BIOFOULING POTENTIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL

FACTORS OF SEAWATER AT A DESALINATION

PLANT INTAKE1
P. K. Abdul Azis, Ibrahim Al-Tisan and N. Sasikumar
Saline Water Conversion Corporation
P.O.Box 8328, Al-Jubail -31951, Saudi Arabia
Tel: + 966-3-343 0012, Fax: + 966-3-343 1615
Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Coastal waters have been widely used by the littoral countries of the Middle East for
siting desalination and power plants to take advantage of the availability of unpolluted
sea water for establishing cost effective feed intake and once through cooling system.
Huge quantities of raw seawater are being withdrawn from the sea for the unimpeded
production of freshwater, greatly needed in the region. The effect of marine
environment has been found to ramify over the plants, principally as biofouling of
intake structures, pumps, seawater piping system, heat exchangers, etc. Despite
widespread occurrence, not much information is available on the instances of
biofouling encountered in desalination and power plants. The study was aimed at
understanding the nature of biofilm formation and its further development on materials
exposed to sea water, the composition of biofouling communities in space and time, the
succession of flora and fauna in a biofouling environment and the principal ecological
factors having a bearing on the phenomenon. Five experiments were carried out over a
period of two years representing different seasons. Glass slides, were suspended in the
sea on a Diatometer and kept afloat with buoys so that the slides remained constantly
submerged in water. The slides, retrieved at pre-determined intervals, were subjected to
detailed examination, and the data collected on the parameters mentioned above
constitute the subject of this paper. Biofilm showed a growth in thickness for the first
three weeks followed by a reduction attributable to sloughing of the biofilm. The
biofouling community was composed of 31groups of organisms which exhibited a
widely varying pattern of incidence, abundance and succession. The settlement of
organisms increased with increased exposure time. Environmental factors such as
1

Paper presented at the International Conference on Seawater Desalination Technologies on the

Threshold of the New Millennium, Kuwait, 4-7 Nov., 2000.

temperature, conductivity, total suspended solids, and dissolved oxygen have been
examined in the context of biofouling activity in the sea. The paper discusses the
diverse aspects of biofouling within the ecological frame of a coastal intake bay.

1.

INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW

Coastal waters of the Arabian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Northern Arabian Sea have
been widely used by the countries of the region for siting desalination and power plants.
The availability of unpolluted seawater for establishing cost effective feed intake was
an inherent advantage. Surface/subsurface intakes or man - made bays studded to the
coast, withdraws large quantities of water for the production of the much needed
freshwater in the region. The marine environment adjacent to desalination plants
naturally exerts a profound influence on the operation and maintenance of these plants.
The effects of marine environment on the plant are recognized primarily as biofouling
of intake structures, pumps, water boxes, heat exchangers, flash chambers and other
plant structures.

Biofouling may be defined as the attachment and subsequent growth of a community of

usually visible plants and animals on structures exposed to seawater environment. Man
has long been aware of this problem. In the fourth century B. C., Aristotle is reported to
have stated that small fish (barnacles) were able to slow down ships. Fouling of ship
hulls, navigational buoys, underwater equipment, seawater piping systems, industrial or
municipal intakes, beach well structures, oil rigs and allied structures are often reported
[1, 2]. In the past few decades, the list of affected structures has expanded. Now,
reports are common regarding the biofouling that affects Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion Plants, Offshore platforms, moored oceanographic instruments and nuclear
and other submarines [3-8]. The impact of bio fouling on sea front structures is
staggering. Ships show a 10% higher fuel consumption caused by increased drag and
frictional resistance resulting from hull and propeller fouling. Water lines lose their
carrying capacity and speed of flow owing to bio fouling growth along pipe systems.
The heat exchanger performance declines due to attachment of biofoulants. Many
marine organisms themselves face the constant problem of being colonized and
overgrown by fouling organisms. Immobile plants and animals are generally exposed to

biofouling and consequent loss of species and community assemblages. Biofouling also
promotes corrosion of materials. The money and material needed for fouling protection
measures are indeed great. It is estimated that the marine industry incurs an expenditure
of 10 billion sterling pounds a year to combat the situations arising from biofouling
worldwide. A lot of research effort have been devoted to understand the fundamental
ecology and biology of fouling environments, organisms, and communities in diverse
settings [9-16]. The present study is designed to understand the pattern of bio fouling in
relation to the natural ecological setting of a man-made intake bay of a dual-purpose
(water and power) plant situated on the Arabian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Data
gathered on biofouling in the intake bay are reported in this paper together with
pertinent ecological information. The bio fouling potential of the gulf seawater
addressed in this paper has a great bearing on other desalination plants located in this
region.

