeks and Romans, who, however, made use of iron or steel for
called
way
the blades only, employing other materials for the handles and ornamental additons, and for shields and armour. After the collapse of the universal Roman domination, what remained of the craft of the
antique armourer in the confused migration of races is survived to be developed in the western lands of the middle - ages. In the time of Charlemagne, armour helmets and shields were already made of iron or else strengthened with iron. From the llth to the 14th centuries warriors wore iron shirts of mail; the full It is such armour suits, of plate armour, came into use later on.
that presents
it
the
highest interest
as
to
its
technique
and
artistic
or,
decoration, for it comprises the finest
work ever wrought

has
in iron,
may
be
said,
which
skilled
labour
ever produced.
new
industry,
one strictly restricted within recognised limits,
was soon
Pig. 198.
Old sketch design
for
a decorated suit of armour.

developed,
185
which again became divided into distinct branches and The cities of Augsburg, Nuremberg, Munich, Landsand Milan, many others, produced an imposing number of very hut,
special guilds.
Fig. 199.
Ornamental details of a helmet; 17 th century.
186
important metal beaters
,
SECTION
IV.
The &c. harness -makers, helmet makers armoury such as those of the Arnieria at Madrid and of Turin, the Ambras collection at Vienna, that of the Bargello
,
great collections of
Fig. 200.
Ornamental
detail of the breastplate of a suit of Christian
II.
at Florence, &c.,
show us a wealth
of most wonderful work, the major
part of which emanated from German armourers. The helmet, the gorget, the breast- and backplates, the shoulder

guards, the
sollerets,
187
of
arm -guards, the thigh- and leg -guards, the gauntlets and many others were all necessary parts of a complete suit armour (see Fig. 198\
with
When
well -fitting
one considers
suit
how
of clothes
difficult it sometimes from the modern skilled
is
to
obtain a
it
tailor,
will
Fig. 201.
Sword-handle.
Bargello, Florence.
be easy to imagine what difficulties were connected 'with the production of a suit of armour of satisfactory fit. To this difficulty was super-
added the ornament required by rich and distinguished personages for parade and other important occasions. To these requirements are due the very pearls of art. Besides the hollowing out and embossing which of themselves demanded unusual skill and which, moreover,
188
SECTION
IV.
served in part as ornamentation, inlaying and gilding.
there
was the etching, engraving,
Fig. 202.
Various swords and daggers.
One
is
cellent effects
simply astounded at the correctnees of style and the exwhich resulted from ornament produced with the aid of these
Fig. 203.
Partisans, halberds, pikes/bills, fauchards, &c.
Fig. 204.
Pikes, halberds
and
partisans.
Bargello, Florence.
Fig. 205.
Halberd.
192
SECTION
IV.
processes. It must however be remembered that such first -class artists as Diirer, Holbein, Miehlich, Aldegrever, and Burgkmayr did not find it beneath their dignity to furnish armourers and sword - cutlers with
sketches and designs for their work. Fig. 199 shows sundry ornamental details of an etched helmet, and in Fig. 200 is seen the ornament on the breast plate of a German suit of armour. Helmet and armour are defensive weapons to which the shield must be added. In the early part of the middle -ages this was not made of iron,
owing to its large dimensions, so that it was, at most, only studded with iron. Later on, in the renaissance, it became gradually handier and smaller until at last, as with armour, it was dispensed with altogether, or only used for show. Iron became the favoured material for shields, and their surface was decorated in harmony with the rest of the armour. The forms which occur most frequently in parade shields of the later period, are the circular, those with more or less fanciful cartouche shapes, and the almond shape. The helmet was next in importance to the shield and received the most conspicuous attention and honour. Whereas the old forms of heaume, the flat and round helmets, the helm, basinet and armet were, comparatively speaking, plain and simple, the Burgundian helmets, "bourginots" and morions, which came up later, often showed an over-rich ornamentation.
offensive weapons the one- and two -handed swords were the most important and general. However this cut-
Among
the
and-thrust weapon may vary in respect of size and finish, three parts are invariably found. These are: 1) the blade, which may be sharp on one or both sides, and at the point which is generally more or less tapered; it is mostly straight and less often curved (like a cutlass), rarely waved, and sometimes, in order to reduce its weight, it has
so-called blood - grooves it is mostly plain or ornamented with etching or engraving. 2) the hilt or handle which holds the tang of the blade and is fitted with either a pommel, a cross, a sword -shell or
;
It is basket. 3) the sheath or scabbard with or without belt. self-evident that the hilt and scabbard were the parts most ornamented,
end other materials were often used. Here, again, it is ornament rather than to the practical use that attention has to be given. The hilts deserve more especial notice; it will be seen that many of these are made of iron and that very considerable pains were taken in piercing and working the specimens which are to be found in all collections of importance. (Compare Fig. 201 and 202.) The dagger or poignard is a sword in miniature in which the cross -part may either disappear altogether or assume a smaller form. Sometimes it is furnished with a guard, but never with a
to this
and
to the

