Mathematical Geodesy Maa-6.3230: Martin Vermeer 4th February 2013
Mathematical Geodesy Maa-6.3230: Martin Vermeer 4th February 2013
Mathematical Geodesy Maa-6.3230: Martin Vermeer 4th February 2013
Maa-6.3230
Martin Vermeer
4th February 2013
Figure: Cluster of galaxies Abell 2218, distance 2 billion light years, acts as a gravitational lense, The geometry of space-time within the cluster is non-Euclidean.
Image credit: NASA/ESA
Course Description
Workload 3 cr
Teaching Period III
Learning Outcomes After completing the course, the student
Is able to do simple computations on the sphere and understands the geometry of the
reference ellipsoid
Is able to solve, using tools like MatlabTM , the geodetic forward and inverse problems
etc. on the reference ellipsoid
Masters the basics of global and local reference systems and is able to execute transformations
Masters the basics of Gaussian and Riemannian surface theories and can derive the
metric tensor, Christoffel symbols and curvature tensor for simple surfaces
Masters the basic math of map projections, esp. conformal ones, and the behaviour
of map scale, and is able to compute the isometric latitude.
Content Spherical trigonometry, geodetic co-ordinate computations in ellipsoidal and rectangular spatial co-ordinate systems, astronomical co-ordinates, co-ordinate system transformations, satellite orbits and computations, Gaussian and Riemannian surface theories, map
projection computations.
Foreknowledge
Equivalences Replaces course Maa-6.230.
Target Group
Completion Completion in full consists of the exam, the exercise works and the calculation
exercises.
Workload by Component
Lectures 16 2 h = 32 h
Independent study 55 h
Exercise works 2 12 h = 24 h (independent work)
Calculation exercises at home 16, of which must be done 12 6 h = 72 h (independent
work)
Exam 3 h
Total 186 h
Grading The grade of the exam becomes the grade of the course, 1-5
Study Materials Lecture notes. Background material Hirvonen: Matemaattinen geodesia; Torge:
Geodesy.
Teaching Language Suomi
Course Staff and Contact Info Martin Vermeer, room Gentti 4.143, [email protected]
Reception times Wednesdays at 12:15
CEFR-taso
Lis
atietoja
Contents
1. Spherical trigonometry
1.1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. Spherical excess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3. The surface area of a triangle on a sphere . . . . . . . . . .
1.4. A rectangular spherical triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5. A general spherical triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. Deriving the formulas with the aid of vectors in space . . .
1.7. Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8. Solving the spherical triangle by the method of additaments
1.9. Solving the spherical triangle by Legendres method . . .
1.10. The forward geodetic problem on the sphere . . . . . . . . .
1.11. The geodetic inverse problem on the sphere . . . . . . . . .
1.12. The half-angle cosine rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ellipsoid
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4. Reference systems
4.1. The GRS80 system and geometric parameters
4.2. Gravimetric parameters . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Reference frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. The orientation of the Earth . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. Transformations between systems . . . . . . .
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2. The
2.1.
2.2.
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iii
Contents
5.6.2. Geodetic inverse problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.3. Comparison with ellipsoidal surface solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Co-ordinate systems and transformations
6.1. Geocentric terrestrial systems . . . . .
6.2. Conventional Terrestrial System . . . .
6.3. Polar motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. The Instantaneous Terrestial System .
6.5. The quasi-inertial geocentric system .
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9. The
9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
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9.5.
9.6.
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11.Map projections
11.1. Map projections and scale .
11.1.1. On the Earth surface
11.1.2. In the map plane . .
11.1.3. The scale . . . . . .
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Contents
11.1.4. The Tissot-indicatrix . . .
11.2. The Lambert projection (LCC) .
11.3. On the isometric latitude . . . . .
11.4. The Mercator projection . . . .
11.5. The stereographic projection . . .
11.6. The Gauss-Kr
uger projection . .
11.7. Curvature of the Earth surface and
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scale
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. 104
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Chapter 1
Spherical trigonometry
1.1. Introduction
The formulas of spherical geometry are very useful in geodesy. The surface of the Earth, which
to first approximation is a plane, is in second approximation (i.e., in a small, but not so small,
area) a spherical surface. Even in case of the whole Earth, the deviation from spherical shape
is only 0.3%.
The starry sky again may be treated as a precise spherical surface, the radius of which is
undefined; in practical computations we often set R = 1.
two great circles will be 2, where is the angle between the great circles. We obtain
A1 + A2 = 2
A1 + A3 = 2
A1 + A4 = 2
and
A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 = 2.
By summing up the first three equations we obtain
2A1 + A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 = 2 ( + + )
A1
A2
A3
A4
Figure 1.1.: Spherical triangles on a semi-sphere. The back side surface of the sphere has been
depicted in a lighter shade with its antipode triangles
A1
.
R2
unit A1
,
R2
where unit is the conversion factor of the unit considered, e.g., for degrees, 57.29577951308232087721
or for gons, 63.66197723675813430801.
As we see is the spherical excess inversely proportional to R2 , i.e., directly proportional to the
total curvature R2 . It is also directly proportional to the surface area of the triangle.
This is a special case of a more general rule:
The directional closing error of a vector which is transported in a parallel way around
the closed edge of a surface is the same as the integral over the surface of the total
curvature.
As a formula:
=
Kd,
A
where is the variable for surface integration, and K is the total curvature of the surface
according to K.F. Gauss, which thus can vary from place to place. E.g., on the surface of an
ellipsoid
1
K=
,
MN
where M is the meridional curvature (in the North-South direction) and N the so-called transverse curvature in the East-West direction. Both depend on the latitude . In a smallish area,
the internal geometry of theellipsoidal surface does not differ noticeably from a spherical surface,
the radius of which is R = M N .
If the triangle of the surface of the sphere is small compared to the radius of the Earth, also
the spherical excess will be small. In the limit we have 0 ja + + = exactly. We say
that the a plane surface (or a very small part of a spherical surface) forms a Euclidean space,
whereas a spherical surface is non-euclidean.
sin
, it also follows that
sin
A=
a2 sin sin
.
2 sin
A
A
1
b
b
O c
a
E .
cos b
D
cos b
sin b
a
cos a cos b
sin a cos b
c
A
. D .
C
c
cos c
A
sin c
sin c
sin c cos
sin c sin
Figure 1.2.: A rectangular spherical triangle. The partial triangles are lifted out for visibility
At least for computing the spherical excess, these approximate formulas are good enough:
=
A
,
R2
where also the approximate value for R, e.g., R a = 6378137 m, is completely sufficient.
(1.1)
(1.2)
sin b
= cos a sin ,
sin c
c
h
b2
b1
(1.3)
(1.4)
xC
xA
b
a
c
O
xB
B
y
x
Figure 1.4.: The spherical triangle ABC, for deriving the cosine and sine rules using vectors in
space
a
b
c
=
=
.
sin
sin
sin
At least in the case of the sine rule it is clear, that in the limit for a small triangle sin a a
etc., in other words, the spherical sine rule morphs into the one for a plane triangle. For the
cosine rule this is not immediately clear.
xA
cos A
xB
cos B cos B
, xB = yB = cos B sin B .
0
xA = yA =
zB
sin A
zB
sin B
The vectors dot product is
cos c = xA xB = cos A cos B cos B + sin A sin B =
= sin b sin a cos + cos b cos a,
the cosine rule for a spherical triangle.
The cross product of the vectors is
xA x B
0
xC = 0 ,
1
we obtain the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors (i.e., twice the volume
of the tetrahedron ABCO) as follows:
Vol {xA , xB , xC } = (xA xB ) xC = sin b sin a sin .
The volume contained by the three vectors does not however depend on the order of the vectors,
so also
Vol {xA , xB , xC } = sin b sin c sin = sin a sin c sin .
Division yields
sin a sin = sin c sin ,
sin b sin = sin c sin ,
i.e.,
sin b
sin c
sin a
=
=
,
sin
sin
sin
the sine rule for a spherical triangle.
1.7. Polarization
For every corner of the triangle we may define an equator or great circle, one pole of which
is that corner point. If we do this, we obtain three equators, which themselves also form a
triangle. This procedure is called polarization.
Because the angular distance between the two corner points on the surface of the sphere is the
length of the side, the angle between the planes of two such great circles must be the same as
this length. And the polarization triangles angle is 180 minus this.
12
A12
2
12
1
ekvaattori
1
Figure 1.6.: The triangle 1 2 N on the globe. N is the North pole
where M =10 log e = 0.43429448. In the age of logarithm tables this made the practical
computations significantly easier.
sin A12
cos 2
2 = 1 + arcsin
.
(1.5)
(1.6)
;
2
a
cos a = 1 2 sin2 ;
2
cos = 1 2 sin2
and
cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos = (cos b cos c + sin b sin c) + sin b sin c (cos 1) =
c
cos b cos c + sin b sin c = cos (b c) = 1 2 sin2
;
2
after a few rearrangements we obtain the half-angle cosine rule for a spherical
triangle, which also for small triangles is wel behaved1 :
sin2
a
bc
= sin2
+ sin b sin c sin2 .
2
2
2
Chapter 2
The geometry of the reference ellipsoid
2.1. Introduction
The reference ellipsoid is already a pretty precise description of the true figure of the Earth. The
deviations of mean sea level from the GRS80 reference ellipsoid are of magnitude 100 m.
Regrettably, the geometry of the reference ellipsoid is not as simple as that of the sphere.
Nevertheless, rotational symmetry brings in at least one beautiful invariant.
The geodetic forward and reverse problems have traditionally been solved by series expansions
of many terms, the coefficients of which also contain many terms. Here we rather offer numerical
methods, which are conceptually simpler and easier to implement in an error-free way.
cos A
,
M ()
sin A
=
,
p ()
d
sin sin A
= sin
=
.
ds
p ()
=
(2.1)
Group 2.1 is valid not only on the ellipsoid of revolution; it applies to all figures of revolution.
On a rotationally symmetric body we have p () = N () cos , i.e.,
d
ds
dA
ds
=
=
sin A
,
N () cos
tan sin A
.
N ()
If the initial condition is given as 1 , 1 , A12 , we may obtain the geodesic (s) , (s) , A (s)
as a solution parametrized by arc length s. Numerically computing the solution using the
11
dA
co
p dp
dx
p dp
dx
Nc
d
os
A ds
dy
p=
ds
dx
dy
MatLab software is also fairly easy thanks to the ODE routines (Ordinary Differential Equation)
provided.
Transformation to rectangular form is easy:
X (s) = N ( (s)) cos (s) cos (s) ,
Y (s) = N ( (s)) cos (s) sin (s) ,
b2
N () sin (s) .
Z (s) =
a2
2.3. An invariant
Let us look closer at the quantity p () = N () cos , the distance of a point from the rotation
axis. let us compute the s derivative:
dp
dp dx
=
= sin cos A.
ds
dx ds
Now, with the equation 2.1
dA
sin sin A
=
ds
p
we obtain by division
dp
cos A
=
p.
dA
sin A
Now
12
dp
sin A + p cos A =
dA
cos A
=
p sin A + p cos A =
sin A
= p ( cos A + cos A) = 0.
=
Result:
the expression p sin A is an invariant.1
This applies on all rotationally symmetric bodies, i.e., also on the ellipsoid of revolution where
this is called the Clairaut equation , and of course on the plane. This invariant can be used
to eliminate the differential equation in A from the system 2.1. This yields
d
ds
d
ds
=
=
cos A ()
,
M ()
sin A ()
,
p ()
(2.2)
(2.3)
p (1 )
.
p ()
(2.4)
2 2 ,
(1)
2 2 .
