Table Of Contents

1. Psychology ...2
Branches Of Psychology
Future Of Psychology
2. Into The Human Brain ...4
The Brain Exposed
Male-Female Brain Differences
A Scientific Comparison of the Male and Female Brain
Left & Right Brain
The Brain Computer Comparison
3. Our Amazing Senses ......9
The Gift Of Sight Our Eyes
Our Sound System Our Ears
What The Nose Knows
The Sense Of Taste
Getting In Touch
4. What is Intelligence? ..........................................................................................................................15
Mental Faculties
Memory
Creativity
Creativity Test
Intelligence Tests
Solutions
5. Our Personality ...21
What Is Personality?
Personality By Birth Order
Personality and Health
Stereotyping

Contribution - Sonea Kapoor

2004 Zamtek Solutions

Psychology is the science of the mind. The human

mind is the most complex machine on Earth. All
though we cannot observe the mind directly, every
thing we do, think, feel & say is determined by the
functioning of the mind. Psychologists take human
behavior as the raw data for testing their theories
about how the mind works.
Since the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (18321920), opened the first experimental psychology lab in
Leipzig in 1879, we have learnt an enormous amount
about the relationship between brain, mind & behavior.

Branches Of Psychology
Any attempt to explain why humans think and behave
in the way that they do will inevitably be linked to one
or other branch of psychology. The different disciplines
of psychology are extremely wide ranging. They
include

Clinical psychology
Cognitive psychology-memory
Cognitive psychology intelligence.
Developmental psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Forensic psychology
Health psychology
Neuron psychology
Occupational psychology
Social psychology

What all these different approaches to psychology have

in common is a desire to explain the behavior of
individuals based on the workings of the mind. And in
every area psychologists apply scientific methodology.
They formulate theories, test hypothesis through
observation and experiment and analyze their findings
with statistical techniques that help them identify
important discoveries.
What is the difference between a psychologist,
psychoanalyst and psychiatrist?
While there is a considerable overlap between the
services offered by the psychologists, psychoanalysts
and psychiatrists-there are some differences in training
and services.
Similarities

All three can provide psychotherapy and

counseling services.
All three are trained to diagnose
neuropsychological disorders and dysfunctions
plus psychotic neurotic and personality
disorders and dysfunctions.
All three are granted the right to make such
diagnosis by law while other health care
providers cannot.
All three help people maintain and enhance
their physical, emotional, social and
interpersonal functioning.

Differences

Psychologists have earned a doctoral level

degree (P.H.D, PSY d, or D.ED) in psychologyafter having obtained a Bachelors degree and a
Masters degree in Psychology. Psychiatrists
have a general medical degree first then
advanced training in psychiatry.
Psychologists can do psychological testing with
well-researched tests. Psychiatrists typically do
not do psychological testing.

Psychiatrists can provide medication, which

psychologists cannot. Their treatments are
based on changing behavior without
medication.

Whom do you talk to when you need help?

So you are feeling stressed out. Everything needs your
attention all at once. You might even be feeling a bit
depressed. You decide to go to talk to someone, but
whom do you talk to. A friend tells you to go to a
psychiatrist. Your sister suggests you see a
psychologist. A co-worker mentions that she went to a
psychoanalyst. So to add to your stress, you have to
now figure out the differences between each of the
three P words to know where to go for help.

The Psychoanalyst
Psychoanalysts follow Freuds theories that painful
childhood memories contained in the subconscious are
the cause of mental illness. The Psychoanalyst also
deals with emotional issues & do not prescribe
medication.
How to Choose
Some people may use a combination of the above
approaches at the same time. Go to a psychiatrist for
medication, but meet with a psychologist regularly to
talk about their issues. If you later feel that you dont
need their services any longer, you can always cease
treatment.

The Psychiatrist
The psychiatrist is a physician who deals with mentally
ill patients. Psychiatrists are MDs so they can
prescribe medication. As a result they usually deal with
clinical issues such of schizophrenia and manicdepression whose treatments tend to require
medication.

Future Of Psychology

The Psychologist

The definition of good health has become more holistic

in the present world dictionary today. Good health is
now regarded as the total health for body & mind.
The wellness of a person is dependent on his mental &
emotional condition as well as his physical well being.
With increasing awareness society will pay more heed
to the importance of psychology in promoting total
health.

Psychologists are not MDs. They tend to deal more

with emotional issues rather than clinical issues. For
example a person experiencing low self esteem will
visit a psychologist rather than a psychiatrist if they do
not have any thing physically wrong with them and
they just need to talk things out.

In future the wellness of a person will be

dependent on his mental & emotional condition
as well as his physical well being.

The Brain Exposed

The human brain is unique amongst all the creatures
of the world. Most scientists agree that the unique
abilities of the human brain are directly attributable to
the cerebral cortex. The powers of speech and written
language for example reside there and separate us
from other animals. These powers go hand in hand
with thinking observing, analyzing & integrating
experiences to solve problems planning ahead etc.
The human brain has over 200,000 miles of wiring i.e.
1000 times more wiring than a Jumbo Jet.

cells. Each of these two cells divides into two cells. The
resulting four cells divide to create eight cells. Cells
continue to multiply throughout gestation, constantly
enlarging the fetus.
When does brain development begin?
Brain development begins with the formation and
closure of the neural tube, the earliest nervous tissue.
The neural tube forms from the neural plate, which
begins forming just sixteen days after conception by
the end of the fifth week of gestation the emerging
shape of the brain and spinal cord are readily
recognizable.
When does the fetus's brain begin to work?
Generally speaking, the central nervous system (which
is composed of the brain and the spinal cord) matures
in a sequence from "tail" to head. By the end of the
first trimester, a fetus's movement repertoire is
remarkably rich. The second trimester marks the onset
of other critical reflexes: continuous breathing
movements and coordinated sucking and swallowing
reflexes. These abilities are controlled by the
brainstem.

Development of the brain

Nowhere are the beauty & power of life processor
better expressed than in the life development of the
human nervous system. The adult human brain is
believed to consist of at least one hundred billion
nervous (nerve cells) and probably five to ten times as
many neurological (functional support) cells. Together
these elements make up a three-pound mass of
protoplasm, which is unique in our solar system. The
brain, like every other part of our body, begins with a
fertilized egg, a single cell. Although this cell is so tiny
it can barely be seen by the unaided eye, it contains all
the information needed to produce a human being.
Thirty hours after fertilization, the cell divides into two
cells

Last of all to mature is the cerebral cortex, which is

responsible for most of what we think of as mental lifeconscious experience, voluntary actions, thinking,
remembering, and feeling. It only begins to function
around the time gestation comes to an end.
When do we have the most brain cells?
We enter the world with the most neurons, or nerve
cells, we are ever going to have, over 100 billion and
their number begin declining immediately. The rest of
our body grows new cells to replace those that have
worn out or died, but neurons are not replaced. These
cells are believed to be formed only in the prenatal
period. This sounds alarming until one considers the
enormous numbers of cells involved- we are born with
neurons to spare.

