Solar power

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about generation of electricity using solar energy. For other uses of solar
energy, see Solar energy.


The first three units of Spain's Solnova Solar Power Station in the foreground, with the PS10
and PS20 solar power towers in the background


Solar PV power generation in Hong Kong
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics
(PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems
use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam.
Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect.
[1]

Photovoltaics were initially, and still are, used to power small and medium-sized
applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to off-grid homes powered by
a photovoltaic array. They are an important and relatively inexpensive source of electrical
energy where grid power is inconvenient, unreasonably expensive to connect, or simply
unavailable. However, as the cost of solar electricity is falling, solar power is also
increasingly being used even in grid-connected situations as a way to feed low-carbon energy
into the grid.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW
ISEGS CSP installation is the largest solar power plant in the world, located in the Mojave
Desert of California. Other large CSP plants include the SEGS (354 MW) in the Mojave
Desert of California, the Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW) and the Andasol solar
power station (150 MW), both in Spain. The 290 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project in the
United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the worlds largest
photovoltaic power stations.
Contents
[hide]
1 Concentrated solar power
2 Photovoltaics
o 2.1 Photovoltaic power systems
3 Development and deployment
o 3.1 Photovoltaic power stations
o 3.2 Concentrating solar thermal power
4 Economics
o 4.1 Energy cost
o 4.2 Grid parity
o 4.3 Self Consumption
o 4.4 Energy pricing and incentives
5 Environmental impacts
o 5.1 Greenhouse gases
o 5.2 Energy payback
o 5.3 Cadmium
6 Energy storage methods
7 Experimental solar power
8 See also
9 References
10 Sources
11 Further reading


Concentrated solar power


A diagram of a parabolic trough solar farm (top), and an end view of how a parabolic
collector focuses sunlight onto its focal point.
Further information: Solar thermal energy and Concentrated solar power
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus
a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source
for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists: the most
developed are the parabolic trough
[discuss]
, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the
Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the sun and
focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and
is then used for power generation or energy storage.
[2]
Thermal storage efficiently allows up
to 24 hour electricity generation.
[3]

A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a
receiver positioned along the reflector's focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right
above the middle of the parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid. The reflector is
made to follow the sun during daylight hours by tracking along a single axis. Parabolic trough
systems provide the best land-use factor of any solar technology.
[4]
The SEGS plants in
California and Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada are representatives of
this technology.
[5][6]

Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP-plants which use many thin mirror strips instead
of parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid. This has the
advantage that flat mirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors, and
that more reflectors can be placed in the same amount of space, allowing more of the
available sunlight to be used. Concentrating linear fresnel reflectors can be used in either
large or more compact plants.
[7][8]

The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which
normally drives an electric generator. The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells
are higher efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime. Parabolic dish
systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies.
[9]
The 50 kW Big Dish in
Canberra, Australia is an example of this technology.
[5]

A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors (heliostats) to concentrate light on a
central receiver atop a tower. Power towers are more cost effective, offer higher efficiency
and better energy storage capability among CSP technologies.
[5]
The PS10 Solar Power Plant
and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this technology.
Photovoltaics
Main article: Photovoltaics


The 71.8 MW Lieberose Photovoltaic Park in Germany.
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current
using the photovoltaic effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the
1880s.
[10]
The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who
recognized the importance of this discovery.
[11]
In 1931, the German engineer Bruno Lange
developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide,
[12]
although the
prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity. Following
the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl
Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954.
[13]
These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt
and reached efficiencies of 4.56%.
[14]

Photovoltaic power systems
Main article: Photovoltaic system


Simplified schematics of a grid-connected residential PV power system
[15]

Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power which fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity.
For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating
current (AC), through the use of inverters.
[15]
Multiple solar cells are connected inside
modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces
power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desired frequency/phase.
[15]

Many residential systems are connected to the grid wherever available, especially in
developed countries with large markets.
[16]
In these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy
storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing
countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups. Such stand-
alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight.
Development and deployment
See also: Solar power by country and Growth of photovoltaics
Electricity Generation from Solar
[17]

Year Energy (TWh) % of Total
2005 3.7 0.02%
2006 5.0 0.03%
2007 6.7 0.03%
2008 11.2 0.06%
2009 19.1 0.09%
2010 30.4 0.14%
2011 58.7 0.27%
2012 93.0 0.41%
The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an
expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar
technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability,
economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.
[18]
In 1974 it was estimated that only six private
homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power
systems.
[19]
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy
policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar
technologies.
[20][21]
Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal
Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts
included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO),
and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).
[22]

Between 1970 and 1983 photovoltaic installations grew rapidly, but falling oil prices in the
early 1980s moderated the growth of PV from 1984 to 1996. Since 1997, PV development
has accelerated due to supply issues with oil and natural gas, global warming concerns, and
the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies.
[23]
Photovoltaic
production growth has averaged 40% per year since 2000 and installed capacity reached
39.8 GW at the end of 2010,
[24]
of them 17.4 GW in Germany. As of October 2011, the
largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant
(Canada, 97 MW), Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Station (Italy, 84.2 MW) and
Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW).
[25]



Solar photovoltaic installation in Germany (MW) plotted against 58% growth curve
There are also many large plants under construction. The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550
MW solar power plant under construction in Riverside County, California, that will use thin-
film solar photovoltaic modules made by First Solar.
[26]
The Topaz Solar Farm is a 550 MW
photovoltaic power plant, being built in San Luis Obispo County, California.
[27]
The Blythe
Solar Power Project is a 500 MW photovoltaic station under construction in Riverside
County, California. The Agua Caliente Solar Project is a 290 megawatt photovoltaic solar
generating facility being built in Yuma County, Arizona. The California Valley Solar Ranch
(CVSR) is a 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic power plant, which is being built by
SunPower in the Carrizo Plain, northeast of California Valley.
[28]
The 230 MW Antelope
Valley Solar Ranch is a First Solar photovoltaic project which is under construction in the
Antelope Valley area of the Western Mojave Desert, and due to be completed in 2013.
[29]

