BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 197 NO.

3 AUGUST 14 2004 149

Radiation doses of indirect and direct digital
cephalometric radiography
F. Gijbels,
1
G. Sanderink,
2
J. Wyatt,
3
J. Van Dam,
4
B. Nowak
5
and R. Jacobs
6
Aim The aim of this study was to measure organ doses and calculate
the effective dose for indirect and direct digital cephalometric
exposures.
Material and methods Indirect digital cephalometric exposures were
made of a Rando phantom head using a Cranex Tome multipurpose
unit with storage phosphor plates from Agfa and the direct digital (Charge
Coupled Device, CCD) exposures were made with a Proline Ceph CM unit.
Exposure settings were 70 kV and 4 mAs for indirect digital exposures.
Direct digital exposures were made with 70 kV, 10 mA and a total scanning
time of 23 s. TLD700 dosemeters were used to measure organ doses, and
the effective doses were calculated with (effective dose
sal
) and without
inclusion of the salivary glands. A pilot study was carried out to compare
diagnostic image quality of both imaging modalities.
Results Effective doses were 1.7 Sv for direct digital and 1.6 Sv for
indirect digital cephalometric imaging. When salivary glands were
included in the calculation, effective doses
sal
were 3.4 Sv and 2.2 Sv
respectively. Organ doses were higher for direct digital imaging, except
for the thyroid gland, where the organ doses were comparable.
Diagnostic image quality of indirect and direct digital cephalometric
images seemed comparable.
Conclusion Effective dose and effective dose
sal
were higher for direct
digital cephalometric exposure compared with indirect digital exposure.
Organ doses were higher for direct digital cephalography. From
preliminary data, it may be presumed that diagnostic image quality of
indirect and direct digital cephalometric images are comparable.
INTRODUCTION
Digital equipment for radiographic exposures was introduced to
dentistry in the late 1980s (RadioVisioGraphy, Trophy, Vin-
1
Postdoctoral Researcher,
3
Research Assistant in Paediatric Dentistry,
6*
Associate Professor,
Oral Imaging Centre, School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology and Maxillofacial Surgery,
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium;
2
Associate Professor, Department of Oral
Radiology, Academic Centre for Dentistry, Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
4
Professor,
5
Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Radiotherapy, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium.
*Correspondence to: Reinhilde Jacobs, Oral Imaging Centre, School of Dentistry, Oral
Pathology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kapucijnenvoer 7,
B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
E-mail: [email protected]
Refereed Paper
doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.4811532
Received 27.01.03; Accepted 23.10.03
British Dental Journal 2004; 197: 149152
cennes, France). The first systems were based on the charge-
coupled device technology (CCD), which can also be found in cam-
era systems. With this technique, radiation is detected by the sen-
sor and converted into digital data, which are sent immediately to
a computer. The radiographic image is almost real time shown on
a computer monitor and is therefore also called direct digital radi-
ography. In the early 1990s, digital storage phosphor systems took
over from medical radiology. Storage phosphor plates (SPP) cap-
ture radiation energy for a certain period and can be read out by a
laser scanner, which converts radiation energy into light energy
that is measured and translated into digital data. Because of the
delay caused by the scanning procedure, the digital storage phos-
phor technique is also called indirect digital radiography.
A technical limitation of extra-oral direct digital radiography is
the very small active area of the CCD sensor. This is a minor prob-
lem for intra-oral digital radiography, where the active area of the
sensor remains somewhat smaller than a conventional intra-oral
film. For static extraoral radiography, such as anteroposterior and
cephalometric projections however, a linear scanning procedure is
usually applied to cover the whole area. This lengthens the expo-
sure time considerably.
Among other advantages, such as the possibility to digitally
manipulate the radiographic data, digital radiography can possibly
reduce radiation dose compared with conventional radiography.
Digital sensors (both direct and indirect) should be more sensitive
for radiation energy, which allows a lowering of radiation dose.
This is especially true for intra-oral radiography, where a signifi-
cant reduction of radiation dose has been reported.
15
For extrao-
ral digital radiography however, a smaller reduction can be
expected because of the already low dose thanks to the use of
intensifying screens and fast film-screen combinations in conven-
tional radiography. For digital panoramic radiography, different
amounts of dose reduction have been reported.