2
2
2
(1)
(1)
13
0
sin s12
sin s12 cos A12 cos s12 sin A12
,
14
Chapter 3
Co-ordinates on the reference ellipsoid
3.1. Representations of the sphere and the ellipsoid
An implicit representation of the circle is
x2 + y 2 a2 = 0,
where a is the radius (Pythagoras). The parametric representation is
x = a cos ,
y = a sin .
From this we obtain an ellipse by squeezing the y axis by the factor b/a, i.e.,
x = a cos ,
y = b sin ,
from which again
x 2
a
or
y 2
b
= sin2 + cos2 = 1
x2 y 2
+ 2 1=0
a2
b
15
.P
b
ab
;
a
a2 b2
;
a2
a2 b2
.
b2
QR
PR
ja tan =
;
OR
OR
tan
PR
b
=
= ,
tan
QR
a
i.e.,
tan =
a
tan .
b
In the triangles RV Q, RV P :
tan
16
QR
PR
=
ja tan
=
,
2
VR
2
VR
a
tan .
b
tan =
a2
tan .
b2
By combining still
(3.1)
Also
b2
2
tan
=
N
cos
e
tan
a2
using OR = x = N cos . The end result is because y = P R:
P R = OR tan = OR
y = N 1 e2 sin .
(3.2)
The equations 3.1, 3.2 represent a description of the meridian ellipse as a function of geodetic
latitude . Remember that N is a function of too, so not a constant! In fact
x2 y 2
+ 2
a2
b
=
=
=
2
N 2 1 e2
N2
2
cos +
sin2 =
a2
b2
N2
N 2 b2
2
cos
+
sin2 =
a2
a2 a2
N2
b2
2
2
cos + 2 sin = 1;
a2
a
a
N=p
,
1 e2 sin2
a2 b2
.
a2
17
.
Q
.
S
O
If we look at points not on the surface of the reference ellipsoid but above or below it in space,
we may write
X = (N + h) cos cos ,
Y
= (N + h) cos sin ,
Z = N 1 e2 + h sin .
(3.3)
Here, h is the straight distance of the point from the surface of the ellipsoid (ellipsoidal height).
This quantity is interesting because satellite positioning devices can be said to directly measure
precisely this quantity (more precisely, they measure X, Y, Z and compute from these h).
Y
.
X
Z
+Y2
X2
tan P =
(1 e2 ) X 2 + Y 2
18
q
2 + Y 2 + Z2
XQ
Q
Q
and thus
P Q = OP OQ.
Additionally, in the little triangle T QP we may compute (Q abbreviated to ):
T QP =
and thus
= P Q sin ( ) ,
TP
T Q = P Q cos ( ) .
Now
h = PS TQ
and
TP
,
PO
(3.4)
TP
cos ( ) .
PO
(3.5)
P Q
or perhaps a hairs width more precise
P Q
Or then, not. Instead of P O:n one should take M () + h, where M the meridional radius of curvature.
Linearly T P (1 cos ( )).
2
3 1 TP
.
2 OP
19
(3.6)
M=
1 e2 sin2
i.e.,
s (0 ) = a 1 e
3/2 ,
3/2
1 e2 sin2
d.
Here, the last factor can be expanded into a series because e2 sin2 1 and integrated
termwise. See the literature. Of course also a numeric approach is possible, nowaday it may
even be the superior alternative. MatLab offers for this purpose its QUAD (quadrature) routines.
20
Chapter 4
Reference systems
4.1. The GRS80 system and geometric parameters
Nowadays, the overwhelmingly most used global geodetic reference system is the Geodetic Reference System 1980, GRS80. The parameters defining it (e.g., (Heikkinen, 1981)) are given in
table 4.1.
Some of the parameters are geometric (a), some are dynamic (J2 ,). Other geometric and
dynamic parameters may be derived as follows ((Moritz, 1992), following (Heiskanen and Moritz,
1967, eqs. 2-90, 2-92)):
e2
2 me0
J2 =
1
3
15 q0
2me0 e2
.
e2 = 3J2 +
15q0
Here(Heiskanen and Moritz, 1967, eq. 2-70))
m=
2 a2 b
GM
4 2 a3 e3
.
15 GM 2q0
Furthermore we know ((Heiskanen and Moritz, 1967, eq. 2-58))
3
3
0
2q0 e = 1 + 0 2 arctan e0 0
e
e
e2 = 3J2 +
ja
e0 (e) =
(4.1)
e
.
1 e2
Now we may compute e2 iteratively using eq. (4.1) , which computes q0 e0 (e) anew in every
step. The result is (table 4.2):
Quantity
Value
Explanation
a
GM
J2
6378137 m
3986005 108 m3 s2
108263 108
7292115 1011 rad s1
semi-major axis
Earth mass G
Dynamic form factor
Angular rotation rate
21
Value
Explanation
e2
2
e0
b
1/f
0.00669438002290
0.00673949677548
6356752.314140 m
298.257222101
Value (WGS84)
Remark
a
1/f
b
6378137 m
298.257223563
6356752.314245 m
same
different!
diff. 0.1 mm
Here we used 1 e2 = 1
a2 b2
b2
1
ab
b
=
ja 1 = 1
= , i.e.,
2
2
a
a
f
a
a
p
1
1 2
2
= 1 1 e2 .
1e = 1
f
f
Most often the difference, a bit over 0.1 mm at most, can be neglected. It is apparently due to
imprecise numerics.
e =
p =
GM
m e0 q00
1m
,
ab
6 q0
GM
m e0 q00
1
+
,
a2
3 q0
22
p e
):
e
Value
Explanation
e
p
f
9.7803267715 ms2
9.8321863685 ms2
0.00530244011229
As a check, we may still compute Clairauts equation in its precise form ((Heiskanen and
Moritz, 1967, eq. 2-75)):
0
2b
0 q0
f +f =
1+e
.
e
2q0
A simple closed, beautiful formula for normal gravity on the reference ellipsoid is SomiglianaPizzettis formula:
ae cos2 + bp sin2
=p
.
a2 cos2 + b2 sin2
23
Rotational motion
Greenwich
Y
Y0
X0
Spring
Equinox
sidereal time
Figure 4.1.: Geocentric reference frames
the Z axis is directed along the rotation axis of the Earth, more precisely the Conventional
International Origin (CIO) , i.e., the average direction of the axis over the time span 19001905
the XZ-plane is parallel to the zero meridian as defined by Greenwich, more precisely
by: earlier the BIH (Bureau International de lHeure, International Time Bureau), today
the IERS (International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service), based on their
precise monitoring of the Earth rotation.
In figure 4.2 we see the Earth orbit or ecliptic, the Earth axis tilt relative to the ecliptic plane,
and how this tilt causes the most impressive climating variation observable to human beings:
the four seasons.
If we study the motion of the Earths axis, and Earth rotation in general, relative to a reference
frame connected to the solid Earth itself, we find different quantitities:
Polar motion: this consists of an annual (forced) component and a 14-months component
called the Chandler wobble.
Length of Day.
24
Celestial
North Pole
Autumnal equinox
True Earth orbit
Spring
Summer
Winter
Winter
solstice
Summer
solstice
Autumn
Apparent
Solar
path
Ecliptic (zodiac)
Celestial equator
Vernal equinox (Aries)
Hic sunt dracones
Figure 4.2.: Geometry of the Earths orbit and rotation axis. The seasons indicated are boreal
Together these are called Earth Orientation Parameters (EOP). They are nowadays monitored
routinely, and available after the fact from the International Earth Rotation Service over the
Internet. The variation of these parameters is geophysically well understood, e.g., for the Chandler wobble it is mainly the pressure of the Earths oceans and atmosphere that is responsible
((Gross, 2000)).
Local
Astronomical
Conventional
Terrestrial
xp , yp
Instantaneous
Terrestrial
Real
Astronomical
Here, , are local astronomical co-ordinates (direction of the plumbline), while xp , yp are the
co-ordinates of the pole in the CIO system. 0 is Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time (GAST).
In the sequel we shall show how these transformations are realized in practice.
25
Cyg (Deneb)
Lyra
Umi
Lyr (Vega)
Ursa
Minor
Umi
(Polaris)
Dragon
Nutation (18 yr)
Ecliptic
Pole
Ecliptic plane
24 hr
Moon
Sun
Figure 4.3.: Precession, nutation and the torques from Sun and Moon
1975
0.6
1970
0.4
-0.5
0.2
0.5
0
1 -0.2
x
Figure 4.4.: Polar motion
26
Plumbline
Polar motion
(Exaggerated)
90 A
A
90 C
Earth centre of mass
C
27
Chapter 5
Using rotation matrices
5.1. General
Always when we change the orientation of the axes of a co-ordinate system, we have, written in
rectangular co-ordinates, a multiplication with a rotation matrix.
Let us investigate the matter in the(x, y) plane, figure 5.1.
The new co-ordinate
x0P = OU = OR cos ,
where
OR = OS + SR = xP + P S tan = xP + yP tan .
By substituting
x0P = (xP + yP tan ) cos = xP cos + yP sin .
In the same fashion
yP0 = OT = OV cos ,
where
OV = OQ V Q = yP P Q tan = yP xP tan ,
where
yP0 = (yP xP tan ) cos = xP sin + yP cos .
Summarizingly in a matrix equation:
0
x
cos sin
x
.
=
0
y
y
sin cos
The place of the minus sign is the easiest to obtain by sketching both pairs of axes on paper,
mark the angle , and infer graphically whether the for a point on the positive x axis (i.e.:
y = 0) the new y 0 co-ordinate is positive or negative: in the above case
0
y =
sin cos
x
0
= sin x ,
i.e., y 0 < 0, i.e., the minus sign is indeed in the lower left corner of the matrix.
0
x
S
29
SR
z
z = z0
z0
R
y
y 00
z 00
y0
x0
x00 = x0
cos sin 0
1
0
0
R = sin cos 0 , S = 0 cos sin ,
0
0
1
0 sin cos
then (associativity):
r00 = S (Rr) = (SR) r,
i.e., the matrices are multiplied with each other.
Remember that
RS 6= SR,
in other words, matrices and transformations are not commutative1 !
See figure 5.2.
Two dimensional rotations are in fact commutative; they can be described also by complex numbers.
30
(5.1)
cos sin
sin cos
1
=
cos sin
sin cos
=
cos () sin ()
sin () cos ()
,
completely understandable, because this is a rotation around the same axis, by the same amount,
but in the opposite direction.
The above formula written in the following way:
n
X
1 if j = k
Rij Rik =
.
0 if j 6= k
i=1
The columns of a rotation matrix are orthonormal, their norm (length) is 1 and they are mutually
orthogonal. This can be seen for the case of our example matrix:
p
cos2 + sin2 = 1,
cos sin + ( sin ) cos = 0.
Often we encounter other orthogonal matrices:
1. The mirror matrix for an axis, e.g.:
1 0 0
M2 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
which inverts the direction, or algebraic sign, of the y co-ordinate.
2. The axes interchange matrix (permutation):
0 1 0
P12 1 0 0 .
0 0 1
3. Inversion of all axes:
1 0
0
X = 0 1 0 .
0
0 1
Both M and P differ from rotation matrices in this way, that their determinant is 1, when
for rotation matrices it is +1. The determinant of the X matrix is (1)n , with n the number
of dimensions (i.e., 3 in the above case). A determinant of 1 means that the transformation
changes a right handed co-ordinate frame into a left handed one, and conversely.
If we multiply, e.g., M2 and P12 , we obtain
M2 P12
0 1 0
= 1 0 0 .
0 0 1
cos 90 sin 90 0
R3 (90 ) = sin 90 cos 90 0 !
0
0
1
All orthogonal transformations having positive determinants are rotations.
(Without proof still, that all orthogonal transformations can be written as either a rotation
around a certain axis, or a mirroring through a certain plane.)