basket hilt.
193
Among
is
the ornamentations of the scabbard the so - called

a favorite
"dance of death"
and frequent subject.
Fig. 206.
Gold
inlaid Hispano-Moresque battle-axe.
Bargello, Florence.
To the mediaeval and renaissance weapons of offence, which take many forms, belong furthermore: spears and lances, which consist
13
194
SECTION
IV.
of a wooden shaft to which is fitted an iron spike shaped like a leaf or an awl; partisans, which are spears with flat blades and symmetrical side -points; bills, fauchards and forks, taking the forms of sickles, scythes, &c.;
battle-axes and hammers; and halberds
(derived perhaps from "helmbarte", cleave helmet, or from "halbe barte", a half -blade) which was a combination of the pike or partisan with the battle-axe; clubs, morning-stars (clubs with iron prickles),
flails, and many other arms. Halberds and partisans more especially call for attention, owing to their elegant outlines and the splendid
in Fig. If
ornamentation of their blades. 203 to 206.
number
of such weapons are
shown
tive races
the flint, bone and fish -spine weapons of primiwith those which are the glory of the renaissance, we obtain a survey of the two extremes of artistic handicraft in a special field, most of which are inconceivably different. The invention of gunpowder and the introduction of fire-arms brought this special art to an undeserved end. Guns have undeniably afforded opportunities for artistic decoration, as is evidenced by our museums, nevertheless they are so far behind their precursors both in number and kind that it is not necessary to go beyond the simple mention of the fact. Moreover, the present age is, unfortunately, too matter-of-fact and practical to care to ornament its weapons of sport and war; where such attempt is made the result is not always happy, in spite of the innumerable and glorious examples handed down to us
we compare
from our
forefathers.
10.
ALL,
OTHER OBJECTS
IN IRON.
Although it was attempted in the previous pages to arrange the whole field covered by the smith into separate and appropriate and chapters, there still remain a number of objects not dealt with, were Some of these manual. this before be mentioned to concluding formerly produced by the guilds connected with this art, while others are still made and used.
First
of all there
are the
horse muzzles which,
to a certain
which some gone of them showing such splendid workmanship that they deserve, at least, not to be overlooked. Bell cots for small bells in courtyards and passages, as well as bell -pulls were often made of ornamental wrought -iron and such The last, are coming into vogue again (see Fig. 207 and 208). natural floral hangings, seldom especially when they take the form of
These peculiar objects, extent, belong to the preceding chapter. have entirely out of use, are to be found in collections,
fail
in producing a
good
effect.
Vanes
or
weathercocks made
of
pierced
sheet -metal
with
195
elegant outlines were articles in moderate request from early times and are continually required at the present day (see Fig. 209). Vessels, such as lamps and field flasks are now and again found of iron; the latter of large dimensions, holding as much as 12 gallons, and even more (see Fig. 210).
Table necessaries, at least knives and forks are often made of iron, down to the present time,
and
this not
only as regards the
blades, but also the handles.
The same remark applies to scissors and shears. Of course the ornament is chiefly confined
to the handles; for when the blades are embellished it can only be by
means
of
engraving,
etching
or
inlaying (see Fig. 211).
Every day working -tools