2.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experiments were carried out using a Diatometer fabricated at the Saline Water
Conversion Corporation (SWCC) Research and Development Center. The Diatometer a rack made of vinyl plastic and styroform - was suspended from a raft in the Intake Bay
for studying the dynamics of biofilm build up and settlement of organisms. Twelve
glass slides (25 x 75mm) were placed in the rack parallel to each other and horizontal to
the water surface. The floats on either side of the Diatometers were fixed in such a way
that the glass slides remain submerged at all times during the study. The experiment
was carried out during 1995-96. Each pair of slide was removed at weekly intervals (7,
14, 21,28,35 &42 days), transferred into a coplin jar containing sterile (0.45 m
filtration) seawater and transported to the laboratory for analyses. Each slide was
examined under a binocular microscope equipped with an ocular micrometer for
biofilm attachment, density of organisms and biofilm thickness. The number of
organism per square centimeter was determined after examining 10 squares on the glass
slide. The biomass of biofilm was determined from the wet and dry weights. Samples
required for temperature, conductivity, pH, total suspended solids(TSS), dissolved
oxygen and chlorophyll data were collected during the fortnightly cruises carried out in
the sea during the year. Seawater samples were collected from the surface using a clean

plastic bucket. Water temperature was measured using a mercury thermometer with an
accuracy of 1C. Conductivity was measured using a Conductivity Meter (Yellow
Springs Instr. Co., USA) and pH, using a pH Meter (Fisher, USA). Total Suspended
Solids (TSS) were estimated by filtration through 0.45m millipore filter paper and
overnight drying at 60C. Dissolved oxygen content and Chlorophyll a were determined
following a seawater analyses manual [17].

3.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1

Ecology of the intake

The desalination plant intake where this study was carried out is a man made bay
studded to the coast providing protected pumping stations for drawing the needed feed
sea water for the various desalination units. The area experienced the semi-diurnal tidal
cycle characteristic of the Arabian Gulf. The lowest tide was 5cm during the period
recorded in December and the highest was 211cm recorded in July. Consequent to
continuous pumping, a strong unidirectional current exists inside the bay in the
direction of the plant intakes creating a unique oceanographic situation in the bay. The
wind action on the surface of the bay sets waves in motion which influence the
conditions in the experimental zone. The depth of water in the Intake bay ranged from 4
to 5.5m.

Observation in the intake bay showed that the feed water zone of the desalination plant
was free from any visible indication of pollution. The surface water temperature of the
Intake Bay varied with the seasons in association with climatic changes, with mean
values being the highest for summer and lowest for winter. During the study, the
temperature ranged between 17.3C recorded in January and 30.50C recorded in July.
The mean seasonal temperature was always the highest during summer and the lowest
during winter at all the stations. The sea surface conductivity ranged from 53.95 - 65.10
ms/cm in the Intake Bay. The lowest value for conductivity was recorded in January
whereas the highest was in June. Seasonally, the mean conductivity value was the
highest during the summer season successively followed by Fall, Spring and winter
season. The pH of the seawater ranged from 8.16 - 8.76 indicating that the variations in
seawater pH remained within narrow limits. The Total Suspended Solids (TSS) ranged

from 9.08 - 85.5 mg/l. The highest value was noticed in March and the lowest in
October, December, November and July. Seasonal mean was lowest during the fall
(10.50 mg/l) and highest during the spring (40 mg/l). Dissolved Oxygen values ranged
from 7.27 mg/l in February to 4.44 mg/l in October. The mean value was the highest in
the winter and lowest in the fall and the values were found to be healthy for marine life.
The productivity in the Intake bay was impressive. Chlorophyll a pigment production
varied from 0.04 to 4.2 mg/m3 . The seasonal mean was the highest during the summer
(2.3 mg/m3 ).
3.2

Biofilm formation

Observations on the coupons provided the thickness of biofilm formed and the weight it
gained during different periods of exposure. Biofilm formation began immediately
following the exposure of the clear coupons in the bay. The thickness of biofilm
measured during the three experiments showed a maximum of 375m (March, 96) at
the Intake Bay after 28 days (Figure 1). The range of thickness was from 50 to 200m
during March 1995; 50 to 375m during March 1996, and 110 to 330m during July
1996. Biofilm showed a growth in thickness for the first three to four weeks and
thereafter a reduction attributable to grazing by higher organisms in the water, seasonal
variation in water quality and sloughing was observed. The data showed that the biofilm
generally attained its maximum thickness within the first three to four weeks in the bay.
Biofilm wet weight in the Intake Bay showed minimum values in March 1995 as
compared to March and July 1996 (Figure 2). Maximum was found during July 1996.
In general, increase in weight was found associated with increased exposure time. Dry
weight also showed a similar pattern with relatively higher values in July 1996 (Figure
3). The dry weight also increased with increased exposure time.