But neurons are not the only kinds of brain cells. Great
numbers of other types are produced that support the
neurons. Through the experience of living and
learning, new connections and patterns are forged
among cells; thus the brain changes constantly.
Obviously it also gets bigger. A newborns brain is
about a quarter the size and weight it eventually is.
Which plays a more important role in brain
development,
nature
(genes)
or
nurture
(environment)?
Genes and environment interact at every step of brain
development, but they play very different roles.
Generally speaking, genes are responsible for the basic
wiring plan--for forming all of the cells (neurons) and
general connections between different brain regions-while experience is responsible for fine-tuning those
connections, helping each child adapt to the particular
environment (geographical, cultural, family, school,
peer-group) to which he belongs.

advantage. If a woman has a stroke in the left front

side of the brain, she may still retain some language
from the right front side. Men who have the same left
sided damage are less likely to recover as fully.
Limbic size -- bonding/nesting instincts - current
research has demonstrated that females, on average,
have a larger deep limbic system than males. Due to
the larger deep limbic brain women are more in touch
with their feelings, they are generally better able to
express their feelings than men. They have an
increased ability to bond and be connected to others
(which is why women are the primary caretakers for
children).

A Scientific Comparison of the Male and

Female Brain

Why are babies commonly born headfirst?

Sometime after the sixth month the fetus usually turns
within the uterus, and takes on the headfirst birthing
position. Gravity may be the chief reason for this shift,
the head being by far the heaviest part of the body
and accounting for a quarter of the babys length. The
heads great size is necessary to accommodate the
babys brain, which is nearer its adult size than other
body parts.

Male-Female Brain Differences

Research has shown that there are a number of
differences between the male and female brain.
Cell numbers - men have 4% more brain cells than
women, and about 100 grams more of brain tissue.
Many women have asked why men need more brain
tissue in order to get the same things done.
Cellular connections - even though a man seems to
have more brain cells, it is reported that women have
more dendrite connections between brain cells.
Corpus collosum size - it is reported that a woman's
brain has a larger corpus collosum, which means
women can transfer data between the right and left
hemisphere faster than men. Men tend to be more left
brained, while women have greater access to both
sides.
Language - for men, language is most often just in
the dominant hemisphere (usually the left side), but a
larger number of women seem to be able to use both
sides for language. This gives them a distinct
advantage

Is there a difference between the male and female

brain? Remarkably, many scientific studies have
indicated that there are major differences, particularly
in the size and location of areas within the brain
responsible for the various abilities of each sex.
Females, for example, show a strong emotional
attachment to small fluffy things, while males have a
tendency to press the remote control button
incessantly. Both of these behaviors are reflected in
the size and position of the corresponding ganglia
within the cranial tissue.
To see exactly what we mean, have a closer look at
the male brain, followed by the female brain. We are
sure you will be astounded at the depth of research
involved in these two sets of results.

The human brain function in many ways acts as two

brains. The way we experience the world is
fundamentally affected by which hemisphere of the
brain is dominant.
Bicameral Images reveal our two selves
Okay, I made up the term, but it fits so well in
describing an extremely interesting phenomenon
that many people may not realize - each of us is
really two people inside. I mean we are literally two
thinking beings residing in the same body.
Follow along on this adventure. I won't disappoint
either of you!
About ten years ago, I saw an interesting exercise in
which a college psychology professor had taken
photographs of her students, made copies that were
flipped left to right, and then had them cut in half
vertically. She reassembled the images using the two
similar sides of the face.
The composite pictures were humorous. Although the
individuals were easily recognizable, their facial
expressions
seemed
to
express
exaggerated
emotions, like anger, suspicion, or happiness - and
occasionally a look of total blankness. Even more
interesting was the observation that the two sides of
the same face were often so different. Why?
This exercise seemed to suggest that, while a
handful of people have symmetrical faces, a vast
majority of us do not. Also it raised the possibility
that each side of our face could express different
emotions at the same time! Subsequent research
into facial expressions and the workings of the
human brain has offered an interesting theory that
not only explains this left and right difference in
facial expressions, but could help us to understand
our "other self."
First, some science
A key feature of the theory is that your sex cannot tell
you which type of brain you have. Not all men have the
male brain, and not all women have the female brain. The
central claim of this new theory is only that on average,
more males than females have a male brain and more
females than males have a female brain.

Left & Right Brain

There are two worlds; the world that we can
measure with the line and rule, and the world that
we feel with our hearts and imagination. ~ Leigh
Hunt

We'll keep this light and uncomplicated. Our brain,

like the rest of our anatomy, is made up of two
halves, a left brain a right brain.
The left side of our body is "wired" to the right side
of our brain, and vice versa. For whatever reason
nature did this cross-over, it applies even to our
eyes, which process their sensory data on opposite
sides of the brain.

The chart below will help illustrate the characteristics,

which are known to reside on each side of our brains.
Left brain Functions

Right brain Functions

uses logic
detail oriented
facts rule
words and language
present and past
math and science
can comprehend

uses feeling
"big picture" oriented
imagination rules
symbols and images
present and future
philosophy & religion
can "get it" (i.e. meaning)
believing
appreciates
spatial perception
knows object function
fantasy based
presents possibilities
impetuous
risk taking

knowing
acknowledges
order/pattern
perception
knows object name
reality based
forms strategies
practical
safe

Hint Two - If the graphics at this site bore you; and

you think they're simply a waste of valuable time then you're probably "left brained."
Hint Three - If you've mastered all the intricacies of
html language - then you're probably "left brained."
Hint Four - If you used Netscape Composer and/or
and Dreamweaver (like I did) to create your web site then you're probably "right brained."
Questions to ponder...

Our personality can be thought of as a result of the

degree to which these left and right brains interact, or,
in some cases, do not interact. Each of us draws upon
specific sides of our brain for a variety of daily
functions, depending on such things as our education
and life experiences. The choices of which brain is in
control of which situations is what makes our
personalities and determines our character.
Experiments show that most children rank highly
creative (right brain) before entering school. Because
our educational systems place a higher value on leftbrain skills such as mathematics, logic and language
than it does on drawing or using our imagination, only
ten percent of these same children will rank highly
creative by age 7. By the time we are adults, high
creativity remains in only 2 percent of the population.

Question One
a) Did you come to this e-book hoping to see and
enjoy all the pretty pictures and special effects?
Probably right brained or
b) Did you come to simply get the facts - and all those
frivolous graphics just slow things down to a crawl?
You frequently use the text only option? Probably left
brained
Question Two
Have you been on the Net for more than five years?
Did you cut your teeth on the WWW with Mosaic and
Netscape 1 browsers? Do you remember when it took
a major "Herculean" effort (and took at least two
weeks of hard, gut wrenching work) to get all your
software configured correctly and hooked up to the
Net?
Do you remember "the good old days," when you had
to post at newsgroups in hopes of getting help with
questions that nobody had the answers to?

A few extremely unscientific ways to determine

whether you're left brained or right brained

Did you consider all the hard work and challenge to be

great fun - and now "look down your nose" at recent
newbies who have it all handed to them on "a silver
platter?" (Do I sound bitter?)

Hint One - If you enjoy the graphics at this site - then

you're probably "right brained."

Then you're probably left brained (or an extremely

stubborn right-brainer who now has ulcers)!

Question Four
When checking out your favorite newsgroups (i.e..- alt.
dreams) and you come across a long-winded four page
posting filled with "million dollar" words - does your
mind suddenly go cloudy and become covered over by
a deep fog or mist? Probably right brained
A Practical & very unscientific exercise
a) Put your hands together as if getting ready to
pray......