or such as serve for special purposes,
such
as
hammers,
tongs,
fire-irons,
compasses, &c., are also found in museums when ornaas in the Germanic mented,
Museum at Nuremberg. These, like many other things connected

with
the
art,
present
in them-
more than historical value however interesting they may

selves little
be.
Many of
these articles were the
results
produced
by journeymen
or masters as proofs of their skill and title to be received into the

locksmiths' or smiths'
entailed
sacrifice
pains
in
no
way
and and commensurate

guild, of time
with the price generally paid for such work.

207 Bellcot. Upper Austria. now made which are at present popular, and which, possibly, may become still more so, are caskets; etching and applied pierced open sheet -metal form the ornament, the handles and lock
Among
the articles
of
wrought -iron
In like manner, and rightly giving scope for further embellishment. so, the frames of fire-screens are of late made of wrought iron, 13*
Fig. 208.
House
bell,
designed by Arwed Rossbach, executed by Herm. Kayser, Leipzig.

while the actual screen consists of
painted, &c. (see Fig. 212). The present age also aims
stuff,
197
leather, &c.
embroidered and
at making writing and smoking utensils, card cases, picture and mirror frames, clock-cases and table -ornaments of wrought -iron (see Fig. 213). These are risky experiments, mere concessions to fashion, and Such things may be attempted in Delta -metal, to best left alone. which the same technique applies, and when made of it they look
Fig. 209.
Wrought -iron
Fig. 210.
Wrought- iron
field- flask
Weathercock.
(Viollet-le-Duc).
more distinguished and suited
to
the
purposes for which they are
intended, have a better colour and do not rust. few words concerning rust this foe to
wrought -iron
innocuous will not be out of place and may serve to close the fourth section of this manual. Inasmuch as it is not a pleasurable task to have to polish and grease articles every two days, they are often covered with a coat of colourless lacquer. But if this is to be thoroughly effective it must be laid on
it
and the means of making
Fig. 211.
Scissors.
Fig. 212.
Modern
fire-screen
by
P.
Markus, Berlin.
it
Fig. 213.
Wrought - iron clock-case by Reinhold
Kirsch, Munich.
201
and in consequence the lustre thus produced detracts thickly, from the appearance of the object. It is true that tinning, nickeling, or gilding, thoroughly protects from rust, but what becomes of the
Moreover, to nickel or gild articles all and disagreeable effect. There remains the method of tempering with oil in the fire. This is about the best mode of treatment, but only on condition that it is properly carried out, so that it does not form a sticky, dirt collecting and dirt -prosurface. the there is ducing Furthermore, coating with oil-colour, which course is not to be despised when the articles are of any considerable size and when it is done with skill and judgment in appropriate style. Polychromatic treatment, which was formerly frequent,
although not, generally speaking, executed in particularly good taste, seems to have attracted too little attention at the present time. A
tones and free from gloss will always produce an This proceeding certainly demands a considerable agreeable effect. artistic sense of harmony, and this every locksmith and every house cannot be to let the be painter expected possess. But, made, attempt and if not successful the first time, perhaps repeated attempts may lead
few, well softened
character of wrought - iron ? over produces an unrestful
to a satisfactory result. Practice must, however, go hand in hand
is
often
better than
is
if
any good
theory. to result.
Both
And May
this is the
it
aim of modern
art - industry.
prove successful!
Fig. 214.
Details of the ornament of a shield.
SUPPLEMENT.
TABLES OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.
a.
German
sheet -iron scale.
Scale
Thickness
millimeters*)
204
SUPPLEMENT.
c.
Talk
shelving the dimensions
and weights of wr ought-iron gas-barrel.
Inside meas in millimeters
SUPPLEMENT.
205
e.
Table of iveights for square bar iron.
Thickness
in
mm
206
SUPPLEMENT.
/'.
Table of weights for
flat
lar iron
Thickness in millimeters
Breadth
in millim.
SUPPLEMENT.
207
per linear meter
in
kilogrammes.
Thickness in milliWters
Breadth
in
millim.
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,
By
of drawings from original work of the Late Instructor in Franklyn A. CRALLAN.
and
XV th
centuries.
Wood
Carving,
Municipal
Technical College, Derby This work will consist of 34
plates, of which two will be double, reproduced by PhotoTint process from the original full-sized drawings made by the author, chiefly from Churches in Derbyshire. Norfolk, and Surrey, also from the Cathedral Churches of Ely, Peterborough, and Lincoln, and the Abbey Church at Westminster. The size of the plates will average 12 by S 1 ^ in., printed on paper 15 by in., and they will be accompained by short descriptive text.
THE PRICE OF THE WORK, IN SUITABLE PORTFOLIO, WILL UPON PUBLICATION THE PRICE WILL BE RAISED TO 28 S.
BE
21
S.
TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY.
[IN
PREPARATION.
SPECIMENS
OF
WOODWORK.
ANTIQUE
CARVED
FURNITURE
AND
Measured and drawn by ARTHUR MARSHALL, A. R. I. B. A., 50 Photo-lithographed plates of English Examples, with Sections, Mouldings, and Details, and DesFolio, half-bound in calf criptive Text containing numerous other details.
Price 2/"2J
net.
This Work is the most complete and valuable that has been issued illustrating old English Carved Woodwork. It is filled with useful Details drawn to a large scale, so as to make it invaluable to Woodcarvers. "To all who are interested in the beautiful and useful art of wood-carving, the book under our notice will be very welcome. It is a folio with clear illustrations, fit to use as working copies, of many authentic specimens of antique carved furniture and woodwork."
Saturday Review.
HEPPELWHITE'S CABINETMAKER AND