Our observations showed that the biofilm formation did not occur in a spectacular way,
but was seen to form in a rather slow and subtle form. The sea water which bathes the
coupons always has a role in the process. The seawater has a load of suspended
particles ranging from 0.12 microns representing the finest clay to 1000 microns
representing the coarse sand influencing its transparency and turbidity on a daily basis.
According to Abu El-Ella [18], the suspended particles consists of an allochthonus pool
(derived from terrestrial organic matter, including air-borne dust), an autochthonus pool

(derived from in situ biological production represented by the living plankton, algae and
their dead and decomposed body parts) and an anthropogenic pool (derived from
industrial, domestic and agricultural wastes). Their role is stated to be significant in the
food chain of the sea. The allochthonus input of particles are greater in the Arabian Gulf
considering the enormous nature of the sand storms that blow across the region. The
suspended particles harbour a rich assemblage of microbial life on it and fine particles
are colloidal and they get cemented to surfaces some what loosely by electrostatic or
physical forces such as waves, currents and tides in a region [11,19]. The layer of
deposit consisting of the microbial flora and colloidal slime thus formed is together
called a biofilm. It is thin and transparent in the beginning and becomes brown with the
accretion of more particles and attachment of microflora. Organisms, particularly
bacteria and fungi which attach and multiply on such films in geometric proportions
constitute a very complex matrix of biofilm community encompassing a wide array of
food chains.

The earliest phase of biological fouling is the formation of a conditioning film by

deposits of suspended particles with lot of humic and fulvic substances. Baier [20] has
characterized this conditioning film as consisting of high molecular weight polymeric
substances. Bacteria quickly colonize this film. According to Mitchell et al [21], the
early attachment of bacteria involves chemotaxis of motile bacteria, reversible sorption,
and finally permanent attachment. The attachment of algae appears to involve both
positive

chemoreception

and

attachment

of

specific

proteins

to

bacterial

polysaccharides.

Costerton [22] has reported the mechanism of biofilm attachment. Basically, biofilm
consists of bacterial cells and a hydrated matrix (90% water). Bacteria and algae form
the initial micro -colonies. A study of a live biofilm using the confocal scanning laser
microscope reported by Costerton revealed that many species of bacteria tend to form
micro-colonies within a biofilm and between these aggregates of cells lie the hydrated
matrix in the form of water channels. The cells reproduce and eventually form a mature
biofilm. It is also explained that cells of one species may associate with those of another
species for mutual physiological benefit and eventually become a powerful microbial
consortium that serves as a surface for settlement of algae and higher organisms.

Biofouling on the plant structures, whenever occurs, appears to mimic the events and
their sequences in nature.
3.3

Biofouling Community

Many groups of plants and animals are recognized as foulers. Even though they belong
to different groups they exhibit certain common characteristics. The attachment on the
coupon surface starts with the formation of the conditioning film and followed quickly
by the primary biofilm which consists of bacteria, benthic diatoms and filamentous
algae. In the tropical waters, the primary biofilm is chiefly made of diatoms and algae
with a relatively small proportion of other organisms, where as in the temperate regions
bacteria represent the chief component of primary biofilm [23]. The primary biofilm
community that settled on the coupons was largely composed of diatoms with fewer
representatives of invertebrate organisms.