At the end of September 2013, IKEA announced that solar panel packages for houses will be
sold at 17 United Kingdom IKEA stores by the end of July 2014. The decision followed a
successful pilot project at the Lakeside IKEA store, whereby one photovoltaic (PV) system
was sold almost every day. The panels are manufactured by a Chinese company named
Hanergy Holding Group Ltd.
[30]

Photovoltaic power stations
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
World's largest photovoltaic power stations (50 MW or larger)
[25]

PV power station Country
DC peak
power
(MW
p
)
Notes
Topaz Solar Farm
[31]
USA 375 550 MW when complete
Agua Caliente Solar
Project
[32]

USA 290 397 MW when complete
Charanka Solar Park
[33][34]
India 221 Completed 2012
Golmud Solar
Park
[25][35][36][37]

China 200 Completed 2011
Mesquite Solar project USA 150 up to 700 MW when complete
Neuhardenberg Solar
Park
[25][38]

Germany 145
Completed September 2012. A group of 11
co-located plant by the same developer
[39]

but with different IPPs
Templin Solar Park
[25][40]
Germany 128.48 Completed September 2012
Toul-Rosires Solar Park
[41]
France 115 Completed November 2012
Perovo Solar Park
[42]
Ukraine 100 Completed 2011
Sarnia Photovoltaic Power
Plant
[43]

Canada 97
[25]
Constructed 20092010
[44]

Montalto di Castro
Photovoltaic Power
Station
[25]

Italy 84.2 Constructed 20092010
Finsterwalde Solar
Park
[45][46]

Germany 80.7
Phase I completed 2009, phase II and III
2010
Okhotnykovo Solar Park Ukraine 80 Completed 2011
Solarpark Senftenberg
[25][47]
Germany 78
Phase II and III completed 2011, another 70
MW phase planned
Lieberose Photovoltaic
Park
[48][49]

Germany 71.8

Rovigo Photovoltaic Power
Plant
[50][51]

Italy 70 Completed November 2010
Olmedilla Photovoltaic
Park
Spain 60 Completed September 2008
Strasskirchen Solar Park Germany 54

Puertollano Photovoltaic
Park
Spain 50 opened 2008
Concentrating solar thermal power
Main article: List of solar thermal power stations


Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all three towers under load during February
2014, with the Clark Mountain Range seen in the distance.


Part of the 354 MW Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) parabolic trough solar
complex in northern San Bernardino County, California.
Commercial concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) plants were first developed in the
1980s. The 370 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in California's Mojave Desert, is
the worlds largest solar thermal power plant project. Other large CSP plants include the
Solnova Solar Power Station (150 MW), the Andasol solar power station (150 MW), and
Extresol Solar Power Station (100 MW), all in Spain.
The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage, allowing the
dispatching of electricity over up to a 24-hour period. Since peak electricity demand typically
occurs at about 5 pm, many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage.
[52]

Largest operational solar thermal power stations
Capacity
(MW)
Name Country Location Notes
354
Solar Energy
Generating Systems
USA
Mojave Desert
California
Collection of 9 units
280
Solana Generating
Station
USA
Gila Bend,
Arizona
Completed in October 2013, with 6h
thermal energy storage
[53][54]

200
Solaben Solar
Power Station
[55]

Spain
Logrosn
Solaben 3 completed June 2012
[56]

Solaben 2 completed October
2012
[56]

Solaben 1 and 6 completed
September 2013
[57]

150
Solnova Solar
Power Station
Spain
Seville
Completed 2010
[58][59][60]

150
Andasol solar
power station
Spain
Granada
completed 2011, with 7.5h thermal
energy storage
[61][62]

150
Extresol Solar
Power Station
Spain
Torre de
Miguel
Sesmero
Extresol 1 completed February 2010
Extresol 2 completed December
2010
Extresol 3 completed August 2012,
with 7.5h thermal energy
storage
[56][63][64]

100
Palma del Rio Solar
Power Station
Spain
Palma del Ro
Palma del Rio 2 completed
December 2010
[56]

Palma del Rio 1 completed July
2011
[56]

100
Manchasol Power
Station
Spain
Alczar de San
Juan
Manchasol-1 completed January
2011, with 7.5h heat storage
[56]

Manchasol-2 completed April 2011,
with 7.5h heat storage
[56]

100
Valle Solar Power
Station
Spain
San Jos del
Valle
Completed December 2011, with
7.5h heat storage
[56][65]

100
Helioenergy Solar
Power Station
Spain
cija
Helioenergy 1 completed September
2011
[66][67]

Helioenergy 2 completed January
2012
[56][66][67]

100 Aste Solar Power Alczar de San Aste 1A Completed January 2012,
Station Spain Juan with 8h heat storage
[56]

Aste 1B Completed January 2012,
with 8h heat storage
[56]

100
Solacor Solar
Power Station
Spain
El Carpio
Solacor 1 completed February
2012
[56]

Solacor 2 completed March
2012
[56][68]

100
Helios Solar Power
Station
Spain
Puerto Lpice
Helios 1 completed May 2012
[56]

Helios 2 completed August 2012
[56]

Economics


Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world
primary energy supply with solar electricity (18 TW or 568 Exajoule, EJ, per year).
Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m
2
or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/(m
2
day).


Projection of levelized cost of PV energy in Europe.
[69]



US average daily solar energy insolation received by an optimally latitude-tilted fixed
photovoltaic cell.