GUIDE.
A
UPHOLSTERER'S
complete facsimile reproduction of this rare work containing over 300 charming designs on 127 plates, of every article of Household Furniture. By A. HEPPELWHITE & Co. Small folio, half bound (1789). Price 2/io/ [In preparation. "Their tea-caddies, tea-trays, tops of card-tables and dressing-tables are most charming The book taken as a whole is useful examples of beautiful design and arrangement.
.
so that among their 300 designs there are and modest, and nearly ahvays quite practicable /. Aldam Heaton in scarcely twenty which might not, with advantage, be reproduced." ^ Furniture and Decoration of the i8lh Century."
,
SHERATON'S
With
CABINET-MAKER DRAWING BOOK.
AND
UPHOLSTERERS'
A complete Reproduction of this Appendix and Accompaniment. and costly Volume, with 122 plates of Examples of all kinds of Furniture and Details designed by THOMAS SHERATON, thick 410, cloth, gilt top net. (1802) Price 2/1 o/ [Just published.
the rare
scarce
CHIPPENDALE'S "THE GENTLEMEN AND CABINET-MAKER'S DIRECTOR."

A
taining
Price
complete facsimile of the }rd and rarest Edition, of this celebrated work con200 plates of Designs of Chairs. Sofas, Beds and Couches, Tables, Folio, half-calf (i 762) Library Book Cases, Clock Cases, Stove Grates, &c. &c.
net. 4/4/ "This should be consulted by every Student of Furniture. It is Chippendale's Work reprinted, contains his own Designs, and shows the manner in which the i8th Century C. R. ASHBEE, Hon. Director of the Guild and School Cabinet-maker went about his work."
of Handicraft.
FURNITURE AND DECORATION THE XVIII CENTURY.