The most important members of the fouling community were the diatoms. Protozoa,
hydrozoa, nematoda, annelida, crustacea and bryozoa also settled on the coupons, not in
large densities. Altogether, 31 genera of organisms were present in the biofouling
community in the bay. The diatoms was represented by five families, namely,
Coscinodisceae, Soleniae, Biddulphiae, Fragilariae and Naviculoideae. Melosira sp.,
Thalassiosera sp., Coscinodiscus sp.,and Skeletonema sp. formed the Coscinodisceae
family. Leptocylindrus sp. and Biddulphia sp. represented families Soleniae and
Biddulphiae, respectively. The largest number of genera that could be seen in the
biofouling community came from families Fragilarioideae and Naviculoideae, each
represented by seven genera. The former included Striatella sp., Grammatophora sp.,
Licmophora sp., Climacosphaenia sp., Fragilaria sp., Synedra sp. and Thalassiothrix
sp., and the latter included Navicula sp., Pleurosigma sp., Trachyneis sp., Amphiprora
sp., Nitschia sp., Surirella sp. and Gyrosigma sp.. The blue green algae and the green
algae were represented solely by Trichodesmium and Enteromorpha, respectively.
When the relative abundance was examined, Navicula sp., Licmophora sp., Nitzschia
sp. and Enteromorpha sp. were found to be dominant in terms of numerical abundance
and frequency of incidence in the Intake Bay. Coscinodiscus sp., Biddulphia sp.,
Grammatophora sp., Pleurosigma sp., protozoans and balanus were next in importance,

whereas Melosira sp., Thalssiosira sp., Leptocylindricus sp., Striatella sp.,

Climacosphaenia sp., Fragilaria sp., Synedra sp., Thalassiothrix sp., Tropidoneis sp.,
Amphiprora sp. and Surirella sp., were the least important components. Biofouling
organisms such as serpulids (tubiculous worms), balanus (barnacle), clams, oysters and
bryozoans were present in low numbers during the third and fourth weeks. Copepods,
amphipods and nematodes occurred only occasionally.
3.4

Generic diversity and succession

Biofilm generic diversity observed at the Intake Bay is given in Figure 4. In January
1995, highest generic diversity was found after 28 days. However, in the subsequent
two experiments carried out during February and March 1995, high diversity was
observed even from the seventh day. Experiments during March and July 1996 also
showed increase in generic diversity with increase in exposure time up to 35 days.
Maximum generic diversity was found in March 1996, with 18 genera (Figure 4). In
summary, it may be stated that, except in the February and March experiments, the
generic diversity showed an increase with exposure time up to four weeks. Greater
diversity is an indication of a stable community [24]. Most of the members in the
community are sessile in nature and have very restricted food source. They depend on
water currents for their food and sustenance. During the present series of diatometer
studies, the biofouling community was dominated by diatoms, and within the known
community assemblages reported from tropical waters, the structure of this community
was not very complicated. It appears that the exposure periods of the coupons have
greatly influenced the settlement pattern of organisms. Long duration experiments are
needed to understand the development of mature climax communities that really pose
serious macrofouling problems in desalination plants. A study of this nature is in
progress in the SWCC Research and Development Center.

Succession of species is an important ecological event that ensures the survival of a

biofouling community. Coupons exposed for fifteen days were found to be colonized by
a biofilm community dominated by Amphiprora sp.(49%). When the period of exposure
was increased to 30 days, the earlier set of species was succeeded by Licmophora
sp.(74%) indicating an instance of rapid growth and multiplication resulting in a
succession of species on the coupon. Similarly, Grammatophora sp. and Nitzschia sp.

which were dominant in the first fifteen days at the Intake Bay declined after 30 days of
exposure. On heavily fouled surface, one could see that the community gets settled as
many layers of organisms representing a very strong, vibrant and complicated web of
food chain. Unimpeded succession is attributed as the reason for the development of
intensely fouled surfaces.
3.5

Seasonal variations

Total number of diatoms settled during the experiments in 1995 and 1996 showed wide
fluctuations (Figures 5and 6). Density of settled diatom was more during 1996. While
the maximum diatom density of 3700 cells/cm2 was noticed in the spring of 1995, the
density was 110,000 cells/cm2 in the summer of 1996. Although the method of
enumeration followed was the same, there was an inter-annual variation presumably
caused by seasonal variation in the environmental features of the intake bay. It is known
that the Gulf seawater gets totally flushed out into the Arabian sea in 3 to 5.5 years [25]
and this could be presumed to be the reason for the annual variation that was
encountered now. However, long-term data are needed to validate this possibility. In
general, the number increased with increased exposure time. Maximum diatom
numbers were found in the fourth week.
Settlements of the diatom Nitzschia sp. was maximum (3700 cells/cm2 ) in January
1995 after 28 days. However, during February, the settlement was poor (500 cells/cm2 )
presumably due to temperature variation that occurs towards the end of the Winter
season. In March 1995, the density of this genus was 3200cells/ cm2. It may be seen that
Nitschia sp. started to colonize the coupon from the very first week onwards (Figure 7).
The occurrence of Nitzschia sp. was most dominant in the year 1996 (Figure 8). The
experiment in March 1996 showed an abundance of 21,000 cells/cm2. In the July 1996
experiment, maximum incidence was found after seven days (18,000 cells/cm2). But the
population suffered a decline afterward and remained very low even after 42 days of
exposure.
Navicula sp.displayed a pattern of settlement in which the peak settlement occurred
after 14 days during February and March 1995 with a decline in settlement afterwards
(Figure 9). The density of Navicula sp. was very high during 1996. In March 1996, the
number was around 5000 cells/cm2 after the first week followed by a decline and a

