H2 Phvsics (9745)

Basic / primary / fundamental Quantities that, by agreement, are treated as independent of any
quantities other quantiiies.
(mass Ikg], length lml, time [s], temperature IK], amount of
substance lmol], electric current [A], luminous intensity [cd])
Derived / secondary quantities Quantities obiained by simple combinarion of the basrc quantities.
One Newton (N = kg m s') Amount offorce acting on a mass of 1 kg causing a constant
acceleration of 1m s2.
z one Joule (J = kg m'zs_2) Amount ofwork done bya force of 1N when its poinl ofapplication
moves through a distance of 1 m in the direction ofthe force.
D lJncommon pretixes T (tera = 101':)
P (peta = 1O1s) f (femto = 1015)
a (atto = 1014)
One Mole The amount of substance that contains as many elementary entities
(atoms, ions, molecules etc) as there are atoms in 12 g of C-12.
Scalar quantities Quantities that requires only magnitude to be fully described-
Vector quantities Quantities that requires both rragnitude and direction to be fully
described-
3t Relative velocity VA/B
.?> (of A to a) (Vector addition gjves resultant;
vector subtraction gives change in vector or relative value)
 Reading Deiermination of a single value of an unknown quantity (raw value
given by any instnrments e.g. a calibrated value at a point on a
ruler).
Final result of the analysis of a series of readings e.g. the lglglb
J:ti""** t rr*- : i-a.*,r between 2 poinis is a measurement obtained by taking 2 !94!!g!
F at the 2 points and calculating the difference in the 2 readings.
'6 Error (Uncertainty) t Ax The difference between a measurement and a true value.
t Uncertd;ntres dre always e,(precsed to I s.l.
Systematic error Errors that occur according to a definite pattern, yielding consistent
- overestimation (positive error) or undereslimation (negative error).
d
Errors that occur wiihout a definite pattern, with equal probabilities
of obtaining an overestimated (positive error) or an underestimated
(negative error) measurement,
The extent to which a measurement agrees with the true value,
Precision The extent to which a set of measurements done u nder the same
experimentalconditions agrees with one another{the spread ofthe
data obtained).
Displacement The length travelled between the finaland the initial position ofa
body in motion accompanied by a specific direction oftravel
E (denoted by a + or - sign or by an angle to a reference line).
Drlplacement per unrt lrrne. i-.r :,', b _' I
€hame in velocity per unittime;or-rate of change ofvelocity.
9 A body at rest remains at rest and a body in uniform velocity
z
I (Law of inertia) continues its molion in a uniform velocity unless acled upon by an
external resultant force,
Newton's 2"" Law The rate ofchange ofmomentum of a body is directly proportional
z
3 to the magnitude of the applied force, and the change of
z r,=E) momenium takes place in the direction of the applied force.
o I drJ
Newton's 3'o Law ln a mut!al interaction between 2 bodies, the force exerted by one
=
z on another is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
force exerted bV the other on it.
lnertia The property of a body which resists a change in its state of motion-
Mass is a measure of the inertia of a body (not the amount of
subslance - mole).
The product of the instantaneous velocity and the mass of a body
gives momentum.
E Ate\e4 It is a measure of the reluciance of a system in changing its state of
motion,
o Elastic collision Collision in which bother linear momentum and total KE ofthe
system ;s conserved,
In a one-dimensional (head-on) collision, the relative velocity of
approach before collision is equalto the relaiive velocity of
(Perfectly elastic) separation aft er collision,
When a moving body, A, collides head on elastically with a
stationary body, B, of identical mass, A comes to a stop and B
moves off with the initial velocity of A.
lnelastic collision Collision in which the linear momentum is conserved but the total
KE ofthe system decreases.
Perfectly inelastic collision collision in which colliding bodies become a single combined body
moving with a common velocity after impact (coalesce).
lmpulse F At = area under the F-t graph = a momentum

lmpulsive force Force that acts for short durations / intervals.

