Chapter 15

Properties and reactions of acids and

bases
15.1 properties of acids and bases
Acids and bases are important compounds in many aspects of our daily
lives. Acids and bases are significant in human biology, the environment,
agriculture and industry. Examples of commonly used acids include sulfuric acid
(battery acids), hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt; gastric juices) and ethanoic or
acetic acid (vinegar). Certain fruits such as lemons and grapefruit also exhibit
acidic properties due to the presence of acids such as citric acid.
Common household and industrial bases include sodium hydroxide (caustic soda),
sodium carbonate (soda ash), sodium carbonate-10-water (washing soda) and
ammonia. Bases are used in a variety of household cleaning agents such as oven,
drain and window cleaners. Bases such as magnesium hydroxide and aluminum
hydroxide are also used in various preparations as antacids for the relief of upset
stomachs.
In agriculture, soil acidity is an important factor in determining what crops
may be grown. Sometimes chemical such as lime (calcium oxide) are added to
make the soil more effective for growing particular crops.
Properties of acids
Aqueous solutions of acids such as hydrochloric, sulfuric and ethanoic
acids exhibit a range of common properties. These properties result from the
production of hydrogen ions (H+) or hydronium (H3O+) in solutions. The common
properties of aqueous solutions of acids are shown in the table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Properties of aqueous acids solutions
Turn blue litmus red
Conduct an electric current
Taste sour
React with reactive metals such as K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Al and Fe to
produce hydrogen gas
Acid + reactive metal hydrogen + salt
For example,
2 HCl(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + MgCl2(aq)

Or
2H+(aq) + Mg(s) H2(g) + Mg2+(aq)

React with carbonates and hydrogenates to form carbon dioxide

gas
Acid + carbonate carbon dioxide + water + salt
For example,
H2SO4(aq) + Na2CO3(s)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) +
Na2CO4(aq)

Or
2H+(aq) + Na2CO3(s)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) +
+
2Na (aq)
Acid + hydrogen carbonate carbon dioxide + water + salt
For example,
HNO3(aq) + KHCO3(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + KNO3
(aq)

H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)

Or

React with metal oxides to produce a salt and water

Acid + metal oxide salt + water
For example, 2HNO3(aq) + CuO(s) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Or
2H+(aq) + CuO(s) Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)

CO2(g) + H2O(l)

React with metal hydroxides to produce a salt plus water

Acid + metal hydroxide salt + water
For example, 2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Or
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l)
If the metal hydroxide is an hydroxide or the acid is added to a
solid rather than a solution, the equations are better written as
follows
2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2H+(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s) Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Properties of metallic hydroxide bases

Aqueous solutions of metallic hydroxide bases, such as sodium hydroxide,
also exhibit some characteristic properties. These properties result from the
formation of hydroxide ion (OH-) in solution. The properties commonly shown by
aqueous solutions of metallic hydroxides are illustrated in Table 15.2
Properties of aqueous solutions of hydroxide bases
Turn red litmus blue
Conduct an electric current
Taste bitter
React with acids to produce a salt and water as indicated in Table 15.1
React with amphoteric metals such as aluminum, chromium and zinc to produce
hydrogen gas; for example,
2Al(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2Na[Al(OH)4](aq) + 3H2(g)
Or
2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + 3H2(g)
Dissolved amphoteric metal hydroxides such as Al(OH)3, Cr(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2,
for example,
Al(OH)3(s) + NaOH(aq) Na[Al(OH)4](aq)
or
Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) [Al(OH)4]-(aq)

That properties above indicates that the metals Al, Cr, and Zn react with
solutions of metal hydroxides, such as sodium hydroxide, to produce hydrogen
gas. These metals are describes as amphoteric metals, as they also react with acid
solutions to form hydrogen. An amphoteric substance is one which reacts with
both acids and bases.
When these metals react with bases to produce hydrogen they also form
complex ions. These complex ion usually contain four hydroxide ions bonded to
the central metal ion. The formulas and names of these complex ions are provided
in Table 15.3
Table 15.3 Complex ion formed by amphoteric metals, their oxides and
hydroxides in basic solutions
Metal
Formula of complex Name of complex
ion
ion
Al
[Al(OH)4]Aluminate ion
Cr
[Cr(OH)4]
Chromite ion
Zn
[Zn(OH)4]2Zincat ion
Table 15.2 also indicates that some insoluble metal hydroxides, such as
[A(OH)3, Cr(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2, will dissolve in basic solution as well as being
soluble in acid solution. Because these hydroxides will dissolve in acids and bases
they are called amphoteric hydroxide. In acid solution they form the aquated
metal cations such as Al3+, Cr3+, and Zn2+. In base solution they form the same
complex ions as shown in Table 15.3
Review exercise 15.1
1. Write ionic equations for the reactions between the following:
a. Zinc and hydrochloric acid
b. Calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
c. Potassium oxide and sulfuric acid
d. Barium hydroxide solution and nitric acid
2. Write equations for the reaction between the following:
a. The amphoteric metal, chromium and potassium hydroxide solution
b. The amphoteric hydroxide, chromium (III) hydroxide, and sodium
hydroxide solution
3. The amphoteric hydroxide Al(OH)3 is insoluble in water. Write equation for
the reaction of aluminium hydroxide with the following:
a. Sulfuric acid to form aluminium ions.
b. Sodium hydroxide solution to form aluminate ions
15.2 Theories of acids and bases
Arrhenius theory
Acids
The conductivities of acid solutions indicate that these solutions contain
ions. The fact that acids react with many metals to produce hydrogen gas further
suggests that acid solutions contain hydrogen ions. The theory that an acid is a
substance which produces hydrogen ions in water was first proposed by the
Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius. Arrhenius proposed that hydrogen ions were

produced by the ionization of an acid in water. For example, in hydrochloric acid

the hydrogen chloride molecules are ionized to form hydrogen ions and chloride
ions.
HCl(g)
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Similarly, sulfuric acid and nitric acid ionize in aqueous solutions to form
hydrogen ions. Each of these acids is a strong acid because it is essentially
completely ionized in aqueous solution. In hydrochloric acid, for example, there
are very few unionized hydrogen chloride molecules. Virtually all the molecules
have ionized to form H+ and Cl- ions. Because the equilibrium strongly favours
the formation of products, a single arrow ahowing only the forwar reaction is used
in the equation.
In many acids such as ethanoic (acetic) and citric acid only a small
proportion of the molecules are ionized. These acids are called weak acids. The
equation for the ionization of ethanoic acid is as follows.
CH3COOH(aq)
H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
The double arrow indicates that equilibrium exists between unionized
molecules of ethanoic acid and ions solution. For example, in a 0.10 molL-1
ethanoic acid solution only about 1% of ethanoic acid molecules are ionized and
the equilibrium strongly favours the reactants.
The hydrogen ion in aqueous solution:
Hydrogen ions produced in aqueous solution are sometimes represented as H+ ,
H3O+ or H+(aq). These different representations are used partly because each can be
useful in certain circumstances and partly because of doubt surrounding the nature
of protons in aqueous solutions.
Protons, because they have no electrons, are very small. They have a radius of
about 10-13cm compared with a radius of about 10-8 cm for other cations. Because
the protons charge is located in such a small volume, the attraction between is in
fact more likely to exist as a hydronium (H3O)+ ion. The formation of a
hydronium ion can be represented as follows.

In the H3O+ ion, the H+ has formed the coordinate covalent bond with one
of the lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen atom of the water molecule.
As well as the H3O+ ion, there is some evidence for the formation of other
species such as H5O2+ and H9O4+. these species represent groups of water
molecules containing one extra proton. Their structures are shown in Figure 15.2.
From these observations it is apparent that no single species adequately
represents a proton in solution. The various symbols H+, H+(aq), H3O+(aq) may be
used, although in most situations H+(aq) is preferred.

