1.

Write down the history of abnormal psychology in

renaissance period?
specialists who have studied bones, artwork and remnants of ancient societies
have noticed that the societies probably regarded abnormal behaviour as the
work of evil spirits. Most ancient societies believed that all events around and
within them were from the actions of magical, possibly sinister, beings who
controlled the entire world. In particular, they viewed the human body and
mind as battlegrounds for good and evil to fight over. Abnormal behaviour was
seen as a victory for evil spirits, where the cure was to force the demons from
a victim's body.
This view might have existed in the stone age as skulls from that period, which
were found in Europe and South America, show evidence of an operation
known as trephination. In this operation, a stone instrument was used to cut
away a circular section of the skull. Trephination was used for individuals with
hallucinations, seeing or hearing things that are not there, or melancholia,
extreme sadness, and immobility. The reason for removing pieces of the skull
was to release the evil spirits that were supposedly causing the problem.
However, trephination may have been used to remove bone splinters or blood
clots caused by stone weapons during tribal warfare. Even so, it is certain that
societies believed abnormal behaviour was related to demonic possessions.
The treatment for abnormality in religious societies was more related to
exorcisms. The idea was to coax evil spirits to leave the person or to make
the person's body uncomfortable for the spirit to force them to leave. A priest
would recite prayers, plead with the evil spirits, insult the spirits, make loud
noises, or have the person drink bitter poisons. If these exorcisms failed, the
priest would preform a more extreme form of exorcism involving making that
person uncomfortable including whipping or starvation.
treatments improved during the nineteenth century. Philippe Pinel, the chief
physician at La Bicetre, argued that the patients were sick people whose
illnesses should be treated with sympathy and kindness. For the first time,
patients were allowed to move freely about the hospital grounds, had sunny
and well-ventilated rooms along with support and advice. Pinel's approach
proved very successful. Many patients who had been shut away for decades
improved over a short time and were released.
Moral treatment emphasized moral guidance and respectful techniques.
Patients with psychological problems were largely viewed as productive
humans whose mental functioning broke under stress. Mental ill patients were
thought of as deserving of individual care, including talking about their
problems, given useful activities, work to perform, companionship, and quiet.
By the end of the century, treatment of mental health patients declined once
again. When mental hospitals showed up left and right, money and staffing
seemed to dissipate. Prejudice against people with mental disorders began at
this time. As more patients disappeared into distant mental hospitals, society
viewed them as strange and dangerous. Public mental hospitals were
 providing only custodial care and ineffective medical treatments and were
more crowded every year.
Early 20th Century
When moral movement declined, two different perspectives fought for the attention:
somatogenic and psychogenic.
 Somatogenic - Abnormal behavior was classified into syndromes. The discovery
of general paresis caused realization of an irreversible disorder with both physical
and mental symptoms, including paralysis and delusions of grandeur. The new
understanding of general paresis caused doubts that physical factors were
responsible for many mental disorders. Yet biological approaches yielded
disappointing results. Although many medical treatments were developed for
patients in mental hospitals during that time, most techniques failed. Physicians
tried tooth extraction, tonsillectomy, hydrotherapy, and lobotomy. Even worse,
biological views and claims let some groups try eugenic sterilization.
 Psychogenic - This is the view that the chief causes of abnormal functioning are
often psychological. Greek and Roman physicians believed many mental
disorders are caused by fear, disappointment in love, and other psychological
events. Even so, the psychogenic perspective did not gain much attention until
hypnotism showed potential. Under hypnotism, patients would talk more openly
about their problems and mental state. Some patients with hysterical disorders,
mysterious body ailments with no apparent physical basis, received hypnosis and
stated what was bothering them. The psychoanalytic approach had little effect on
the treatment of severely disturbed patients in mental hospitals. This type of
therapy requires levels of clarity beyond the capabilities of some patients because
of their condition.
Current Treatments
At this point, we do not live in a time of great enlightenment about dependable
treatments of mental disorders. However, the past 50 years have brought major
changes in methods of treating abnormal functioning. There are new psychotropic
medications to help those that are depressed or psychotic. There are health care
communities to provide programs to help those with mental illness or trauma. Another
popular use consists of short-term hospitalization to provide psychotherapy care to
then put patients into the health care communities. Private psychotherapy is also used,
such as counselling to help talk about problems and difficulties the patient is facing.
 3 list out the causes and risk factor of eating disorder