 Hooke's Law Within the elastic limits, the force applied on an object, causing its
(F = kx) deformation, is directlv proportionalto its length ofexpansion or
contraction.
Archimedes'Principle An object partially or fully immersed in fluid experiences an
upthrusi, which is equivalent in rnagnitude to the weight ofthe f uid
displaced, acting through the C.C. of the displaced fluid.
Moment (torque) The moment of a force is the product of the force and the
(r = Fda) perpendicular distance, d, between the axis of rotation and the line
of a.tion ofihe force-
Couple 2 equaland opposite parallel forces whose lines of action do not
coincide and produce turning effect only (without translation
motion).
Translational equilibrium Ve.lor su/r of all the for Les a(tinB on ll'e objFCt / sysrem is rero.
Rotational equilibrium The sum of clockwise moments about any point in the system is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point in
the system.
Conservation of energy Energy may be transformed from one form to another but it cannot
be created or destroyed.
i.e. the total energv in an isolated svstem is constant.
3
Work done Product ofthe force and the displacement ofan object in the
(w Fdcoso)(w = direction of the force.
=
9 E JFdx) Work done can be negative (when € = 7r);
z
So can enerqv (gravitational potential energv).
I
work done per unit time.
dE The force on an object in a conservative field (region where energy
z
=
= is conserved) is equalto the negative ofthe potentialener8y
dx
z gradient.
o
F Anqular displacement The angle (in radian)turned in a specific direction.
= Angular velocity The change in angular displacement per unit time.
z
d0 2n 21tf
.9 = =
dtT l-:*..-z'
lTanEentiallvelocity, v, along a circular path.
! Centripetal acceleration of a body in circular motion.
a=vo: :0, r
f
u
v Applicable for conical pendulum / aircraft system (horizontal circle)
teng = in which 2 forces act on the circling body - the weight parallel to the
gt vertical and another lifting force at an angle 0 to the vertical.
Newton's Law of Gravitation Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle
with a gravitational force that is directly proportionalto the product
F*j+ of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the
souare ofthe distance between them.
Gravitationalforce The mutualattractive force a mass exert on another mass and vice
versa.
GMm
F= ,G = 6.7 x 10''- N m' kg '
r
Gravitationalfield A region of space in which a mass experiences a force due io ihe
; presence of another mass,

Gravitational field strength The gravitationalfietd slrength at a point in a gravitationalfield is

FGM defined as the gravitational force per unit mass acting on a !!!ql!
test mass placed at that point.
mr'
 cravitational field stren8th q!lb!! Gravitational field strength at a point y{jl[!! a sphericalsolid mass
(e.9. earth) increases linearly with its distance, r, from the centre of
a solid mass
the solid (ear1h).
8=kr
Gravitational potential energy The GPE of a mass m at a point in the gravitational field is defined as
GMm the work done to move the mass from infinity to the point by an
GPE=- external agent without a chanse in its kinetic enerFV.
f
Gravitational potential The gravitational potential at a point in ihe field is defined as the

. GPE GM work done in moving a !!i!!0!!! from infinity to the point by an

external dgent without d (hanpe in its kinetic enerqv.
m t
Keple/s Law For an orbiting body the square of its period is proportional to the
cube of its radius.
(Note: period is independent of mass of orbiiing body)
9
z Geostationary orbit The orbit of a satelliie directly above the equatorial line which has a
I period that is exactly equal to the period of the rotation of the earth
(r - a2oo0km) (" 24 hours).
:
z Velocity of escape The minimum initial velocity an object must attain in order to gain
g the KE needed to move the objectfrom the surface of a mass 1e.9.
z KE+GGPE)=zero
o
F
planet)to infinity (free from the influence ofthe gravitationalfield
v= \l2cl of the planet).
=
z d(b d /GMl Gravitational field strength is the negative ofthe gravitational
d=- 1=--t potential gradient.
'a' drl- rl
dGPE d / GMm\ Gravitationalforce is the negative ofthe gravitational potential
F=--=- energy gradient.
dr drt r l
|