31
Z
z
T
K
s
y
Y
O
x
s cos A sin
y = s sin A sin .
z T
s cos
T
The inverse transformation:
p
x2 + y 2
= arctan
,
z
y
p
A = 2 arctan
.
x + x2 + y 2
The latter formula is known as the half-angle formula and avoids the problem of finding the
correct quadrant for A. The result is in the interval (180 , 180 ] and negative values may be
incremented by 360 to make them positive.
32
Astronomical
,
co-ordinates
Plumbz
line
x
x
Geoid
profile
Z
Y
z0
z0
y0
y0
x0
x0
Z
Y
X
Figure 5.4.: From the geocentric to the topocentric system. The matrix R1 mentioned in the
text was left out here
rotates the co-ordinate frame around the z axis from the Greenwich meridian to the
local meridian of the observation site, rotation angle :
cos + sin 0
R3 = sin cos 0 .
(5.2)
0
0
1
Seen from the direction of the z axis we see (figure), that
x0 = x cos + y sin ,
y 0 = x sin + y cos .
(The correct algebraic signs should always be established by the aid of a sketch! Also
the directional conventions of different countries may differ.)
33
y0
x0
z
R2
turns the co-ordinate frame around the y axis, in such a way that the z axis points
to the North celestial pole instead of to the zenoth. The rotation angle needed for
this is 90 .
sin 0 cos
.
0
1
0
R2 =
(5.3)
+ cos 0 sin
R1
rotates the co-ordinate frame around the new z axis or vertical axis by the amount
A0 , after which the x axis points to the azimuth of the zero point of the instruments
horizontal circle:
cos A0 + sin A0 0
R1 = sin A0 cos A0 0 .
0
0
1
5.6. The geodetic main and inverse problems with rotation matrices
It is possible to solve the geodetic main and inverse problems three-dimensionally, without using
the surface geometry of the ellipsoid of revolution.
The idea is based on that the three-dimensional co-ordinate of a point or points are given, e.g.,
in the form (, , h) relative to some reference ellipsoid; and that is given or to be computed
the azimuth, elevation angle and distance of a second point as seen from the first point. In the
forward problem one should compute the secont points ellipsoidal co-ordinates (, , h).
xAB
cos AAB sin zAB
xAB yAB = sAB sin AAB sin zAB .
zAB
cos zAB
2. Transform, using rotation matrices, these rectangular co-ordinate differences into geocentric2 :
XAB = R3T R2T xAB ,
in which R3 and R2 are already given, equations (5.2) ja (5.3).
2
More precisely, into co-ordinate differences in the geocentric orientation as in this case the origin is not the
Earths centre of mass!
34
5.6. The geodetic main and inverse problems with rotation matrices
3. Add to the result the geocentric co-ordinates of point A:
XB = XA + XAB ,
jossa
(N (A ) + hA ) cos A cos A
XA = (N (A ) + hA )cos Asin A .
N (A ) 1 e2 + hA sin A
4. Transform the geocentric co-ordinates of B obtained back to ellipsoidal form (3.7) in the
way depicted:
XB (B , B , hB ) .
35
Chapter 6
Co-ordinate systems and transformations
6.1. Geocentric terrestrial systems
Generally geocentric systems, like WGS84, are defined in the following way:
1. The origin of the co-ordinate system coincides with the centre of mass of the Earth.
2. The Z axis of the co-ordinate system points in the direction of the Earths rotation axis,
i.e., the direction of the North pole.
3. The X axis of the co-ordinate system is parallel to the Greenwich meridian.
Such rotating along systems are called terrestrial. Also ECEF (Earth Centred, Earth Fixed).
37
North
pole
Greenwich
meridian
Ellipsoidal
P normal
h
.
.
.
0 sin xP
1
0
0 cos xP
cos xP
0
RY (xp ) =
sin xP
1
0
and RX (yp ) 0 cos yP
0 sin yP
0
sin yP .
cos yP
Because the angles xp and yp are very small, order of magnitude second of arc, we may approximate sin xp xp and cos xp 1 (same for yp ), as well as xP yP 0, obtaining
1 0 xp
1
0
0
1
0
xp
0 0
1
yp = 0
1
yp .
RY (xp ) RX (yp ) 0 1
xp 0
1
0 yp 1
xp yp
1
X
Y
Z IT
X
1
0
xp
X
1
yp Y ,
= RY (xp ) RX (yp ) Y 0
Z CT
xp yp
1
Z CT
38
cos cos
X
Y = cos sin .
sin
Z RA
Here we must consider, however, that, while is given in degrees, minutes and seconds, is
given in time units. They must first be converted to degrees etc. One hour corresponds to 15
degrees, one minute to 15 minutes of arc, and one second to 15 seconds of arc.
Going from rectangular to spherical again requires the following formulae (note the use of the
half-angle formula for , which is precise over the whole range and avoids the problem of identifying the right quadrant):
= arcsin Z
= 2 arctan
X+
Y
.
X2 + Y 2
X
Y = RZ (0 )
Z RA
X
cos (0 ) sin (0 ) 0
X
Y = sin (0 ) cos (0 ) 0 Y .
Z IT
0
0
1
Z IT
. . . from the centre of the Earth. The fixed stars are so far way, however, that the location of the observer
doesnt matter.
39
Chapter 7
Reference systems and realizations
7.1. Old and new reference systems; ED50 vs. WGS84/GRS80
In Finland like in many European countries, the traditional reference system is non-geocentric
and based on an old reference ellipsoid, the International Ellipsoid computed by John Fillmore
Hayford, and adopted by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) in 1924.
European Datum 1950 (ED50) was created in 1950 by unifying the geodetic networks of the
countries of Western Europe, and was computed on the Hayford ellipsoid.
The newer systems, both World Geodetic System (WGS84) and Geodetic Reference System 1980
(GRS80) are designed to be geocentric.
So, the differences can be summarized as:
1. Reference ellipsoid used: International Ellipsoid (Hayford) 1924 vs. GRS80
2. Realized by terrestrial measurements vs. based on satellite (and space geodetic) data
3. Non-geocentric (100 m level) vs. geocentric (cm level).
The figure of a reference ellipsoid is unambiguously fixed by two quantities: the semi-major exis
or equatorial radius a, and the flattening f .
International ellipsoid 1924: a = 6378388 m, f = 1 : 297
GRS80: a = 6378137 m, f = 1 : 298.257222101
The reference ellipsoid of GPSs WGS84 system is in principle the same as GRS80, but due to
poor numerics it ended up with
f = 1 : 298.257223563. The net result is that the semi-minor axis (polar radius) of WGS84
is longer by 0.1 mm1 compared to GRS80.
To complicate matters, as the basis of the ITRS family of co-ordinate systems, and their realizations ITRF, was chosen the GRS80 reference ellipsoid. The parameters of this system were
already given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
Computation:
b =
(1/f )
0.000001462
f
(a b) = 1
(a b) =
(21384 m) = 0.000105 m.
f
( /f )
298.25722
41
42
(1)
X (2)
X
1
ez ey
tx
(2)
1
ex Y (1) + ty ,
(7.1)
Y
= (1 + m) ez
(2)
(1)
ey ex
1
tz
Z
Z
T
where tx ty tz
is the translation vector of the origin, m is the scale factor correction
from unity, and (ex , ey , ez ) are the (small) rotation angles about the respective axes. Together
we thus have seven parameters. The superscripts (1) and (2) refer to the old and new systems,
respectively.
Eq. (7.1) can be re-written and linearized as follows, using mex = mey = mez = 0, and replacing
h
iT
T
the vector X (1) Y (1) Z (1)
by approximate values X 0 Y 0 Z 0
. This is allowed as
m and the e angles are all assumed small.
(1)
X (2) X (1)
X
m
ez ey
tx
(2)
ex Y (1) + ty
Y Y (1) ez m
ey ex m
tz
Z (2) Z (1)
Z (1)
X
m
ez ey
tx
ex Y 0 + ty .
ez m
ey ex m
tz
Z0
43
0
(2)
(1)
Xi Xi
Xi
0
Zi0 +Yi0
(2)
(1)
0
0
0
Xi0
= Yi +Zi
Yi Yi
(2)
(1)
Zi0 Yi0 +Xi0
0
Zi Zi
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
ex
ey
ez
tx
ty
tz
(7.2)
Here we have added for generality a point index i, i = 1, . . . , n. The number of points is then
n, the number of observations (available co-ordinate differences) is 3n. The full set of these
observation equations then becomes
(2)
(1)
X1 X1
(2)
(1)
Y1 Y1
(2)
(1)
Z1 Z1
..
.
(2)
(1)
Xi Xi
(2)
(1)
Yi Yi
(2)
(1)
Zi Zi
..
.
Xn(2) X (1)
Yn(2) Yn(1)
Zn(2) Zn(1)
0
Z10 +Y10 1 0 0
X10
0
0
Y1 +Z1
0
X10 0 1 0
Z10 Y10 +X10
0
0 0 1
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
Xi0
0
Zi0 +Yi0 1 0 0
Yi0 +Zi0
0
Xi0 0 1 0
Zi0 Yi0 +Xi0
0
0 0 1
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
Xn0
0
Zn0 +Yn0 1 0 0
Yn0 +Zi0
0
Xn0 0 1 0
0
0
0
Zn Yn +Xn
0
0 0 1
tx
ty
tz
ex
ey
ez
(7.3)
44
T1
mm
T2
mm
T3
mm
D
ppb
R1
R2
R3
0.001 0.001 0.001
-0.5
0.2
-0.9
0.2
-4.7
0.2
0.94
0.03
0.000
0.008
0.000
0.008
0.000
0.008
Rate
0.3
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.2
0.00
0.03
0.000
0.008
0.000
0.008
0.000
0.008
X
D R3 R2
X
Y
D R1 Y
(t) =
1 + R3
(t) +
Z IT RF 2005
R2 R1
D
Z IT RF 2008
D R3 R2
X
d
D R1 Y
(t) +
+ (t t0 ) R3
dt
R2 R1
D
Z IT RF 2008
T1
T1
d
+ T2 + (t t0 ) T2 =
dt
T3
T3
0.94
0
0
X
0.94
0 109 Y
=
1+ 0
(t) +
0
0
0.94
Z IT RF 2008
0.9
+
4.7
d
with the numbers given, and forgetting about the uncertainties. Here refers to the rates, of
dt
which only that of T1 is non-vanishing in this example.
Note the change in parameter names compared to the previous. For (tx , ty , tz ) we now have (T 1, T 2, T 3); m is
now called D; and (ex , ey , ez ) became (R1, R2, R3).
45
Chapter 8
Celestial co-ordinate systems
8.1. Sidereal time
The transformation from the inertial system to the terrestrial one goes through sidereal time.
Greenwich Apparent Sidereal Time, GAST, symbol 0
The apparent sidereal time at the observation location, LAST, symbol .
= 0 + hms ,
in which is the astronomical longitude of the place of observation, converted to suitable
time units.
GAST is
the transformation angle between the inertial and the terrestrial (co-rotating) systems,
i.e.
the angle describing the Earths orientation in the inertial system, i.e.
the difference in longitude between the Greenwich meridian and the vernal equinox.
Also the Greenwich apparent sidereal time is tabulated afterwards, when the precise Earth
rotation is known. GAST can be computed to one second precision based on the calendar and
civil time.
If a few minutes of precision suffices, we may even tabulate GAST as a function of day of the
year only. The table for the annual part of sidereal time per month is:
Month
January
February
March
m
6 40
8 40
10 40
Month
April
May
June
m
12 40
14 40
16 40
Month
July
August
September
m
18 40
20 40
22 40
Month
October
November
December
m
0 40
2 40
4 40
In constructing this table, the following knowledge was used: on March 21 at 12 UTC in Greenwich, the hour angle of the Sun, i.e., of the vernal equinox, i.e., sidereal time, is 0h . This
Greenwich sidereal time 0 consists of two parts: an annual part a , and a clock time (UTC
or Greenwich Mean Time). So we obtain the annual part of sidereal time by subtracting:
a = 0 = 12h , i.e., 12h after adding a full turn, 24h .