Facsimile Reproductions
IN
ENGLAND DURING
,
DALE
from the Works of CH;PPENHEPPELWHITE, SHERATON PERGOLESI, and others. Selected and Described by JOHN ALDAM HEATON. Containing 200 folio plates, with descriptions. Price in Four Cloth Portfolios 6/ net., or Bound in / Four Volumes in cloth jj / net.
of the Choicest Examples
,
ADAM
RICHARDSON
The Furniture of the latter half be regarded as the best the world has of the illustrations is so great, that it ductions of the most admired and the
of the
last century has, of late, so commonly come to yet produced, and the cost ot obtaining a complete set has seemed advisable to now publish a set of repromost useful.
"Mr. Aldam Heaton's name is that of a real authority on the subject, and, as the result His method proves, no better judge could have been chosen to direct such a publication. has been to go through the series of some twenty publications, published between 1740 and
The rarity of the 1800, and to select whatever designs appeared to him the most valuable. and the very high prices which they realise at sales put them practically original volumes out of the reach of the architect and cabinet-maker of to-day so that if any use is to be made of them it must be through some of the reproductions which modern process printing
,
,
makes possible."
The Times.
DECORATIVE DESIGNS.
By ROBERT ADAM.
A Series of Six fine large plates of Ceilings, Scroll Ornament, &c., being transfers taken from the original drawings in the Soane Museum by R. CHARLES. Oblong 410, folded in wrapper. Price 2/6 net.
17
DECORATIVE WROUGHT IRON WORK OF THE

1
AND
CENTURIES.
J.
16 large photo-lithographic plates, containing 70 English examples of Measured

Drawings, by D.
Balustrading, &c.
EBBETTS, of large and small Gates, Screens, Grilles, Panels,

Folio, boards,
cloth back.
Price
12/6.
A HISTORY OF DESIGN IN PAINTED GLASS.

By N. H.
J.
WESTLAKE,
F. S. A.
Containing 467 beautiful
illustrations.
vols,
small folio, cloth.
Price
5/io/
The arrangement
subject,
is
of this valuable work, the most complete yet attempted on its follows, and the volumes with the exception of volume may be had separately at the prices affixed: VOLUME i. Part I. From the Earliest Examples until the End of the Twelfth
as
I
Single Figures and Simple Compositions of the Thirteenth Medallion and Grisaille Windows of the Thirteenth Century. VOLUME II Part IV. Introduction, and English Fourteenth Century Work. Part V. French, German, and Italian Fourteenth Century Work, Grisaille, and Price Quarries of the Fourteenth Century. / /
Century.
Part
II.
Century.
Part
III.
VOLUME
Introduction, and Preface to the Fifteenth Century; Part VII. The Jesse Tree, English Figure Windows of the Fifteenth Century. Part VIII. French English Subject and Windows of the Fifteenth Century.
III.
Part
VI.
Subject and Figure

Part IX.
Windows
of the Fiftheenth Century,
German and
Italian.
.
Price i/io/ Heraldry, Roundlets, Monograms, Quarries, &c. VOLUME IV. Preface and Introduction to the Sixteenth Century. English and Foreign Painted Glass in England of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.
French, Flemish, Dutch, German, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. &c. Price I/I4/ Index.
.
Italian
The
Jesse Tree,
and Spanish Painted Glass of the Ornamental Windows,
ANCIENT
WOOD & IRONWORK

the
a
IN CAMBRIDGE.
of Examples, is but little known. reduced price as above.
By W. B. REDFARN, graphed plates drawn to
Letterpress
scale.
good
by JOHN WILLIS CLARK, 29 folio lithoCloth, gilt, a handsome volume. Price 10/6.
series
at the
This Work, giving an interesting and useful The few copies existing are offered for the present
REMAINS OF ECCLESIASTICAL WOOD-WORK.