There are similarities between the two. Each one is a

complex of well coordinated inter connections that
send messages back and forth. Each one groups and
regroups information, stores it and uses it to solve
problems. And either can be wrong if the information is
wrong.
Even though the computer is the marvelous invention,
it is no way as extraordinary as the human brain. The
chief advantage of the computer is the phenomenal
speed it can retrieve a wealth of data or whiz through
complex calculations in a matter or seconds or less.
But in the end a computer is merely a machine built by
humans that reacts to the commands and data
supplied by the humans.
It is no longer accurate to say that machines cannot
think, because some computers have been designed to
apply reason in solving certain well-defined problems.
However no computer even comes close to matching
the brains simultaneous ability to observe, imagine,
initiate, anticipate and be inspired. And unlike any
computer yet designed, the human brain is capable of
constantly adapting to new circumstances.
Computer is inferior to the brains of the simplest of
creatures. When it comes to such a things as seeing,
moving, and responding to stimuli, no computer can
rival even the brain of a fly
Is a computer better organized than a brain is?

b) Look to see which thumb is on top.

c) If your right thumb is on top, then you are probably
right brained, or if your left thumb is on top, then you
are probably left brained.
Note
If you decided to send us an e-mail asking: "where in
the hell did we come up with such an obviously
bullshit, arbitrary test that flies in the face of
established scientific fact - or what makes us think that
we are such experts on which side of the brain you
use?" - then regardless of which thumb was on top you're probably left brained.

The Brain Computer Comparison

Whos in charge here-the mind or the machine?
When one feels threatened, it helps to remember
that humans dont need to be plugged in.

The brain is not organized merely to solve certain set

of well-defined problems. Our vast reservoir of
memory and our ability to call up ideas or feelings
from the past and associate them with other ideas or
feelings & the human brains creative powers cannot be
matched by a conventional computers calculations and
comparisons. Moreover, our mind supplies meanings
and contexts to new situations as they arise.
We have a unique ability to combine our thoughts with
sensations and feelings. We can remember names,
faces, facts and figures, but can also recall a mothers
soothing voice, the feel of terry cloth against
sunburned skin, or the smell of a campfire. This ability
to interweave information and sensation give our
thoughts their complexity. Because the brain is a living
tissue however, it will always have many unique
abilities that even the most complex computer
simulation will be unable to duplicate. Emotions are
the wild card in human intelligence, and one of the
major factors that distinguishes our brains from that of
a computer.

The Gift Of Sight Our Eyes

Do you see the world as it really is?

I am part of everything I have seen. ~ Alfred

Lord Tennyson

Studies about the mechanism of the eye have revealed

that the images reaching the retina are only two
dimensional, yet the world is three dimensional, and
we perceive it that way. We are able to make the
necessary corrections, apparently because the brain
expects the physical world to have certain qualities,
such as three dimensionality. From the beginning of
our conscious lives, the brain looks for visual cues that
conform to its inborn understanding of reality.

What makes seeing possible?

How much light do we need in order to see?

Human eyes react to even a small amount of light.
Each eye contains over 100 million light sensitive cells
called rods, located in the retina at the rear of the eye,
together with color sensing cells called cones. The rods
have no ability to see color but can react to the light
produced by one ten-billionth of a watt.
How do my eyes adjust to the darkness in doors?
Pure and simple, we see with our brain. What we know
as sight is actively the ultimate outcome of lights
fantastic journey through the brains visual system. The
processing of light begins in our eyes, which are an
extension of the brain and the most exposed part of
the central nervous system. In the eyes light is filtered
and focused before being translated into electrical
impulses and sent on its way along the optic nerve of
the brain.
The final destination is the brains vision center where
the impulses are interpreted as visual images.
How do we recognize what we are seeing?
We dont just see people and things. We recognize
them for who and what they are. Most of us take this
ability for granted, but it is a very complicated process
and one, which is not fully understood by the scientist.

When you are outside in the bright light, the eyes rods
and cones are chemically balanced to handle the large
amount of light. Upon entering the darker indoors,
however you encounter a greatly lessened amount of
light, and the rods & cones must adapt by means of a
chemical reaction to the change in light.
Why do you see an object at night more clearly if
you dont look directly at it?
The two types of light receptors in the eye rods and
cones perform different tasks and are concentrated in
different areas of the eye. Rods which are chiefly
responsible for night vision are concentrated more at
the sides of the eyes back wall. Cones which handle
day and color vision, are packed into an area along the
center of the eyes back wall called the fovea,
therefore, objects at night are best seen at the sides or
corners of your eyes where the rods are.

Can carrots really improve your eyesight?

blindness might be termed color confusion. Most

people with this disorder see colors, but tend to
confuse some colors with others. Curiously, the most
commonly confused colors are red and green.
Why are two eyes better than one?

In World War II when British RAF fighters were scoring

spectacular night victories against German bombers,
their success was attributed to improved eyesight from
eating carrots. The carrot story was actually a ruse.
But research has shown that a diet rich in vitamin A
foods such as leafy green vegetables and of course
carrots can indeed help people who suffer from night
blindness.
However taken in great quantities vitamin A can
cause blurred vision, stomach and skin problems,
headaches and even brain damage.
How do we see color?
Color exists only in our head. Without our brains
ability to interpret the intricate and individual way light
is reflected off every object in nature, the world would
be entirely colorless. Objects themselves have no
color, nor does the light reflected by them. What we
see as color is actually the result of the way different
wavelengths of light stimulate certain parts of our
brains visual system.

Seeing an object isnt enough. It is also important to

know where we are in relation to it. Our brains ability
to do this is called depth perception. Since our eyes
our spaced at a distance apart in our heads, each eye
is looking at things from a slightly different angle. The
brain takes the information that is received from each
eye and uses it to calculate our distance from the
object.
Are a blind persons other senses more acute
than a sighted persons?
There is no psychological evidence to suggest that the
senses of touch, taste, smell or hearing are superior in
blind. It is true, however that persons who lose one
sense almost always become more adept at using the
senses that they have left.

Our Sound System Our Ears

The best way to understand people is to hear
what they have to say' ~ anon.

Why can you sometimes see colors that arent

there?
If you stare at a green spot for a long time, then look
immediately at a piece of white paper. You will see a
ghostly red spot. This phenomenon is called a negative
afterimage. It is a result of the way your visual system
mixes and matches colors. By staring at the green spot
you excite the green seeing neurons. When you look at
the white paper all your neurons are excited because
white light contains all colors. But your green neurons
are tired from looking at the green spot and cannot
cancel out the red seeing neurons. Hence the red
image.
What is color blindness?
It is extremely rare that a person will have a total
inability to see color. What is generally called color
blindness

How does the brain tell one sound from another?

The auditory or hearing centers of the brain are
located in the temporal lobes, behind the temples. It is
here that the brain hears sound, registering it as
loud or soft, high or low. Our brains hearing centers
interpret the multitude of sound signals we receive
comparing them with one another and grouping them
in orderly patterns. The process is all-important in
deciphering speech.