If on March 21, or more precisely at midnight after March 20, sidereal time is 12h 00m , then
sidereal time for March 0 is 12h 00m 4 20m = 10h 40m ; Remember that one day corresponds
to about four minutes.
We may fill out the table using the rule that 1 month 2t . (In principle we could slightly
improve the tables accuracy by taking into account the varying lengths of the months. However,
the cycle of leap years causes error of similar magnitude.)
47
180 W
oW
165
0
15
165 o
E
15
hGr
Right
ascension
0 oE
30 N
o
5
13
5
13
12 o
0W
o
0E
12
o
45 N
oE
105
105 o
W
o
60 N
o
75 W
75 oE
90oW
90oE
o
75 N
45
45
True
60 o
E
Greenwich
60
vernal
equinox
Mean
30 o
W
15 oW
LMST
LAST
GMST
GAST
0o
30
o
15 E
Earth
rotation
48
apparent rotation
of the celestial sphere
Zenith
North
pole
h
Meridian
Equator
Apparent
diurnal
motion
East
North
Observer
West
South
Figure 8.2.: Hour angle and other co-ordinates on the celestial sphere
x
cos A sin
cos A cos
y = sin A sin = sin A cos ,
z
cos
sin
where A is the azimut (from the North clockwise), is the zenith angle and is the height or
elevation angle.
Equatorial co-ordinates are , , right ascension and declination; their advantage is, that the
co-ordinates (places) of stars are nearly constant. The disadvantage is that there is no simple
relationship to local astronomical co-ordinates.
49
Celestial pole
West
90
East
90
Zenith
Star
Figure 8.3.: Fundamental triangle of astronomy
An intermediate form of co-ordinates is: hour angle and declination, h, . The hour angle is
defined as shown in figure 8.3, the angular distance around the Earths rotation axis (or at the
celestial pole) from the meridian of the location.
Equation:
h = 0 + ,
where 0 is Greenwich apparent sidereal time (GAST), is the local (astronomical) longitude,
and is the right ascension of the star.
If the star is in the meridian, we have h = 0 and = 0 + . On this is based the use of a transit
instrument: if, of the three quantities 0 , or , two are knownthe third may be computed.
According to the application we speak of astronomical position determination, time keeping of
determination of the places of stars. One mans noise is another mans signal .
On the celestial sphere there is a fundamental triangle of astronomy: it consists of the star, the
celestial North pole, and the zenith. Of the angles of the triangle we mention t (North pole) and
A (the zenith), of its sides, 90 (pole-zenith), 90 (star-pole) and (star-zenith).
The sine rule:
sin A
sin h
=
.
cos
sin
The cosine rule:
cos = sin sin + cos cos cos h,
sin = sin cos + cos sin cos A.
We compute first, using the cosine rule, either or , and then, using the sine rule, either h or
A. Thus we obtain either (A, ) (h, ) in both directions.
50
x
cos A sin
r = y = sin A sin .
z
cos
The same vector we may also write in local astronomical co-ordinates:
0
x
cos cos
r0 = y 0 = sin cos .
z0
sin
The transformation between them is:
1. the direction of the x axis is changed from North to South
2. the new xz axis pair is rotated by an amount 90 to the South, being the astronomical
latitude.
3. the new xy axis pair is rotated to the West (clockwise) from the local meridian to the
vernal equinox by an amount , the local (apparent) sidereal time.
The matrices are:
M1
R2
R3
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 ,
0 0 1
cos sin 0
= sin cos 0 .
0
0
1
Let us compute
R3 R2 M1
cos sin
= sin cos
0
0
cos sin
= sin sin
cos
0
sin 0 cos
0
0
1
0 =
1
cos 0 sin
After this:
cos cos
cos sin sin cos cos
cos A sin
sin cos = sin sin cos sin cos sin A sin ,
sin
cos
0
sin
cos
where we identify immediately
sin = sin cos + cos sin cos A,
the cosine rule in the triangle star-celestial pole-zenith.
The inverse transformation is, based on orthogonality (the transpose!)
cos A sin
cos sin sin sin cos
cos cos
sin A sin =
sin
cos
0 sin cos .
cos
cos cos
sin cos sin
sin
With these, we can do the transformation of spherical co-ordinates with the aid of threedimensional direction cosines.
51
=
P,
2
the flight time from the equator to latitude .
sin =
The azimut angle between satellite orbit and local meridian is obtained from the Clairaut
formula (luku 2.3):
cos sin A = cos (0) cos i,
= 0 + ,
= + .
Here, is the right ascension of the ascending node of the satellite orbit.
Both longitude and right ascension (ja ) are reckoned positive to the East.
52
Kevattasaus
Figure 8.4.: The places of satellite and Earth station in the inertial system
r cos cos G
r = r cos sin G ,
r sin
where is the satellites geocentric latitude (or, if one wants to put it this way, the geocentric
declination G ) and G the geocentric right ascension.
Let the geocentric latitude of the ground station be and its longitude ; then, at moment t,
the geocentric right ascension of the ground station is
= + + a ,
where is the time (UTC) and a the annual part of sidereal time. is the same as the local
sidereal time, which thus represents the orientation of the local meridian in (inertial) space.
Now the Earth stations rectangular, inertial co-ordinates are
R cos cos
R = R cos sin .
R sin
Subtraction yields:
d cos T cos T
d = r R d cos T sin T ,
d sin T
from which we may solve the topocentric co-ordinates:
d3
d2
tan T = p 2
, tan T =
2
d1
d1 + d2
53
q
d21 + d22 + d23 .
Using the distance we may compute the satellites visual brightness of magnitude. The distances
are generally of order 500-1000 km and the magnitudes 2-5.
cos cos
R = R cos sin
sin
and the satellite co-ordinates
cos cos
r = r cos sin .
sin
d cos T cos ( hT )
d = r R d cos T sin ( hT ) ,
d sin T
from which we may solve the topocentric declination T and hour angle hT .
If we then want the right ascension for use with a celestial chart, all we need to do is subtract
it from the local sidereal time:
T = hT = (0 + ) + hT = 0 + ( hT .) .
In this, 0 is Greenwich sidereal time, and ( hT ) the hour angle of Greenwich.
cos (1 ) cos (1 )
cos (2 ) cos (2 )
d (1 )
d (2 )
e1 =
= cos (1 ) sin (1 ) , e2 =
= cos (2 ) sin (2 ) .
d1 (1 )
d2 (2 )
sin (1 )
sin (2 )
54
Zenith
Moment 1
eU
Moment 2
Satellite orbit
d
r
d
Horizon
Celestial
sphere
R
Observer
r
R
O
Figure 8.5.: Satellite orbit determination from two visual observations
See Figure 8.5. When also the ground station vector R has been computed, we may compute
d1 , d2 by the cosine rule if a suitable value1 for the satellite height h or equivalently, for the
satellite orbits radius r = R + h has been given:
r2
d2 + 2Rd sin + R2 r2 = 0
p
2R sin 4R2 sin2 4 (R2 r2 )
=
=
2
q
= R sin r2 R2 1 sin2 ,
d(1,2)
in which sin = cos (e, R) = he eU i is the projection of the satellites direction vector onto
the local vertical, and
cos cos
R
eU =
= cos sin ,
R
sin
the zenith vector of the observer, a unit vector pointing straight upward. The value sin , the
sine of the elevation angle, may be calculated directly as the dot product he eU i when both
1
An experienced observer can guess a satellites height from the observed motion in the sky surprisingly precisely.
55
kd2 d1 k
.
2 1
We know however what the velocity for a circular orbit should be at height h: according to
Keplers third law
r
4 2
2 (R + h)
P =
(R + h)3 vk =
=
GM
P
Let us prepare the following little table:
GM
.
R+h
Height (km)
500
750
1000
1500
Speed (m/s)
7612.609
7477.921
7350.139
7113.071
We see that the satellites linear speed of flight decreases only slowly with height. Therefore we
may use the observed velocity v for correcting the height h according to the following formula:
h0 = h
vk
,
v
where vk is the velocity according to Kepler (from the table for the value h), v the calculated
velocity, and h0 the improved value for the satellite height. This process converges already in
one step to almost the correct height.
Note that the height thus obtained is, in the case of an elliptical orbit, only (approximately) the
overflight height! The real height will vary along the orbit. For the same reason, the height
obtained will not be good enough to calculate the period P (or equivalently: the semi-major
axis a) from. The real period can be inferred only of the satellite has been observed for at least
a couple of successive days.
The computed vector for the change in position between the two moments of observation, d2
d1 = r2 r1 also tells about the inclination of the orbit, by calculating its vectorial product
with, e.g., the satellites geocentric location vector r1 , as follows:
(d2 d1 ) r1 = kd2 d1 k kr1 k cos i,
from which i may be solved. And if i and some footpoint (, ) of the satellite is known, also
and (with P ) 0 may be computed. Then we can already generate predictions!
When the height of the satellite (and its approximate period) as well as the inclination are
known, we can also compute the rapid precessional rate of the ascending node2 :
d
=
d r
3 GM ae 2
= (0 ) ( 0 )
J2 cos i,
2
a3
a
( ) = (0 ) ( 0 )
56
Ht./Incl.
500
750
1000
1500
0
56
65
74
81
90
-7.651
-4.278
-3.233
-2.109
-1.197
0
-6.752
-3.776
-2.854
-1.861
-1.056
0
-5.985
-3.347
-2.529
-1.650
-0.936
0
-4.758
-2.661
-2.011
-1.311
-0.744
0
0.9856
97 .401
98 .394
99 .478
101 .955
In the table the last row is special. The value 0.9856 degree/day is the Suns apparent angular
velocity relative to the background of the stars. If the precessional velocity of the satellites
orbital plane is set to this value, the satellite will always fly over the same area at the same
local solar time. In this way we achieve a so-called heliostationary orbit, also known as noshadow orbit, the advantages of which are continuous light on the solar cells, and in remote
sensing, always the same elevation angle of the Sun when imaging the Earth surface. Given is
the inclination angle which, for each value of the mean height for each column of the table, gives
precisely such a sun-stationary orbit. The precession rate of the satellites orbital plane relative
to the sun is now
d
q
0.9856 degree/day
d
E.g., for a satellite whose height is 500 km and inclination 56 :
q = 4.278 0.9856 = 5.2636 degree/day,
and the period of one cycle is 360/q = 68 days 2.2 months. This is the time span after which
the satellite appears again, e.g., in the evening sky of the same latitude.
In fact, this motion of the ascending node is so rapid, that without considering it it is not possible to generate
usable orbit predictions.
57
Chapter 9
The surface theory of Gauss
Carl Friedrich Gauss1 was among the first to develop the theory of curved surfaces. The theory
he developed assumed still, that the two-dimensional surface is inside three-dimensional space
many derivations are then simple and nevertheless the theory applies as such to the curved
surface of the Earth: note that Gauss was a geodesist who measured and calculated the geodetic
networks of Hannover and Brunswick using the method of least squares.
Let a curved surface S be given in three-dimensional space R3 . The surface is parametrized by
the parameters (u, v). Example: the surface of the Earth, parametrization (, ).
In three-dimensional space, we may describe point positions by creating an orthonormal triad
of base vectors
{e1 , e2 , e3 } .
On this base, a point, or location vector, is
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 = xe1 + ye2 + ze3 .
We will now often choose to write x by its representation on this basis:
1
x
x
x = x2 = y .
z
x3
These three parameters thus form a parametrization of R3 .