Bases
Arrhenius also proposed that a base is a substance which produces
hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), an ionic solid, is
dissociated in water to form sodium ions and hydroxide ions.
NaOH (s)
Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are examples of strong bases
because they are essentially completely dissociated into ions in solution.
As with acids, there are numerous bases in which only a small proportion as weak
bases. Ammonia is an example of a weak base. Although it contains no hydroxide
ions of its own, ammonia produces hydroxide ions by reacting with water
according to the equation:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
the equilibrium between unionized NH3 molecules and NH4+ and OH- ions
strongly favours the reactants. A solution of ammonia therefore consists mainly of
dissolved NH3 molecules and only relatively small quantities of NH4+ and OHare present at equilibrium.
Neutralization
In the Arrhenius model, hydrogen ions are responsible for the properties of acids
and hydroxide ions for the properties of bases. In the neutralization reaction
between acids and bases, the acidic properties of H+ and basic properties of OHare neutralised when these ions combine to form water molecules. This can be
represented by the equation:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O(l)
Bronsted-Lowry theory
The Arrhenius model of acids and bases is a very useful one but is restricted in
that it is limited to aqueous solutions. A more general model of acids and bases
was developed independently by Bronsted in Denmark and Lowry in England. In
the Bronsted-Lowry theory an acid-base reaction is one that involves the transfer
is an acid while the proton acceptor is the base.
In the Bronsted-Lowry model the ionization of HCl is represented by the
following equation:
HCl(g) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

In this process the HCl is donating a proton and is therefore acting as an acid. The
H2O, which accepts a proton, is classified as a base.
In the reaction of ammonia with water:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The NH3 accepts a proton and is acting as a base. The H2O, which donates a
proton, is acting as an acid.

In the Bronsted-Lowry theory many substances can react as acids or bases. In the
two examples above,water is acting as a base in its reaction with HCl and as an
acid in its reaction with NH3. This is further illustrated by the equation for the
autoionisation of water.
H2O(l) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
In this reaction one water molecule is donating a proton to the other. The proton
donor molecule is the acid and the proton acceptor is the base.
In a similar way, the hydrogencarbonate ion can act as an acid or a base. The
hydrogencarbonate ion reacts with water in two different reactions, although in
both reactions the reactants are strongly favoured at equilibrium.
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq) + OH-(aq)
HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
In the first of these reactions the hydrogencarbonate is reacting as a base, while in
the second it is reacting as an acid.

Conjugate acid-base pairs

In the Bronsted-Lowry theory a base, after it has received a proton, has the
potential to react as an acid. Similary, an acid which has donated a proton is a
potential base. In the reaction:
CH3COOH(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2O(l) + CH3COO-(aq)
acid

base

acid

base

the CH3COOH is acting as an acid and the OH- as a base. The CH3COO- ion can,
under certain conditions, accept a proton. For example, in the reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium ethanoate:
CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)
base

acid

acid

base

the CH3COO- accepets a proton from the H3O+ and is therefore acting as a base.

The ammonium ion and ammonia, NH4+/NH3, constitue another conjugate acidbase pair. In general, conjugate acid-base pairs can be visualized in the following
way:

Name of acid
Hydrochloric
Sulfuric
Nitric
Hydronium ion
Hydrogensulfate ion
Hydrofluoric
Ethanoic
Hydrogen sulfide
Carbonic
Ammonium ion
Hydrogencarbonate ion
Hydrogen sulfide ion
Water
Hydroxide ion

Acid
HCl
H2SO4
HNO3
H3O+
HSO4HF
CH3COOH
H2S
H2CO3
NH4+
HCO3HSH2O
OH-

H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+
H+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Base
ClHSO4NO3H2O
SO42FCH3COOHSHCO3NH3
CO32S2OHO2-

Name of base
Chloride ion
Hydrogensulfate ion
Nitrate ion
Water
Sulfate ion
Fluoride ion
Ethanoate ion
Hydrogensulfide ion
Hydrogencarbonate ion
Ammonia
Carbonate ion
Sulfide ion
Hydroxide ion
Oxide ion

The stronger a particular acid is, the weaker will be its conjugate base. Thus
the substances on the right-hand of the table are arranged in order of increasing strength
as bases. The Cl- ion is the weakest base, HCO3- is fairly weak, and OH- is strong base.

Predicting reactions between acids and bases

Table 15.4 emphasises the Bronsted-Lowry concept that acid-base reactions are
essentially reactions involving the competition for protons. The table makes it possible to
predict the extent to which acid-base reactions will take place.
Figure 15.5
In the BronstedLowry theory acidbase reactions are
those which involve
the transfer of a
proton from one
species to another

base strength increases

Acid strength increases

A table of conjugate acid-base pairs is shown in the table 15.4. this table is
arranged in order of decreasing acid strength. Thus HCl is a strong acid, HF is a
fairly weak acid and H2O is very weak.
Table 15.4 Conjugate acid-base pairs

Generally, strong acids will react with strong base to form weaker conjugate acid and
weaker conjugate bases. Thus acids on the left of table will react with bases below them
to form the corresponding conjugate acids and bases. For example, the reactions:
HCl(aq) + F-(aq)HF(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HF(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4+(aq) + F-(aq)
Occur virtually to completion. At equilibrium the products are strongly favoured and the
equation is written as going completely from reactans to products. In the first reaction
HCl is astronger acid (proton donor) than HF. Alternatively, F- is stronger base (proton
acceptor) than Cl-. Similarly, HF is a stronger acid than NH4+.
Consider the following reactions.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)
In the first reaction the H3O+ is a stronger acid (proton donor) than NH4+ and NH3 is a
stronger base (proton acceptor) than H2O. This reaction will therefore have little tendency
to occur. An equilibrium will be established in which only very small amounts of the
product are formed. In the second reaction H3O+ is a stronger acid than HF. Again, this
reaction will have little tendency to go in the forward direction. In both these reactions
double arrows are used to indicate that the reactions occur to only a limited extent.
Review exercise 15.2

1. a. identify the conjugate acids of Cl-, CO32-, NH3, ClO4-, SO32b. identify the conjugate bases of HF, HSO4-, NH4+, HPO42-,H3O+
2. write two equations for the hydrogenphosphate ion reacting with water as:
a. a base
b. an acid
3. for the following reactions:
i. identify the conjugate acid-base pairs
ii. predict whether the reaction is likely to occur to alarge extent or to only a
small extent as written
a. HCO3- (aq) + F-(aq)
CO32-(aq) + HF (aq)
b. HSO4-(aq) + NH3(aq)
SO42-(aq) + NH4+ (aq)
c. HF(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)
4. If solid sodium oxide is dissolved in water predict the composition of the
resulting solution
Water is weak electrolyte and to a very small extent undergoes auto- or self-ionization.
This is represented by the following equations.
2H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
or
H2O(l)
H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The first equation represents a Bronsted-Lowry approach. One water molecule, the proton
donor, is acting as an acid while the other water molecule is acting as a base. The second
simplified equation indicates that water ionizes to produce some equated hydrogen and
hydroxide ions. Both equations indicate that equal amounts of acid and base are
produced.

In the ionization of water, equilibrium strongly favours the reactants. This means that
only small concentrations of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions are formed and most of
the water remains as unionized water molecules.
The equilibrium constant for the ionization of water is given by:
Kw = [H+] x [OH-]=1.0x10-14
+
Where [H ] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in mol L-1 and
[OH-] is the concentration of hydroxide ions in mol L-1
Note that there is no term for the concentration of H2O as this is solvent and its
concentration is virtually the same in all dilute aqueous solution. Kw is called the
ionization constant, or dissociation constant, for water. As with any equilibrium constant
Kw depends on the temperature but has a value of 1.0 x 10-14 at 25C. This means that in
any aqueous solution at 25C the product of the hydrogen ion and hydrogen ion and
hydroxide ion concentrations is always 1.0 x 10-14.
In pure water or any neutral solution:
[H+] = [OH-]=1.0x10-7 mol L-1
Figure 15.6
In pure water [H+] = [OH-]=1.0x10-7 mol L-1. When [H+] increases, [OH-] decreases. When [OH]increases,[H+] decreases

In acidic solution the [H+] is greater than 1.0x10-7 mol L-1and [OH-] is less than
1.0x10 mol L-1. Conversely, in basic solutions the [H+] is less than 1.0x10-7 mol L-1
whereas the [OH-] is greater than 1.0x10-7 mol L-1 .
-7