68
In a previous
report
9
, comparing conventional and indirect digital cephalomet-
ric radiography, it was found that image quality of digital and con-
ventional radiographs was not significantly different. However,
image quality of indirect digital radiographs was more stable for
variations in exposure parameters than conventional radiographs.
Because of the different exposure technique (linear scanning pro-
cedure) used in direct digital cephalometric radiography, a direct
comparison or interpolation of radiation doses is impossible. The
current study, therefore, was designed to measure organ doses for
This article aims to guide readers in taking the correct purchase/use decision of digital
radiographic equipment, based on scientific evidence, by achieving a proper balance
between diagnostic quality and radiation dose.
There is a lower radiation dose to the salivary gland when indirect digital rather than
direct cephalometric radiography is carried out.
Their image quality is comparable for both direct and indirect digital cephalometric
radiography.
I N BRI E F
RESEARCH
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150 BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 197 NO. 3 AUGUST 14 2004
both direct and indirect digital exposure techniques for cephalo-
metric exposures. A pilot study was also performed to compare the
diagnostic image quality of the two digital imaging techniques.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Exposures were made with storage phosphor plates (24 cm 30
cm, ADCC MD plate Agfa, Mortsel, Belgium) using the cephalo-
metric programme of the Cranex Tome multipurpose radiation
unit (Soredex, Helsinki, Finland). Exposure settings were 70 kV
and 4 mAs, considered as being the settings used for an average
person in daily practice. A custom-made lead collimator was
placed in front of the radiation tube to limit the exposure area
(Fig. 1). The lead collimator was constructed from a 3 mm thick
piece of lead and attached to the radiation unit in front of the radi-
ation source. In a previous study,
10
it was found that this collima-
tor could reduce the field size by 55% and the effective radiation
dose by almost 50%. The direct digital exposures were made with
the Proline Ceph CM unit (Planmeca, Helsinki, Finland) which has
a cephalometric exposure area of 18 cm 24 cm. The same lead
collimator was applied, taking care to collimate down to the same
region of the skull with both cephalometric units. Exposure set-
tings were 70 kV and 10 mA. The total exposure time for the linear
scanning procedure was 23 s. These are also the settings used for
an average person in daily practice.
A Rando phantom head (Alderson Research Laboratories, NY,
USA) (Fig. 2) representing an average man was exposed. The
Rando phantom head consisted of a human skull and vertebrae
surrounded and filled with tissue-equivalent material. It is a gener-
ally accepted method to measure absorbed radiation doses in dif-
ferent organs of the human body.
1117
The skull is cut into hori-
zontal slices and every slice contains holes that can be filled with
dosemeters. In the present study, dosemeters were put in the sub-
mandibular glands, parotid glands, bone marrow of the ascending
ramus, pituitary gland, corpus callosum, frontal brain lobe, cere-
bellum, thyroid gland, lenses of the eyes and skin. Two dosemeters
were used for each site and each exposure was repeated ten times.
The dosemeters were of the LiF:Mg,Ti TLD-700 type (Bicron NE,
Solon, USA) (containing only Li-7, without Li-6). They consisted of
ribbons of 3 3 0.15 mm
3
and have a standard deviation of 10%
(variability of the resulting doses after manipulation and reading
out procedures). They were read out with a fully-automated Har-
shaw 6600 reader (Bicron NE, Solon, USA) after correction for
atmospheric pressure, temperature and air humidity. The resulting
data were divided by 10 and averaged for the two dosemeters per
site. A number of dosemeters (five per session) underwent the same
procedure, except for the irradiation, to record the background
radiation (around 30 to 40 Gy). These values were subtracted
from the recorded data.
The data of the radiation doses absorbed by different organs
were then used for calculation of the effective radiation dose,
which is an indication of the impact of a certain radiation
exposure on the whole human body. The formula takes the vari-
ation in sensitivity towards radiation of the different organs
into account. Whereas absorbed radiation doses are expressed
in ()Gy, effective dose is expressed in ()Sv. The effective dose
was calculated using the formula: D
eff
= D
abs
.WF with D
eff
being the effective dose, D
abs
the absorbed organ doses and WF
the weighting factors as determined by ICRP60.
