Chapter 1 Measurements
Chapter 1 Measurements
Chapter 1 Measurements
b
)T
%:
.
c
E M
a
c
T
%:c
T
*
E M
a
bPc
T
%:c
Using indices
a * 0
l
T &
g
+,c * 1 - c * +.
) / c * 0
) * +c * .
T * &m
a
(
)
g
c
T * &m
0
(
.
g
+.
:
l
T
g
@hereby, the value of k is known by e!periment
E1e&ises
The viscosity force, 0 going against the movement of a sphere immersed in a fluid depends
on the radius of the sphere, a1 the speed of the sphere, v and the viscosity of the fluid, 2. 2y
using the dimension method, derive an e#uation that relates 0 with a1 v and 23
)given that
0l
v
.
To he. 5hethe& a s2eifi fo&'$#a o& an e<$ation is ho'o"eno$s
4!ample *
sE vt
KsL E KvL KtL
L.H.S KsL E
R.H.S KvL KtL E T
%*
T
E
Thus, the left hand side E right hand side, rendering the e#uation as homogenous
4!ample :
=iven that the speed for the wave of a rope is
0
4
m
, check its homogeneity by using the
dimensional analysis.
:
0
4
m
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
:
0
4
m
.6.'. K B L E K T
%*
L
:
E
:
T
%:
;.6.'. K B L E MT
%:
, K m L EM
[ ]
[ ]
:
:
0
M5T
5T
m M
l
T &
g
,
'ome Properties of Nectors$
4#uality of Two Nectors
A
y
x
A
A
A
y
x
A
x
A
y
T5o ,eto&s A an% / 'ay !e %efine% to !e e<$a# if they ha,e the sa'e 'a"nit$%es an%
2oint in the sa'e %i&etions. i.e. A> /
3egative of a vector$
The ne"ati,e of ,eto& A is %efine% as "i,in" the ,eto& s$' of Be&o ,a#$e 5hen a%%e% to
A . That isC A D *6 A+ > E. The ,eto& A an% FA ha,e the sa'e 'a"nit$%e !$t a&e in
o22osite %i&etions.
'calar Multiplication$
The '$#ti2#iation of a ,eto& A !y a sa#a&
6 5i## &es$#t in a ,eto& /
6 the 'a"nit$%e is han"e% !$t not the %i&etion
Do f#i2 the %i&etion if is ne"ati,e
If > EC the&efo&e 2 > C & > EC 5hih is a#so .no5n as a Be&o ,eto&
*&. > & > *&.
*D+& > & D &
Nector &ddition
A B
A
A
B
B
A
-A
B = A
The a%%ition of t5o ,eto&sC & an% 2
6 5i## &es$#t in a thi&% ,eto&C B a##e% the &es$#tant
B E & P 2
Geo'et&ia##y *t&ian"#e 'etho% of a%%ition+
2$t the tai#6en% of 2 at the to26en% of &
B onnets the tai#6en% of & to the to26en% of 2
7e an a&&an"e the ,eto&s as 5e #i.eC as #on" as 5e 'aintain thei& #en"th an% %i&etion
More than two vectorsO
x
1
x
5
x
4
x
3
x
2
x
i
x
i
= x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
A
B
C
Nector 'ubtraction$
It is e<$i,a#ent to a%%in" the ne"ati,e ,eto&s.
;ules of Nector &ddition
Bommutative
A
-B
A - B
B
A - B C =
A + (-B) C =
A + B = B + A
A
B
A + B
B
A
A + B
&ssociative
5istributive
Parallelogram method of addition )tail%to%tail.
The 'a"nit$%e of the &es$#tant %e2en%s on the &e#ati,e %i&etions of the ,eto&s
Unit Nectors
A :eto& 5hose 'a"nit$%e is 1 an% %i'ension#ess.
The 'a"nit$%e of eah $nit ,eto& e<$a#s a $nityC that is
Useful e!amples for the Bartesian unit vectors K i1 71 & L
6 they 2oint in the %i&etion of the xC y an% z a1es &es2eti,e#y
Bomponent of a vector in :%5$
A ,eto& & an !e &eso#,e% into t5o o'2onents
A1 an% Ay
The o'2onent of & a&e)
V&!V E &! E & cos M
V&yV E &y E & sin M
The 'a"nit$%e of &$
: :
% y
+
The %i&etion of &$
tan
y
%
*
tan
y
%
,
The $nit ,eto& notation fo& the ,eto& A is 5&itten
& E &!i P &y"
Bomponent of vector in C%5$
A ,eto& & an !e &eso#,e% into th&ee o'2onents &! , &y an% &0.
& E &!i P &y" P &0k
If
5ot Product ) 'calar . of two vectors$
If H > IEE *no&'a# ,eto&s+ then the %ot 2&o%$t is Be&o.
JA K /J > A/ os IE > E and i W " E " W k E i W k E <
if H > EE *2a&a##e# ,eto&s+ it "ets its 'a1i'$' ,a#$e of 1
JA K /J > A/ os E > 1 and i W " E " W k E i W k E *
The %ot 2&o%$t is o''$tati,e.
Use the %ist&i!$ti,e #a5 to e,a#$ate the %ot 2&o%$t if the o'2onents a&e
.no5n.
Bross product ) vector. of two vectors$
The 'a"nit$%e of the &oss 2&o%$t is "i,en !y
The ,eto& 2&o%$t &eates a ne5 ,eto&.
This ,eto& is no&'a# to the 2#ane %efine% !y the o&i"ina# ,eto&s an% its
%i&etion is fo$n% !y $sin" the &i"ht han% &$#e.
If H > EE *2a&a##e# ,eto&s+ then the &oss 2&o%$t is Be&o.