1,cause

EDs are complex disorders, influenced by a facet of factors. Though the exact cause
of eating disorders is unknown, it is generally believed that a combination of
biological, psychological, and/or environmental abnormalities contribute to the
development of these illnesses. The exact cause of eating disorders is unknown. As
with other mental illnesses, there may be many causes, such as:

Genetics and biology. Certain people may have genes that increase their risk of
developing eating disorders. Biological factors, such as changes in brain chemicals,
may play a role in eating disorders.

Psychological and emotional health. They may have low self-esteem,

perfectionism, impulsive behaviour and troubled relationships.

Example of biological factors include:

Irregular hormone functions

 Genetics (the tie between eating disorders and one’s genes is still being heavily
researched, but we know that genetics is a part of the story).
 Nutritional deficiencies
Examples of psychological factors include:

 Negative body image

 Poor self-esteem
Examples of environmental factors that would contribute to the occurrence of eating
disorders are:

 Dysfunctional family dynamic

 Professions and careers that promote being thin and weight loss, such as ballet and
modelling
 Aesthetically oriented sports, where an emphasis is placed on maintaining a lean body
for enhanced performance.
 Examples include:
 Rowing
 Diving
 Ballet
 Gymnastics
 Wrestling
 Long distance running
 Family and childhood traumas: childhood sexual abuse, severe trauma
  Cultural and/or peer pressure among friends and co-workers
 Stressful transitions or life changes

2.Risk factors.

BIOLOGICAL
 Having a close relative with an eating disorder. Studies of families have found that
having a first-degree relative (like a parent or sibling) with an eating disorder
increases a person’s risk of developing an eating disorder.
 Having a close relative with a mental health condition. Similarly, issues like
anxiety, depression, and addiction can also run in families, and have also been found
to increase the chances that a person will develop an eating disorder.
 History of dieting. A history of dieting and other weight-control methods is
associated with the development of binge eating.
 Negative energy balance. Burning off more calories than you take in leads to a
state of negative energy balance. Many people report that their disorder began with
deliberate efforts to diet or restrict the amount and/or type of food they were eating
in the form of dieting, other causes can include growth spurts, illness, and intense
athletic training.
 Type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes. Recent research has found that
approximately one-quarter of women diagnosed with type one diabetes will
develop an eating disorder. The most common pattern is skipping insulin injections,
known as diabulimia, which can be deadly.

PSYCHOLOGICAL
 Perfectionism. One of the strongest risk factors for an eating disorder is
perfectionism, especially a type of perfectionism called self-oriented perfectionism,
which involves setting unrealistically high expectations for yourself.
 Body image dissatisfaction. Body image encompasses how you feel both about
and in your body. It’s sadly not uncommon to dislike your appearance, but people
who develop eating disorders are more likely to report higher levels of body image
dissatisfaction and an internalization of the appearance ideal.
 Personal history of an anxiety disorder. Research has shown that a significant
subset of people with eating disorders, including two-thirds of those with anorexia,
showed signs of an anxiety disorder (including generalized anxiety, social phobia,
and obsessive-compulsive disorder) before the onset of their eating disorder.
 Behavioural inflexibility. Many people with anorexia report that, as children, they
always followed the rules and felt there was one “right way” to do things.
SOCIAL
 Weight stigma. The message that thinner is better is everywhere, and researchers
have shown that exposure to this can increase body dissatisfaction, which can lead
to eating disorders. Weight stigma is discrimination or stereotyping based on a
person’s weight, and is damaging and pervasive in our society.
  Teasing or bullying. Being teased or bullied – especially about weight - is emerging
as a risk factor in many eating disorders. The harmful effects of bullying have
received increased attention in recent years, starting an important national
conversation. 60% of those affected by eating disorders said that bullying
contributed to the development of their eating disorder. Weight shaming needs to
be a significant part of anti-bullying discussions, particularly in the context of the
widespread anti-obesity messaging.
 Appearance ideal internalization. Buying into the message of the socially-defined
“ideal body” may increase the risk of an eating disorder by increasing the likelihood
of dieting and food restriction.
 Acculturation. People from racial and ethnic minority groups, especially those who
are undergoing rapid Westernization, may be at increased risk for developing an
eating disorder due to complex interactions between stress, acculturation, and body
image. Within three years after western television was introduced to Fiji, women,
previously comfortable with their bodies and eating, developed serious problems:
74% felt “too fat;” 69% dieted to lose weight; 11% used self-induced vomiting; 29%
were at risk for clinical eating disorders.
 Limited social networks. Loneliness and isolation are some of the hallmarks of
anorexia; many with the disorder report having fewer friends and social activities,
and less social support. Whether this is an independent risk factor or linked to other
potential causes (such as social anxiety) isn’t clear.
 Historical trauma, or intergenerational trauma, describes the ”massive cumulative
group trauma across generations,” like with Jewish Holocaust survivors, Native
American populations, and Indigenous groups that experienced European
colonization. Research shows health consequences including “anxiety, intrusive
trauma imagery, depression, elevated mortality rates from cardiovascular diseases
as well as suicide and other forms of violent death, psychic numbing and poor affect
tolerance, and unresolved grief” (Brave Heart, 1999). Similarities between the
effects of eating disorders and historical trauma points to a need for more research
and information that addresses these systems of oppression.