A
Series of
2
I
plates beautifully
Archt.
Screens, Book-Boards, Roofs, Pulpits, &c., containing engraved on Copper, from drawings by T. TALBOT BURY, First published at 25 s. 4to halfbound Price 10/6.
Examples of
Stalls,
PROGRESSIVE STUDIES & OTHER DESIGNS FOR WOODCARVERS

in various Styles, Sheet No. I., consisting of Progressive Studies, Elementary and Sheets Nos. II., III., and IV. , including a Advanced, for Class Teaching. variety of objects suitable for Wood-Carving; Table, Spinning Ch.ir, Koran
ROWE.
Stand, Frames, Bellows, &c by Miss E. R. PLOWDEN, with a Preface by Miss The Sheets folded in royal 8vo, portfolio Price 5/ net.
,
HINTS ON
WOOD
CARVING.
,
For Beginners, by ELEANOR ROWE, with a Preface by J. H. POLLEN. 4 th Edition, or cloth Price 1/6. revised and enlarged, illustrated. 8vo, sewed Price I/
HINTS ON CHIP CARVING.

(Class Teaching and other Northern Styles), by ELEANOR ROWE. or bound in cloth Price 1/6. , 8vo, sewed Price I/
40
ilhistrations.
Miss ROWE is at the School of Art Woodcarving, and her books are published under the sanction of the Science and Art Department.
PLASTERING, PLAIN
A
Practical Treatise
AND DECORATIVE.
on the Art and Craft of Plastering. Including full descriptions of the various Tools, Materials Processes and Appliances employed. With over By 50 full-page plates, and about 300 smaller illustrations in the text. WILLIAM MILLAR. With an Introduction, treating of the History of the Art, net. with numerous examples. [In preparation. 410, cloth Price 8/
1
FLAT ORNAMENT.
A
Pattern
Book
,
for
750 -plates
some
Designers of Textiles, Embroideries, Wall Papers, Inlays &c &c. printed in Colours, exhibiting upwards of 500 Examples of
Textiles, Embroideries, Paper Hangings, Tile Pavements, Intarsia
Work,
,
Tapestries,
collected from Buildings, &c. &c. various Museums, Churches, Mosques, &c. &c., with some Original Designs for Textile and other Ornament, by DRS. FISCHBACH. GIRAUD, and others. Imperial
Bookbindings,
Surface
Ornaments
from
410 boards, cloth back Price
5 /
JAPANESE ORNAMENT AND DESIGN.

A Grammar
ting
all
with F. R.
as
it
of, illustrated by 65 plates, many in Colours and Gold, represenClasses of Natural and Conventional Forms, drawn from the Originals; By T. W. CUTLER, Introductory, Descriptive, and Analytical Text.
I.
B. A.
"The work
materials."
is
Price 2/IO/ Imperial 410 in elegant cloth binding. one which is almost indispensable to every decorative designer
best Japanese Art applied to
including
folio pages of illustrations, the systematic order of their arrangement, and the production of a certain proportion of the plates in the rich gold and colours of the original Japanese embroidery give instructive value as well as pictorial charm to this beautiful zt'orfc." Edinburgh Review. "Mr. Cutler's 'Grammar of Japanese Ornament and Design' is one of the most elaborate and comprehensive works on the subject that has yet been published. It presents the art of the far East in all its beauty and its bewildering strangeness." The Times.
docs specimens of the very The Queen. "The beauty of Mr. Cutler's
the ornamentation of various
JAPANESE ART BOOKS (NATIVE PRINTED).