Carl Friedrich Gauss, (1777 1855), was also among the first to speculate on the possibility of non-Euclidean
geometry. Others were J
anos Bolyai and Nikolai I. Lobachevsky.
59
dx (s)
= xs ;
ds
dx (t)
dt
2
+
dy (t)
dt
2
+
dz (t)
dt
2
,
k (s) =
dt (s)
d2
= 2 x (s) .
ds
ds
(9.2)
x/u
x
x
xu =
= y/u , xv =
=
u
v
z/u
of its co-ordinates:
x/v
y/v .
z/v
These vectors are called the tangent vectors of surface S and parametrization (u, v).
60
v + dv
xv
G /2
E /2
1
xu
u + du
x
u
O
Figure 9.1.: The Gauss first fundamental form
From these we we obtain, as dot products of two vectors in space, the elements of the fundamental form:
E = hxu xu i ,
F
= hxu xv i ,
G = hxv xv i .
In figure 9.1 we have depicted the Gauss first fundamental form and the tangent vectors xu , xv .
It is easy to show (chain rule in three dimensions (x, y, z)), that
ds2
dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 =
"
2 2 #
x 2
y
z
=
+
+
du2 +
u
u
u
y y
z z
x x
+2
+
+
dudv +
u v
u v
u v
"
2 2 #
x 2
y
z
+
+
+
dv 2 =
v
v
v
=
61
nx
n = ny .
nz
Apparently
hn xu i = hn xv i = 0.
(9.3)
2x
,
u2
x
,
uv
x
.
v 2
= hn xuv i ,
(9.4)
g = hn xvv i .
Based on condition (9.3) we also have
hn xu i = hnu xu i + hn xuu i
u
0=
hn xu i = hnv xu i + hn xuv i
v
hn xv i = hnu xv i + hn xuv i
0=
u
0=
hn xv i = hnv xv i + hn xvv i
v
0=
e = nu xu ,
f = nu xv ,
f = nv xu ,
(9.5)
g = nv xv .
See figure 9.2. When moving from location to location, the normal vectors direction changes:
when we move from point x (u, v) to point x0 (u + du, v), the normal changes n n0 = n + dn.
In the same way, when moving from point x to x00 (u, v + dv), the normal changes n n00 =
n + dn00 .
As a formula:
dn =
62
n
n
du +
dv = nu du + nv dv.
u
v
gdv
edu
f du
f dv
n + nu du
n + nv dv
n
xv
xu
v + dv
u + du
x
O
The norm of the normal vector, i.e., its length, is always 1, like we saw above; thats why the
vector can change only in two directions, either in the direction of tangent vector xu , or in the
direction of tangent vector xv .
Let us separate them by projection:
hdn xu i = hnu xu i du + hnv xu i dv,
hdn xv i = hnu xv i du + hnv xv i dv,
in which we may directly identify the elements of the second fundamental form e, f, g with the
aid of (9.5):
hdn xu i = edu + f dv,
hdn xv i = f du + gdv.
Contrary to the first fundamental form, the second fundamental form has no corresponding
object in the Riemann surface theory. It exists only for surfaces embedded in a surrounding
(Euclidean) space.
Often we can also find a tensorial notation:
11 = e,
12 = 21 = f,
22 = g.
63
CH
B=
=
G
F
F
E
1
EG F 2
1
EG F 2
e f
f g
Ge F f Gf F g
Ef F e Eg F f
=.
This is called the shape operator, and the above, the Weingarten2 equations, see http://en.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry_of_surfaces#Shape_operator
We can say that multiplication by the inverse of the H matrix, i.e., the first fundamental form,
which describes the length of a distance element, performs a metric scaling of the B matrix 3 .
Principal curvatures:
The matrix C has two eigenvalues: the values 1,2 for which
(C I) x = 0
(9.6)
T
64
T
T
xT1 Hx2
T
= xT2 Hx1 .
N () cos cos
.
x = N () cos sin
2
N () 1 e sin
From this
x =
=
d
(N () cos )
d
d
sin
(N () cos )
d
d
1 e2
(N () sin )
d
cos
sin cos
x = M () sin sin .
+ cos
cos sin
x
= N () + cos cos .
x =
0
The surface normal is obtained as the vectorial product, normalized:
n=
hx x i
,
kx x k
And if they are not, any linear combination of x1 and x2 will again be an eigenvector, and we can always choose
two that are mutually perpendicular.
5
In index notation: gij xi2 xj1 .
65
cos2 cos
=
hx x i = N M
cos2 sin
2
2
sin cos cos sin cos sin
cos
cos2 cos
= N M cos2 sin = N M cos2 sin ,
tan
sin cos
cos cos
n = cos sin ,
sin
= hx x i = 0,
G = hx x i = N 2 cos2 = p2 .
We calculate for use in calculating the second fundamental form
+ cos sin
+ sin cos
n = + sin sin ; n = cos cos
0
cos
and thus (equations 9.5)
e = hn x i = +M,
f
= hn x i = hn x i = 0,
g = hn x i = +N cos2 .
In other words:
M2
0
,
0 N 2 cos2
M
0
e f
, and
=
B =
f g
0 N cos2
1
0
C = H 1 B = M 1 .
0
N
The principal curvatures 1,2 are Cs characteristic values or eigenvalues, solutions of the eigenvalue problem
(C I) x = 0;
H =
E F
F G
= 0 1 =
, 2 =
M
N
M
As could be expected. . .
66
=0
1
N
1
.
N
dt
ds
d 1
t xu + t 2 xv =
ds
dt2
dt1
+ xv
+
= xu
ds
ds
2
2
+ xuu t1 + 2xuv t1 t2 + xvv t2 .
=
In other words, the curvature vectors components in the (u, v) co-ordinate system ontain other
things besides just the derivatives of the component values dt1 /ds ja dt2 /ds.
We write
xuu = 111 xu + 211 xv + hxuu ni n,
xuv = 112 xu + 212 xv + hxuv ni n,
xvv =
122 xu
222 xv
(9.7)
+ hxvv ni n;
i.e., we develop the three-dimensional vectors on the base (xu , xv , n) of the space.
Here appear or naturally arise the symbols or Christoffel symbols which we discuss later
(Chapter 10). They illustrate the reality that differentiating a vector (also known as parallel
transport, see Chapter 10) in curvilinear co-ordinates on a curved surface is not a trivial thing.
The third term on the right hand side however represents, according to definition (9.4) , the
elements of the second fundamental form e, f, g.
We obtain
dt1
1
1 2
1 1 2
1
2 2
k =
+ 11 t
+ 212 t t + 22 t
xu +
ds
2
dt
2
1 2
2 1 2
2
2 2
+
+ 11 t
+ 212 t t + 22 t
xv +
ds
2
2
+
e t1 + 2f t1 t2 + g t2
n.
Here, the first two terms represent the internal curvature kint of the curve C, the curvature
inside surface S; the latter term represents the exterior curvature kext , the curvature of the
curve along with the itself curved surface.
The internal curvature again has two components in (u, v) co-ordinates, which can be read
from the above equation. We write
kint = k 1 xu + k 2 xv ,
6
Dont get nervous about the use of a superscript (upper index). Its just a writing convention, the good sense
of which we will argue later on
67
k =
k1
k2
"
=
2
+ 2112 t1 t2 + 122 t2
2 #
2
+ 2212 t1 t2 + 222 t2
2
2 X
2
X
dt /ds +
1ij ti tj
i=1 j=1
=
2 X
2
X
dt2 /ds +
2ij ti tj
i=1 j=1
where we have economized the formulas by using summation signs. The external curvature
again is
kext = hk ni n,
where
hk ni = e t1
2
+ 2f t1 t2 + g t2
2
Example:
a latitude circle on the Earth surface.
N () cos cos
;
x = N () cos sin
2
N () 1 e sin
N cos sin
sin
dx d
1
dx
=
= +N cos cos
= + cos ;
t=
ds
d ds
N cos
0
0
cos
dt
dt d
1
k=
=
= sin
.
ds
d ds
N cos
0
External curvature:
cos cos
n = cos sin ,
sin
so
1
n
cos2 + sin2 n = .
N
N
Because the vector n is a unit vector, we may infer, that the exterior curvature of the curve is
precisely the inverse of the transverse radius of curvature, and directed inward. This is the same
as the curvature of the surface taken in the direction of the curve.
kext = hk ni n =
kint = k kext
=
N
cos
+ cos cos
cos
sin
+ cos sin
cos
+ sin
68
tan
.
N
+ cos
p/sin
= N cot
kint
p
k
kext
N = p/cos
dti X X i j k
+
jk t t = 0.
ds
(9.8)
j=1 k=1
69
t1
t2
=
If we define
t1
t2
E F
F G
1
ht xu i
ht xv i
ht xu i
ht xv i
.
we may write
dt
=
ds
ht xu i ht xv i
Here
E F
F G
1
1
E F
F G
e f
f g
e f
f g
E F
F G
1
E F
F G
1
ht xu i
ht xv i
!
n.
= H 1 BH 1
ht xu i
ht xv i
=
M ht eN i
p ht eE i
,
1/M
0
ht eN i ht eE i
=
0
cos /p
1
1
=
ht eN i2 +
ht eE i2 n.
M
N
ht eN i
ht eE i
n=
sin cos
cos sin
xv
xu
=
= sin sin , eE =
= + cos cos .
kxu k
kxv k
cos
0
eN
1
The approach is geometrically intuitive. The expression in wave brackets
ht eN i2 +
M
1
1
1
ht eE i2 =
cos2 A+ sin2 A is precisely the curvature of the surface in the direction
N
M
N
of the curve.
dx
In addition we have the equations
= t, altogether 2 3 = 6 ordinary differential
ds
equations.
The method of space vectors has both advantages and disadvantages compared to the surface
co-ordinate method (e.g., equations (2.1)).
Advantage: in surface co-ordinates (, ) there are inevitably two poles, singularities where the
curvature of the latitude circles goes to infinity and numerical methods can be ill-behaved.
This will not happen in rectangular space co-ordinates.
Disadvantages:
7
In index notation: g ij jk g kl , see chapter 10. A logical notation for this would be il .
70
e2 ) p
p
p = X 2 + Y 2.
3. The roll-in and roll-out of the computation of the geodesic presupposes the transformation of (, ) to (X, Y, Z) co-ordinates in the starting point, and back in the end point.
71
Chapter 10
The surface theory of Riemann
An important theoretical frame in which curved surfaces and curves are often described, is
Riemanns1 surface theory. In this theory, we study the curved surface intrinsically, i.e., without
taking into account that the curved surface of the Earth is embedded in a complete threedimensional (Euclidean) space.
This makes the surface theory of Riemann useful also in situations, where this embedding higherdimensional space doesnt necessarily even exist. For example, in General Relativity we describe
spacetime (x, y, z, t) as a curved manifold according to Riemanns theory, the curvature parameters of which relate to the densities of mass and current through Einstein2 s field equations.
The gravitational field is the expression of this curvature.
(10.1)
73
v=v =
v1
v2
x
=
y
T 0 = AT AT ,
where A is the same as defined above.
We have already encountered many tensors in geodetic theory:
1. The inertial tensor of the Earth.
2. The gravity gradient or Marussi tensor
g
x
g
M =
=
y
g
2W
x2
2W
yx
2W
zx
2W 2W
xy xy
2W 2W
.
y 2
xz
2W 2W
zy
z 2
"
#
x2 xy
3. The variance matrix is really a tensor: Var (x) =
, where x and y are the
xy y2
mean errors of the co-ordinates, i.e., the components of x, and xy is the covariance.