At many points along the way nerve cells can decide

whether or not to pass on a given signal. This tunes
out much confusing noise.
When do we begin to hear?
Babies can actually hear in the womb. The sense of
hearing is believed to develop in the 20th week of
pregnancy. There is even evidence that babies
recognize their mothers voices before birth. A study of
infants sucking reflexes showed that newborn babies
suck faster when they hear their mothers speak.
Why is it pleasurable to listen to music?

sound to the brain. But now it is believed that at least

part of the deterioration may be due to the noise of
modern civilization. Studies have found that the
primitive Mabaan tribesmen in Africa, who are
normally exposed to sounds no louder than the rustling
of leaves, have far more acute hearing in their fifties
than the average young American.
Is Deafness often hereditary?
Hereditary deafness is relatively rare. However,
hearing problems in newborn babies are sometimes
caused by events in the womb or during childbirth. For
example German measles during pregnancy may
lead to a hearing difficulty.
What is the difference between being hard of
hearing and being profoundly deaf?
Some 21 million Americans are hard of hearing; their
mild to moderate disability keeps them from hearing a
ticking watch or following quiet conversation. Far fewer
people are profoundly deaf.
Many hearing problems are treatable. For example
various kinds of hearing aids or surgery to repair
defects within the ear can help restore hearing. So far,
the deafness that is caused by damage to the auditory
nerve cannot be overcome.

In random noise sounds of many different frequencies,

and in no particular order are mixed in such a way that
we can make no sense of them. Music however
presents our auditory system with sounds that have
been arranged in orderly rhythmic patterns. This
sounds pleasant to the ears.
What is cocktail party effect?
What we hear depends in a large measure on what we
can screen out. We have the mysterious ability to tune
in on one conversation amidst the babble of a crowded
room - a phenomenon called the cocktail effect. But
even when we have fettered out most distractions,
certain sounds, we care about will jump out at us. We
cant help noticing the sound of our own name, for
example however softly it is spoken.
Does hearing get worse with age?
Unfortunately, the hearing level of adults declines year
by year, and it is usually our ability to hear high
frequency sounds that we lose first.
The reason for this decline in hearing was long thought
to be the result of deterioration in the bones and
membranes of the ear and in the nerves that carry
sound

A new appreciation of the needs of the deaf and

partially deaf has led to greater use of such devices as
warning lights to replace hard to hear bells in the
home, as well as sign language interpretation and
amplification equipment in theaters and on T.V.
Will it be possible for the profoundly deaf to
hear?
An experimental implant has been tested with several
hundred patents. It allows the profoundly deaf to
hear such sounds such as door bells, and automobile
horns and helps them in lip reading. The hope is to
develop implants that approach normal hearing but
the technical problem is enormous, and if the auditory
nerve is dead, no electrical stimulation can help. Still
many advancements & experiments are being carried
out. Even a rough approximation of the normal hearing
mechanism may be of great help.
How do the ears help us to keep our balance?
Our sense of balance largely depends on the vestibule
system, which lies close to the cochlea in the inner ear,
and allows us to stand upright and walk in a straight
line.

What The Nose Knows

Can our sense of smell be heightened or dulled?

Smells are surer than sounds or sights to make

your heartstrings crack ~ Rudyard Kipling

Your age, your health, the weather, the altitude, and

the humidity are just a few of the factors that influence
that influence the perception of smell. The simplest
way to heighten your sense of smell is inhale through
your nose, and thus draw more air over the
receptacles in the epithelium.

How does the brain perceive odor?

Deep inside the nasal passage is a mat of mucus and
raw nerves called the olfactory epithelium. Air inhaled
through the nose brings with it various kinds of
molecules. Some are water-soluble and after being
captured by special molecules in the nose, are
transported to the receptor cells in the mucus mat.
From there cells identifying the odor are sent along the
nerve to the brain, where the final perceptions are
created
From the nerve in the nasal passages, the sensation
travels directly to the brains olfactory bulbs. From
these organs, smell signals move to other part of the
brain. Finally, smell sensations reach locations in the
brain where they are consciously identified.
Do we actually need a sense of smell?
Some scientists believe that smell plays a greater part
in our lives than we now recognize. It adds to our
enjoyment of food and drink. It alerts us to certain
dangers.
How keen is the nose?

Colds are the most frequent cause of a temporary loss

of smell.
How many odors can we identify?
On the basis of psychological tests, it is believed that
human beings can detect between 4000 and 10,000
odors.
Do women have a better sense of smell than
men?
Women are more sensitive than men to a number of
smells. The female hormone estrogen may account for
this sensory difference.
Odors stir sensations, emotions and memories
The power of smells to evoke strong feelings can be
partly explained by the fact that odor signals travel by
unique pathways to special destinations in the brains
limbic system. Since the limbic system processes
emotions and gut reactions, a scent can cause a quick,
involuntary response, such as recoiling from a bad
smell or salivating at a good one. The limbic system
also plays a role in storing and recalling memories
which is why a whiff of an odor related to your past
can bring a rush of long, forgotten memories.
Can we become adapted to smell?
Many odors become less noticeable if you are exposed
to them for a long time. The musty smell of an antique
shop is nearly undetectable to it is owner.
Is it true that odors influence our behavior?

It takes only 1/25,000,000,000 of a milligram of

methyl perception in a milliliter of air for most people
to smell it. Although the sense of smell can be
triggered off by just a few molecular concentrations
only 10 to 50 times above that detection thresh hold
often reach maximum intensity for us. That is, we
wont smell that a smell is stronger, no matter how
much greater the concentration gets. Many animals
have a sense of smell that is far superior to ours.

There are some obvious ways that odor affects what

we do and how we feel. The stench of rotten eggs
makes us flinch while the smell of baking bread makes
our mouths water.
Odor also has more subtle influences on human
behavior. Smell plays a role in sexual attraction. In
1970 Martha McClintock noted that young women who
lived together in college dorms tended to have same
menstrual

menstrual cycles.
Does sickness have a smell?
There are doctors who rely on their sense of smell as a
diagnostic tool literally finding what is wrong with a
patient by using their nose. Certain diseases have
distinct odors caused by a change in metabolism. A
garlic odor is a sign of arsenic poisoning. A fruity smell
could mean that a person is diabetic.

The Sense Of Taste

Learning to taste is like learning to appreciate
music. At first the listener cant distinguish one
symphony from another. But gradually he can
pick out the sound of the oboe and the clarinet.
~ Louise Miller Mann
Did you know?
On your tongue are about 10,000 taste receptors.
They are called taste buds. When you eat, the
receptors send signals to the brain, which translates
the signals into combinations of sweet, bitter, salty
and sour tastes.

What does it mean to have acquired tastes?

Most of us have had the experience of hating a certain
taste on our first try, then later growing to like it.
Known as acquired taste, this liking generally develops
after repeated exposure to a particular taste, when the
tongue is stimulated on a regular basis by a bitter food
or drink, its sensitivity to that bitterness drops.
However the food for which you have had to acquire a
liking may have tasted just fine from the start to some
body else. This often depends on the kind of meals we
had in early childhood.
How keen is the sense of taste
Bitterness can be detected in a solution as weak as
one part per 2 million. Sourness one part per 130,000.
Saltiness one part per 400. However it takes much
more sweetness to register a sweet sensation -one
part per 200.
However, taste buds can be tricked. After you brush
your teeth, the usually sweet taste of orange juice
seems bitter because of the chemicals left by your
toothpaste.

Getting In Touch
Touch seems to be as essential as sunlight. ~
Diane Ackerman, A Natural History of The Senses
Do people really need to be touched?
Infants and children have a special need for physical
contact to be held and touched. It is now believed
that separating a baby at birth can interfere with the
natural bonding between mother and child.

Newborn babies have few tastes buds. But soon after

birth more buds begin to grow, and by early childhood
they cover the top and some of the bottom of the
tongue, as well as areas in the cheek and the throat.
Since young children have many more taste buds
blooming in their mouths than adults, they frequently
find food to be too bitter or spicy.
The four primary tastes sweet, bitter, salty, and sour
are each associated with a specific area on your
tongue.
The taste buds account for less than 20 percent of the
flavor of food. The sense of smell, the temperature and
texture of food also contribute to its overall flavor.