European average kWh produced per year for an optimally latitude-tilted fixed photovoltaic
kW(peak) array
[70]

Photovoltaic systems use no fuel and modules typically last 25 to 40 years. The cost of
installation is almost the only cost, as there is very little maintenance required. Installation
cost is measured in $/watt or /watt. The electricity generated is sold for /kWh. 1 watt of
installed photovoltaics generates roughly 1 to 2 kWh/year, as a result of the local insolation.
The product of the local cost of electricity and the insolation determines the break even point
for solar power. The International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments, organized
by EPIA, has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years.
[71]
As a
result, since 2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in
return for a long term power purchase agreement. Fifty percent of commercial systems were
installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90% by 2009.
[72]

As of 2011, the cost of PV has fallen well below that of nuclear power and is set to fall
further. The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from
$3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011, and a decline to prices below $2.00/watt
seems inevitable:
[73]



Economic photovoltaic capacity vs installation cost, in the United States.
A U.S. study of the amount of economic installations agrees closely with the actual
installations.
For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00/watt are now common. In some locations,
PV has reached grid parity, the cost at which it is competitive with coal or gas-fired
generation. More generally, it is now evident that, given a carbon price of $50/ton, which
would raise the price of coal-fired power by 5c/kWh, solar PV will be cost-competitive in
most locations. The declining price of PV has been reflected in rapidly growing installations,
totalling about 23 GW in 2011. Although some consolidation is likely in 2012, as firms try to
restore profitability, strong growth seems likely to continue for the rest of the decade.
Already, by one estimate, total investment in renewables for 2011 exceeded investment in
carbon-based electricity generation.
[73]

Additionally, governments have created various financial incentives to encourage the use of
solar power, such as feed-in tariff programs. Also, Renewable portfolio standards impose a
government mandate that utilities generate or acquire a certain percentage of renewable
power regardless of increased energy procurement costs. In most states, RPS goals can be
achieved by any combination of solar, wind, biomass, landfill gas, ocean, geothermal,
municipal solid waste, hydroelectric, hydrogen, or fuel cell technologies.
[74]

Shi Zhengrong has said that, as of 2012, unsubsidised solar power is already competitive with
fossil fuels in India, Hawaii, Italy and Spain. He said "We are at a tipping point. No longer
are renewable power sources like solar and wind a luxury of the rich. They are now starting
to compete in the real world without subsidies". "Solar power will be able to compete without
subsidies against conventional power sources in half the world by 2015".
[75]

Energy cost
The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy (LCOE) as the unit of cost.
For a 10 MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to 0.22/kWh in 2005.
[76]

The table below illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kilowatt-hour of
electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the
efficiency, assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation
period. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a
photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy
output in kilowatt-hours expected from each installed peak kilowatt. This varies by
geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the
thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun
relative to the panel and the horizon.
Panels can be mounted at an angle based on latitude,
[77]
or solar tracking can be utilized to
access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The
calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kilowatt-hour produced. They
assume a 5%/year total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and
maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years).
[show]Extended content
Table showing average cost in cents/kWh over 20 years for solar power panels

Insolation
Cost
2400
kWh/
kWpy
2200
kWh/
kWpy
2000
kWh/
kWpy
1800
kWh/
kWpy
1600
kWh/
kWpy
1400
kWh/kWpy
1200
kWh/kWpy
1000
kWh/kWpy
800
kWh/kWpy
200
$/kWp
0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.7 2.0 2.5
600
$/kWp
2.5 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.0 7.5
1000
$/kWp
4.2 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.1 8.3 10.0 12.5
1400
$/kWp
5.8 6.4 7.0 7.8 8.8 10.0 11.7 14.0 17.5
1800
$/kWp
7.5 8.2 9.0 10.0 11.3 12.9 15.0 18.0 22.5
2200
$/kWp
9.2 10.0 11.0 12.2 13.8 15.7 18.3 22.0 27.5
2600
$/kWp
10.8 11.8 13.0 14.4 16.3 18.6 21.7 26.0 32.5
3000
$/kWp
12.5 13.6 15.0 16.7 18.8 21.4 25.0 30.0 37.5
3400
$/kWp
14.2 15.5 17.0 18.9 21.3 24.3 28.3 34.0 42.5
3800
$/kWp
15.8 17.3 19.0 21.1 23.8 27.1 31.7 38.0 47.5
4200
$/kWp
17.5 19.1 21.0 23.3 26.3 30.0 35.0 42.0 52.5
4600
$/kWp
19.2 20.9 23.0 25.6 28.8 32.9 38.3 46.0 57.5
5000
$/kWp
20.8 22.7 25.0 27.8 31.3 35.7 41.7 50.0 62.5

Grid parity
Main article: Grid parity
Grid parity, the point at which the cost of photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than
the price of grid power, is more easily achieved in areas with abundant sun and high costs for
electricity such as in California and Japan.
[78]

The fully loaded cost (cost not price) of solar electricity in 2008 was $0.25/kWh or less in
most of the OECD countries. By late 2011, the fully loaded cost was predicted to fall below
$0.15/kWh for most of the OECD and reach $0.10/kWh in sunnier regions. These cost levels
are driving three emerging trends:
[79]

1. vertical integration of the supply chain;
2. origination of power purchase agreements (PPAs) by solar power companies;
3. unexpected risk for traditional power generation companies, grid operators and wind
turbine manufacturers.
Grid parity was first reached in Spain in 2013,
[80]
Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use
fossil fuel (diesel fuel) to produce electricity, and most of the US is expected to reach grid
parity by 2015.
[81][82]

General Electric's Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the
United States by around 2015. Other companies predict an earlier date:
[83]
the cost of solar
power will be below grid parity for more than half of residential customers and 10% of
commercial customers in the OECD, as long as grid electricity prices do not decrease through
2010.
[79]