subsequent peak after 28 days resulting from recolonization. The experiment in July
1996 showed the maximum density of 24000 cells/cm2 in the first week (Figure 10).
Thereafter, population density suffered extensive destruction. A further profusion in
settlement was seen after 35 days. The pattern of protozoan settlement during the
experiments in 1995 and 1996 are depicted in Figures 11and 12. The experiments in
1996 showed higher density of biofouling organisms than in 1995. Whereas the spring
experiment showed peak settlement after three weeks, the summer experiments showed
the peak after seven days. Such changes are presumed to occur due to water quality
changes in the bay, seasonally and inter-annually. The incidence of other groups was
low in frequency and density.
3.6

Ecological parameters and biofouling

Parameters such as temperature, conductivity, pH, TSS and chlorophyll showed

seasonal fluctuations in the intake bay. It is known that several factors influence the
formation of the conditioning, slimy film (primary film) and settlement of fouling
organisms. Temperature of water plays a very significant role in the settlement of
organisms. In the warmer seas of the world biofouling takes place at all times of the
year, where as in the cool waters it is more pronounced only during the warmer months
[23]. Some organisms show a seasonal maximum and others show a total absence
during some months. The present data also showed seasonal variations in the pattern of
fouling in the intake bay.

Another factor of great importance is the load of suspended particles observed in the
bay. The TSS values observed in the bay were much higher than the same noticed in the
open sea adjacent to it during winter and spring periods making the coupons vulnerable
for biofouling. This situation can be attributed to the prevailing current in the bay
caused by the continuous pumping of the feed seawater. The current collects huge
quantity of suspended particles and organic matter from the open sea and transports the
same into the intake bay. The resulting elevated TSS values stay for six months during
the year, increasing the biofouling potential of seawater in the bay. Many organisms
can settle even when the water is flowing. While algal spores can settle within minutes
of contact in water flowing up to 10 knots, barnacles settle within 24 - 48 hours of
contact in flows up to 1.3 knots. Most fouling is stated to occur when there is no flow

10

[26]. Tides, light and color of seawater are also cited as factors influencing the pattern
of biofouling [27].

The biological productivity of the intake bay was found to be a predisposing condition
for biofouling. The values for chlorophyll production obtained during the study were
higher than the previously reported values from the Arabian Gulf [28, 29]. According to
a report for the same period, phytoplankton and zooplankton were richer in the intake
bay than in the open sea because of the embayment effect caused by the construction of
the intake break waters [30]. Many organisms of known biofouling nature such as
larvae of polychaetes (serpulids), barnacles and molluscs were seen in the plankton in
good numbers. The presence of suspended particles and a good number of organisms of
settling nature create a natural setting that encourages biofouling of available surfaces
in the bay.

The role of substratum is of paramount importance in the formation of the primary film
and settlement of organisms. Many organisms prefer slimed surfaces [31]. Barnacles
and serpulid polychaetes exhibit strong preference for slimy layer for settlement. The
layer actually entraps them on the surface and makes it difficult for them to leave. The
slime changes the color of the surface making it more attractive and it provides
abundant food for the young settlers. Surface chemistry such as the chemical nature of
surface adherent particles and that of materials themself, is also known to influence
biofouling [32]. Whereas dissolved oxygen and availability of light promote the
settlement of diatoms and algae in open water environments, it is not so with the
macrofouling larvae which gets settled in the dark, oxygen deficient environments of
plant equipment and tubes. Their growth is guided by other factors such as a firm
foothold, enough dissolved oxygen and plenty of food. The economics of clean heat
exchangers in the power and desalination industry, clean hulls for ships and submarines,
etc. are driving engineers and scientists in the pursuit of finding a more lasting solution
to the problems caused by biofouling.