Early contact stimulates the babys development as

well as the mothers maternal feelings. Research has
found that premature babies in intensive care
nurseries gain weight faster if nurses gently stroke
them for 15 minutes 3 times a day. Touching
apparently produces its physiological benefits in part
by stimulating the secretion of certain brain chemicals
necessary for growth and for the bodies response to
stress.

Why touch is called the mother of our senses?

Touch is the earliest of the human senses to develop.
It is already functioning during the seventh week of
pregnancy. And it is literally the broadest of the
senses, since the skin, where the touch receptors are
found, covers the whole body. Babies use their sense
of touch to understand their surroundings. Even after
they have learned to recognize things by sight, they
often try to confirm what they see through touch. i.e.
patting their mothers faces.

What sensations other than pressure does touch

convey?
Receptors to both cold and warmth do not respond
directly to cold or warmth but to relative changes in
skin temperature. For example a cool room feels warm
to some one coming in from the outside. However
sensations of pain remain strong even when they are
stimulated for a long time.
Can touch heal?
Touching does appear to have specific value in
relieving pain as any child knows who has rubbed a
bruise after a fall. Scientists think that the signals
triggered by the rubbing of pressure receptors may
interfere with those from pain receptors thus
lessening the impact of pain signals on the brains
cerebral cortex.

Adults also seem to regard touch as fundamental. How

often do you find yourself not believing what you see
until you have actually touched it
Is there a sense of pressure?
What we call our sense of touch actually consists of at
least four different kinds of sensory receptors.
Specialized pressure receptors react to light touch,
deep pressure or vibration. We notice a touch as
delicate as butterflys wings even when it is so fleeting
that it lasts only one tenth of a second. Our sense
receptors react by sending slower, less intense signals
as the same stimulus continues. This is one of the
reasons why you stop noticing the pressure of your
watch on your wrist on the feel of your clothing on
your body.

Massage also seems to

psychological benefits. It not
but induces a sense of well
security babies feel when
mothers arms.

have real physical &

only relaxes the muscles
being reminiscent of the
they are held in their

Mental Faculties

Memory is the amount or bits of information we can

hold in our head.

You think-therefore you exist ~ Anon.

Are people born with a good memory?
The Interplay of mental faculties
The changes involved in thinking and learning takes
huge amounts of energy. Although the human brain
accounts for less than two percent of the body's
energy a total of one-fifth of the body's blood and
oxygen supply is directed to the brain's maintenance.
Thinking is accompanied by dramatic short-term
changes. Over a longer period thinking causes changes
that are more or less permanent.

How much you remember depends to some extent on

inborn capacity. But in most cases what counts is your
enthusiasm for a subject. An avid sportsman can
remember games and players performance to an
extent that is amazing to non-fans. The more you
learn of a subject that fascinates you the easier it is to
pick up more. Conversely if a subject bores you, you
will probably have trouble remembering anything
about it.
How can you improve your memory?

Can thinking be observed?

Earlier all anyone knew about thinking had to be
inferred. In recent years scientists have been able to
observe thinking more directly. New methods of
revealing brain structures that influence cognition,
such as computerized axial topography (CAT or CT
scanning), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and
positron emission tomography (PET scanning). These
methods can detect fairly broad ranges of brain
activity. Moreover, CAT and MRI afford finer and more
selective views since they can be focused on angles on
'slices' of the brain.

The first essential seems obvious, but it cannot be

stressed enough. To acquire information, you have to
pay attention. Then you must relate the information to
something you already know, and finally you have to
practice its use. Everyone's mind works differently, so
you may want to try a variety of memory devices.
When you need to remember the number of days in a
month, chances are you use this rhyme: Thirty days
hath September, April, June and November. All the
rest have 31, except February, which stands alone.' or
when struggling with spelling, maybe you say I
before e except after c'. Your memory can be jogged
by chunking. That is group information by a common
characteristic.
Isolated bits of information are easily lost. You can
make up your memory tricks, using rhymes, chunks,
nonsense sentences, and acronyms.
For many visual cues are effective as memory devices.
By relating names or other information to say, ships,
pineapples, or lampposts, you can visualize the picture
cue and thus call up the original information.

Memory
The true art of memory is the art of attention ~
Anon.

How does your mind choose what to remember?

Short-term memory has been likened to a scratch pad
where

where you check your arithmetic, or jot down a phone

number. You keep the details in your mind only as long
as needed to accomplish the project at hand. Then the
barely noticeable images fade immediately and
completely.

and the memories are not lost. Unless the past is

retrieved and faced, the stress may fester.

For something to enter long-term memory - the image

must get past what psychologists term as 'the
gatekeeper of memory'. It must get your full attention.
Something novel, noisy, or of special interest to you-.
It may then start on the way to becoming established
in your memory. Through association with existing
memory, through linkages with other remembered
events, it builds new traces in the brain.

You get to school and realize you forgot your lunch at

home. You take a test and you can't remember half
the answers. You see the new kid who just joined your
class, and you can't remember his name. Some days,
it seems like your brain is taking a holiday- you can't
remember anything!

Everyday life and memory

How can I do better?

Maybe you think you'll get better at memorizing things
if you practice a lot. Sorry, but it doesn't work that
way.
Back in 1927, a scientist tested 187 university
students on their ability to memorize poetry, the
meaning of Turkish words, dates of historical events,
and other things.
Then some students practiced memorizing things.
Others learned techniques for remembering things.
And the rest did nothing at all related to memory.
How durable is long term memory?
Some psychologists believe that long-term memories
are never lost. Unfortunately this does not mean you
can call up a face, fact or figure whenever you want to,
just because you had a firm memory of the subject in
the past. The problem may lie in your retrieval system.
The memory may lie in your retrieval system. The
memory may be linked to a special circumstance. If
this eludes you, you are left with a 'tip of the tongue
'phenomenon', where you can almost make the
connection. Or the memory may have been
suppressed.
Evidence of the stability of long-term memory comes
from studying patients who have suffered from strokes
or mild brain seizures. Sometimes strokes unlock a
flood of detailed memories from the distant past.
Does amnesia erase memories?
Removal or damage of certain parts of the brain may
make it impossible for patients to learn anything new,
and at the same time it erases memories of events
within the last three years. This kind of amnesia-(loss
of memory) is permanent. Progressive loss of memory
due to Alzheimer's disease is also an irreversible loss
A head injury can also cause amnesia, but often the
effect is temporary. Severe emotional stress can also
cause amnesia. Such a mechanism may seem merciful,
but can result in deep emotional trouble, for, it seems,
and

When the scientist tested the students again, the

group that had learned techniques for memorizing
things did much better on the test than the others. The
students who had practiced memorizing things and the
students who had done nothing at all did about the
same on the test as they did before.
Scientists have discovered that you don't get better at
memorizing things just by doing it more. But you can
get better by learning some clever tricks that help you
out.
On the following pages, we'll give you a few tricks you
can try. They'll help you remember -- they'll also tell
you something about how your memory works.
Memory Party Game
With the help of a grown-up or few friends, you can
test your memory and compare it to your friends'
memories.
What do I need?