Example 15.1
Calculate the concentrations of H+, Cl- and OH- in a 1.0x10-2 mol L-1 HCl solution.
HCl is a strong acid which ionizes virtually completely in aqusous solution.
HCl(g)
H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
+
[H ] = [Cl ]=1.0x10-2 mol L-1
Use Kw to calculate [OH-]
+
-14
-1
Kw
=[H ] [OH ]=1.0x10 mol L
-2
-14
-1
(1.0x10 ) [OH ]
=1.0x10 mol L

[OH-] = 1.0 x 10-12 mol L-1

[H+] ,[Cl-]=1.0x10-2 mol L-1 and [OH-] = 1.0x10-12 mol L-1

Example 15.1
Calculate the concentrations of Na+, OH-, and H+ in a 4.0 x 10-3 mol L-1 NaOH solution.
NaOH ia a strong base which dissociates completely in aqueous solution.
NaOH(s)Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[Na+]=[OH-]=4.0 x 10-3 mol L-1
Use Kw to calculate [H+]
+
-14
-1
Kw
=[H ] [OH ]=1.0x10 mol L
+
-3
-1
-14
-1
[H ](4.0 x 10 mol L ) =1.0x10 mol L

[H+]

= 2.5 x 10-12 mol L-1

[Na+] ,[OH-]=4.0x10-3 mol L-1 and [H+] = 2.5 x10-12 mol L-1

Review exercise 15.2

1. A sample of water from a swimming pool has [OH-] = 1.6 x 10-7 mol L-1.
a. Calculate [H+]
b. Is the swimming pool water acidic or basic?

2. Calculate the concentrations of the following.

a. H+, NO3- and OH- in 5.0 x 10-3 mol L-1 HNO3
b. H+, Cl- and OH- in 1.5 mol L-1 HCl
c. K+, OH- and H+ in 0.25 mol L-1 KOH
d. Ba2+, OH- and H+ in 6.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 Ba(OH)2

15.4
The pH acidity scale
Although the hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion concentrations are valid ways of
expressing the acidity or basicity of aqueous solutions they are somewhat cumbersome because they involve the use of indices. The common method of indicating
acidity, whether it is with reference to swimming pools, soils or hair shampoos, is
the pH scale. The pH of an aqueous solution is defined by:
pH=-log10[H+]
The pH of pure water or a neutral solution is 7.0 pH values less than 7 indicate a
solution is acidic, while values greater than 7 are characteristic of basic or alkaline
solutions.

Example 15.3
Calculate the pH of a 1.0 x 10-3 mol L-1 HCl solution.
HCl(g)H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
[H+] = 1.0 x 10-3 mol L-1
pH
= -log[H+]
= -log(1.0 x 10-3)
pH
= 3.00
Example 15.4
Calculate the pH of a 2.0 x 10-2 mol L-1 NaOH solution.
NaOH(s)Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
[OH-]
= 2.0 x 10-2 mol L-1
+

=[H ] [OH ]=1.0x10

Kw
-2

[H ](2.0 x 10 ) =1.0x10

-14

-1

mol L

-14

mol L-1

[H+]
pH

= 5.0 x 10-13 mol L-1

= -log[H+]
= -log(5.0 x 10-13)
= 12.30

pH

Example 15.5
Calculate the hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion concentrations in a sample of milk
with a pH of 6.40.
pH
= -log[H+]
6.40
= -log [H+]
log [H+]
= -6.40
+
[H ]
= inverse log (-6.40)
+
[H ]
= 3.98 x 10-7 mol L-1

[OH-] = 2.5 x 10-8 mol L-1

[H+] = 4.0 x 10-7 mol L-1 and [OH-] = 2.5 x 10-8 mol L-1

Increasing acidity

Table 15.5 contains values of the hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion concentrations
for aqueous solutions with various pH values.
Table 15.5 The hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion concentrations and pH values of
aqueous solutions at 25C
pH
[H+]
[OH-]
0
100
10-14
1
10-1
10-13
2
10-2
10-12
Acidic
3
10-3
10-11
4
10-4
10-10
5
10-5
10-9
6
10-6
10-8
Neutral
7
10-7
10-7
8
10-8
10-6
-9
9
10
10-5
10
10-10
10-4

Basic

10-11
10-12
10-13
10-14

11
12
13
14

10-3
10-2
10-1
100

From table 15.5 note the following.

1. As the [H+] increases the pH decreases.
2. The lower the pH, the greater the acidity of the solution.
3. A neutral solution is one with a pH of 7.
4. A change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion
concentration.

pH
Acidic
0

Basic
7

Neutral
Several methods can be used to estimate the pH of a sample. These include the following.
1. pH paper which turus a particular colour depending on the pH of the sample.
2. Universal indicator, a solution of several acid-base indicators, which also changes
colour depending on the pH of the solution.
3. A pH meter which can be used to obtain a more precise estimate of the pH.
The approximate pH values of some common substances are shown in Table
15.6.
Table 15.6 The pH values of some common substances
Substance
pH
Substance
pH
Gastric juice
0.8
Urine
6.0

14

Lemon juice
Vinegar
Aerated soft drinks
Apples
Orange juice
Grapes
Tomatoes
Bread

2.3
2.8
2.9
3.2
3.5
4.0
4.2
5.6

Milk
Rain water
Pure water
Swimming pool water
Human blood
Sea water
Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia

6.4
6.5
7.0
7.2
7.4
8.5
10.5
11.9

Review exercise 15.4

1. Calculate the pH of following solutions

a. 5.0 x 10-1 mol L-1 HCl
b. 0.0065 mol L-1 KOH
c. 3.6 x 10-3 mol L-1 HNO3
d. 6.5 x 10-4 mol L-1 Ca(OH)2
2. Calculate the hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion concentrations in the following
solutions.
a. Orange juice with a pH of 3.50
b. Household ammonia with a pH of 11.90
c. Gastric juice with a pH of 0.80
3. If the pH of solution decreases from 7 to 5, by what factor does the [H+] change?

Strong acids
Strong acids are those which are essentially completely ionized to produce hydrogen ions
in aqueous solution. For example, in a solution of hydrochloric acid virtually all the
hydrogen chloride molecules are ionized to form hydrogen ions and chloride ions. This
ionization reaction can be represented by the following equations.
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
or
HCl(g) + H2O(l)H3O+ (aq) + Cl-(aq)
Using the Bronsted-Lowry approach, HCl is a stronger acid (protons donor) than H3O+
and H2O is a stronger base (proton acceptor) than Cl-, so the reaction is favoured in the
forward direction. Hydrochloric, sulfuric and nitric acids are all better proton donors than
the H3O+ ion. These acids are virtually completely ionized in aqueous solutions. Table
15.7 lists the formulas and ionization equations for the commonly encountered strong
acids.
Table 15.7 Common strong acids
Name
Formula Ionization equation
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
HCl(g) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4
H2SO4(l) H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

Nitric acid

HNO3

HNO3(g) H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Weak Acids
Most acids are only partially ionized in water and are therefore classified as weak acids.
The ionization of the weak acid, ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), can be represented by the
following equations.
CH3COOH(aq)
H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
Or
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)
H3O++ CH3COOThe reversible arrows indicate that an equilibrium is established between ethanoic acid
molecules and hydrogen ions and ethanoate ions. In terms of Bronsted-Lowry theory
CH3COOH is aweaker acid (proton donor) than H3O+ and H2O iis a weaker base
(proton acceptor) than CH3COO-. The reserve reaction is therefore favoured, so that at
equilibrium only a small proportion of ethanoic acid molecules are ionized. In fact, at
25C, a 0,10 mol L-1 ethanoic acid solution is only about 1.3% ionized. This means that
98.7% of the ethanoic acid exists in the molecular form and only 1.3% exist as ions.
Table 15.8 contains a selection of weak acids arranged in decreasing order of acid
strength.
Table 15.8 Weak acids arranged in decreasing order of acid strength
Name
Formula
Ionization equation
Oxalic acid
H2C2O4
H2C2O4(aq)
H+(aq) + HC2O4-(aq)
Hydrogensulfate ion
HSO4HSO4-(aq) H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
Phosphoric acid
H3PO4
H3PO4(aq) H+ (aq) + H2PO4-(aq)
Iron (III) ion
Fe3+
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq)
H+ (aq) + [Fe(OH)(H2O)5]2+ (aq)
Hydrofluoric acid
HF
HF(aq)
H+ (aq) + H2PO4-(aq)
Ethanoic acid
CH3COOH CH3COOH(aq)
H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
3+
3+
Aluminum ion
Al
[Al(H2O)6] (aq)
H+ (aq) + [Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+(aq)
Carbonic ion
H2CO3
H2CO3(aq) H+ (aq)+ HCO3-(aq)
Hydrogen sulfide
H2S
H2S(aq)
H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
Dihydrogenphosphate ion
H2PO4H2PO4-(aq)
H+(aq) +HPO42-(aq)
Hypochlorous acid
HClO
HClO(aq) H+ (aq)+ ClO-(aq)
Ammonium ion
NH4+
NH4+(aq)
H+ (aq) + NH3(aq)
Hydrocyanic acid
HCN
HCN (aq)
H+ (aq)+ CN-(aq)