E F
4. In the earlier discussed surface theory of Gauss, the first, H =
, and the second,
F G
e f
B=
fundamental form, as well as C = H 1 B;
f g
e e e
5. Also the elements of the map
" projection
# fundamental form (to be discussed later) E, F , G
e Fe
E
e =
e =
constitute a tensor H
, a metric tensor of sorts. The object H 1 H
e
Fe G
e
Fe
E
M2 Mp
may again be called the scale tensor.
Fe
e
G
Mp
3
p2
Verify that the matrix equation produces the same index summations as the index equation!
74
Mii =
2W
2W
2W
+
+
W,
x2
y 2
z 2
vi =
ii v i
(10.3)
ii0 vi .
(10.4)
X
i
More precisely, the lengths of the semi-axes are the square roots of the eigenvalues i .
germ. Spur.
75
(10.5)
v =
we obtain
i0
v =
dx0
dy 0
=
dx
dy
,
x0/x
x0/y
y 0/x
y 0/y
dx
dy
;
V /x0
V /y 0
=
x/x0
x/y 0
y/x0
y/y 0
V /x
V /y
.
xi
xi
i0
and
= ii0 are apparently each others inverse matrices.
=
i
xi
xi0
So, if the matrix form of the covariant transformation equations (10.4) transformation parameters ii0 is A (i row and i0 column index), then the matrix of the contravariant transformation
0
parameters (equation 10.3) ii must be A1 (i0 row and i column index). From this circumstance,
the names covariant and contravariant derive.
The coefficient matrices
A tensor may have both super- and subscripts. Under a co-ordinate transformation, each index
changes according to its character. There may even be more than two indices.
Trivial tensors
1. If we compute the gradient of a contravariant vector xi we obtain
xi
=
xj
1 0
0 1
ji ,
or in matrix language
0
0
i
j
i 0
i 1
[I]
[A] = A1 A = I,
I
= A
0
j
i j j0
0
76
1
if ijk is an odd permutation of the numbers (123)
That is, 123 = 231 = 312 = 1, 132 = 321 = 213 = 1, all others = 0.
Ks. http://folk.uio.no/patricg/teaching/a112/levi-civita/.
gij =
1 0
0 1
(10.6)
ja dx = dx =
dx
dy
.
This is called the metric of the rectangular co-ordinate system in the Euclidean plane. In
equation (10.6) it is assumed that we sum over the indices i and j; we call this the Einstein
summation convention. Always when in an equation we have a subscript and a superscript with
the same name, we sum over it. I.e., in this case
2
ds =
2 X
2
X
i=1 j=1
dx
H
dxT
z
z
}|
{
}|1 { .
z
}|
{
g11 g12
dx
1
2
dx dx
g21 g22
dx2
If the surface is not curved, one may always find a co-ordinate system which is everywhere
rectangular and both co-ordinates scaled correctly such that to a co-ordinate difference of 1
m corresponds also a location difference of 1 m. Then the gij matrix or metric tensor has the
form of the unit matrix, like above.
If the surface is curved, we can find a unit matrix only in some places. E.g., on the surface of
the Earth, only within a strip in the vicinity of the equator. It wont be possible in a unified
manner over the whole surface of the Earth.
77
q
v
pu
u + u
Nevertheless we an choose also on a non-curved surface a co-ordinate system that isnt rectangular but skewed, and where the co-ordinates are scaled arbitrarily. See figure 10.1.
In this case we find with the aid of the cosine rule:
s2 = p2 u2 + q 2 v 2 + 2puqv cos ,
or, differentially
ds2 = p2 du2 + q 2 dv 2 + 2pq cos dudv,
or, in index notation
ds2 = gij dxi dxj
where
gij =
p2
pq cos
pq cos
q2
, dx =
du
dv
.
gij , i, j
dxj
}|
{
z
}| { .
p2
pq cos
du
dv
pq cos
q2
On a curved surface gij will depend on place, gij xi , where xi is a vector of parameters
T
describing the surface, xi = u v
. Also on a non-curved surface can gij depend on place,
e.g., when choosing curvilinear, e.g., polar, co-ordinates.
Examples:
1. The surface of a spherical Earth:
ds2 = R2 d2 + R2 cos2 d2 ,
i.e.,
gij (, ) =
7
R2
0
2
0 R cos2
78
, dx =
d
d
,
1 0
0 2
from which
dxi
2
ds = z }| {
d d
, dx =
d
d
,
gij , i, j
dxj
z }| {
z }| {
1 0
d .
2
0
d
3. In three dimensions in the air space using aviation co-ordinates: nautical miles
North dN , nautical miles East dE, feet above sea level dH; in metres
ds2 = (1852)2 dN 2 + (1852)2 dE 2 + (0.3048)2 dH 2 ,
eli
18522
0
0
dN
dxi = dE ,
gij = 0
18522
0
dH
0
0
0.30482
ja
gij , i, j
dxj
}|
{
z }| {
dxi
18522
0
0
dN
}|
{
.
ds2 = z
0
dE
18522
0
dN dE dH
dH
0
0
0.30482
z
79
80
v 02
u +y
yi
v1
v
v2
u2
u1
u1 + y 1
.
(10.7)
2
xj
xk
x`
(g ij (gij )1 .) From this is can be seen, that the Christoffel symbols are, like, the first
derivatives of the metric. In a straight-lined co-ordinate system on a non-curved surface gij is a
constant and thus all ijk vanish. Also, because gij is symmetric (gij = gji ), we obtain
ijk = ikj .
The Christoffel symbols are useful when writing the equation of the geodesic 9 in this formalism
(cf. equation (9.8)):
d i
t + ijk tj tk = 0.
ds
Here, ti is the tangent vector of the geodesic ti = dxi/ds.
9
In fact we write
Dti
dti
+ ijk tj tk ,
ds
ds
the so-called absolute or covariant derivative which is a tensor; and
Dti
=0
ds
is then the equation for the geodesic, which thus applies in curvilinear co-ordinates.
81
so only
g
g22
=
= R2 sin 2
g = (gi` )
R2
0
0 R2 cos2
=
1
=
R2
0
0
R2 cos2
,
1
= (g )
2
2
1
= (g )1
2
1
sin 2
R2 cos2 R2 sin 2 =
= tan ,
2
2 cos2
1
1 g
= (g )
= tan .
2
yielding
g22
g
=
= 2,
so
=
= =
1
g
(g )1
=
2
1
g
1
(g )
+
=
2
1
2 = ,
2
1 1
1
2 2 = + .
2
82
cos A
R
= sin
A ,
R cos
as a function of s, from which A and may be computed.
To this set we add the definition equations of the tangent
d
= = t1 ,
ds
d
= = t2 ,
ds
In this way also comes along.
Perhaps this approach seems overly complicated; its major theoretical advantage is, that it will
work for all curvilinear co-ordinate systems on the surface considered, also, e.g., for stereographic
map projection co-ordinates used in the polar areas, as long as we first manage to write down
the metric tensor of the co-ordinate curves.
T
The length of the tangent vector
is computed as follows:
2
i j
ds = gij t t = R
cos A
R
if we remember that
gij =
2
+ R cos
R2
0
2
0 R cos2
sin A
R cos
2
= 1,
on the surface of the sphere, The lengths of the tangent vectors have always to be 1; this
requirement is fulfilled if s is a parametrization of the curve by distance.
(10.8)
i
Here, the creature Rjk`
is called the Riemann curvature tensor. In two-dimensional space (i.e.,
4
on a surface) it has 2 = 16 elements.
i
m
j` ` ijk + ikm m
j` `m jk .
k
x
x
(10.9)
83
D
u` + u`
0i
u`
uk
A
u
uk
uk + uk
Figure 10.3.: The curvature tensor and parallel transport around a closed grid path
There exist many more such symmetries; the number of independent components is actually
small.
Esimerkkej
a:
1. Surface of a spherical Earth (, ):
Based on the antisymmetry property we may say that only elements for which k 6= l can
differ from zero. Additionally the Christoffel symbols depend only on . Thus we
obtain the auxiliary terms:
=
=
1
sin 2 = + cos 2,
2
1
( tan ) = 2 ,
cos
= = = sin ,
= = + tan2 .
By combining
R
= R
=
R
= R
=
R
= R
=
R
= R
=
84
m
m
+
m m = 0;
m
+ m m
+ tan2 = 1;
m =
cos2
m
m
2
2
+
m m = cos 2 + sin = cos ;
m
+ m m
m = 0.
= 1,
1
=
= 2 ,
After this:
R
= R
= 0;
=
= 0.
R
= R
=
R
= R
= R
R
1
1
m
+ m m
m = 2 + 2 = 0;
m
+ m m
m = 1 + 1 = 0;
So the whole Riemann tensor vanishes, as it should, because the surface is not curved.
From the Riemann tensor we obtain the smaller Ricci12 -tensor in the following way:
Rjk =
i
Rjik
2
X
i
.
Rjik
(10.10)
i=1
= +1;
R = R
+ R
= 0 + 0 = 0;
R = R
+ R
R = R
+ R
= cos2 .
R = g Rji =
2
X
(gij )1 Rji .
(10.11)
j=1
85
Rki
ij
= g Rjk
2
0
0
R
0
1
=
,
1
0 + cos2
0
R2
2
2
R cos
i.e.14
R=
X
i
Rii =
1
cos2
2
+
= 2.
2
2
2
R
R cos
R
2
,
R1 R2
(10.12)
twice the Gauss total curvature K, the inverse of the product of the two principal radii of
curvature.
However, for higher dimensionalities, the number of independent elements in the tensors of
Riemann and Ricci is larger. This case is interesting because of General Relativity (four
dimensions!) though not for geodesy.
We can remark here, that the spherical excess already discussed in section 1.2 is a special case
of the change in direction of a vector that is parallelly transported around: the spherical excess
is the small change of direction of a vector transported around a closed triangle!
14
Here we use the symbol R both for the radius of the Earth and for the curvature scalar. We hope it doesnt
cause confusion.
15
The radii of curvature exist only in the three-dimensional space surrounding the Earth surface, in which it is
embedded. R on the other hand is an intrinsic property of the surface.
86
du2
K
du1
= Kdu1 du2
Figure 10.4.: The curvature of a two-dimensional surface may be characterized by just one parameter: .
C
3
D
4
ABCD
2
1
B
A
Figure 10.5.: Transport of a vector around a larger surface area. ABCD = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 .
When we transport a vector around a larger surface area, it is the same as if we had transported
it successively around all of the little patches making up the surface area. This is depicted in
figure 10.5. In every little patch du1 du2 , area dS, the change in direction of the vector amounts
to KdS, where K is the Gauss total curvature at the patch location.
By generalization one obtains from this the following integral equation (Gau-Bonnet16 for
the triangle, Theorema elegantissimum):
=
K (, ) dS,
1
1
dS =
M N cos dd =
=
MN
MN
=
d = ,
which is the surface area of the corresponding triangle, but on the unit sphere.17 .
From this follows that
16
17
87
cos i cos i
xi = cos i sin i , i = 1, 2, 3;
sin i
we use the polarization method (1.7) in three dimensions, in order to find the poles of the
triangles sides:
y1 =
hx2 x3 i
hx3 x1 i
hx1 x2 i
, y2 =
, y3 =
.
kx2 x3 k
kx3 x1 k
kx1 x2 k
Now the inter-pole distances correspond to the angles of the spherical triangle (more precisely,
minus those angles):
ky2 y3 k
,
ky2 + y3 k
ky1 y3 k
,
= 2 arctan
ky1 + y3 k
ky y2 k
= 2 arctan 1
,
ky1 + y2 k
1 = 2 arctan
2
3
numerically strong equations18 . Here i is the angle at corner point i. The spherical excess is
now
3
X
=
i .
i=1
gij = g =
1 if i = j
0 otherwise,
88
=
jk =
g
+
2
xj
xk
x`
gjk
1 gki gij
=
+
0
j
k
2 x
xi
x
based on the above assumption of stationarity.