Simple Harmonic Motion A to and fro motion or periodic variation in which the acceleration is
directly proportional to the displacement from a fixed equilibrium
x = xosinl,)t
position (centre) and is always directed towards the fixed
v= vocosot, v = !rr) equilibrium position, i-e. in the opposite direction to the
.9
3 displacement.

o Resonance A phenomenon in which a system is forced jnto oscillation bY an

external driver frequency, responds with maximum amplitude,
There is a maximum transfer ofenergy and it occurs at the natural
frequency of the system-
 (1) ldeal gases consist of large numbers of particles / molecules.
Basic assumption of kinetic theory
{2) For any one gas, all the molecules are of the same mass and size
ofgases (3)The molecules are always in random motion, continuoLlsly
strikine the walls ofthe vessels and colliding with each other.
ldealgas Obeys the equation pV = pRT exactly and satisfies all assumptions of
pV=nRT=Nkt kinetictheory ofgases; F= no. of moles ofgas.
(,
1rum(c')
'3V
Average translation kinetic energy of a gas containing N molecules,
xs =
1p11= 1np1= 1py
222
lh ERi
V('')={,
Thermalequilibrium When two bodies are in thermal contact and there is no net flow of
heat between them, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
(same temperature; average KE of atoms are equa I but internal
energv LJ rnav varv)
Thermometric propertv A measurable physical property that increases or decreases
consistently with increasing temperature.
E (This property does not need to vary proportionally with
F temperature.)
Temperature at which 3 states of water - ice, water and water
9 Triple point ofwater
vapour are jn thermal equilibrium.
(273.16 Kj 0.01'C above ice po:nt) {Note: freezing point of water is 273.15 K)
The amount of heat energy needed to raise a unit lemperature of an
Heat capacitv obiect.
Specific heat capacity The amount of heat energy needed to raise a Llnit temperature of a
F unit mass.
Q= mcAo
The amount of heat energy needed to change a unit mass ofthe
specific latent heat of tusion
substance from solid phase to liquid phase without a change in
t,=g temperature.
m
The amountofheat energy needed to change a unit mass ofthe
Specific latent heat of vaporization
substance from liquid phase to Saseous phase wilhout a change in
o
temperature.
m
During phase change, Iatent energies are use to:
(1) overcome molecLrlar attractions (break inter-molecular bonds),
(2) to expand against aimosphere.

Latent energies
Lu > Lr because vaporizalion involves breaking more intermolecular
bonds and expanding into a greater volume (greater work done
against atmosphere).
First Law of Thermodynamics Change in internal energy of a system (aU) is the sum of the work
done q! the system (W) and the heat :!-ppl.iCdlq the system (Q).
au=Q+w
The sum ofthe potentialenergies and the kinetic energies ofthe
lnternal energy U random motion ofall the molecules in the system.
Since there is no intermolecular interaction, potentialenergy among
For idealgas,
E atoms is zero and thus internal energy of an ideal gas depends solely
6y = 6xg= 1Nk61= 1np61 on KE of atoms which is proportional to the thermodynamic
t- 2 2 temperature ofthe gas.
Cyclic change Change which brings the state of the system throLrgh a series of
changes and finally returning to its original state.
AU=0
lsothermal transformation Transformaiion which takes place at a constant temperature.