From the table it is apparent that weak acids can be molecules, anions or cations. The
molecular acids are usually identified as acids from their names. The hydrogencontaining anions such as hydrogensulfate (HSO4-) and dihydrogenphosphate (H2PO4-)
can be considered to be derived from the molecular acids sulfuric (H2SO4) and
phosphoric (H3PO4) acid respectively. The ammonium ion and many metal cations,

except those in groups I and II, behave as weak acids in aqueous solution. The aquated
metal ions can donate a proton from one of their surrounding water molecules. This can
be an important factor contributing to the acidity of many soils.
Figure 15.8
In water a strong acid is virtually completely ionized but a weak acid is only slightly ionized

Strong Bases
Strong bases are those which completely dissociate to produce hydroxide ions in aqueous
solution. For example, potassium hydroxide dissociates completely into potassium and
hydroxide ions according to the following equation.

KOH(s) K+(aq)+ OH-(aq)

All group I and group II metal hydroxides are strong bases. In group II metal
hydroxides two moles of hydroxide ion are produced for every one mole of the
metal hydroxide which dissolves. For example, in a solution of barium hydroxide,
the dissociation equation is as follows.
BaOH)2 (s) Ba2+ (aq)+ 2OH-(aq)
The group II metal hydroxides, however, have limited solubility. Magnesium
hydroxide is virtually insoluble, calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble and barium
hydroxide is still only moderately soluble. To extent that these compounds
dissolve they are completely dissociated and are therefore strong bases. However,
if a concentrated base solution is required, group I hydroxide would have to be
used.
The commonly used strong bases are listed in Table 15.9.
Table 15.9 Strong Bases
Name
Soluble
Sodium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
Barium hydroxide

Formula

Dissociation equation

NaOH
KOH
Ba(OH)2

NaOH(s)
Na+(aq)+ OH-(aq)
KOH(s)
K+(aq)+ OH-(aq)
BaOH)2 (s)
Ba2+ (aq)+ 2OH-(aq)

Low solubility
Magnesium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide

Mg(OH)2
Ca(OH)2

Mg(OH)2 (s)
Ca(OH)2 (s)

Mg2+ (aq)+ 2OH-(aq)

Ca2+ (aq)+ 2OH-(aq)

Metallic oxides are also strong bases. In fact, the oxide ion is a stronger base than
hydroxide ion, as shown in Table 15.4. any soluble oxides such as sodium oxide (Na2O)
will therefore react completely with water to form a solution of the hydroxide.
Na2O + H2O(l) 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Weak bases
Weak bases are substances in which only a small proportion of the molecules or ions
react with water to form hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. The weak base ammonia
reacts with water according to the following equation.

NH3(aq)+ H2O (l)

NH4+(aq)
+ OH-(aq)
Only a small fraction of ammonia molecules react and at equilibrium most of the
system exists as NH3 and H2O molecules. Using Bronsted-Lowry approach, NH4+
is a stronger acid (proton donor) than H2O and OH- is a stronger base (proton
acceptor) than NH3. Thus the reaction only occurs to a small extent.
Many weak bases are anions such as carbonate, ethanoate, fluoride and phosphate.
All these ions react with water to a small extent to produce hydroxide ions. For
example, carbonate ions react with water according to the equation:
CO32-(aq) + H2O (l)
HCO3-(aq)
+ OH-(aq)
Although this reaction occurs only to a very limited extent, some hydroxide ions are
produced so the carbonate ions is acting as a weak base.
Review exercise 15.5

1. In the following pairs of solutions predict which solution would exhibit:

i. The higher [H+]
ii. The higher pH
iii. The greater electrical conductivity.
a. 0.1 mol L-1 HCl and 0.1 mol L-1 CH3COOH
b. 0.1 mol L-1 NaOH and 0.1 mol L-1 NH3
2. Give an example of each of the following
a. A concentrated solution of a strong acid
b. A dilute solution of a strong base
c. A concentrated solution of a weak base
d. A dilute solution of a weak acid
3. Write equations for the ionization or dissociation of the following.
a. The strong acid HBr
b. The weak acid H2SO3
c. The strong base RbOH
d. The weak base NaF

15.6 Acid ionization constants

The extent to which and an acid ionizes in aqueous solution can be determined from the
equilibrium constant for the ionization process. This equilibrium constant (Ka) is called
the acid ionization constant or the acid dissociation constant. In the ionization of
ethanoicacid:
CH3COOH(aq)
H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

The acid ionization constant (Ka) is given by:

Ka =

[ H ][CH 3COO ]
[CH 3COOH ]

The Ka for ethanoic acid at 25C is 1.8 x 10-5. This value indicates that reaction only
proceeds to a very limited extent. In a 0.1 mol L-1 solition only a little more than 1% of
ethanoic acid molecules are ionized. Table 15.10 contains the acid ionization constants
for some common acids. Note that the strong acids HCl, H2SO4 and HNO3 have no values
given for Ka. These acids are essentially completely ionized in aqueous solution and
would therefore have extremely large acid ionization constant.
Table 15.10 Acid ionization constants
Name
Formula
Ka
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
Large
Sulfuric acid
H2SO4
Large
Nitric acid
HNO3
Large
Oxalic acid
H2C2O4
5.9 x 10-2
Sulfurous acid
H2SO3
1.7 x 10-2
Hydrogensulfate ion
HSO4
1.2 x 10-2
Phosphoric acid
H3PO4
7.5 x 10-3
Iron (III) ion
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ 6.3 x 10-3
Hydrofluoric acid
HF
7.2 x 10-4
Ethanoic acid
CH3COOH
1.8 x 10-5
Aluminum ion
Al3+
7.9 x 10-6
Carbonic ion
H2CO3
4.2 x 10-7
Dihydrogenphosphate ion
H2PO426.2 x 10-8
Hydrogen sulfide
H2S
1.0 x 10-7
Hypochlorous acid
HClO
3.5 x 10-8
Ammonium ion
NH4+
5.6 x 10-10
Hydrocyanic acid
HCN
4.0 x 10-10
Hydrogencarbonate ion
HCO34.8 x 10-11
Hydrogenphospate ion
HPO423.6 x 10-13
Hydrogensulfide ion
HS
1.3 x 10-13
+

Calculation of [H ] and pH in a weak acid solution

From the value of Ka it is possible to calculate the hydrogen ion concentration and pH of
a solution of a weak acid.
Example 15.6
Calculate the [H+] and pH of a 0.10 mol L-1 CH3COOH solution.