Of the Riemann curvature tensor (equation 10.9) the last two terms vanish:
i
j` ` ijk =
k
x x
gj`
g`i gij
1
+
2 xk xj
xi
x`
gjk
gki gij
1
=
+
j
`
k
2 x
x
xi
x
gj` gjk
1
1
g`i gki
2 xj xk
2 xi xk
x`
x`
i
Rjk`
=
This already looks a lot more symmetric. The symbol here means the Laplace operator
X 2
=
.
i )2
(x
i
Finally we still derive the curvature scalar
X
R = g jk Rkj =
Rjj =
j
=
=
=
1X
2
gjj +
1X
2
X
i
X X 2 gij
1 X X 2 gii
=
xi xj
2
(xj )2
j
X X 2 gij
1X
gjj +
gii =
xi xj
2
i
X X 2 gij
gii +
.
xi xj
i
In the special case that the co-ordinate curves are (everywhere, not just in point P ) orthogonal,
we obtain gij = 0 if i 6= j with its derivatives of place, i.e.
X
X 2 gii
R=
gii +
=
i 2
i
i (x )
2
2 g11
2 g22
g11
2 g11
2 g22
2 g22
=
+
+
+
+
=
(x1 )2 (x2 )2
(x1 )2 (x2 )2 (x1 )2 (x2 )2
2
g11
2 g22
=
+
.
(10.13)
(x2 )2 (x1 )2
This equation will be of use in the sequel.
89
Chapter 11
Map projections
Map projections are needed because the depiction of the curved Earth surface on a plane is
not possible without error at least for larger areas. In this chapter we discuss the deformations
introduced by a map projection in terms of its scale error, using the tools developed in the
previous chapters.
(11.1)
i,j
where
gij =
M2 0
0 p2
=
E F
F G
=H
(11.2)
and
x=
dx1
dx2
=
d
d
.
Here we have suitably defined two ways of writing, the index notation gij , dxi and the matrixvector notation H, x. The elements of the matrix are also the elements of the Gauss First
Fundamental Form on the Earth surface E, F, G. We see that E = M 2 , F = 0 ja G = p2 .
For the azimuth A again we obtain the following equation:
tan A =
pd
,
M d
(11.3)
(11.4)
dS cos A = M d.
(11.5)
91
y
d +
dx =
dy =
x
d,
y
d,
i.e.,
2
2
x
y
x
y
d +
d +
d +
d =
=
e 2 + 2Fedd + Gd
e 2,
= Ed
ds
(11.6)
where
2
y
x 2
+
,
x x
y y
Fe =
+
,
2 2
x
y
e
G =
+
.
e =
E
e Fe ja G
e are the Gauss First Fundamental Form in the map plane. If we interpret the element
E,
of distance in the map plane ds2 as a metric of the Earth surface, then we obtain also here a
metric tensor,
"
#
e Fe
E
e
H.
(11.7)
gf
ij =
e
Fe G
The corresponding metric is
ds2 =
i
j
T e
gf
ij dx dx = x Hx,
i,j
T
where dx1 = d and dx2 = d, , i.e., dxi = dxj = x = d d . Also here we see as
alternatives the index notation and the matrix-vector notation, which describe the same thing.
ds
,
dS
which apparently depends on the direction of the distance element, i.e., the azimuth A.
m=
P
i
j
f
ij dx dx
ds2
i,j g
P
=
=
i
j
dS 2
i,j gij dx dx
X
X
i
j
2
gf
gij dxi dxj = 0.
ij dx dx m
i,j
92
i,j
(11.8)
cos A
M
= sin
A .
p
x=
d
d
(11.9)
M
p
M
p
"
2
2 #
2
2 cos A
2 sin A
m M
+p
=0
M
p
or, after cleaning up,
m2 =
=
e
e
E
G
Fe
2
2
cos
A
+
sin
A
+
2
sin A cos A =
M2
p2
Mp
!
!
e
e
e
e
1
E
G
1
E
G
Fe
+ 2 +
2 cos 2A +
sin 2A.
2
2
2 M
p
2 M
p
Mp
(11.10)
e
e
E
G
2
2
p
M
tan 2A =
e
E
M2
Fe
Mp
e
G
p2
!
sin 2A +
Fe
cos 2A,
Mp
=
e 2 GM
e 2
Ep
.
FeM p
This yields two maximum and two minumum values, which all four are at a distance of 90 from
each other1 .
These eigenvalues are obtained by writing the equation (11.10) as follows:
e
E
Fe
2
cos A
M2 m
M
p
cos A sin A
sin A = 0;
e
Fe
G
2
m
Mp
p2
1
93
=
=
M2
p2
M 2 p2
!
e
e
E
G
1 e e e2
= m4 + 2 2 m2 + 2 2 E
GF .
M
p
M p
From this
m21,2 =
e
E
M2
e
G
p2
r
e
E
M2
e
G
p2
2
eG
e Fe2
4 M 12 p2 E
e 0
E
e
0 G
#
,
we obtain
e m2 I
det H 1 H
e
E
m2
M2
m21,2 =
e
G
m2
p2
!
=0
e G
e
E
,
.
M 2 p2
s
e
e
E
G
m1 =
is
the
meridional
scale
factor,
m
=
is the scale factor in the direction of the
2
M2
p2
parallel. In intermediate directions A (azimuth) the magnification factor is then
q
m = m21 cos2 A + m22 sin2 A.
e
E
2
e = M
H 1 H
Fe
Mp
Fe
Mp
= g ik gekj = geji
e
G
p2
is often visualized as an ellipse on the Earth surface (or, correspondingly, in the map plane).
The eigenvalues of the matrix are m21 and m22 ; the axes of the visualizing ellipse are m1 in the
meridional direction and m2 in the direction of the parallel. This ellipse is called the indicatrix
of Tissot2 . See subsection 10.3.3.
Of the many map projections used, we need to mention especially those that are conformal, i.e.,
the scale in a point is the same in all directions:
m1 = m2 = m,
2
94
m1
M d = 1
y
pd = 1
m2
dt
ds
ds
dt
0
The Tissot indicatrix is a circle. With a conformal projection, small circles, squares and local
angles and length ratios are mapped true. Surface areas are distorted, however.
Conformal projections have the useful property, that the projection formulas in one co-ordinate
direction can be derived when the formulas for the other co-ordinate direction are given.
3
A sometimes useful property is, that surface areas are mapped true
, even
though the shapes
1 e
of small circles or squares are distorted. This requirement is det H H = m21 m22 = constant.
E.g. when depicting the surface density of population or some other phenomenon.
Johann Heinrich Lambert (1728 1777) Swiss methematician, physicist and astronomer.
95
75
60
N
o
45
N
o
30
N
o
15
0 60
90 o
E
45 o
W
o
75
30 o
W
oE
60
15 o
W
0o
30 E
15 E
o
45 E
The images of the meridians in the map are straight lines, which intersect in one point, which
is also the common centre of all latitude circle images.
Polar co-ordinates in the map plane are
x = sin ,
y = 0 cos ,
where = 0 describes the latitude circle = 0 .
Also
= n.
(11.11)
Let ds be the distance element on the Earth surface and dt the corresponding element in the
map plane; then along the latitude circle
ds = p () d
dt = nd
and by dividing
dt
n
=
.
ds
p
Based on conformality this will also be valid along the meridian.
Now we have ds = M () d, i.e.
dt ds
n
dt
=
=
M.
d
ds d
p
If we reckon positive toward the South, i.e., d = dt, we obtain:
d
M ()
= n ()
.
d
p ()
(11.12)
Using equations (11.11, 11.12) we may compute (, ) if given (, ). However, let us first move
to the left hand side:
d
M
M (0 ) 0
ln = n
= 0 exp n
d .
0
d
p
0 p ( )
If we define
()
96
M (0 ) 0
d ,
p (0 )
exp {n ()}
.
exp {n (0 )}
(11.13)
Furthermore we must choose a value n. We do this so, that the scale is stationary at the reference
latitude 0 :
dm
= 0 jos = 0 .
d
The scale is
m
d
dt
n
= = ,
ds
ds
p
i.e.,
dm
d
n d
n dp
2
=
p d
p d
n
n
n2
= 2 M + 2 M sin = 2 M (n sin ) ,
p
p
p
=
(using 11.12 and Appendix B) which ought to vanish for = 0 . It does by choosing
n = sin 0 .
As an initial condition we must still choose 0 ; it yields for the scale at the reference latitude
m (0 ) = n
0
.
p (0 )
1
= 1,
p (1 )
(0 )
(ln ln 0 ) ;
n
=
0
M ()
d,
p ()
can be computed numerically (quadrature; the QUAD routines of Matlab). However, for the
spherical case a closed solution exists
= ln tan
+
,
(11.14)
4
2
97
(11.15)
See appendix A.
Reverse operation: if is given and to be computed, we may take the equation
d
M ()
=
d
p ()
and turn it upside down:
d
p ()
=
.
d
M ()
This equation has the general form
dy
= f (y, t)
dt
and may be numerically solved using Matlabs ODE routines.
An alternative way for the sphere is to analytically invert equation (11.14):
.
= 2 arctan exp
4
This is also useful as the first iteration step for the ellipsoidal case:
(0) = 2 arctan exp
,
4
after which
(i+1)
!e
(i) 2
e
sin
exp
= 2 arctan
.
4
1 + e sin (i)
y = () =
0
M (0 ) 0
d .
p (0 )
Here we see the isometric latitude in its most simple glory: in the case of spherical geometry
y = ln tan
+
.
4
2
Mercator is not a lamp projection: There is no projection centre from which the light
emanates.
98
y
dt
ds
dt
ds
x
75 N
60oN
45 N
30 N
15oN
o
60 W 45 W 30 W 15 W
15 E
30 E
45 E
60 E
75 E
90 E
= 0 exp { ()}
if < ,
2
=0
if = ,
2
99
Projection plane
/2
0
Equator
( 2 )/2
Projection centre
Figure 11.6.: The stereographic projection
0/tan( + )
=
4 2
= 0 cot
+
=
4 2
= 0 tan
=
4 2
1
= 0 tan
.
2 2
This case is depicted in figure 11.6. 0 is the distance from the central point (South pole) to the
projection plane. In this case the projection is truly a lamp projection. . . but unfortunately
only in the case of spherical geometry.
Let us derive the scale of the stereographical projection:
d
d d d
M 1
exp { ()}
=
= 0 exp {}
= = 0
.
dx
d d dx
p M
p
p ()
The value is negative because x grows to the North and to the South. The co-ordinate x is
the metric northing.
By using equation 11.15 we obtain
0
d
=
cot
+
dx
N cos ()
4
2
or close to the pole
d
0
dx
2
1+e
1e
1 + e sin
1 e sin
e
e
In case of the Earth where (GRS80) e = 0.08181919104281097693, we obtain for the last term
in e 0.99331307907268199009. If we want unity for the scale at the pole, we must set
0 = 2.01346387371353381594.
100
oW
180 W
165
165 o
E
15 o
0
E
oW
15
W
13
5
13
o
30 N
12 o
0
W
oE
0
12
o
45 N
oE
105
105 o
W
o
60 N
90 W
90 E
o
75 N
45
45 o
E
oW
60
60 o
E
o
75 W
75 oE
W
30 o
W
oE
30
15 oW
o
15 E
Latitude
interval
Number
of support points
Computation
point (, )
Number
of terms
1
61
70
70
65
1 20
61 80
61 80
61 80
61 70
20
20
20
39
19
12
16
15
15
14
101
x=
M 0 d0 .
(11.16)
X
k=0
x0
M () d,
u0
0
102
M ()
d
p ()
ak w k .