4.Point causes of sleeping disorder?

The Relationship Between Sleep and Health

 Not getting enough sleep can have profound consequences on a daily and potentially
long-term basis for your health and mental well-being.
 We all have some sense of the relationship between sleep and our ability to function
throughout the day. After all, everyone has experienced the fatigue, bad mood, or
lack of focus that so often follow a night of poor sleep. What many people do not
realize is that a lack of sleep—especially on a regular basis—is associated with long-
term health consequences, including chronic medical conditions like diabetes, high
blood pressure, and heart disease, and that these conditions may lead to a shortened
life expectancy. Additional research studies show that habitually sleeping more than
nine hours is also associated with poor health.
 Researching the Link Between Sleep Duration and Chronic Disease
  There are three main types of study that help us understand the links between sleep
habits and the risk of developing certain diseases. The first type (called sleep
deprivation studies) involves depriving healthy research volunteers of sleep and
examining any short-term physiological changes that could trigger disease. Such
studies have revealed a variety of potentially harmful effects of sleep deprivation
usually associated with increased stress, such as increased blood pressure, impaired
control of blood glucose, and increased inflammation.

The second type of research (called cross-sectional epidemiological studies) involves

examining questionnaires that provide information about habitual sleep duration and
the existence of a particular disease or group of diseases in large populations at one
point in time. For example, both reduced and increased sleep duration, as reported
on questionnaires, are linked with hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. However,
cross-sectional studies cannot explain how too little or too much sleep leads to
disease because people may have a disease that affects sleep, rather than a sleep
habit that causes a disease to occur or worsen.

The third and most convincing type of evidence that long-term sleep habits are
associated with the development of numerous diseases comes from tracking the
sleep habits and disease patterns over long periods of time in individuals who are
initially healthy (i.e., longitudinal epidemiological studies). We do not yet know
whether adjusting one’s sleep can reduce the risk of eventually developing a disease
or lessen the severity of an ongoing disease. However, the results from longitudinal
epidemiological studies are now beginning to suggest that this is likely.

Obesity

 Insufficient sleep has been linked to a high probability for weight gain.
 Several studies have linked insufficient sleep and weight gain. For example, studies
have shown that people who habitually sleep less than six hours per night are much
more likely to have a higher than average body mass index (BMI) and that people
who sleep eight hours have the lowest BMI. Sleep is now being seen as a potential
risk factor for obesity along with the two most commonly identified risk factors: lack
of exercise and overeating. Research into the mechanisms involved in regulating
metabolism and appetite are beginning to explain what the connection between
sleep and obesity might be.

During sleep, our bodies secrete hormones that help to control appetite, energy
metabolism, and glucose processing. Obtaining too little sleep upsets the balance of
these and other hormones. For example, poor sleep leads to an increase in the
production of cortisol, often referred to as the "stress hormone." Poor sleep is also
associated with increases in the secretion of insulin following a meal. Insulin is a
hormone that regulates glucose processing and promotes fat storage; higher levels
of insulin are associated with weight gain, a risk factor for diabetes.