The equation for ionization is:

CH3COOH(aq)
H+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
If x moles of CH3COOH ionize per liter solution, the equilibrium concentration will be
[H+] = x, [CH3COO-]=x, [CH3COOH]=0,10-x
Ka

=1.8 x 10

-5

[ H ][CH 3COO ]
=
[CH 3COOH ]

= 1.8 x 10-5

x..x
0.10 x

1.8 x 10-5

x2
0.10 x

(1.8 x 10-5) x (0.10-x) = x2

1.8 x 10-6 -1.8 x 10-5x =x2
x2 + 1.8 x 10-5 x-1.8 x 10-6=0
Solving the quadratic equation for x
=

1.8 x10 5 3.24 x10 10 7.2 x10 6

2

1.8 x10 5 2.68 x10 3

2

2.66 x10 3
=
2
=1.33 x 10-3
[H+] = x = 1.3 x 10-3 mol L-1
pH
= -log [H+]
= -log (1.33 x 10-3)
= 2.89
A 0.10 mol L-1 CH3COOH solution therefore has a [H+] of only 0.0013 mol L-1 and a pH
of approximately 3. In contrast, 0.10 mol L-1 HCl solution has a [H+] of 0.10 mol L-1 and
a pH of 1. In general terms, acids with larger Ka values will have higher [H +], while for
acids with lower Ka values the [H+] will be lower.
1. Write out Ka expression for the following.
a. H3PO4
b. HClO
c. HCO3
d. NH4+
2. Using the data table 15.10 arrange the following in order of decreasing strength
as acids:
CH3COOH, HS-, H2CO3, Fe(H2O)63+, H2SO4, NH4+, H2PO4
3. For a 0.10 mol L-1 HF solution:
a. Calculate the [H+] and pH
b. Compare the [H+] and pH with that of 0.10 mol L-1 CH3COOH and 0.10 mol
L-1 HCl solutions.

15.7 Polyprotic Acid and bases

Acids such as hydrochloric (HCl), nitric (HNO3) and ethanoic (CH3COOH) acid contain
only one acidic hydrogen atom per molecule which can be ionized in aqueous solution.
Despite the fact that hydrochloric and nitric acids are strong acids and ethanoic acid is a
weak acid, one mole of each of these acids will supply one mole of protons in their
reactions with sodium hydroxide. This is illustrated by the following equations.
OH- (aq) + HCl (aq) H2O (l) + Cl-(aq)
OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)H2O(l) + CH3COO-(aq)
As hydrochloric, nitric and ethanoic acids only one acidic hydrogen atom per molecule of
acid, they are called monoprotic acids.
Other acids such as sulfuric (H2SO4) and carbonic (H2CO3) acid are diprotic, as they
contain two ionisable hydrogen atom per molecule of acid. In aqueous solutions of
sulfuric acid the first proton is completely ionized as shown by the following equation.
H2SO4 (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HSO4-(aq)
The hydrogensulfate ion is a weak acid, however, so that only a small proportion of these
ions ionize futher into hydrogen ions and sulfate ions. The equation for this reaction is as
follows.
HSO4-(aq) + H2O(l)
H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)
When it reacts with a strong base such as sodium hydroxide, one mole of sulfuric acid
will react with two moles of hydroxide ions.
2OH-(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 2H2O (l) + SO42-(aq)
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is tripotic acid which contains three ionisable hydrogen atoms.
Phosphoric acid is weak acid so that ionization occurs to only a small extent. The
equations for the successive ionizations are as follows.
H3PO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + H2PO4-(aq)
H2PO4- (aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + HPO42-(aq)
HPO42- (aq) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
The acid ionization constant for these ionizations indicate that successive ionizations
occur to progressively smaller extents.
Because phosphoric acid is tripotic acid, one mole of acid will react with three moles of
sodium hydroxide as follows.
3OH- (aq) + H3PO4(aq) 3H2O+ (aq) + PO43-(aq)
It is often difficult to determine the number of acidic hydrogen atoms from a simple
molecular formula. For example, a molecule of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH, contains four
hydrogen atoms but only one of these is acidic. Oxalic acid, H2C2O4 or HOOCCOOH,
contains two hydrogen atoms and both of these are acidic. Generally
Figure 15.9
Acidic hydrogen atoms in ethanoic acid and oxalic acid

H
H
H

Ethanoic acid
Non-acidic hydrogen atoms

15.7

Oxalic acid

acidic hydrogen atoms

Hydrogen atoms are only acidic if they are attached to electronegative atoms, most
commonly oxygen. In CH3COOH only one hydrogen atom is bonded to an oxygen atom,
whereas in H2C2O4 both hydrogens are bonded to oxygen atoms.
Just as some acids are polyprotic it is possible for some bases to supply more than
one mole of hydroxide ion per mole of base. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium
hydroxide (KOH) supply one mole of hydroxide per mole of base in aqueous solution.
One mole of these bases will react with one mole of hydrogen ions. Other bases such as
magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) are able to supply
two moles of hydroxide ion per mole of base. One mol of magnesium hydroxide would
react with two moles of hydrogen ions according to the following equation.
Mg(OH)2 (s) +2H+(aq) 2H2O(l) + Mg2+(aq)
Aluminium hydroxide and iron (III) hydroxide each contain three moles of hydroxide per
mole of base. One mole of these bases would react with three moles of hydrogen ions.
Review exercise
1. How many moles oh hydroxide ions would react with one mole of following
acids?
a. HNO3
b. H2SO4
c. H3PO4
d. HF
e. CH3COOH
f. HCOOH
2. How many moles of hydrogen ions would react with one mole of the following
bases?
a. NaOH
b. Fe(OH)3
c. Ca(OH)2
3. Write equations for the successive ionizations of oxalic acid.
4. Using table 15.10 identify, in order of decreasing concentration, all the ions and
molecules present in the following solutions.
a. 1mol L-1 CH3COOH
b.1mol L-1 H2SO4
c. 1mol L-1H2S

15.8 Acid-base neutralization reactions

When solutions of acids and bases are mixed, reactions occur in which the acidic and
basic properties of the reactants are nullified. Such acid-base reactions are known as
neutralization reactions.
Most acid-base reactions result in the formation of a salt and water. The reaction
between a strong acid such as nitric acid and a strong base such as sodium hydroxide
produces water plus a salt, sodium nitrate, in solution. A non-ionic equation for this
reaction is:
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq)NaNO3(aq) + H2O (l)
As nitric acid and sodium hydroxide are completely dissociated into ions in aqueous
solution, the reaction is better represented by the following equation.

H+(aq) + OH-(aq)H2O(l)

The sodium and nitrate ions are merely spectator ions which take no part in the
reactions but remain in the solution.
For a solution of a weak acid, such as ethanoic acid, the reaction with a
strong base such as sodium hydroxide is the best represented as :
OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)

H2O (l)+ CH3COO- (aq)

The resulting solution is therefore one which contains sodium ethanoate ions ; that
is, a sodium ethanoate solution. Similar equations can be written for the reactions
of other weak acids with sodium hydroxide solution.
The reaction between hydrochloric acid and ammonia solution is an
example of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base. As most of the
ammonia is present as molecules of NH3, and very little as NH4+ and OH- ions,
the reaction is represented as follows.
NH3 (aq) + H+

NH4+(aq)

The final solution is an ammonium chloride solution containing NH4

and Cl-

ions.
The reactions between sodium carbonate and hydrochloric acid is another
example of a reaction between a weak base and strong acid. The equation for this
reaction is as follows.
CO3 2-(aq) + 2 H+(aq)

H2CO3 (aq)

CO2 (q) + H2O (l)

The reaction between a metallic oxide and acid is also a neutralization

reaction. For example insoluble copper (II) oxide will react with hydrochloric acid
to form a solution of copper (II) chloride.
Cu(s) + 2H+

Cu 2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

Review exercise 15.8

1. Write appropriate equations for the reactions between sodium hydroxide

solution and each of the following.
a. Hydrochloric acid
b. Sulfuric acid
c. Carbonic acid
d. Gaseous carbon dioxide
2. Write equation for the reaction between hydrochloric acid and each of the
following.
a. Calsium hydroxide solution
b. Solid aluminium hydroxide
c. Solid magnesium axide
d. Solid sodium carbonate

15.9 Salts
Sodium chloride (NaCl), common table salt, is a member of a class of
compounds called salt. A salt is an ionic compound containing a cation other than
H+ and an anion other than OH- or O2-. Pottasium nitrate (KNO3), magnesium
chloride (MgCl2), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), copper (II) carbonate (CuCO3) and
ammonium ethanoate (NH4CH3COO) are examples of salt.
Another way of thinking about salts is to consider them as being formed
by the replacement of hydrogen in an acid by a metal ion or an ammonium ion.
Thus salts derived from hydrochloric acid are chlorides, from sulfuric acid are
sulfates, from nitric acid are nitrates, from carbonic acid are carbonates and so
In dilute aqueous solutions, salts are ompletely dissociated ions. Manesium
nitrate, for example, is cmpletely dissociated to the following equation.