If H > IEE *no&'a# ,eto&s+ it "ets its 'a1i'$' ,a#$e.
The &e#ationshi2 !et5een ,eto&s i C - an% . an !e %es&i!e% as
i 1 - > 6 - 1 i > .
- 1 . > 6 . 1 - > i
. 1 i > 6 i 1 . > -
The &es$#tant has a 'a"nit$%e A D / 5hen A is o&iente% in the sa'e %i&etion as /.
The &es$#tant ,eto& A D / > E 5hen A is o&iente% in the %i&etion o22osite to /C an%
5hen A > /
3o. The magnitude of a vector & is e#ual to X)&
!
:
P &
y
:
P&
0
:
..Therefore, if any
component is non0ero, & cannot be 0ero. Proof of this generali0ation of the Pythagorean
theorem.
BE >+.: km
& E %2, therefore the components of the two vectors must have opposite sings and e#ual
magnitudes.
Tan M E ;
y
8 ;
!
E )&
!
P 2
y
. 8 )&
!
P 2
!
.
1.L MEASUREMENTS AND ERRORS
Te&'ino#o"y)
True value standard or reference of known value or a theoretical value
&ccuracy closeness to the true value
Precision reproducibility or agreement with each other for multiple trials
Ty2es of E&&o&s
i. Syste'ati e&&o&s
'ometimes called bias due to error in one direction% high or low
9nown cause
Dperator
@rong calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument
@hen it is determined, it can be corrected
May be of a constant or proportional nature
ii. Ran%o' e&&o&s
Bannot be determined )no control over.
;andom nature causes both high and low values which will average out
Multiple trials help to minimi0e
A$&ay an% P&eision
The Une&tainty)
4!ample$
True value of thickness of a book is ?cm.
'tudent & uses meter ruler and measures the thickness to be >.,cm with an
uncertainty of <.*cm.
'tudent 2 , with Nernier caliper, found it to be >.+?cm with an uncertainty of <.<*cm.
@e may say,
'tudent & has 'o&e a$&ate value, but #ess 2&eise.
'tudent 2 got a 'o&e 2&eise value, but #ess a$&ate )due to the faulty caliper. Un%
calibrate U.
6owever, after sending the caliper to be calibrated, student 2 performs the
measurement again and found the thickness is >.,+cm. 'o, now he has more accurate and
more precise value.
3ote$ @e always report a measurement in a way that would includes the uncertainty
carried by the instrument.
Co'!inin" $ne&tainties D an% 6
&dding or subtracting #uantities then sum all individual absolute uncertainties
:.* Y <.* P :.< Y <.: E >.* Y <.C
:.* Y <.* % :.< Y <.: E <.* Y <.C
This method overestimates the final uncertainty.
Co'!inin" $ne&tainties 1 an% Z
@hen 5ividing or multiplying #uantities, then sum all of the individual relative uncertainties
):.? Y <.*. ! )?.< Y <.*.
E ):.? Y >[. ! )?.* Y :[. E*:.? Y -[ )or <.A? or <.A.
):* Y -[. 8 )?.< Y >[.
E >.*: Y *<[ or >.: Y <.>: or >.: Y <.>
6owever it will overestimate final uncertainty.
The Si"nifiant fi"$&es
The number of 'ignificant figures of a numerical #uantity is the number of reliably known
digits it contains.
7or measured #uantity, it is defined as all of the digits that can be read directly from the
instrument used in making the measurement plus one uncertain digit that is obtained by
estimating the fraction of the smallest division of the instrument/s scale.
3ote$ 4!act #uantities are considered as having unlimited number of significant figures. @e
need to be concerned with significant figures only when dealing with measurements that
have re#uired some estimation.
7or e!ample,
;eading of the thickness of a book is
?.<cm or ?<mm from meter ruler )with : sf.
?.<<cm or ?<.< mm from vernier caliper. )with C sf.
The &$#es of si"nifiant fi"$&es$
*. &ny figure that is non%0ero, is considered as a significant figure.
:. \eros at the beginning of a number are not significant
4!ample$ <.:?> %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% C s.f
C. \eros within a number are significant.
4!ample$ *<>.- m %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% > s.f
>. \eros at the end of a number after the decimal point are significant.
4!ample$ :A<?<.< %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% - s.f
?. \eros at the end of a whole number without a decimal point may or may not be significant.
It depends on how that particular number was obtained, using what kind of instrument, and
the uncertainty involved.
4!ample$ ?<<m %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% could be * or C sf.
Bonvert the unit$
?<<m E <.?km ) * sf .
?<<m E ?< <<<cm ) ? sf .
A%%ition an% S$!t&ation 2&oesses
The rule$
The final result of an addition and8or subtraction should have the same number of significant
figures as the #uantity with the least number of decimal places used in the calculation.
4!ample$
:C.* P >? P <.-+ P *<< E *-,
4!ample$
:C.? P <.?-A P <.+? E :>.,
M$#ti2#iation an% %i,ision 2&oesses
The rule$
The final result of an multiplication and8or division should have the same number of
significant figures as the #uantity with the least number of significant figures used in the
calculation.
4!ample$
<.?+- ! C.> E *.,,:>
E :.<
4!ample$
*C.,< 8 <.?+< E :C.,-?? E :>.<
Esti'atin" the s#o2e
1. Si'2#e onse&,ati,e 'etho%
Plot error bars on the graph
5raw ma!imum )m
ma!
. and minimum )m
min
. slopes.
The simplest method is to plot the data )and associated error bars. and draw : lines through
the points. Dne with a ma!iumum slope that still manages to go through all of the error bars
and one with the minimum slope that does likewise.
The average slope and uncertainty on the slope are given above.
This is a very simple method but usually overestimates the uncertainty especially if the data
is reasonably linear to start with and the error bars are large.