Self Consumption
In cases of self consumption of the solar energy the payback time is calculated based on how
much electricity is not purchased from the grid.
For example in Germany with electricity prices of 0.25 Euro/KWh and insolation of 900
KWh/KW one KWp will save 225 Euro per year, and with an installation cost of 1700
Euro/KWp the system cost will be returned in less than 7 years.
[84]

However, in many cases, the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide, and
some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid; the electricity is sold, and at other times
energy is taken from the grid, electricity is bought. The relative costs and prices obtained
affect the economics.
Energy pricing and incentives
Main article: PV financial incentives

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (May 2014)
The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to facilitate an initial small-scale
deployment to begin to grow the industry, even where the cost of PV is significantly above
grid parity, to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid
parity. The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job
creation and reduction of CO
2
emissions.
Three incentive mechanisms are used (often in combination):
investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the
system,
Feed-in Tariffs (FIT): the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer
under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate.
Solar Renewable Energy Certificates ("SRECs")
Rebates
With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in
tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customer bases. While the investment
subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the
encouragement of quality. Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate
capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time, thus
rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance. Some
electric companies offer rebates to their customers, such as Austin Energy in Texas, which
offers $2.50/watt installed up to $15,000.
[85]

Net metering
Main article: Net metering


Net metering, unlike a feed-in tariff, requires only one meter, but it must be bi-directional.
In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the
consumer, and the consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption.
Net metering can usually be done with no changes to standard electricity meters, which
accurately measure power in both directions and automatically report the difference, and
because it allows homeowners and businesses to generate electricity at a different time from
consumption, effectively using the grid as a giant storage battery. With net metering, deficits
are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the following month. Best practices
call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits.
[86]
Excess credits upon termination of service are
either lost, or paid for at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above, as can be
excess annual credits. In New Jersey, annual excess credits are paid at the wholesale rate, as
are left over credits when a customer terminates service.
[87]

Feed-in Tariffs (FiT)
With feed-in tariffs, the financial burden falls upon the consumer. They reward the number of
kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time, but because the rate is set by the
authorities, it may result in perceived overpayment. The price paid per kilowatt-hour under a
feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity. Net metering refers to the case where the
price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.
Solar Renewable Energy Credits (SRECs)
Alternatively, SRECs allow for a market mechanism to set the price of the solar generated
electricity subsity. In this mechanism, a renewable energy production or consumption target
is set, and the utility (more technically the Load Serving Entity) is obliged to purchase
renewable energy or face a fine (Alternative Compliance Payment or ACP). The producer is
credited for an SREC for every 1,000 kWh of electricity produced. If the utility buys this
SREC and retires it, they avoid paying the ACP. In principle this system delivers the cheapest
renewable energy, since the all solar facilities are eligible and can be installed in the most
economic locations. Uncertainties about the future value of SRECs have led to long-term
SREC contract markets to give clarity to their prices and allow solar developers to pre-
sell/hedge their SRECs.
Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries, including Australia, China,
[88]

Germany,
[89]
Israel,
[90]
Japan, and the United States and even across states within the US.
The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a
successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the
world in installed PV capacity with over 1.1 GW.
[91]

In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a
law known as the 'EEG' (Erneuerbare Energien Gesetz) which resulted in explosive growth of
PV installations in Germany. At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the
industrial price. The principle behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The
value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order to encourage the
industry to pass on lower costs to the end users. The programme has been more successful
than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006, and political pressure is mounting to
decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers.
Subsequently, Spain, Italy, Greece (who enjoyed an early success with domestic solar-
thermal installations for hot water needs) and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None have
replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German
incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries. The French and
Greek FIT offer a high premium (EUR 0.55/kWh) for building integrated systems. California,
Greece, France and Italy have 30-50% more insolation than Germany making them
financially more attractive. The Greek domestic "solar roof" programme (adopted in June
2009 for installations up to 10 kW) has internal rates of return of 10-15% at current
commercial installation costs, which, furthermore, is tax free.
In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment
subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems. The small-
system FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the
alternate "EPBB" residential investment incentive is modest, averaging perhaps 20% of cost.
All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of
the amount of PV capacity installed.
At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (OPA, Canada) began its Standard Offer
Program (SOP), the first in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This
guarantees a fixed price of $0.42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years. Unlike net
metering, all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. The generator then
purchases any needed electricity at the current prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055 per kWh). The
difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract.
On 1 October 2009, OPA issued a Feed-in Tariff (FIT) program, increasing this fixed price to
$0.802 per kWh.
[92]

The price per kilowatt hour or per peak kilowatt of the FIT or investment subsidies is only
one of three factors that stimulate the installation of PV. The other two factors are insolation
(the more sunshine, the less capital is needed for a given power output) and administrative
ease of obtaining permits and contracts.
Unfortunately the complexity of approvals in California, Spain and Italy has prevented
comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better.
In some countries, additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV.
France + EUR 0.16 /kWh (compared to semi-integrated) or + EUR 0.27/kWh
(compared to stand alone)
Italy + EUR 0.04-0.09 kWh
Germany + EUR 0.05/kWh (facades only)
Environmental impacts


Part of the 78 MW Phase 1 section of the photovoltaic Senftenberg Solarpark, located on
former open-pit mining areas in eastern Germany


A solar-powered trash compactor on a residential corner in Jersey City, New Jersey.
Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions
during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution.
Greenhouse gases
The Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 g/kWh
depending on if solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed, respectively. With this
potentially being decreased to 15 g/kWh in the future.
[93]
For comparison (of weighted
averages), a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400-599 g/kWh,
[94]
an oil-fired
power plant 893 g/kWh,
[94]
a coal-fired power plant 915-994 g/kWh
[95]
or with carbon capture
and storage some 200 g/kWh, and a geothermal high-temp. power plant 91-122 g/kWh.
[94]