Mg2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

Mg(NO3)2(s)

Similarly, a solution of potassium chloride consists of K+ and Cl- ions, an

ammonium ethanoate solution contains NH4+ and CH3COO- ions and so on.

Acid-base properties of salt solutions

Aqueous solutions of salts can be acidic, neutral or basic depnding on the
particular ions in the salt. For examples, solutions of NaCl and Ca(NO3)2 are
neutral and have a pH of 7. In contras of NaCH3COO and KF are basic (pH > 7),
while solutions of NH4Cl and NaHSO4 are acidic (pH < 7), solutions of salts can
be acidic or basic when the ions in the salt react with water to produce H +(aq) or
OH-(aq), this type of reaction is often called hydrolysis.
In order to predict the acid-base nature of a salt it is necesary to consider
the acid-base prooperties of the individual ions making up the salt, the acid-base
properties of cation and anions are summarised in table 15.11.
Table 15.11

Acid-base properties of some common ions in aqueous solution.

Neutral

Anion

Basic

Acidic

derived

derived

derived

from

from

from

srong

weak

polyprotic

acids

acids

acids

Cl-, NO3-, Br-, I_

F-, S2-, SO42-, ClO-, HSO4-, H2PO42CH3COO-,

CO32-,

HCO3-, PO43-, HPO42-

Cation

derived

NH4+

from

Al3+

strong

Fe3+

none

bases
Li+, Mg

2+

, Na+,

Ca2+, K+, Ba2+

The information in table 15.11 illustrates the following generalisations

about the acid-base properties of ions in aqueous solutions.
1. Neutral anions ore those derived from strong acids. Anions such as chloride
have no tendency to rect with water from HCl and hydroxide ion.
2. Neutral cations are group I and II cations. These cations are derived from
strong bases such as sodium hydroxide adn magnesium hyydroxide.
3. Basic anion are those which react with water to from some hydroxide ions in
aqueous solution. Basic anions are derived from week acids, for example, the
ethanoate ions react with water to produce ethanoic acid and hydroxide ion
according to the following equation.
CH3COO-(aq) + H2O(l)

CH3COOH (aq)+ OH (aq)

This reaction occurs to only a limited extent. Therefore in a solution

containing ethanoate ions only a small proportion of these ion react with water
to form ethanoic acid and hydroxide ion. The reaction occurs to only a limited
extent because CH3COOH is stronger acid than H2O and OH

is a stronger

base than CH3COO-. Thus solution containing ethanoate ions are weakly
basic.
4. Acidic anions are those which contain hydrogen atoms which can transfer to
water molecules to form hydronium ions. Acidic anions are derived from
polyprotic acids. For instance, the hydrogensulfate ion HSO4- is derived from
sulfuric acid H2SO4 and the dihydrogensulfate ion H2PO4 from phosphoric
acid.
Solution containing the hydrogensulfate ion are acidic due to the following
reaction.
HSO4- (aq) + H2O(l)

H3O+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Competing hydrolisis reactions

Anion which contain acidic hydrogen atoms and are derived from polyprotic
acids often undergo separate hydrolysis reaction which produce both H+ (aq)
and OH

(aq). Examples are the H2PO4

and HCO3- ions with water as

follows.
H2PO4 - (aq) + H2O(l)

HPO4 2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

H2PO4 - (aq) + H2O(l)

HPO4 2-(aq) + OH (aq)

HCO3 - (aq) + H2O(l)

CO3 2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)

HCO3 - (aq) + H2O(l)

H2CO3 (aq) + OH (aq)

Whether the anion exhibits acidic or basic properties in solution depends on

the relative tendencies of these competing hydrolysis reactions. H2PO4 is an
acidic anion because it is a better proton donor than proton acceptor.
5. Acidic cations can be classified as those derived from weak bases and aquated
metal ions. The ammonium ions (NH4+)is derived from the weak base
ammonia (NH3). The ammonium ions is acidic in aqueous solution because of
the following reactions.
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l)

NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Again, this reaction only occurs to a limited extent as H3O+ is a stronger acid
than NH4+ and NH3 is a stronger base than H2O. Thus solutions containing
ammonium ions are only weakly acidic.
Small, highly charged metal ions are also acidic in aqueous solution. For
example, the aquated aluminium ion, [Al(H2O)6]3+, produce hydronium ions
according to the reactions:
[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l)

[Al(OH)(H2O)5]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)

Similarly, [Fe(H2O)6]3+ and other transition metal ions produce weakly acidic
solutions.

Predicting The Acid-Base Properties Of Salt Solutions

To determine whether a particular salt will undergo hydrolysis to form an acidic
or basic solution it is necessary to the cation and anion concerned. For example, a
NaCl solution will be neutral as both the Na+ + Cl- have no tendency to react with
water to produce H3O+ or OH-. in solution of KCH3COO and Na2S the CH3COOand S2- ions react with water to produce small amounts of hydroxide ion and
hence basic solution result. Solutions such as NH4Cl and Fe(NO3)3 contain the
cation NH4+ and [Fe(H2O)6]3+ which produce small amounts of hydronium ion
and therefore weakly acidic solutions.
For solutions of salts such as ammonium ethanoate where one ion has acidic
properties and the other basic properties, the acidity or basidity of the solutions
will depend on the relative effect of the two ions. In ammonium ethanoate
solution the acidity due to the ion is approximately equal to the basicity of the
CH3COO- ion. As a result an NH4CH3COO solution is virtually neutral. A
solution of NH4CN however, is slightly basic as the cyanide ion has stronger
basic properties than the NH4+ions acidic properties.

Review exercise 15.9

1. Write equations for the hydrolysis of the following ions.
a.

S2-

e. F-

b.

CO3 2-

f. HSO4

c.

NH4+

g. ClO-

d.

[Fe(H2O)6]3+

h. CH3

2. Classify solution of the following as acidic, basic, or neutral.

a.

KNO3

b.

NH4NO3

c.

Ca(ClO)2

d.

Na3PO4

e.

AlBr3

f.

KH2PO4

g.

MgI2

h.

NaCO3

15.10 Acids and bases in the living world

Carbon dioxide is an important gas in the biological world. In photosynthesis it is
used by plantsas the primary source of food for living systems.
6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) + sunlight

C6H12O6 (aq)+ 6O2 (g)

it is also a product ofrespiration through which living things gain the energy they
need to function.
C6H12O6 (aq)+ 6O2 (g)

6CO2 (g) + 6H2O(l) + energy

Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water and establisheds an equillibrium

between gaseous and dissolved CO2 as follows.
CO2 (g)

CO2 (aq)

The dissolved CO2 react with water to form carbonic acid which is weak diprotic
acid
CO2 (g) + H2O(l)

H2CO3 (aq)

The carbonic acid establishes equilibria involving the hydrogencarbonate and

carbonate ion.
H2CO3 - (aq) + H2O(l)

HCO3- (aq) + H3O+(aq)

HCO3 - (aq) + H2O(l)

H3O+(aq) + CO3 2- (aq)

Because of these equilibria a solution of carbon dioxide is weakly acidic.

Rainwater, for example, has a pH about %.6. soda water is a supersaturated solution
of carbon dioxide and has a characteristic sour acid taste.

Within natural aquatic systems such as lakes, rivers, and thev ocean the CO2 /
H2CO3 / HCO3

/ CO3

2-

system provides

the carbon dioxide needed for

photosynthesis by aquatic plants and has a role in pH control.

Within the human body CO2 released by respiration processes is transported by the
blood to the lung where it is exhaled. The pH human blood needs to be in the range
7.35-7.45. The CO2 / H2CO3 / HCO3 - / CO3

2-

system plays an important role in

keeping the blood pH within this range.