11

4.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study was focused on the pattern of biofouling that occurs on glass coupons
exposed in a desalination plant intake bay on the shores of the Arabian Gulf. The
seawater in this man-made intake bay exhibited higher biofouling potential than the
open sea. Biofilm showed a growth in thickness during the first three to four weeks
followed by a period of reduction. Increase in Biofilm wet and dry weights were found
associated with increased exposure time. The biofouling community, consisting of 31
genera of organisms, was dominated by diatoms in all the experiments performed.
Navicula sp., Licmophora sp., Nitschia sp. and Enteromorpha sp. were the numerically
abundant species in the community. Highest generic diversity was found in the 28 day
old community. A succession of species in relation to periods of exposure was also
discernible. The density of settling organisms showed seasonal and inter-annual
variations. Although, in many cases exposure period was a factor that influenced the
density of settlement, it was not so in all situations. A long term study is needed to
understand the formation of complex biofouling communities which may pose serious
problems for marine installation and materials exposed to it.

12

400

Biofilm thickness (um)

350
300
Mar. 1995

250

Mar.-Apr. 1996

Jul.-Aug. 1996

200
150
100
50
0
7

14

21

28

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

Exposure days

Figure 1. Thickness of biofilm on glass coupons in the Intake Bay.

80

2 2)
W e t w e i g h t (mg/cm
(mg/cm
)

70
60
50

Jul.- Aug. 1996

40
30

Mar. 1995

Mar.-Apr. 1996

20
10
0
14

28

21

35

21

35

Exposure days

Figure 2. Wet weight of biofilm formed on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay.

13

60

(mg/cm3)

Dr y weight (mg/m3)

50
40
Mar. 1996

30

Jul.-Aug. 1996
20
10

Mar. 1995

0
7

14

21

28

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

Exposure days)

Figure 3. Dry weight of biofilm formed on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay.

18
Jan. 1995

16

Number of genera

14

Mar.-Apr. 1996

Feb. 1995

12
10

Mar, 1995
Jul.- Aug. 1996

8
6
4
2
0
2

4 7 14 21 28

7 14 21 28

7 14 21 28

7 14 21 28 35

7 14 21 28 35 42

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 4. Biofilm generic diversity at the Intake Bay during 1995-96.

14

4000
3500

D i a t o m s / m32)

3000
2500
2000
Jan. 1995

1500

Feb. 1995

1000

Mar.1995

500
0
2

14 21 28

14 21 28

14 21 28

Exposure days

Figure 5. Total number of diatoms settled on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1995

120000
100000

DDiatoms/m
i a t o m s / m2 2

80000
Jul.-Aug. 1996
Mar.-Apr. 1996

60000
40000
20000
0
7

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 6. Total number of diatoms settled on glass coupons at the Intake Bay
during 1996

15

4000
3500

2
NuNumbers/mm
mbers/mm2

3000
Mar. 1995

2500
2000
Jan. 1995

1500

Feb. 1995

1000
500
0
2

14 21 28

14 21 28

14 21 28

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 7. Settlement of Nitschia sp. on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1995

25000

N u m b e r s / m2 m 2
Numbers/mm

20000

Jul.-Aug. 1996

15000
Mar.-Apr. 1996
10000

5000

0
7

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 8. Settlement of Nitschia sp. on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1996

16

350
300

2
Numbers/mm
N
umbers/mm2

250
200
Feb. 1995

150

Jan 1995
Mar. 1995

100
50
0
2

14

21

28

14

21

28

14

21

28

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 9. Settlement of Navicula sp. on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1995

25000

2
NNumbers/mm
umbers/mm2

20000

15000
Mar.-Apr. 1996

10000

Jul.-Aug. 1996

5000

0
7

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 10. Settlement of Navicula sp. on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1996

17

90
80

60

N Numbers/mm
umbers/mm2

70

50

Mar. 1995

40

Jan.1995

30
Feb. 1995

20
10
0
2

14

21

28

14

21

28

14

21

28

E x p o s u r e d a ys

Figure 11. Settlement of protozoa on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay
during 1995

1600
1400
1200
2
NNumbers/mm
umbers/mm2

Jul.-Aug. 1996
1000
800

Mar.-Apr. 1996

600
400
200
0
7

14

21

28

35

14

21

28

35

42

Exposure days

Figure 12. Settlement of protozoa on glass coupons exposed in the Intake Bay during
1996

18

5.

REFERENCES

1.

Fischer, E.C., Castelli, V.J., Rodgers, S.D. and Bleile, H.R., (1981), Technology for
control of marine biofouling- a review, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, 261.

2.

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