One person to be Game Master

A few friends (This is a good to try with a lot of

people - or you can try it with one other friend)

20 different unrelated objects - like a pair of

scissors, a can of beans, a hair brush, a pencil,
and so on

A big towel that can cover the objects

A clock or watch with a second hand

A piece of paper and a pencil for each player

What do I do?

First, have the Game Master gather 20

different objects. If you're having party, you
can ask each person who's coming to bring
something for the game. If you're playing with
your family each person could gather a few
objects. These should be things are not related
to each other. The Game Master might want to
get some things form the kitchen - like a can
opener and potato masher - and some from
the bedroom - like a left shoe and a bow tie.

All the players close their eyes while the game

master puts all the objects out on the table or
floor and covers them with the towel.

All the players open their eyes. The Game

Master picks up the towel and everyone has
two minutes to memorize all the items.

After two minutes, the Game Master covers the

objects with the towel, and each player writes
down all the objects he or she can remember.

Then the Game Master uncovers the objects

and everyone can find out how they did.
How many of the 20 things did you remember? How
did your friends do?

Creativity
The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new
landscapes but in having new eyes.
~ Proust, Marcel

Do original ideas begin in daydreams?

Whenever you let your thoughts wander and you

muse, "What it?" you nudge your mind to travel
beyond the accepted and familiar. Such daydreaming
is source of much of the creativity in our lives. When
you come up with a better or easier way to do your
job, you are being creative. You are thinking creatively
when you can no longer tolerate an explanation like
"But that's the way we've always done it."
Are people with the highest IQ'S the most
inventive?

What is creativity?

A high score on an intelligence test doesn't

automatically mean a high level of creativity. Truly
original thinking involves nonintellectual factors; such
as receptivity to novel ideas and a knack for making
connections that hadn't occurred to someone else.

Creativity leaves current knowledge behind and

produces something that is new. Or it puts old ideas or
familiar things together in a new way. It is free wheeling, imaginative thinking that leads to fresh
insight and revolutionary ideas, and comes up with
useful products.

Tests have been developed to identify creative talent.

They have shown that top on creativity tests average
23 IQ points lower than top scorers on intelligence
tests. The most creative individuals often had trouble
with problems that demanded sticking to rigid rules to
find the answer.
Is creativity inheritable?
There are famous examples of creativity appearing in
generation after generation of a family. Johann
Sebastian Bach was born to line that had produced
musicians for the previous hundred years.

Creative thought goes outside the usual route, puts

aside the accepted formula or pattern or recipe. The
results are many and varied: a poem, an opera, a
medical diagnosis, a pastry, a better mousetrap, a
theory on starlight, a faster way to clean a kitchen.

But such examples of a specific creative talent

spanning generations are quite rare; and the evidence
for some sort of "creative gene" is not strong. It may
be that a general kind of creative temperament runs in
families, whose members show creativity in diverse
fields, such as business, politics, or the arts. In any
case, heredity would not be the only factor
predisposing an individual to creative thinking. Equally
important would be the influence of his or her family
environment.

What kind of person is creative?

Childhood is perhaps the most creative period in
everybody's life. Preschoolers make dolls, play cops
and robbers, build with blocks, draw, dance etc.

the job. The company is committed to maintaining a

work environment in which humor, laughter, fun and a
playful attitude thrive, because it knows that this kind
of work environment produces a frame of mind in
which innovative solutions are most likely to occur. By
tracking the money saved due to employees' creative
suggestions, Southwest has determined that its
employees' ideas save the company millions of dollars
every year.
Even the memory of past funny situations is enough to
trigger innovative ideas. During the Vietnam War, one
soldier had the problem of being constantly covered
with leeches while wading through swamps. He
remembered a scene from Monty Python's Flying
Circus about weird uses of panty hose and asked his
mom to send him the biggest pair of panty hose she
could find. It worked! The leeches were unable to
penetrate the panty hose.

Creativity Test
At school, a child must learn the correct solutions, the
approved method. Every question has a right or wrong
answer.
Part of the child's natural creativity is the ability to
fantasize, to think beyond the right answer, to wonder
why not. One way to cultivate this trait is to strike a
balance between challenging a child, exposing him to
new ideas & activities & letting the child experiment on
his own, Reading should be encouraged. The more
information that is stored the more the child can draw
on for creative efforts.
What part of the brain influences creativity?
There is evidence that in most people, the right
hemisphere of the brain has more to do with creativity
than the left, which handles life's day to day business,
talking, writing, reasoning etc. The right side of the
brain fires imagination and creativity
Humor stimulates creativity
There has been research since the 1950s documenting
the close relationship between humor/fun and
creativity. For example, simply listening to a humorous
recording increases scores on a subsequently given
creativity test. People also perform more creatively on
a task when it is framed as "play" than when it is
framed as "work." Simply watching comedy films are
enough to improve creative problem solving, and the
amount of improvement is greater than after watching
a serious movie. The employees of Southwest Airlines
consistently propose creative ideas, which help the
company, increase profits. An important source of
these innovative ideas is the fact that they have fun on

IQ
tests
usually
measure
your
verbal
and
mathematical skills. What we want to do here is
measure your associative flexibility. There may be
other possible answers than the ones given, but at
least you can use this as a gauge to see how fluid your
thinking skills are.
These sample questions test will give you some idea of
your mental plasticity and, therefore, creativity.
1.
2.
3.
4.

26=L of the A
7=W of the W
1001=A N
12= S of the Z

Answers at the end of this Chapter.

Intelligence Tests
An intelligence test sometimes shows a man
how smart he would have been not to have taken
it. ~ Laurence J. Peter
Who created the first useful intelligence test?
In the early 1900's the French government asked
psychologist Alfred Binet to create an intelligence test
that would identity retarded children in need of special
schooling. Designing such a test proved extremely
difficult. First Binet had to define intelligence and then
find a way to capture intelligence in small parts-the
test questions. To Binet, intelligence meant 'judgment'
otherwise called 'good sense.' His tests attempted to
measure how well children managed their everyday life

by asking them to identify pictures of common objects,

tell time, and work with numbers.
How are intelligence tests scored?
Binet's intelligence tests were based on the assumption
that there is an average level of mental competence
measurable at each age. Thus, he tried out different
questions and kept in the final tests the ones that the
majority of children at each age level that he sampled
answered correctly.

Can test anxiety be cured?

Many students who do poorly on tests become so
anxious over tests that they fall into a pattern of
underachieving. To combat anxiety, experts advise
test-taking practice. Above all, a child should be
encouraged to keep tests in perspective. Tests can be
taken again. It's vital that children know that no test
can completely measure their ability or willingness to
learn.

These assumptions of average ability established the

mental age standard of the test, while the actual age
of the child was called the chronological age. To find a
child's intelligence quotient, or IQ, the child's mental
age was divided by his actual age. For example, a 10years-old who had the mental age of an 11-year-old
had an IQ score of 1.1.
Later, psychologists eliminated decimals by multiplying
the score by 100. Thus a 1.1 score on a Binet test
becomes on a Binet test becomes an IQ of 110. This
type of scoring considers an IQ of 100 as average for a
child at any given age.
How
are
measured?

adult

intelligence

tests

scores

Once a person reaches adulthood, chronological years

begin to outstrip mental years as measured by Binet.
Therefore, his test and its scoring had to be revised to
take this into account. Using graphs and statistics of
adult scores, psychologists designed a way to assign a
numerical value of 100 to an average adult IQ score.
While intelligence tests have been useful in providing
an objective standard with which to measure certain
abilities, they cannot predict with certainty an
individual's future performances. An IQ score can
change. If adults are intellectually challenged, their IQ
scores will increase.
Why is it hard to design a test that is fair to
everyone?
Standardized tests are intended to be as fair as
possible, so people from all backgrounds can be
evaluated by the same impartial standards. The only
way test designers can evaluate a new test is to try it
on a sample group of people. The sample should
closely resemble those for whom the test is intended.
However, no one group can fully represent an entire
population. For example, one person may be able to
answer a question on snow, while another may have
never seen snow.