The human stomach produces about 2-3 litres of gastric juice daily. This has a pH
af about 0.8 due to the presence of hydrochloric acid which is secreted by cells in the
stomach wall. The HCl helps to suppress the growth of bacteria in the stomach and
provides ideal pH conditions which asssist the enzyme pepsin, to digest protein
Normally the stomatch is not harmed by the HCl it contains because of the
presence of an inner protective lining. However, if too much HCl is produced this
may cause discomfort and, in severe cases, may lead to stomach ulcers. Antacids are
sometimes used to neutralise some of the HCl in the stomach and to decrease the
acidity. Several bases, incuding magnesium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide,
calsium carbonate and sodium hydrogencarbonate are used in antacid preparation.
This react with hydrochloric acid in the stomach as follows.
Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2H+

Mg 2+ (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H+

Al 3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)

CaCO3 (s) + 2H+

Ca 2+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

NaHCO3 (s) + H+

Na + (aq) + CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

Figure 15.10
a. Cells in the stomach lining secreate gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid
b. Antacids are often used to reduce excess stomach acidity (June oxford)

Review exercise 15.10

1. For a solution of carbon dioxide identify the following
a. All the species present
b. The most abundant ionic species
2. Gastricis approximately 0.15 mol L-1 HCl. Calculate the volume of gastric juice
which would be neutralized by an antacid table containing 750 mg of CaCO3.

15.11 Acids, bases and the periodic table

Trends across periods
The acid base properties of the oxides and hydroxides of the period 3 elements are
shown in table 15.12
From the table it can be seen that the oxides and hydroxides have increasingly
acidic character going from left to right across the period. Sodium and magnesium
oxides and hydroxides are strong bases. Aluminium oxide and hydroxide are
amphoteric. They will dissolve in solutions of strong acids or strong bases. When
aluminium hydroxide dissolves in acid solution it is acting as a base.
Al(OH)3 (s) + 3H+ (aq)

Al 3+ (aq) + 3 H2O(l)

When it dissolves in basic solution the aluminium hydroxide is acting as an acid

Al(OH)3 (s) + OH-

[Al(OH)4]- (aq)

The oxides and hydroxides of silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and chlorine are all
acidic but vary in strength from weakly acidic for silicon dioxide to strongly acidic
for sulfuric acid and perchloric acid.
Table 15.12 the acid base properties of the oxides and hydroxides of the period 3
elements.
Elements

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P4O10

SO3

Cl2O7

NaOH

insoluble

insoluble

insoluble

H3PO4

H2SO4

HCO4

NaOH

Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

Si(OH)4

PO(OH)3

SO2(OH)2

ClO3(OH)

Oxides
Formula
Product

of

reaction
With water
Hydroxide
Formula

Product

of

Soluble

insoluble

insoluble

or H4SiO4

or H3PO4

insoluble

Soluble

Soluble,

Soluble

mainly

H+ HSO4-

H+, ClO4-

reaction
Na+, OH-

With water

Or HClO4

molecules

Reactions of
oxides/
hydroxides
Products

of

reaction
With

H2 O
strong

+ Na

H2O
+

H2O
2+

+ Mg

No

No

No

No

Reaction

Reaction

Reaction

Reaction

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

[Al(OH)3]

+SiO32-

+PO4 3-

+SO4 2-

+ClO4-

amphoteric

Weakly

Moderatel

Strongly

Strongly

Acidic

acidic

acidic

+ Al

3+

acid
Products

of

No

No

Reaction

Reaction

Stongly

Stongly

Basic

Basic

reaction
With

strong

base
Acid-

base

properties of
oxides/

acidic

hydroxides

Bonding

in

ionic

solid oxide

Ionic

ionic

Covalent

Covalent

Covalent

Covalent

network

molecular

molecular

molecular

Trend down groups

Trend in the acid-base properties of oxides down a group can be illustrated by the
group elements. These are shown in table 15.13. from the table it is apparent that
there is an increase in the basicity of the oxides going down the group. Carbon
dioxide is acidic in nature, producing carbonic acid when dissolved in water. Silicon
dioxide and germanium dioxide have successively less acidic properties. Tin and lead
dioxide are amphoteric in character, and hence will dissolve in solutions of strong
acid and strong bases.

Table 15.13 the acid-base properties of the oxides of the group IV elements
Elements

Formula of CO2

Si

Ge

Sn

Pb

SiO2

GeO2

SnO2

PbO2

Insoluble

Insoluble

Insoluble

Insoluble

No reaction

no reaction

H2O

H2O

+ Sn 4+

+ Pb 4+

[Sn(OH)6]2-

[Pb(OH)6]2-

amphoteric

amphoteric

ionic

ionic

oxide
Formula of Slightly
reaction

soluble

with water

H2CO3

Formula of no reaction
reaction
with strong
acid
Formula of H2O

H2O

H2O

+ CO3 2-

+ SiO3 2-

+ GeO3 2-

Acid-base

Moderately

Weakly

Weakly

properties

acidic

acidic

acidic

Covalent

Covalent

network

network

reaction
with strong
base

Bonding in Covalent
solid oxide

molecular

Periodic trends related to electronegativities and bonding

The oxides and hydroxides of elements therefore tend to increase in acidity across a
period but decrease in acidity down a group in the periodic table. These trends can be
understood in terms of the electronegativities of the elements increase gradually

across the periode from sodium to chlorine. This indicates that elements to the right
of the periode have a greater tendency to attract electrons than those at the left. In
sodium oxide the bonding is ionic as sodium has a low electronegativity and oxygen
has a high value. The electrons are completely transferred from the sodium atoms to
the oxygen has a high value. The electrons are completely transferredfrom the sodium
atoms to form Na+ and O2- ions. When dissolved in waater the O2- ion, being a strong
base, react to form hydroxide ions.
Figure 15. 11 Acid base properties of main group oxides
Basic oxide
Acidic oxide
Amphoteric acid

Li2O

BeO

B 2 O3

CO2

N2O5

OF2

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P4O11

SO3

Cl2O7

K 2O

CaO

Ga2O3

GeO2

As2O5

SeO3

Br2O7

Rb2O

SrO

In2O3

SnO2

Sb2O5

TeO3

I2O7

Cs2O

BaO

Tl2O3

PbO2

Bi2O5

PoO3

At2O7

In SO3 and Cl2O7 however, the difference in electronegativities of the

elements involved is not nearly so pronounced. In SO3 the bonding can be
represented as shown in the side column. The bonding is covalen and slightly polar.
When SO3 is dsissolved in water the sulfur atom, with a partial positive charge,
accepts a hydroxide ion as follows.
O S +
O -

O -

S + H2O

+ H+

O OH

This results in the production of H+ and HSO4 ions as found in a sulfuric acid
solution .
The decreasing acidity of oxides down a group can also be explained in terms
of trends in the elektronegativities of the elements within the group. There is gradual
decrease in elektronegativity down a group as is evident from the increasing metallic
nature of the elements in group IV. Consequently, the oxides will tend be more ionic
and display increasingly basic properties going down the group.
Review exercise 15.11
1. K2O, Ga2O3 and Br2O7 are three oxides from the fourth row of the periodic table.
Predict:
a. The nature of the bonding in these oxides

b. The acid base properties of the oxides

2. Alumunium, boron and indium are all elements in group III. Al2O3 is an
amphoteric oxide. From the positions of Al, B and In in the periodic table, predict
the acid base characteristics of B2O3 and In2O3.

Major ideas

Properties of aqueous solutions of acids:

1. Turn litmus red
2. Conduct an electric current.
3. Taste sour
4. React with reactive metals to produce hydrogen gas .
5. React with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form carbon dioxide.
6. React with metal oxides to produce a salt and water.
7. React with metal hydroxides to form a salt and water.

Properties of aqueous solutions of bases:

1. Turn litmus blue
2. Conduct an electric current.
3. Taste bitter
4. React with amphoteric metals to produce hydrogen gas.
5. React with acid to form a salt and water.
6. Dissolve amphoteric metals hydroxides.

Arrhenius theory of acid and bases:

1. an acid is a substance which produces H+ (aq) in solution.
2. an base is a substance which produces OH- (aq) in solution.

Bronsted lowry theory of acid and bases:

1. An acid is a proton donor
2. A base is a proton acceptor
3. Some substances can react as acids or basis in different reactions.
4. Every acid has a conjugate base which is related in the following way.
H+

HX
Acid

+ X-

proton conjugate base

5. The sronger an acid, the weaker its conjugate base.

6. Acid-base reactions tend to occur in the diretion in which a stronger acid
(proton donor) and stronger base (proton acceptor) react to form a weaker acid
and weaker base.

Water is a weak electrolyte which ionises to form H+ (aq) and OH-(aq) to a small
extent.