18
The effective
dose was calculated both with (effective dose
sal
) and without
(effective dose) inclusion of the salivary glands as part of the
remainder organs.
19
Following the ICRP regulations, salivary
glands are not considered as organs sensitive for the detrimen-
tal effects of radiation. A number of studies,
2023
however,
indicate a possible relationship between ionising radiation and
salivary gland cancers. A weighting factor of 0.05 was assigned
to the average of the remainder organs (pituitary gland, cere-
bellum, frontal brain lobe, corpus callosum and salivary
glands).
Because skin dose and bone marrow dose were only measured
locally, a formula described by Huda and Sandison
24
was used to
calculate the whole body skin and bone marrow doses. The bone
marrow dose was also used for the bone surface dose. For those
organs not measured in the present study, the absorbed dose was
assumed to be zero.
Fig. 1 The lead collimator limits the exposed area of the cephalometric
radiographs by 55%, which leads to a reduction in effective dose of 47% and
a reduction in effective dose
sal
of 41%.
10
Fig. 2 The Rando phantom head consists of a human skull surrounded and
filled with tissue equivalent material. The slices allow positioning of
dosemeters in pre-cut holes
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BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 197 NO. 3 AUGUST 14 2004 151
When absorbed organ doses were considered, an overall
higher organ dose was found for direct digital cephalometry,
except for the dose to the thyroid gland, which was comparable.
For other organs, absorbed doses of up to 19 times higher (eye
lens tube side) could be found for direct digital imaging. This
has, however, not a large effect on the effective dose because the
doses to the lenses of the eyes are not included in the calculation
(deterministic effect, with threshold dose of 2 Gy
25
). Further-
more, the skin and bone marrow dose contribute only minimally
to the effective dose due to the use of the correction factors.
24
Thus, the organs most involved in the calculation of the effec-
tive dose are the thyroid gland, the brain tissue and, for the
effective dose
sal
, the salivary glands. This explains also the large
effect of the inclusion of the salivary gland tissue on the effec-
tive dose.
The difference in absorbed organ doses between indirect and
direct digital cephalometric exposures can probably be explained
by the different nature of the exposure technique. For the direct
digital imaging technique, a linear scanning procedure is used,
whereas a short exposure shot is used for the indirect digital tech-
nique. The longer time required by the scanning procedure also
implies a risk of movement artefacts, especially for children.
As a more general remark, it should be mentioned that differ-
ences in radiation dose could be due to individual anatomical vari-
ations. However, as the same phantom set-up was used for both
digital imaging techniques, at least a relative comparison between
both methods can be made.
Furthermore, a custom-made lead collimator was used for
cephalometric exposures, which means that higher doses will be
achieved in clinical practice where this collimator is not used.
A study by Visser et al. in 2001
26
on dosimetric measurements
for direct digital and conventional cephalometric radiography,
yielded an effective dose for direct digital cephalometric exposure
of 1.1 Sv, which is comparable to our result. A Siemens
Orthophos DS Ceph unit (Sirona Dental, Bietigheim-Bissingen)
was used. The exposure settings were 73 kV, 15 mA and 15.8 s.
Additional collimation was not used.
A preliminary evaluation of the diagnostic image quality of
both digital imaging systems was performed in a pilot study by
assessing the visibility of six cephalometric landmarks (nasion,
orbitale, A-point, B-point, pogonion, gonion). These landmarks
were selected because they are relatively independent of the pos-
sible superimposition of anatomical structures.
27
For both imag-
ing techniques, relatively high scores were assigned to nasion,
orbitale, B-point, pogonion and gonion. The A-point was scored
lower for both techniques. Previous studies already showed that
diagnostic image quality of cephalometric radiographs is not so
much dependent on physical properties but rather on observer
performance and pattern recognition.
28,29
A study by Liu et al.
30
showed that collimation of cephalometric radiographs leads to
improved contrast and diagnostic image quality. It should also be
kept in mind that a phantom head was used to evaluate the image
quality, which is not subject to possible movement artefacts due
to the almost 60 times longer exposure time for direct digital
exposures.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, higher organ doses are found for direct digital
cephalometric radiography, except for the thyroid gland. Depend-
ing on the inclusion of the salivary gland tissue in the calculation
of the effective dose, effective doses for direct digital cephalomet-
ric imaging are 9% (1.7 Sv compared with 1.6 Sv) or 56% higher
(effective dose
sal
3.4 Sv compared with 2.2 Sv) than for indirect
digital cephalometric exposures. Furthermore, from preliminary
data, it seems that diagnostic image quality of both digital imaging
techniques is comparable.