AT = o lfor ideal eas.8U = 0l

Adiabatic transformation Transformation which takes place without any heat exchange with
the surroundings.
6Q=0
Area under the p-V graph Represents the work done associated with any process involving a
change in volume.
W= pAV(where p=constant)
 A wave in which the wavefront moves away fron the source thus
transmitting energy from the source through the wave to the space
surrounding it
Awave in which the directions ofoscillations ofthe particles is
perpendicular io the direction of propagation of the wave.
longitudinal wave A wave in which the directions ofoscillations ofthe particles is
parallelto the direction ofpropagation ofthe wave.
Polarisation The process of restricting the oscillations of a transverse wave to a
3 specific pla ne.
(Longitudinalwaves cannot be polarized as its direction ofoscillation
cannot be restricted without affecting the propagation direction as
they are in the same direction.)
lntensity The rate offlow ofenergy through cross sectional area
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave.
-1
= When 2 or more waves travel through a medium, the resllltant
Principle of Superposition
displacement at any point is the vector sum of the separate
displacemenis due to the individualwaves at that point.
Stationary waves The wave formed when 2 identicalwaves (same amplitude and
frequency)travelling with the same speed in opposite directions
towards one another superpose, resulting in regions of maxima
(antinodes) and minima (nodes).
Diffraction A phenomenon where a wave spreads out and travel in all directions
after passing through a narrow aperture.
Superposition of 2 or more waves to Sive a resu tant wave of
amplitude given bv the principle of superposition.
Coherent sources Sources that produce waves with a constant phase difference at all
tirnes.
The waves will have the same wavelength, frequency and speed.
 Steady current The rate of flow of charges.

t=Q
t
charge The product ofcurrent and time.
Q=lt
l coulomb (c) The amountofcharge passing through a section ofthe circuitwhere
a steady current of 1 A flows for 1 s.
Potentialdifference The p.d. across an electrical device is defined as the amount of
electrical energy converted to other forms of energy per unit charge
passing lhrough it.
QI
1 volt {V) The p.d. across a device in a circuit in which 1J of eledrical energy is
converted into other forms of energy when 1 C of charge passes
through it.
Resistance The resistance of a conductor is defined as the Glig of the p.d.
IF across it to the current flowing through it.
z I R=-
I I

z 1 ohm (o) The resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 A flows

od when the p.d- across it is 1V.
E Ohm's Law The current through a metallic conductor is directly proportionalto
the p.d. between its ends if the temperature and other physical
F conditions stay the same.
ElectromaBnetic force e.m.f .
The e.m.f. of a source is defined as the energy converted from other
P
forms into electrical energy per unit charge passing through it.

a I
The e.m.f. of a source is defined as the electrical power supplied by
the source per unit current delivered by the source.
Work done per unit time.
The rate ofdissipation/ conversion ofenergy.
v'
R

Maximum PowerTheorem Maximum power is delivered to the load when the resistance of the
load is equalto the internal resistance ofthe source,
Kirchhoff's First Law (Current Law) The algebraicsum ofthe currents at ajLrnction is zero (conservation
of charqe).
Potentialdivider lf a p.d. is applied across several resistors in series, the p.d. across a
particular resistor is the product of the fraction of the resistance of
ln ) that resistor to the overall resistance and the p.d. across the
^ lR l"
 Root-mean-square value The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is its effective value
t- corresponding to the value of a steady direct current, which will
dissipate the same amount of heat in a given resistor ;n a given time
as the alternating current in the same circuit.

''' Jz
Area under the P t graph is energy.
Mean power is the area under a P-t graph divided by time.
f'p at Mean power in an alternating circuit is halfofthe maximum power if
(P)= the A.C. is sinusoidal.
T
,
/Pl=t v t-v P_
=--L-+= zrr
P = lovosin'zot
Jz 'lz
N"_V'=1,
N, V. to

For idealtransformer where there is no heat loss,

P. (conservation of Energy)
4, =
Power loss in transmission calculate power loss during a transmission using the formula
Pb.=l':R whenever applicable.
:
IF C".,=lv-=f
z(, tt P-lV -
u i<to be used,makesurFrhdtVRissubttiluledforthe
R
tolal p.d. across the transmission cable i.e. across R and not the p.d.
od
ofthe supplv.
A single diode is connect in series with an A.C. supply, producing a
o Half-wave rectif ication
pulsating D.C. in the load (in series).
F
Half of the energy is wasted.
Full-wave rectif ication 4 diodes are connect with an A.C. sLrpply to produce a pulsating D.C.
in the load.
No wastage in energy.
Frequency of the pulsating output O.C. is twice that of original A.C.
coulomb's Law The force between 2 points is directly proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the square oftheir

'-lP
Electrostatic force
distance aPart.