(11.17)
have been chosen to be compatible with a suitable reference latitude 0 . These series expansions
are thus meant to be used only in a relatively small area, not the whole projection zone. Thus
the number of terms needed also remains smaller.
The meridian conditions (11.16) now form a set of observation equations:
xi = a0 + a1 ui + a2 u2i + a3 u3i + . . .
from which the coefficients aj can be solved, if a sufficient number of support points (ui , xi ) is
given (the crosses in figure 11.8).
Applying the found coefficients aj to equation (11.17) yields the solution for the whole complex
plane. This solution may be squeezed into the following, more computationally suitable, form
(so-called Clenshaw summation):
z = a0 + w (a1 + w (a2 + w (a3 + w ( + wan )))) .
The computing sequence is multiplication-addition-multiplication-addition. . . the powers of1 w
need not be computed separately. Remember that also the intermediate results are complex
numbers!
Fortunately complex numbers belong to the popular programming languages either as a fixed
part (Matlab, Fortran) or a standard library (C++).
From the same equation we obtain also easily the scale and the meridian convergence. At said,
a complex analytical map is a scaling plus a rotation. When the equation of the map is (11.17),
its differential version is
dz
z =
w,
(11.18)
dw
where
X
dz
= a1 + 2a2 w + 3a3 w2 + 4a4 w4 + =
kak wk1 .
dw
k=1
103
dz
dz
Im
Re dw
du
dx
dw
=
dv ,
dz
dz
dy
Im
Re
dw
dw
T
T
,
where dx = dx dy
, dw = du dv
x
dz
y
=
Re
=
= K cos ,
dw
u
w
the scale; and
y
dz
x
=
Im
=
= K sin ,
dw
u
v
from which , the meridian convergence, may be resolved.
The choice of the classical Mercator as a starting projection is not the only alternative.
Probably the number of terms of the series expansion (11.17) could be reduced by using a
Lambert projection for the reference latitude 0 . Whether the saving achievable is worth the
trouble, is a so-called Good Question.
2 g11
(x2 )2
2 g22
(x1 )2
.
1
2
2 g
2 g
+
2
2
1
= m2 .
2
Now
2
=
=
=
104
2
2
+
m2 (, ) =
2 2
3 m
3 m
m
2
m
=
2
m3 m
2m
m3 m
2m
2
+ m3 2 2
+ m3 2
2m,
=K
2
2
etc. In the below table we give some examples remember that the area considered is always a
neighbourhood of the central point or central meridian or standard parallel, where m 1 and
stationary!
Projection
Mercator
Lambert conical
Oblique stereographic
Gauss-Kr
uger, UTM
2 m/x2
2 m/y 2
K
K
K
2
0
0
0
K
2
K
2
x2
and
2m
2m
,
2
y 2
105
(a) Gauss-Kr
uger
(c) Stereographic
Figure 11.9.: The classification of map projections as vertical, horizontal and square projections
106
Chapter 12
Map projections in Finland
12.1. Traditional map projections
In Finland, the traditional map projection has been Gau-Kr
uger with zone width 3 . System
name: kkj (National Map Grid Co-ordinate System) created in 1970 (Parm, 1988). Following
characteristics:
Based on International (Hayford) reference ellipsoid of 1924; datum was taken from the
European datum of 1950 by keeping fixed the triangulation point Simpsio (nr. 90), at
. latitude and longitude values from the ED50 European adjustment, and
. geoidal undulation from the Bomford astro-geodetic geoid (Bomford, 1963).
Map plane co-ordinates were obtained using Gau-Kr
uger for central meridians of 19 , 21 , 24 , 27 , 30 ;
for small-scale all-Finland maps, 27 is used (the ykj system).
These co-ordinates (x, y) were further transformed in the plane using a four-parameter
similarity (Helmert) transformation in order to achieve agreement with the pre-existing
provisional vvj (Old State System, also Helsinki System) co-ordinates, cf. (Ollikainen,
1993).
Equation:
x
y
=
kkj
1.00000075 0.00000439
0.00000439 1.00000075
x
y
+
ED50
61.571 m
95.693 m
0
R 3 R 2
yy
with tC observations central epoch, yy = (19)96. The values T96 and R i,96 are tabulated in
(Boucher and Altamimi, ) Tables 3 and 4.
107
For large scale maps, such as used for planning and cadastral work, the Gau-Kr
uger
projection continues to be used (but based on the above reference ellipsoid and datum),
with a central meridian interval of only one degree: ETRS-GKn, where n designates the
central meridian longitude. This avoids the problem of significant scale distortions.
108
x y
T
7
819
230
31
2
44
85
203
301
22
441
233
503
415
440
510
4
118
453
If we now define
x
x
y
, A=
a11 a12
a21 a22
a1 1
a2
b1
b2 1
,
xA = x + AxA ,
(1)
xB = x + AxB ,
xC
(1)
= x + AxC .
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
xA = x + a11 xA + a12 yA
yA = y + a21 xA + a22 yA
xB = x + a11 xB + a12 yB
yB = y + a12 xB + a22 yB
xC
= x + a11 xC + a12 yC
yC
= y + a21 xC + a22 yC
109
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000
1111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000
1111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000
1111
C
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000 = ( ABP )
1111
p
=
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
( ABC )
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000 B
1111111111111111111111111111111
Figure 12.2.: Computing barycentric co-ordinates as the ratio of the surface areas of two triangles
or in matrix form
xA
yA
xB
yB
xC
yC
1
0
1
0
1
0
(1)
(1)
0 xA
0 yA
0
x
(1)
(1)
1 0 xA
0 yA
y
(1)
(1)
0 xB
0 yB
0 a11
(1)
(1)
a21
1 0 xB
0 yB
(1)
(1)
a12
0 xC
0 yC
0
a22
(1)
(1)
1 0 xC
0 yC
(12.1)
y = p yA + p yB + p yC.
(12.2)
The set of three numbers pA , pB , pC is called the barycentric co-ordinates of point P See figure
12.2.
(BCP )
etc., where is the surface area
They can be found as follows (geometrically pA =
(ABC)
of the triangle) using determinants:
xB xC x
xC xA
yB yC y
yC yA
1
1
1 1
1
A
B
, p =
p =
xA xB xC
xA xB
yA yB yC
yA yB
1
1
1
1
1
These equations are very suitable for coding.
110
xA
yA
1
C
, p =
xA
xC
yA
yC
1
1
x
y
1
xB x
yB y
1 1
.
xB xC
yB yC
1
1
Appendix A
Isometric latitude on the ellipsoid
We follow the presentation from the book (Grossman, 1964).
The starting formula is
() =
0
M (0 ) 0
d .
p (0 )
As a differential equation
d =
1 e2
M
d.
d =
p
1 e2 sin2 cos
=
=
=
=
1 e2 sin2 e2 cos2
=
1 e2 sin2 cos
1
e2 cos
=
cos 1 e2 sin2
1
e2 cos (1 e sin ) + e2 cos (1 + e sin )
=
cos
2 (1 + e sin ) (1 e sin )
e
e cos
e cos
1
+
.
cos 2
1 + e sin 1 e sin
=
0
1
0
d
=
ln
tan
+
.
cos 0
4
2
=
=
=
d ln tan 4 + 2 d tan 4 + 2 d 4 + 2
=
d
d tan 4 + 2
d 4 + 2
1
1
1
=
2
tan 4 + 2 cos 4 + 2 2
1
1
1
=
.
=
cos
2 sin 4 + 2 cos 4 + 2
sin 2 +
This is the full solution in the case that e = 0 (solution for the sphere).
In the case of the ellipsoid the second integral
0
f ()
e cos
d =
d = ln f () = ln (1 + e sin ) ,
1 + e sin
f ()
where we designate f 1 + e sin . In the same way
e cos
d = ln (1 e sin ) ,
1 e sin
111
= ln tan
112
Appendix B
Useful equations connecting the main radii of
curvature
When we have given the principal radii of curvature of the ellipsoid of revolution:
1/2
N () = a 1 e2 sin2
,
3/2
M () = a 1 e2 1 e2 sin2
,
we can calculate by brute-force derivation:
d
(N () cos ) = M () sin ,
d
M ()
d
(N () sin ) = +
cos .
d
1 e2
Furthermore
2 d
3
d
M 2 () = a2 1 e2
1 e2 sin2
=
d
d
e2 M 2 N 2
= 3
sin 2,
a2
d
d
N 2 () cos2 = 2N
(N () cos ) =
d
d
= M N sin 2.
113
Appendix C
The Christoffel symbols from the metric
Let us start from the definition of the metric in Chapter 9.2:
x x
x x
2
u1 u1
1
x x
u u ,
gij =
x x
x x
ui uj
u2 u1
u2 u2
where ui = u1 , u2 is the parametrization (co-ordinate frame) of a curved surface in space (or
more generally a sub-space). Differentiate:
x x
gjk =
=
ui
ui uj uk
2
2
x
x
x
x
=
.
(C.1)
+
ui uj uk
ui uk uj
Correspondingly, by interchanging indices:
2
2
x
x
x
x
gki =
+
uj
uj ui uk
uj uk ui
2
2
x
x
x
x
+
gij =
uk
uk ui uj
uk uj ui
(C.2)
(C.3)
x
x
gjk + j gki k gij = 2
.
(C.4)
ui
u
ui uj uk
u
x x
,
, n as we did in equation
Lets write the second derivatives of x on the local base
u1 u2
(9.7), even if in a slightly different notation:
2x
x
`ij ` + ij n,
i
j
u u
u
(C.5)
which implicitly defines the symbols. Substitution into equation (C.4) yields
x x
x
1
`
ij
+ ij n k =
gjk + j gki k gij .
2 ui
u
u` uk
u
u
Here we recognise
x x
u` uk
= g`k
x
ja n k = 0,
u
or
`ij g`k
`ij
1
g
gjk + j gki k gij ,
2
ui
u
u
115
Appendix D
The Riemann tensor from the Christoffel
symbols
The Riemann tensor equation is derived with the age of parallel transport of a vector around
a closed, small co-ordinate rectangle. Of the spatial vector v is transported parallelly inside a
ui -parametrized surface S , the following holds
v
= 0.
ui
Let us write v on the basis of the tangent vectors:
v = vi
x
.
ui
Then
0=
v
uj
v i
uj
v i
uj
=
=
2
x
i x
+
v
=
ui
ui uj
x
x
+ ijk v k i + ij n,
i
u
u
x
v i x
using (C.5). Here, the v derivative consists of two parts: the interior part,
+ijk v k i ,
j
i
u u
u
embedded in the surface, and the exterior part, ij n, aperpendicular to the surface. When the
surface S has been given, we can only zero the internal part, i.e.
v i
+ ijk v k = 0
uj
(D.1)
v i
uk = ikm v m uk .
uk
v i
u` = i`m v m u`
u`
and
DA v i = +i`m v m u` .
117
k
i
m
`
i
m
k
v u u
v u u` =
=
u` km
uk `m
i
m
m
km i`m
m
i v
i v
=
v
+
u` uk .
km
`m
u`
uk
u`
uk
Equation (D.1) gives
m
v m
m h v
h
=
v
,
= m
`h
kh v ;
u`
uk
substituting:
ABCD v i =
=
ikm ilm
ul
uk
ikj
u`
i`j
uk
h
i
m
v
u` uk =
v m + ilm m
kh
km lh
!
i
m
+ i`m m
kj km `j
v j u` uk ,
where we have changed the names of the indices m j (in the first two terms) ja h j (in the
last two terms).
Here we see in ready form the Riemann curvature tensor :
i
Rj`k
ikj
ul
i`j
uk
m
i
+ i`m m
kj km `j ,
aapart from the names of the indices and interchanges of type ijk = ikj , just what already was
given in eq. (10.9).
118
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119