What different types of tests are available today?

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is one of the
most widely used intelligence tests today. It attempts
to measure an individual's over-all mental strengths
and weaknesses, not just the knowledge of vocabulary
and math. For instance, the Wechsler asks subjects to
arrange a group of pictures in a sequence that creates
a meaningful story.
Achievement tests measure mastery of a specific
subject. An example is the Metropolitan Achievement
Tests. Aptitude tests, on the hand, are designed to
show a student's potential for acquiring skills and
knowledge.
The best-known aptitude tests are the Scholastic
Aptitude Test, or SAT's typically, these examinations
measure mathematical ability, vocabulary, and reading
comprehension. The SAT's helped appraise the ability
of a student to succeed in college.
Vocational interest tests are yet another category,
designed to measure one's inclination towards various
jobs. The Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory test asks
students to check off those activities they like and
dislike. A vocational counselor can tell the student
which jobs people held with similar interests.

Here are some samples taken from an I.Q test

1.

Which figure, of the

completes the sequence?

six

shown

3.

What is the missing number?

4.

Which is the odd word out?

below,

NATU, ICENE, CULEN, SARM, REFHAT

2.

Which figure, of the eight numbered below,

completes the sequence?

5.

Which figure, of the

completes the sequence?

Solutions
Answers to Creativity Test
1.
2.
3.
4.

26 = L. of the A. (letters of the alphabet)

7 = W. of the A.W. (wonders of the ancient world)
1,000 = A.N. (Arabian nights)
12 = S. of the Z. (signs of the zodiac)

Solutions of sample I.Q test questions

Ques
No.

Solution

The two lines inside the square move 90 clockwise each

time.

Each horizontal line has the same three figures in a

different order.

3
4
5

Explanation

26
MARS

4,8,7,14,1326. The sequence progresses in the form of

x2, -1.
4 (x2=) 8 (-1=) 7 (x2=) 14 (-1=0 )13 (x2=) 26
All are anagrams of relatives except 'MARS'; Aunt, Niece,
Uncle, Father.
The circle moves diagonally from top to bottom; the square
moves horizontally from left to right.

six

shown

below,

What Is Personality?
Everybody's heard the term personality, and most of
us can describe our own or our friend's personality.
What most don't know, however, is that personality is
one of the most theorized and most researched
aspects of psychology.
The reason for this is the enormous role personality
plays in our lives. It is our personality which
determines how we interact with others, how we
handle issues, how we treat ourselves, etc. Again, it is
our personality which influences which career we
pursue, who we marry and even what programs we
watch on TV. By definition, personality is the
combination of all the attributes - behavioral,
temperamental, emotional and mental - that
characterize a unique individual.

Carl Jung developed the Type Theory Type watching

is a way to begin to understand personality and to turn
their differences into group strengths. According to this
theory human behavior is not random but
predictable and classifiable. Everyone is born
predisposed to personality preferences. Typologists
have devised four pairs of preference alternatives as
stated below.
Extroverted (E)
Sensing (S)
Thinking (T)
Judging (J)

or
or
or
or

Introverted (I)
iNtuitive (N)
Feeling (F)
Perceiving (P)

Extrovert or Introvert

This category deals with how we prefer to interact with

the world and how we prefer to get our energy and
stimulation. Other people and actions energize
extroverts. They become drained when they have to
spend too much time alone. They need other people to
function. Introverts get their energy from their own
thoughts and ideas.
They rarely speak up at meetings preferring listening
to talking. Introverts need time alone, especially after
spending hours with people.

With the volume of study being done on personality it

is natural that there would be quite a few theories on
this topic. These theories vary a bit in their handling of
personality but by and large give the same results.

Extroverts outnumber introverts by about three to one

in America. Extroverts are often rewarded in school, by
participating in class discussions and at work because
they are popular and outgoing. Introverts are often
undervalued because they keep their best to
themselves.

Sensor or iNtuitive

Personality By Birth Order

This category deals with how we prefer to gather

information about the world. The sensors prefer to use
their five senses to gather information. Sensors prefer
facts to interpretation. For iNtuitives, everything is
relative- iNtuitives look at the grand scheme of things,
trying to translate bits of information through intuition
into possibilities, meanings and relationships. Details
and specifics irritate iNtuitives. iNtuitives see the
forests , sensors see the trees. When working with
sensors or iNtuitives it is important to remember these
differences.

The people with the same birthranks have more

in common with each other than with their own
siblings. ~ Sulloway.

Thinker or Feeler
This category deals with how we make decisions.
Thinkers base their decisions on objective values and
are often described as logical, detached, or analytical.
Some thinkers are thought of as cold or uncaring
because they would rather do what is right than what
makes people happy. In contrast, feelers tend to make
decisions based on what will create harmony. Feelers
avoid conflict, and will overextend themselves to
accommodate the needs of others. Feelers always put
themselves in somebody elses shoes and ask how
people will be affected before taking decisions. This is
the only personality type category related to gender.
About two-thirds of all males are thinkers, and the
same proportion of females is a feeler.
Judger or Perceiver?
This category deals with how we orient our lives.
Judgers are structured, ordered, scheduled, and on
time. They are the list makers. Judgers wake up every
morning with a definite plan for the day, and become
very upset when the plan becomes unraveled. Even
free time is scheduled. Perceivers, on the other hand,
rely on creativity, spontaneity, and responsiveness,
rather than a plan or list, to get them through the day.
They burn the midnight oil to meet deadlines, although
they usually meet them. Perceivers like to turn work
into play, because if a task is not fun, they reason, it is
probably not worth doing.
Experts say that this personality type difference is the
most significant source of tension in the workplace and
in-group work. Perceivers prefer to keep gathering
information rather than to draw conclusions. Judgers
prefer to make decisions, often ignoring new
information that might change that decision. Hence,
the conflict. A good balance of judgers and perceivers
are necessary for a well-functioning work group.
Judgers need light-hearted perceivers to make them
relax, and perceivers need structured judgers to keep
things organized and reach closure on projects.

Is your oldest a perfectionist? Is your youngest

spontaneous? Does your middle child display maverick
potential? Where they fall in the "pecking order" of
your family may give you clues to why they are the
way they are.
In his book, "Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family
Dynamics, and Creative Lives," Frank Sulloway notes
that "siblings raised together are almost as different in
their personalities as people from different families."
For Sulloway, this interesting fact led to the question
of how the family experience can be so different for
each child. In fact, he states that people with the same
birth ranks have more in common with each other than
with their own siblings.
In her book, "The Birth Order Factor," Dr. Lucille Forer
states that certain combinations of persons will
produce a more successful marriage (when the
husband is a youngest and wife is an oldest) or one
"doomed to failure" (husband and wife both the oldest
or both the youngest). Conventional wisdom holds that
there are some personality traits that are commonly
associated with birth order. They probably shouldn't be
ignored, nor should they be given too much attention.