The mutual force a charged particle exerts on another charged

particle and vice versa,
o o-
s:, '
F= €" = 8.85 x 10'"F m The force can be attractive (negative)or repulsive (positive) in
Ar.tor' "

Elecrric f;eld A region of space in which a charged body experiences an

electrostatic force by virtue of its charge.
Electric {ield strength The electric field strength at a point is defined as the electrostatic
F
force acting on a !!!A!! unit positive test charge placed at that point
E=- in the electric field.
q
A radialfield by a point charge (non-uniform For uni{orm tield (e.g. field between parallelcharged
plates:
field) follows the inverse square law:
VVo
E=- F=
I -q-Qq xd
4nenr' Afitof'
 Electric fleld strength at any point inside a hollow charged conducto I'
Electric field strength inside a
must be zero; a region of equipotential.
charged conductor
EPF of a charge q at a point in an electric field is defined as the work
Electric potential energy lel3
done in moving the charge from infinity to the point in the electric
point charqe
field by an external agent without a change in its kinetic energy.
Qq
u=
4n€or
Electric potential for a ooint Eleciric potentiaj at a point in an electric field is defined as the work
done in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to the point
lbarce in the electric field by an exiernal agent without a change in its
Q
v=4rr€or kinetic energy.

Electric potential inside a charged Electric potential at all points inside a hol ow charRed conductor has
the same value as electric potential at the surface of the conductor.
conductor
ln general (i.e. for both point
charge and parallel charged plates)
dV ofthe electric potentialenergy
E=-- Electric field strength is the negative
dx gradient.
: dU Electric force is the negative of the electric potential energy
dx gradient.
z A region in space in which a current carrying conductor experiences
I Magnetic field
a magnetic force.
oi Force experienced by a unit length of conductor, carrying a unit
Magnetic field strength
current, placed perpendicular to the magnetic field.
- Magnetic flux d€nsity (B)
B=- F
lLsin0
.9 (lrom F = al[sino dnd F = Bqvsino)
The strength ofthe magnetic field that results in a force of 1 N on 1
r Tesla (T)
m of a conductor, carrying 1 A of current, placed perpendicular to
.9 the magnetic field.
Magnetic Flux (O) Magnetic flux through a plane surface is defined as the product of
the flux density (B) normalto the surface and the area (A) ofthe
E O=BrA
The magnetic flux linkage through a coil of N turns is defined as the
I Ma8netic {lux linkage (O = NC)
total flux through N turns of the coil where each turn experiences
d @ = NBrA
the sarre maSneii. flux (0) throLlgh its ar ed.
E
.9 / The amounl of magneiic flux linking a coil of 1 turn that produces in
l Weber {Wb)
it an e.m-f. of 1V as it is reduced to zero at a uniform rate of 1 s
When there is a change in magnetic flux through a circuit an e.m.f. is
E
set up in lhe circuit.
E=-=-
dO dNB A
The magnitude ofthe induced e.m.f. is proportionalto the rate of
I dt dt change offlux linkage.
The induced current always flow in a direction to oppose the chan8e
[enz' Law
producing it.
(the negative sign in equation of
Faraday's [aw)
do
dt
 Photoelectric effect The phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a solid
surface when it is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation.
Photon A'particle'ofelectromagnetic radiation, which carries a quantum of
energy E that is related to its frequency f and the Planck constant h
by the equation:

e=nf=E
v 7t6lof
photoelectric emission l(1)
I
no. of photoelectrons emitted per second depends on the

1""'""'J
v intensityot thF rncident rddiarion {rdteol arrivalof phoLon5
't
(a) ao-.Y%o'. ll . 42) Maximum velocity (KE) ofthe photoelectrons depends on the
' kutu
f .*i (C"-o^- photo
type of material irradiated and frequency of incident
emissive
A1c,<;-o ,t*-^.e+\a photons (and also the depth of the electrons before irradiation).
.(3)There will be no phoioemission if the frequency ofthe incident
ttr,,. t"1 tu--|>|" radiation is below the threshold frequency fo ofthe material.
Work function (O) The minimum amount of energy needed by an electron for it to be
dislodged from a photo-emissive material.
hc