In order to compare the diagnostic image quality of the indirect
and direct digital cephalometric radiographs, a pilot study was
performed by four observers. The visibility of six different
cephalometric landmarks (nasion, orbitale, A point, B point, pogo-
nion and gonion) was scored on a 5-point scale (1 = minimal visi-
bility, 5 = maximal visibility) for the two digital techniques. In
both cases, the radiographs taken from the phantom head were
shown on a computer monitor (17-inch screen, 24-bit colour
depth, resolution of 1024 768 pixels, dimmed ambient light). The
observers were blinded for the type of panoramic radiographs
(direct or indirect digital) and the radiographs were shown in ran-
dom order. The ratings were repeated with a 14-day interval. The
data were statistically analysed using the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA
(Statistica, Tulsa, OK, USA) with observer and panoramic unit as
independent variables and cephalometric landmark and time of
assessment as dependent variables.
RESULTS
The results of the dose measurements and the resulting effective
dose are shown in Table 1. In the table, the results for ten repeated
exposures are divided by 10 after subtraction of the background
radiation (30 to 40 Gy). The effective doses are 1.6 Sv for indi-
rect digital cephalometric exposure and 1.7 for direct digital
cephalometric exposure. The corresponding effective doses
sal
are
2.2 Sv and 3.4 Sv respectively.
The diagnostic image quality of the two digital techniques were
comparable for the abovementioned cephalometric landmarks,
with good visibility (average score > 3) for nasion, orbitale,
B-point, pogonion and gonion, and poorer visibility (average score
of 2.81) for A-point. Inter- and intra-observer differences were
also not statistically significant.
DISCUSSION
The inclusion of the salivary gland tissue in the calculation of the
effective dose has a remarkable effect. Whereas the effective doses
of indirect and direct exposures are comparable (1.6 Sv vs 1.7 Sv
respectively, which is a difference of 9%) when the salivary tissue
is not included, the difference is larger when the salivary tissue is
included (2.2 Sv compared with 3.4 Sv, or 56%).
Table 1 Absorbed organ doses measured for indirect digital (SPP) and
direct digital (CCD) cephalometric exposures are expressed in Gy, the
effective dose is expressed in Sv
SPP CCD
Submandibular gland TS 45.4 112.2
Submandibular gland FS 14.0 52.8
Parotid gland TS 35.4 99.5
Parotid gland FS 6.3 9.5
Pituitary gland 3.2 39.5
Bone marrow TS 58.6 122.5
Bone marrow FS 8.7 18.7
Cerebellum 2.1 4.6
Frontal brain lobe 2.9 30.4
Corpus callosum 1.8 6.1
Eye lens TS 8.1 150.9
Eye lens FS 1.6 12.1
Skin TS 26.3 163.3
Skin FS 3.1 5.7
Thyroid gland 29.6 23.2
Effective dose (Sv) 1.6 1.7
Effective dose
sal
(Sv) 2.2 3.4
TS = tube side, FS = film side, effective dose
sal
= effective dose with salivary
glands as part of the remainder organs
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152 BRITISH DENTAL JOURNAL VOLUME 197 NO. 3 AUGUST 14 2004
Reinhilde Jacobs is a postdoctoral researcher of the Fund for Scientific Research
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In Volume 197, issue No. 12 of the BDJ (June 26, 2004), there was an error in
the first question on CPD Article 2.
Option C reads:
resin cements are more resistant to wear both in neutral and acidic conditions in
relation to other dental cement materials and always decrease the marginal gap
width.
Option C should have read:
resin cements are less resistant to wear both in neutral and acidic conditions in
relation to other dental cement materials and always decrease the marginal gap
width.
We apologise for any inconvenience this may have caused. For any further
queries please contact the Eastman at BDJ Eastman CPD, 123 Grays Inn Rd,
London, WC1X 8WD or e-mail [email protected]
CPD correction
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