The life cycle emission intensity of hydro, wind and nuclear power are lower than solar's as
of 2011 as published by the IPCC, and discussed in the article Life-cycle greenhouse-gas
emissions of energy sources. Similar to all energy sources were their total life cycle
emissions primarily lay in the construction and transportation phase, the switch to low carbon
power in the manufacturing and transportation of solar devices would further reduce carbon
emissions. BP Solar owns two factories built by Solarex (one in Maryland, the other in
Virginia) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar
panels. A 1-kilowatt system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal, 300
pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere, and saves up to 105
gallons of water consumption monthly.
[96]

Energy payback
The energy payback time of a power generating system is the time required to generate as
much energy as was consumed during production of the system. In 2000 the energy payback
time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years
[97]
and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1.5
to 3.5 years for crystalline silicon PV systems
[93]
and 1-1.5 years for thin film technologies
(S. Europe).
[93]

Another economic measure, closely related to the energy payback time, is the energy returned
on energy invested (EROEI) or energy return on investment (EROI),
[98]
which is the ratio of
electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment.
(This is not the same as the economic return on investment (ROI), which varies according to
local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques.) With lifetimes of at least 30
years
[citation needed]
, the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30, thus generating
enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times (6-31 reproductions)
depending on what type of material, balance of system (BOS), and the geographic location of
the system.
[99]

Cadmium
One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in cadmium telluride solar
cells (CdTe is only used in a few types of PV panels). Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic
substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of
cadmium used in thin-film PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m) and with proper
emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be
almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 microgram/kWh
over the whole life-cycle.
[93]
Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal
power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much
higher emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1
microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh.
Note that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the
modules instead of electricity from burning coal, cadmium emissions from coal power usage
in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated.
[100]

Energy storage methods
Main articles: Grid energy storage and V2G


The 150 MW Andasol solar power station is a commercial parabolic trough solar thermal
power plant, located in Spain. The Andasol plant uses tanks of molten salt to store solar
energy so that it can continue generating electricity even when the sun isn't shining.
[101]



This energy park in Geesthacht, Germany, includes solar panels and pumped-storage
hydroelectricity.


Seasonal variation of the output of the solar panels at AT&T Park in San Francisco
Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to
provide the continuous availability of energy.
[102]
Both wind power and solar power are
intermittent energy sources, meaning that all available output must be taken when it is
available and either stored for when it can be used, or transported, over transmission lines, to
where it can be used.
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity.
With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid. Net metering
and feed-in tariff programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they produce. This
credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand,
effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism. Credits are normally rolled over from
month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually.
[103]
When wind and solar are a
small fraction of the grid power, other generation techniques can adjust their output
appropriately, but as these forms of variable power grow, this becomes less practical.
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective
storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver
heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this
method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m storage tank, enough to
provide full output for close to 39 hours, with an efficiency of about 99%.
[104]

Conventional hydroelectricity works very well in conjunction with intermittent electricity
sources such as solar and wind, the water can be held back and allowed to flow as required
with virtually no energy loss. Where a suitable river is not available, pumped-storage
hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus electricity is
available, from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered
when demand is high by releasing the water: the pump becomes a turbine, and the motor a
hydroelectric power generator.
[105]
However, this loses some of the energy to pumpage losses.
Artificial photosynthesis involves the use of nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic
energy in chemical bonds, by splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel or then combining
with carbon dioxide to make biopolymers such as methanol. Many large national and regional
research projects on artificial photosynthesis are now trying to develop techniques integrating
improved light capture, quantum coherence methods of electron transfer and cheap catalytic
materials that operate under a variety of atmospheric conditions.
[106]
Senior researchers in the
field have made the public policy case for a Global Project on Artificial Photosynthesis to
address critical energy security and environmental sustainability issues.
[107]

Wind power and solar power tend to be somewhat complementary, as there tends to be more
wind in the winter and more sun in the summer, but on days with no sun and no wind the
difference needs to be made up in some manner.
[108]
Solar power is seasonal, particularly in
northern/southern climates, away from the equator, suggesting a need for long term seasonal
storage in a medium such as hydrogen. The storage requirements vary and in some cases can
be met with biomass.
[109]
The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University
of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to
provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.
[110]

Experimental solar power
See also: Space-based solar power


Concentrating photovoltaics in Catalonia, Spain


Nellis Solar Power Plant, a 14 MW power plant in Nevada, United States
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic
surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production. Solar concentrators of all varieties
may be used, and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point
upon the cell as the sun moves across the sky.
[111]
Luminescent solar concentrators (when
combined with a PV-solar cell) can also be regarded as a CPV system. Concentrated
photovoltaics are useful as they can improve efficiency of PV-solar panels drastically.
[112]

Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between
dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar energy
by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s,
[113]
thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet Union
during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a concentrating system
was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.
[114]
Thermogenerators, but
in the following cases powered by the heat source plutonium-238 in radioisotope
thermoelectric generators are used in the US space program as an energy conversion
technology for powering deep space missions such as the Mars Curiosity rover, Cassini,
Galileo and Viking. Research in this area of thermogenerators, which can use any heat
source, is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to 1520%.
[115]

Physicists have claimed that recent technological developments bring the cost of solar energy
more in parity with that of fossil fuels. In 2007, David Faiman, the director of the Ben-Gurion
National Solar Energy Center of Israel, announced that the Center had entered into a project
with Zenith Solar to create a home solar energy system that uses a 10 square meter reflector
dish.
[116]
In testing, the concentrated solar technology proved to be up to five times more cost
effective than standard flat photovoltaic silicon panels, which would make it almost the same
cost as oil and natural gas.
[117]
A prototype ready for commercialization achieved a
concentration of solar energy that was more than 1,000 times greater than standard flat
panels.
[

Solar power systems - clean electricity
from the sun

Solar energy is the cleanest and greenest source of renewable energy generated electricity available to
help power your home, business or community building - and nowadays the cheapest too!