A
Charming Series of Studies of Birds in most characteristic and life-like attitudes, with appropriate foliage and flowers, by the celebrated Japanese artist, BAIREI KONO. Three books, 8vo, containing 08 pages of highly artistic and decorative illustrations printed in tints. These books are of the greatest value
1
to
Screen and China Painters, Decorators, and Designers in all Artists, branches of Art Manufacture, and of much interest to the admirers of Japanese Art. Price 3/6 each book, or the set of three net. of
I
consist of characteristic studies of Birds in every variety of attitude, skimming through the air, proudly, defiantly, or saucily perched upon light graceful boughs, swimming in search of food or devouring the frogs and fish which have just been caught. For variety both of bird and tree form the designs are inimitable The pride of the peaand disdainful eye the wisdom of the cock, as expressed in the haughty turn ot the head owl, the gaiety of the small birds on the wing, and the eager and expectant look of those about to pounce on tender morsels, all speak for themselves and speak highly for the subtle The Graphi manipulative skill of the artist."
,
"The books
"In attitude and gesture and expression, these Birds, whether perching or soaring, swooping or brooding, are admirable." Magazine of Art.
STUDIES OF JAPANESE BIRDS AND FLOWERS.

By WATANABE
Three SEITEI, the acknowledged leading living artist in Japan. books, 8vo, containing numerous artistic sketches in various tints. Price IDS net. "Contain a wealth of exquisite xylographic impressions, which cannot be beaten by any The Studio. European attempts." Two Exhibitions of the Artist's Drawings have been held at the Japanese Gallery and the Drawings have fetched high prices.
,
JAPANESE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF DESIGN (NATIVE PRINTED).

BOOK
I. Containing over 1,500 engraved, curious, and most ingenious Geometric Patterns of Circles, Medallions, &c., comprising Conventional Details
of Plants, Flowers, Leaves, Petals, also Birds, Fans, Animals, net. Oblong 2 mo. Price 2/
i
Key
Patterns, &c., &c.
BOOK
II. Containing over 600 most original and Ornament, giving the base lines to the design, also Sketches. net. Oblong I2mo. Price 2/
effective
artistic
Designs fdr Diaper Miniature Picturesque
These books exhibit the varied charm
Japanese Ornament, and
form an
and originality of conception of inexhaustible field of design.
A HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE.
For the Student,
Historical Styles
Being a Comparative View of the By PROFESSOR BANISTER FLETCHER, F.R. IB. A., and BANISTER F. FLETCHER, A. R.I. B. A. With 115 plates printed in collotype from large photographs, and other illustrations in the text. Thick crown 8vo, cloth gilt. Price 12/6. [Just published.
Craftsman, and Amateur. from the Earliest period.
shall be amazed if it is not immediately recognized and adopted as far excellence the student's manual of the history of architecture." Architect. written and illustrated "Concisely profusely by plates of all the typical buildings of each country and period. The authors have written a 'book which appears to fulfil the necessary
"We
qualifications of being of moderate compass, and giving in a complete and classified form the results of the latest researches of architectural historians and and at the same archaeologists time furnishing the student with a comparative and analytical view of the subject. ... It will fill a void in our literature." News. Building
,
"The
architectural student in search of
methodical
work
....
"A
handy and
scarcely possible, National Observer.
any particular fact will readily find it in this most as complete as it well can be." Times. compact volume .... admirable alike in plan and execution. It is within the compass of 300 small pages to carry completeness further. "-
RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE AND ORNAMENT IN -SPAIN.

A
Series
of
I
s;
Examples
selected
from
the
purest
executed
between
the
years
1500
60, by
ANDREW N.
Photo-lithography and With the exception of five or six perspective during recent visits to Spain. views, the plates consist of geometrical drawings carefully prepared on the spot from measurements, and include details of Facades, Patios, Staircases, Doors, Windows, Ceilings, Brackets, Capitals, and other details in Stone and Wood, together with examples of Iron Screens, Balconies and other specimens of A Short Descriptive Text is added. Folio, handsomely Metal Work &c. &c.
,
60 plates, reproduced by PRENTICE, Architect. Photo Process from the drawings made by the author
bound
in cloth gilt Price 2/io/ "There is no doubt that of all the books which have Spanish buildings for subject, Mr. Architect. Prentice's will be found the most fascinating by an English Architect." "For the drawing and production of this book one can have no words but praise It is a pleasure to have so good a record of such admirable Architectural Drawing, free, firm, and delicate." British Architect.
.
ITALIAN RENAISSANCE DETAIL AND ORNAMENT.