Threshold frequency {fo) The minimum frequency of the incident radiation that allows
photoelectric emission from a 5!rface,
t Threshold wavelength (l"o) The maximum wavelength ofthe incident radiation that willcause
6 photoelectric emission from a surface.
T + KEmd
Einstein's photoelectric equation E **" o*- = 0-"a (or em fred odoe etoD)
z ""a.d*ia
o E
o 1.,i=4,*1.u.,,'

Stopping potential (V") The polential of the anode of a photocell lhat is just enough to repel
d
all the approaching photoelectrons from the photocathode so that
=l,nu.",' lhe pffective Lullent through the pholo(ell is zero.
"Y
de Broglie wavelength A particle with momentum p is associated with a wavelength I give
by the de Broglie equation:
.h
p
The most stable state in which allthe electrons in the atom are in
cround state (of an atom)
their respective lowest enerqv states available.
Excited state (ofan atom) The unstable state in which one or more electrons in the atom have
transited to a higher energy level.
Excitation energy The amount of energy absorbed by an electron that transits from
the lowest enerev level to a higher energy level.
lonisation energy The amount of energy absorbed by an electron that transits from
the lowest energv levelto the highest energy ievel.
Transition to higher energy levels This phenomenon occurs when:
(1) the electron collides with another electron with KE > excilation
energy, or
{2) the photon with hf = excitation energy is incident on the

Transition to lower energy levels A photon is released (emitted as electromagnetic radiation)with

energv corresponding to the AE between the levels.
 Radiation of x-ray photons when high speed incident electrons are
Bremstralung / Braking radiation
slowed down / halted upon co lision with target metal.
Characteristic x-rays X ray photon of specific wavelengths are emitted when high speed
incident e ectrons knock out electrons frorn low energy orbits (near
the nuclei), and higher lying orbital electrons transit downwards to
occupy the vacancies created,
Wavelengths of characteristic x-rays are dependent on energy levels
of atoms in target metal (independent of energy of incident

t Heisenbere Uncertaintv Principle Position momentum uncertainty:

-g
n*rro
.9 '-]L
'4n
Energy'time uncertainty:
E
oro. ]l
r 4ft
Wave function (\y) A continuous function that can be used to describe a wave (or
d particle). lt can extend into regions which are classically inaccessible.