When you install solar panels, you'll not only slash your carbon emissions and your electricity bill, you'll be
joining Australia's energy security revolution.






Grid connect solar power
systems
Grid connect systems tie in with your existing home electricity supply, ensuring
you have all the electricity you need 24/7, regardless of weather conditions and
the time of day or night.

View our solar power system specials
Get free instant solar quotes online!
Learn more about grid connect solar power systems and rebates



Off grid solar -remote power
systems
Too expensive or too remote to get mains power? An off grid system can be a
much more economical solution, even over the short term. We offer a full range
of stand-alone equipment at the very best prices!

Off grid/stand alone power systems and applicable rebates
Design a remote renewable energy system



Commercial and Medium scale
solar
Our commercial projects arm focuses on delivering the best mid-scale solar
system products for customers across Australia. Whether you're a commercial
enterprise or a community group, we can help make your rooftop pay!

More info about commercial solar power solutions



Solar hot water
By installing a flat plate or evacuated tube hot water system you can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and save up to 75% of your water heating costs, a
major contributor to household emissions - courtesy of the sun!

More info about solar hot water and applicable rebates
Get a free solar hot water quote
Solar hot water products



Solar hydronics/thermal
Hydronics refers to the use of water as a heat transfer medium in heating and
cooling systems - a hydronics system gets its energy provided free by the sun
and is particularly well suited to commercial applications.

More information about solar thermal technology
Solar thermal home heating
Commercial hydronics
Industrial hydronics



Solar water pumping
Solar pumping systems are widely used on farms and outback stations in
Australia to supply bore and surface sourced water to livestock in place of
high maintenance fossil fuel electricity generation based pumping.

Using solar power to pump water and applicable rebates
Pumping products
Design a water pumping system



Further information
Interested in learning more about solar power systems for your house or
commercial property? Try one of the links below. If you don't find what you're
looking for, please contact us!

Avoiding the tricks and traps when looking to buy a solar power
system.
Read more tips for choosing a system
Helpful tips for choosing solar panels
How solar power works and how solar panels are made



The availability and increasing uptake of residential rooftop systems shows exactly how versatile and viable
solar is as a source of energy for our electricity needs; particularly in a sun-drenched country such as
Australia. Solar energy will form the centrepiece of Australia's clean, renewable and distributed electricity
generation future.

The technology and the panels are becoming smaller, more economical, efficient and better looking than
ever. We also have various renewable energy rebates and incentives available in Australia, reducing the
initial investment outlay for generating electricity from your home or business rooftop substantially.

Different types of solar power

The two main types of solar power systems are grid connect and off grid (stand alone/remote power).

With a business or residential grid connect system, your house or property is still connected to the mains
power supply, so battery storage is not required. A grid connect installation ensures you have the electricity
you need, whenever you need it - automatically and regardless of conditions.

An off grid solar power system is completely separated from mains power and utilises a deep cycle battery
bank for storing electricity generated by solar panels. Off grid installations are most common in rural and
outback areas of Australia where the mains grid simply isn't available, or prohibitively expensive to connect
to.

Other applications for solar energy include hot water systems and solar powered pumping. Learn more
about each type above and don't hesitate to contact us - we have a team of friendly experts who can
recommend solar panels and other renewable energy products to suit your needs!
How Solar Power Works
AGL understands there are a lot of questions around how a solar PV system works. Let's start with
the basics. Just how is the suns energy converted to the electricity used at your property?
It's as simple as this:
1. When the sun is shining, the photo voltaic panels of a solar PV system capture sunlight and
convert it into direct current electricity.
2. The Solar PV system, using an inverter, then converts this electricity into 240V alternating
current electricity which you can use around your home.
3. Under a net feed-in system this electricity then gets distributed for use around your
property, and any excess electricity is fed into the electricity grid through your electricity
meter.
4. Under a gross feed-in system all of the electricity generated is fed into the electricity grid
through your electricity meter.
You can see how solar PV Systems work below.