Drawn
by G. J. OAKESHOTT, Architect, A.R.I.B.A., "Building News" and "Aldwinckle" Travelling Student. 40 lithographic plates, royal folio, strongly bound in cloth. Price 1/12' One of the best produced and most useful of professional illustrated works we have seen
Renaissance', by Mr. George J. examples of Renaissance art \Ye have nothing but praise illustrated almost entirely in the form of geometrical drawings. The author for this work , which is throughout carefully and conscientiously carried out. deserves commendation for his choice of subjects, no less than for his illustration of them. "for
Italian
Oakeshott.
some time is the 'Detail and Ornament of the The series of forty plates includes some
exquisite
British Architect.
THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE

ITALIAN.
Selected
GREEK, ROMAN, &
Edited with Notes by from Normand's Parallels and other Authorities. SPIERS. Second Edition, with four new plates, including one of Greek Mouldings, by R. W. SCHULTZ. 24 plates, imperial 410, cloth Price 10/6. Mr. Spiers has done excellent "A most useful work for architectural students
R.
PHENE
....
service in editing this British Architect.
work, and
a
his notes
on the
plates are very appropriate
and useful. "-
thoroughly practical certainly the Classical Orders readily and clearly within the modest fail to be useful as a book of reference." Building News. "Should be considered as an indispensable possession by
"The book
is
work, bringing
careful representations of reach of most students, and cannot

all
students of architecture."
Architect.
B. T.
94,
BATSFOKI3,
& PUBLISHER.
ARCHITECTURAL & ART BOOKSELLER
HIGH HOLBORN, LONDON.
University of Toronto
Library
DO NOT REMOVE THE CARD FROM

THIS
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^

PRACTICAL SMITHS, DESIGNERS OF IRONWORK

TECHNICAL AND ART SCHOOLS, ARCHITECTS, ETC.

FRANZ SALES MEYER

TRANSLATED FROM THE SECOND AND ENLARGED GERMAN EDITION

LONDON BATSFORD, 94, HIGH HOLBORN

& SEEMANN, LEIPZIG.

CONCERNING THE MATERIAL.

Wrougt-iron Malleable cast-iron

The various kinds of iron used

Workers. Bar-iron, Fancy-iron, Sheet-iron, Iron-wire, Iron-tubes

TOOLS AND WORKMANSHIP.

Tools and Machinery

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ARTISTIC SMITHING.

The The The The The The The

XVI and Empire

THE PRINCIPAL SPHERES OF THE SMITH.

Doors and gates

Arms and Armour

10. All other Objects in iron

203 204 204 205 200

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

proved a serious difficulty,

Passing from the

has also produced as

handbooks treating of metal work, cabinet work, carpento English craftsmen,

tering, and painting. Of these, the present work

the most interesting.

respects from the English.

German productions and

design, and in view

earnestly pursued in Germany.

with the Teutonic nations

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

that the most

The most distinguished

art of iron casting

Probably too, the for cannon of the

into domestic utensils,

in this country, are

Countries, the iron

and active swing, and

to the verge of extinction:

not languish in Germany from continued and boundless prosperity

and from the confines of Denmark to the Italian

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

German ironwork we know

13th century that black-

and vine leaves

derived, but diverging considerably,

thistly look of the foliage

46 and 48, and some

The Renaissance work

by Prof. Meyer, and

study of the ironworkers

development, blacksmithing hands of the workmen themselves.

Except as designers of armour,

did not meddle with

setting the task

and directing the work on