l\,1'= ,rptitra"t of *rve function. lt

gives the probability of finding

an electron at a point,
Scanning Tunneling Microscope A very high-resolution microscope that is used to obtain images of
conductive surfaces at atomic scale level, lt works on the basis of
(srMl
electron tunneling
G, Transmission coeff icient (T)
Reflection coefficient (R) R+T=1
z Number of excited atoms is more than the number of ground state
Population inversion
o
o De-excitation of an excited atom by a perturbing photon of
: Stimulated emission
matching frequency.
Resulting radiation has same phase, frequency, polarization and
direction of travel as the incident perturbing photon.
Valence Band The valence band is the highest range ofelectron energies where
electrons are normally present at absolute zero-
This is usually the uppermost occupied band.
Conduction Band Range of electron energy here is higher tha n that of the valence
band. Electrons are free to accelerate u nder the influence of an
applied electric field and thus constitute an electric current.
This is usually the lowest unoccupied band.
.9
E n-type semiconductor Semiconductors which are doped with group 5 impurity atoms (e.9.
phosphorus, arsenic).
d Maioritv carriers in n tVpe semiconductor are electrons.
p-type semiconductor Semiconductors which are doped with group 3 impurity atoms (e.9.
boron, aluminium, gallium).
Majoritv carriers in p type semiconductor are holes.
p-n junction as rectifier A p-n junction allows electric charges to flow in one direction, but
not in the opposite direction.
When connected in a circuit with alternating e.m.f., it acts as a
rectifier to restrict current flow every half cycle (when it is in reverse
bias).
Depletion layer A layerformed atthejunction where the p-type and n type
semiconductors are in contact. lt is void of mobile charge carriers,
hence acts like a laver of insulation.
 Rutherford c.-scatterinB lnference from the experiment:
(1) Majority ofthe c. particles pass through undeflected
experiment
) an atom is largelY emPtY sPace,
(2) Some c(-particles are defiected to a large angle
+ there exist a positively charged body that is small but massive
enough to provide a magnitude of e ectrostatic force that can
repel the oncoming cL-particle to such a great extent.
Conclusion of Rutherford o- An atom has most of its mass and all its positive charge
concentrated in a very small volume in its nucleus (= 101r m).
scatterinB experiment
Electrons are spread out around the nucleus and occupy a much
to
large volume (= 10 m).
lmportent rationale forthe (1) Vacuum: air molecules caLrse deflection of cl'-particles. ln a
vacLrum, it can thus be conclusive that deflection of cl particles is
experimentalsetup
entirely due to its interaction with gold atoms.
(2) Narrow parallel beam oI ct-particles: ensures that there is little
divergence in the deflected beam so as to facilitate measurement of
angles and to increase the precision,
(3) Thin gold foil is used: to maximize the probability that any
interactions causing the deflection is between a single o. particle and
a sinele eold atom.
P Number of protons in an atom (proton number).
9 Nucleon number Total number of protons and neutrons in an atom (mass number),

:c lsotopes Atoms that have the same number of protons but different number
z ot ,1

o
6 Unified atomic mass unit ('r) of the mass of a carbon-12 atom
o 1u=1.66x10'z?kg 1)'n
: -
1u is approximately the mass of 1 nucleon.
ruc'z = 931 MeV
!
z E is the energy equivalence of mass m, and c is the constant speed
Einstein's energy equation
of light.
Gain in energy is reflected as an increase in mass; loss of energy is
reflected as a decrease in mass.
Bindinc energv (BE) The amount of energy required to completely separate a nucleus
into its constituent nucleons.
Mass detect (Am) The difference between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of
tls qeparaie individJdl (on\lrluenr nucleon5.
Nuclear fusion The process where 2 small nLrclei fuse to form a larger nucleus wth a
release of energv.
Nuclear fission The process where a large nucleus breaks up into smaller nuclei (of
similar sizes)with a release ofenergv.
The difference between the masses ofthe reactants in a nuclear
reaction and the masses ofthe products.
Energy released 2 ways to calculate:
(1) Energy released - m0,"0,.,)c'
1m,.,*"","
(2) Energy released BEp-a"o' BE'"*"*,
Binding energy per nucleon An indication ofstability-the largerihe BE/nucleon ofa nuclide,
the more stable the nuclide is.
Fe 56 is the most stable nuclide with the highest BE/nucleon {= 9.0
MeV).
 Radioactive decay The process through which unstable nuclides eventually form stable
nuclides by the emission of subatomic particles (c{. or 0 particles) orT

Alpha particle I tt"

Helium nucleus with charge +2e and mass 4 u.
Beta particle re
Electron produced in the nucleus by the conversion of 1 neutron to a
proton and an electron. The proton remains in the nucleus while the
electron ejected as the P particle.
is

Activity (A) The rate at which radioactive nuclei are disintegrating within a
radioactive sample-
I
.: e=!!=rN
dt
(The number of radioactive nuclides that decay in a unii time)
z
.9 Decay constant (l) The probability that an individual radioactive nucleus will decay in
o
o ln2
"
= tt
Half life The time taken for half the total number of radioactive atoms in a
substance to decay.
('r)
Decay law ladioactive substance decays exponentially with iime.
( can be:
x =Xoe-r'
1)Activity (A)
Xo is the initial value o{ x at t =0 2)Count rate (C)
3) Number of radioactive nuclei (N)
4)Mass (m)
5) No. of mole (n)