The parts that make it all happen.
Sound simple enough so far? It's a mixture of technology and Mother Nature that makes using the
suns energy possible. The main element involved in the process is sunlight - the source of the
energy. This is harnessed by your solar power system, which is comprised of two main parts:
1. Solar panels - (also known as 'photovoltaic' or PV panels) - Used to capture the sunlight
and convert it into electricity.
2. An inverter - To convert the electricity generated by the solar panels into electricity that
can be used around your home, or fed into the electricity grid.
We're making it sound simple, but there is a technical side to it all.
The positives for you.
A solar PV system could help you save on your energy bill in the following two ways:
Less electricity from the grid means less on your bill - With solar PV system you
could draw less electricity from the grid, because the electricity you generate can be used
to help power your home.
Offset your bill further At times your solar PV system may generate more electricity
than your home requires. Depending on the state you live in, and the solar incentive
schemes available, you could receive a feed in tariff for every kWh of this excess electricity
you feed into the grid.
Whats the difference between solar power
and solar hot water?
You've probably heard of the terms 'solar PV system' and 'solar hot water system'. Its important
to understand the difference between the two, so you can choose the solar solution that works
best for you.
What is a solar power system?
Solar power is electricity generated from the sun's energy. With a solar power system,
photovoltaic (PV) panels harness sunlight to generate electricity. This power can then be used to
power the appliances in your home, or fed back into the electricity grid. Learn more about how
solar power works.
Solar power in action: Because a solar power system can help power your home, it could reduce
the amount of electricity you need to draw from the grid. And less from the grid can mean less on
your bill. And in some states, for every kWh of electricity in excess of what you use (that is fed
into the grid), you could receive a feed-in tariff back.
What is solar hot water system?
A solar hot water system uses the sun's natural heat to increase or maintain the temperature of
hot water in a tank. With solar hot water system the amount of gas or electricity that's normally
used in this process is reduced, while still maintaining a hot shower for you. Learn more about
solar hot water systems.
Solar hot water in action: With a solar hot water system, you can help reduce your energy bill,
as heating water can be one of the largest parts of a customers energy consumption.
Whatever your solar solution is, the benefits of both work in your favour:
A solar power system or solar hot water system could add value to your home.
And with both, youre doing your part to help the environment.
The sunthat power plant in the skybathes Earth in ample energy to fulfill all the
world's power needs many times over. It doesn't give off carbon dioxide emissions. It
won't run out. And it's free.
So how on Earth can people turn this bounty of sunbeams into useful electricity?
The sun's light (and all light) contains energy. Usually, when light hits an object the
energy turns into heat, like the warmth you feel while sitting in the sun. But when
light hits certain materials the energy turns into an electrical current instead, which we
can then harness for power.
Old-school solar technology uses large crystals made out of silicon, which produces
an electrical current when struck by light. Silicon can do this because the electrons in
the crystal get up and move when exposed to light instead of just jiggling in place to
make heat. The silicon turns a good portion of light energy into electricity, but it is
expensive because big crystals are hard to grow.
Newer materials use smaller, cheaper crystals, such as copper-indium-gallium-
selenide, that can be shaped into flexible films. This "thin-film" solar technology,
however, is not as good as silicon at turning light into electricity.
Right now, solar energy only accounts for a tiny portion of the U.S.'s total electricity
generation, because it is more expensive than alternatives like cheap but highly
polluting coal. Solar power is about five times as expensive as what people pay for the
current that comes out of the outlets.
In order to have a hope of replacing fossil fuels, scientists need to develop materials
that can be easily mass-produced and convert enough sunlight to electricity to be
worth the investment.
We asked Paul Alivisatos, deputy laboratory director at Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory in California and a leader of their Helios solar energy research project, to
explain how people capture energy from sunlight and how we can do it better.
[An edited transcript of the interview follows.]
What is a solar cell?
A solar cell is a device people can make that takes the energy of sunlight and converts
it into electricity.
How does a solar cell turn sunlight into electricity?
In a crystal, the bonds [between silicon atoms] are made of electrons that are shared
between all of the atoms of the crystal. The light gets absorbed, and one of the
electrons that's in one of the bonds gets excited up to a higher energy level and can
move around more freely than when it was bound. That electron can then move
around the crystal freely, and we can get a current.
Imagine that you have a ledge, like a shelf on the wall, and you take a ball and you
throw it up on that ledge. That's like promoting an electron to a higher energy level,
and it can't fall down. A photon [packet of light energy] comes in, and it bumps up the
electron onto the ledge [representing the higher energy level] and it stays there until
we can come and collect the energy [by using the electricity].
What's the biggest difference between how a plant captures light energy and how
we do it with solar cells?
We wish we could do what plants do because plants absorb the light, and [they use]
that electron to change a chemical bond inside the plant to actually make fuel.
Could you do artificial photosynthesis and emulate a plant?
We would love to be able to make a solar cell that instead of making electricity makes
fuel. That would be a very big advance. It's a very active topic right now among
researchers, but it's hard to predict when we will be able to use it.
One of the reasons we like to plant trees is because they take the CO
2
out of the air. If
we could do that [with a solar cell], then we could actually deal with global warming
problems even more directly because we'd be pulling the CO
2
out of the air to make
our fuel.
How good are current solar cells at capturing light energy?
So we can talk about the power efficiency. The power efficiency of a typical
crystalline silicon cell is in the 22 to 23 percent [range, meaning they convert as much
as 23 percent of the light striking them into electricity]. The ones that you typically
might be able to afford to put on your rooftop are lower than that, somewhere between
15 and 18 percent. The most efficient, like the ones that go on satellites, might have
power efficiencies approaching 50 percent.
The power efficiency is one measure, but the other thing that we're very concerned
about is the cost of making them and the scale of production.
In my opinion, the silicon technology doesn't scale [up] too well [because it's
expensive to make]. We need to invent some new technology, [which] may not be as
efficient, but you need to be able to make millions of acres of stuff if you want to get
a lot of energy. People are trying to use new materials like plastics and nanoparticles.
The total solar production in 2004 was around one thousandth of the total power
consumption of the U.S. It's just not enough. Something's gotta change. We're not
there yet. There's a lot of discoveries still to be made.
How solar power works
Enjoy a clean, safe energy system
Solar power can be used in your home with any surplus exported to the electricity grid. It emits no fumes, pollution or carbon dioxide.
Did you know that a solar power system can help you:
save money on your energy bill
generate your own electricity
get paid for any excess power you export back to the grid (if eligible)
add value to your home
reduce your greenhouse gas emissions
While the technology driving solar power is complex, the process of
converting sunlight to electricity is simple. Here's how it works.