The relationship between the concentration H+ (aq) and OH-(aq) in any aqueous
solution at 25 0C is given by the following.
Kw= [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10-14

The pH of any solution is calculated from :

pH = - log 10 [H+]

Table 15.14
pH

Solution

>7

Basic

=7

Neutral

<7

Acidic

The relationship between pH and acidity is shown the table 15.14.

Strong acids (for example, HCl, H2SO4) and strong bases (for example, NaOH)
are essentially completely ionized or dissociated into ions in aqueous solution.

Weak acids (for example, CH3COOH, H3PO4) and weak bases (for example,
NH3) are those in which only a small proportion of the molecules are ionised in
aqueous solution.

The acid ionisation constant (Ka) is the equilibrium constant for the ionisation of
an acid (HX) into ions.
Ka = [H+][X-]
[HX]

Polyprotic acids (for example, H2SO4, H3PO4 ) are those which contain more than
one acidic or ionisable hydrogen for formula unit of the acid

For polyprotic acids successive ionisation occur to successively smaller extents.

Some bases (for example, Ca(OH)2) contain more than one hydroxide ion per
formula unit of the base.

A neutralisation reaction is the reaction between an acid and a base.

Types of neutralisation reactions are shown in table 15.15

Table 15.15
Reaction

Equation

Strong acid/strong base

H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

H2O(l)

Weak acid/strong acid

HX (aq) + OH-(aq)

H2O(l) + X-(aq)

Strong acid/ weak base

H+ (aq) + B (aq)

BH+(aq)

Strong acid/insoluble metal oxide

2H+ (aq) + MO(s)

H2O(l) + M2+ (aq)

Salts are ionic compounds containing a cation other than H+ and anion other that
O2- or OH- .

Nearly all salts are strong electrolytes.

Salt solution can be acidic, basic or neutral depending on the tendencies of the
ions in the salt to undergo hydrolysis. The acid-base properties of ions are
summarized in table 15.16

Table 15.16
Neutral
Anion

Basic

Acidic

Derived from strong Derived

acids e.g. Cl-, NO3-.

weak

acids

from Derived
e.g. polyprotic

CO32-, CH3COOCation

from
acids e.g.

HSO4-, H2PO4-

Derived from strong None

NH4+, Al3+, transition

bases e.g. Na +, Ca 2+

metal ions e.g. Fe 3+

Carbon dioxide is slightly soluble in water and dissolves to form carbonic acid,
H2CO3. this is a weak diprotic acid which undergoes successive ionisation
reaction to form hydrogencarbonate, HCO3- and carbonate, CO32- , ions.

Oxides and hydroxides increase in acidity across periods in the periodic table.

Oxides and hydroxides decrease in acidity down groups in the periodic table.

Question and problems

1. Write balanced chemical equations for the reaction between the following
a. Aluminium and hydrochloric acid.
b. Solid potassium hydrogencarbonate and nitric acid
c. Iron (III) oxide and sulfuric acid.
d. Barium hydroxide solution and hydrofluoric acid.
2. Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions between the following .
a. Sodium hydroxide solution and aluminium
b. Potassium hydroxide solution and Iron (III) hydroxide
c. Potassium hydroxide solution and zinc hydroxide
d. Sodium hydroxide solution and sulfur trioxide
3. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
a. Baking powder, which includes potassium hydrogen tartrate (KHC4H4O6) and
sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3), is moistened to allow reaction
between the components.
b. Rust (Fe2O3) on a wrought iron gate is trated with spirits of salt (HCl) to
remove the rust.
c. An antacid powder containing aluminium hydroxide is used to neutralise
excess stomach acidity (HCl).

d. Acid rain containing sulfurous acid (H2SO3) react with marblre (CaCO3)
statues in a city park.
4. Write the formulas for the following
a. The conjugate bases of HClO3, HS-, HH4+, H2O.
b. The conjugate acids of HCO3-, HS-, [Fe(OH)(H2O)5]2+ , N2H4.
5. Write equations for the reactions which occur when the following are dissolved in
water
a. The strong acid HClO4
b. The strong base LiOH
c. The weak acid HCOOH
d. The weak base N2H4
6. Draw diagrams such as those shown in figure 15.8 to represent:
a. A concentrated solution of a strong acid
b. A dilute solution of a strong acid
c. A concentrated solution of a weak acid
d. A dilute solution of a weak acid
7. For each of the following reactions :
i. Identify the Bronsted-Lowry conjugate acid-base pairs
ii. Predict whether the reaction will occur to a small a large extent.
a. H2C2O4(aq) + H2O (l)

H3O+ (aq) + HC2O4-(aq)

b. H2O(l) + CN-(aq)

HCN (aq) + OH- (aq)

c. CH3COOH (aq) + S2-(aq)

d. HCl(aq) + F- (aq)

CH3COO (aq) + HS- (aq)

HF(aq) + Cl-(aq)

8. Calculate [H+], [OH-] and pH of the following solutions

a. 0.50 mol L-1 HBr
b. 3.0 x 10-3 mol L-1 Ca(OH)2
c. a solution prepared by dissolving 1.60 gr of NaOH in water to make up 250.0
mL of solution
d. a solution prepared by diluting 2.0 mL of 12 mol L-1 HCl to form 250 mL of
solution.
9. Calculate the [H+] and [OH-] concentration in each of the following
a. Coca cola with a pH of 3.00
b. Acid rain with pH of a 2.40
c. Baking soda solution with a pH 8.50
d. Dishwasing detergent with a pH of 12.10
10. For a 0.20 mol L-1 HNO3 solution calculate the following
a. The concentration of H+ and NO3- ions and HNO3 molecules
b. The pH
11. For a 0.20 mol L-1 HNO2 solution (Ka = 4.5 10-4) calculate the following
a. The concentration of H+ and NO2- ions and HNO2 molecules

b. The pH
12. Without doing detailed calculations, use the acid ionisation constants to list the
following 0.1 mol L-1 solutions in order of increasing pH.
HCl, NH3, Na2CO3, H3PO4, NaCl, H2SO4, NaOH, NH4Cl, Ba(OH)2
13. For the following acid:
O

H
C

a. Identify the number of hydrogen atoms

b. Identify the number of acidic hydrogen atoms
c. Determine the number of moles of hydroxide ions required to neutralise one
mole of the acid
d. Write an equation for the neutralisation reaction.
14. 1L of 2 mol L-1 NaOH is added to 1 L of 1 mol L-1 H2SO4. identify :
i. All of the spesies present
ii. The most abundant spesies other than water
a. In the separated solution before they are mixed
b. When half the NaOH solution has been added to the H2SO4 solution
c. When all the NaOH solution has been added to the H2SO4 solution
15. a. Write an equation for the hydrolysis of ethanoate ion (CH3COO-)

b. Explain why a solution of sodium ethanoate is basic when the hydrolysis of

ethanoate ion forms ethanoic acid molecules.
16. a. Write equations to represent the HCO3 ion acting as an acid and as a base in
aqueous solution.
b. Explain why HCO3 ion is classified as a basic anion.
17. Classify each of the following solution as acidic, neutral or basic. Where a
solution is not neutral write an equation far the hydrolysis reaction involved.
a.

CaCl2

b.

Cr(NO3)3

c.

Na3PO4

d.

Na2SO4

e.

K2CO3

f.

KCN

g.

NH4Br

h.

(NH4)2S

18. Write equation to represent the chemical equilibria between:

a.

Gaseous and aqueous carbon dioxide

b.

Aqueous carbon dioxide and carbonic acid

c.

Carbonic acid and hydrogencarbonate ion

d.

Hydrogencarbonate ion and carbonate ion.

19. An antacid tablet contains750 mg CaCO3 and 200 mg Al(OH)3.

a. Write equation to represent the reactions between CaCO3 and Al(OH)3 and gastric
juice acid, HCl.
b. Assuming gastric juice acid is 0.15 mol L-1 HCl, Calculate the volume of gastric juice
acid which would be neutralised by the antacid tablet.
20. Arrange the following oxides in order of increasing acidity.
a. Al2O3, Na2O, P4O11, Cl2O7
b. SiO2, SO3, K2O, Al2O3, Cl2O7