First born - the pioneers

maverick may come from the desire to gain status in

the eyes of the parent, yet not lose status in the eyes
of the first born, who they often idolize. Thus, middles
don't typically compete head-on with first born. If the
oldest is good in science, the middle will often choose
something else to excel at, like sports or music. By
choosing a niche that isn't occupied, the middle child
increases her chances of standing out and being
noticed, while decreasing the chances of being
compared to the first-born.
Middle kids often develop excellent negotiating skills,
because they are often smaller than their older sibs.
Much of the time they are classified as easygoing, but
they can harbor self-esteem problems.
Forever young (est.)

There are many benefits to being first. First-born kids

grow up knowing they are bigger, stronger and
smarter than their younger siblings - at least for a
time. They identify more readily with parental
authority because they are often put in charge of
younger sibs. Oldest children are considered reliable,
conscientious, strong leaders who are highly motivated
to achieve. In fact, of the first 23 astronauts sent into
space, 21 were first born (the other two are on lies).
What is it about being first that may help to shape a
child's personality along these lines? One aspect is the
special intense attention first born receives from their
parents. All of this undivided attention provides
important one-on-one stimulation, but also can put the
first born under a great deal of pressure to succeed.
This pressure means eldest children have more of a
tendency to be uptight and overly concerned with
perfection. They can focus too much on external
approval and respect, not caring enough about what
they, as individuals, think.
Not-so-stuck in the middle
"Middle children can have more of a tendency to pout,
but not without reason. They typically aren't the
biggest and strongest, and they certainly aren't the
youngest, which usually gets away with murder. In
their minds, being in the middle means being the
opposite of special and, sometimes, it means being
invisible. This struggle to be noticed frequently brings
out serious maverick potential in many middles.
Sulloway's research cites that in revolution after
revolution (political, scientific or otherwise), almost all
were started by later born, often middles. Being a
maverick

If you ask their siblings, they're likely to say that to be

the youngest is to be in the best position in the family.
The youngest is oftentimes the center of attention not just from the parents, but from the older sibs as
well. The youngest are also able to get away with
behavior that other family members can't. While the
expectations for the eldest are often very high, the
youngest is forever labeled "the baby," and as such,
the standards are different. Psychologists typically pin
such
characteristics
as
affectionate,
sensitive,
indulged, dependent, tenacious and fun on the
youngest in a family, and some of that has to do with
the relationships the baby has with the parents and
siblings.
The youngest often develop impressive social skills.
They get their sibs and others to like them by being
clever and charming. The smaller size also can lead to
deliberate helplessness. They learn that they can get
out of chores and other undesirable tasks by feigning
their inability to handle the job. As a parent, you want
your youngest to become a well-rounded individual,
and there are things you can do to counteract the less
desirable traits the baby can develop.

Personality and Health

have found evidence that people with certain neurotic

traits, such as chronic anxiety; pessimism and hostility
are particularly likely to become ill by their early
forties. It was found that men who coped with life
immaturely, by running away perhaps, or through
fantasy, became ill four times more often than stable
men. The connection is not with any specific disease,
but with poor health in general -asthma, headaches,
peptic ulcer and heart conditions show up frequently.
Such findings are controversial. Among the criticisms
are that neurotics may simply be more likely to
complain about their physical discomfort than others.

Total health is the total well-being of the body

mind and soul. ~ Anon.

Is it better to be an optimist than a pessimist?

Can your personality give you a heart attack?

Although gloomy visions of failure may spur a

pessimistic personality to excel, optimists may actually
have the power to make their own lives longer,
healthier and more rewarding.

Although the effects of birth order are never set in

stone, it's likely that your children have a few traits
that correspond to their family placement. Give each
individual child her due, and pay attention to those
areas where she may need extra help and guidance.
That way you'll give all of your kids the best
opportunity to succeed in life, no matter what their
family rank.

A highly publicized study conducted in the 1960s

reported that type A people ambitious, aggressive
and impatient were more likely to suffer heart
attacks than type Bs that were more relaxed. The
quintessential Type A was described as a high level
male business executive at the peak of his success, in
his forties or early fifties. Type As are more prone to
hostility, cynicism and self-involvement than other
types.
Some studies have indicated that Type As can reduce
their heart attack risk by learning to react more calmly
to what they consider unfair criticism and pressure.
And whatever your personality type, eating wisely,
giving up smoking, exercising and maintaining blood
pressure within normal limits can keep your heart
healthy.
Why are some people
disease than others?

more

susceptible

One research method of classifying people as

optimistic or pessimistic is to ask them explain bad
events in their lives. Pessimists tend to blame
misfortunes on permanent, inalterable conditions or on
their own character flaws.
If you want to change your personality, can you
do so?

to

Your mental health can make the symptoms of some

diseases more distressing and also make you more
liable to get sick in the first place, but precisely how
biological and personality factors may interact to cause
physical illness is uncertain. Of course, our genetic
disposition may underline both physical and emotional
problems, but the relationship between these two
factors is still not firmly established. Researchers,
have, however, investigated the problem, and their
conclusion is that susceptibility to disease often has
psychological roots. In one study, conducted at West
Point, scientists found that Army cadets with intense
ambitions for a military career whose scholastic
rankings were low were susceptible to mononucleosis.
Have other illnesses been linked to disposition?
It is tempting to attribute diseases whose causes are
not understood to personality factors. Researchers
have

Various forms of therapy and even do it yourself

exercises may help modify personality traits that you
think are denying you happiness and success. Now it is
a proven fact that complete health means both
physical and mental well being. Mental problems often
require
a
trained
therapist.
Many
kinds
of
psychotherapy have helped many thousands of people
to reach a better understanding and acceptance of who
they are as well as find more effective ways of dealing
with lifes challenges.

Stereotyping
Is no such thing as a complete stereotype
personality? Every individual is a unique being
with
his
own
interests,
abilities
and
achievements. ~ Anon.

from others subjective expectations rather than innate

leadership traits or abilities of tall people.
In fact people who have achieved are generally
perceived as taller than they actually are. For example
students thought that strangers introduced, as
professors were taller than those identified as fellow
students.

Does your body build influence your personality?

In the 1940s American psychologist William Sheldon
developed a system of classifying peoples personality
according to body build. Endomorphs-whose bodies are
soft and round were said to be relaxed and sociable.
Mesomorphs strong and muscular were energetic,
outgoing and assertive; and ectomorphs -thin and
fragile-were introverted, artistic and intellectual.
Sheldons scheme was appealing and seemed to fit
popular stereotypes. However most experts think
these classifications are too simple to account for a
wide variety of human physiques and behavior
patterns.

When are stereotypes harmful?

Stereotypes are a kind of
psychologist Gordon All port has
mind must think with the
(generalizations) we cannot avoid

generalization. As
written The human
aid of categories
it

The danger comes when we generalize from the

observations of a few individuals to create stereotypes
for the whole groups. Even less rational is holding on
to stereotypes that we know are false. All port tells of
an English university student who claimed that he
hated all Americans even though he had never met
one whom he disliked. In this case the categorization
went against even first hand experience.
Does a certain type of personality guarantee
success in life?

Studies of the personnel records of several businesses

and professions suggest that taller people are more
likely to be hired and promoted than their shorter
competitors. But any such height advantage derives
from

There is no single success personality, but surveys

suggest traits that correlate with professional, business
or political achievement. Frequently cited traits of high
achievers are common such as self-reliance and the
ability to get things done efficiently.