The suns energy
The sun's energy is available to everyone. Solar power is still generated on cloudy or overcast
days, however at a reduced output. At night, when solar panels typically cant produce
enough electricity to meet your household needs, power is automatically drawn from the
electricity grid.
Solar panels

These roof-mounted panes contain photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells. When
sunlight falls on the cells they convert the suns energy into DC (direct current) power. Solar
panels typically produce energy for at least 25 years.
An inverter
Connected by a cable to the solar panels, the inverter converts the DC power to 240V AC
(alternating current), the type of electricity used in your home. On some inverters the digital
display provides statistics on how much power is being generated throughout the day.
A bi-directional electricity meter
Measures in half-hour blocks both the power you use and the power sent back to the grid. The
power you dont use can be sold back to the grid if youre eligible. This is called the feed-in
tariff, a rebate which depends on your electricity retailer and state.
The electricity grid
Any surplus energy your home generates is fed back into the grid for others to use; when you
need additional power, the grid provides this.
An electricity retailer
Thats us. Well chat to you about the best systems to suit your home, supply you with
everything you need to set up your own solar power system, and well help you install it. We
can also provide you with your new feed-in tariff electricity contract.
Take a look at our current solar limited offers to see how you can get solar, for less.
You've probably seen calculators with solar cells -- devices that never need batteries and in
some cases, don't even have an off button. As long as there's enough light, they seem to work
forever. You may also have seen larger solar panels, perhaps on emergency road signs, call
boxes, buoys and even in parking lots to power the lights.
Although these larger panels aren't as common as solar-powered calculators, they're out there
and not that hard to spot if you know where to look. In fact, photovoltaics -- which were
once used almost exclusively in space, powering satellites' electrical systems as far back as
1958 -- are being used more and more in less exotic ways. The technology continues to pop
up in new devices all the time, from sunglasses to electric vehicle charging stations.
The hope for a "solar revolution" has been floating around for decades -- the idea that one day
we'll all use free electricity from the sun. This is a seductive promise, because on a bright,
sunny day, the sun's rays give off approximately 1,000 watts of energy per square meter of
the planet's surface. If we could collect all of that energy, we could easily power our homes
and offices for free.
In this article, we will examine solar cells to learn how they convert the sun's energy directly
into electricity. In the process, you will learn why we're getting closer to using the sun's
energy on a daily basis, and why we still have more research to do before the process
becomes cost-effective.
Photovoltaic Cells: Converting Photons to
Electrons
The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also called photovoltaic (PV)
cells, which as the name implies (photo meaning "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"),
convert sunlight directly into electricity. A module is a group of cells connected electrically
and packaged into a frame (more commonly known as a solar panel), which can then be
grouped into larger solar arrays, like the one operating at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada.
Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which
is currently used most commonly. Basically, when light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it
is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the energy of the absorbed
light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to
flow freely.
PV cells also all have one or more electric field that acts to force electrons freed by light
absorption to flow in a certain direction. This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing
metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, we can draw that current off for external
use, say, to power a calculator. This current, together with the cell's voltage (which is a result
of its built-in electric field or fields), defines the power (or wattage) that the solar cell can
produce.
That's the basic process, but there's really much more to it. On the next page, let's take a
deeper look into one example of a PV cell: the single-crystal silicon cell.
How Solar Power Works

Most Australians are connected to the National Electricity Grid, a network of electric cables
and transformers that links power generating stations to your home.
A Grid-Connect Solar Photovoltaic (PV) System acts as a mini power station on your roof,
feeds power to your home, and surplus power back to the Grid.
Solar systems for domestic homes generally consist of solar panels, an inverter and a
metering system.
Most solar power systems use PV modules (panels) installed on a rooftop to create and
collect energy from sunlight. An inverter converts the Direct Current (DC) electricity
generated by solar panels into Alternating Current (AC), the form of electricity conventionally
used in homes. The system is connected through a meter to the grid. Solar systems allow
you to use your solar power when it is generating electricity during the day and put any
excess back into the grid. As soon as you need more electricity than your system can
generate, your electricity will automatically be supplied from the grid. At night, your house
draws energy from the grid.
Solar panels
Solar cells are produced from thin wafers of silicon. When light falls on the cells an electric
current is produced. A collection of solar cells connected together forms a module.
Most homes or commercial buildings will need around 10 square metres of unshaded, north-
facing roof space to mount the modules for a 1kW solar system. Ideally the modules should
be tilted towards the sun at around 30 degrees to maximise the solar collection.
Inverters
You will need an inverter to convert the direct current (DC) power collected by the solar
panels into power for your home, or power to send back to the electricity grid. It can be
placed inside or outside your home and can give you information about the amount of
electricity being produced by your system.
Meters and the grid
You still need to be connected to the electricity grid to ensure that you have electricity at
night-time when no solar energy is being collected. A meter will also enable you to sell back
excess electricity. A new digital smart meter will be fitted to your system as part of the solar
installation.
For safety reasons, when your electricity supply from the grid is interrupted, your solar PV
system must automatically and immediately turn off.
Power and Energy
A quick overview of power and energy
Power is an instantaneous value and is measured in watts (W).
Energy is a measure of the electrical power consumed and is measured in watt-hours (Wh).

ie. Energy (Wh) = Power (W) x time (hrs)
One watt, or for that matter 1 watt-hour, are very small measures.

In most cases, power and energy production (and usage) are measured in kW and kWh.
1 kW = 1000W & 1kWh = 1000Wh

For example, a 100W incandescent light globe uses 100W of power.
If the light is left on 24hrs per day the energy consumed is
100W x 24hrs = 2400Wh or 2.4kWh per day

If the light is left on 6hrs per day the energy consumed is
100W x 6hrs = 600Wh or 0.6kWh per day


All about Solar Photovoltaic
Why we need clean energy
Australia's stationary energy sector, which includes electricity derived from coal-fired power,
is responsible for around 50 percent of our greenhouse gas emissions. Australia's
environmental, economic and energy security is at risk from climate change unless we can
compete in a low carbon world. Any successful climate change solution must first target the
energy sector.
Australia has some of the world's best clean energy sources, many of which are already
powering Australian homes and businesses. Our superior clean energy resources, like solar
power, have the capacity to meet Australia's growing energy needs while providing a clean
powered, sustainable economy.