Insufficient sleep is also associated with lower levels of leptin, a hormone that alerts
the brain that it has enough food, as well as higher levels of ghrelin, a biochemical
 that stimulates appetite. As a result, poor sleep may result in food cravings even
after we have eaten an adequate number of calories. We may also be more likely to
eat foods such as sweets that satisfy the craving for a quick energy boost. In
addition, insufficient sleep may leave us too tired to burn off these extra calories
with exercise.
 Diabetes
 Researchers have found that insufficient sleep may lead to type 2 diabetes by
influencing the way the body processes glucose, the high-energy carbohydrate that
cells use for fuel. One short-term sleep restriction study found that a group of
healthy subjects who had their sleep cut back from 8 to 4 hours per night processed
glucose more slowly than they did when they were permitted to sleep 12 hours.
Numerous epidemiological studies also have revealed that adults who usually slept
less than five hours per night have a greatly increased risk of having or developing
diabetes.

In addition, researchers have correlated obstructive sleep apnea—a disorder in

which breathing difficulties during sleep lead to frequent arousals—with the
development of impaired glucose control similar to that which occurs in diabetes.

Heart Disease and Hypertension

 Even minor periods of inadequate sleep can cause an elevation in blood pressure.
 Studies have found that a single night of inadequate sleep in people who have
existing hypertension can cause elevated blood pressure throughout the following
day. This effect may begin to explain the correlation between poor sleep and
cardiovascular disease and stroke. For example, one study found that sleeping too
little (less than six hours) or too much (more than nine hours) increased the risk of
coronary heart disease in women.

 There is also growing evidence of a connection between obstructive sleep apnea and
heart disease. People who have apnea typically experience multiple awakenings each
night as a result of the closing of their airway when they fall asleep. In addition to
these sleep disturbances, apnea sufferers also experience brief surges in blood
pressure each time they wake up. Over time, this can lead to the chronic elevation of
blood pressure known as hypertension, which is a major risk factor for cardiovascular
disease. Fortunately, when sleep apnea is treated, blood pressure may go down.

Mood Disorders
 Given that a single sleepless night can cause people to be irritable and moody the
following day, it is conceivable that chronic insufficient sleep may lead to long-term
mood disorders. Chronic sleep issues have been correlated with depression, anxiety,
and mental distress. In one study, subjects who slept four and a half hours per night
reported feeling more stressed, sad, angry, and mentally exhausted. In another
study, subjects who slept four hours per night showed declining levels of optimism
and sociability as a function of days of inadequate sleep. All of these self-reported
symptoms improved dramatically when subjects returned to a normal sleep
schedule.
Immune Function
 It is natural for people to go to bed when they are sick. Substances produced by the
immune system to help fight infection also cause fatigue. One theory proposes that
the immune system evolved "sleepiness inducing factors" because inactivity and
sleep provided an advantage: those who slept more when faced with an infection
were better able to fight that infection than those who slept less. In fact, research in
animals suggests that those animals who obtain more deep sleep following
experimental challenge by microbial infection have a better chance of survival.
Life Expectancy
 Considering the many potential adverse health effects of insufficient sleep, it is not
surprising that poor sleep is associated with lower life expectancy. Data from three
large cross-sectional epidemiological studies reveal that sleeping five hours or less
per night increased mortality risk from all causes by roughly 15 percent.
 Of course, just as sleep problems can affect disease risk, several diseases and
disorders can also affect the amount of sleep we get. While an estimated 50 to 70
million Americans suffer from some type of sleep disorder, most people do not
mention their sleeping problems to their doctors, and most doctors do not
necessarily ask about them. This widespread lack of awareness of the impact of
sleep problems can have serious and costly public health consequences.

5. mention treatment for anxiety disorder?

Treating a person with anxiety depends on the nature of the anxiety disorder and individual
preferences. Often, treatment will combine different types of therapy and medication.
Alcohol dependence, depression, and other conditions can sometimes have such a strong
link to anxiety in some people that treating an anxiety disorder must wait until an individual
manages any underlying conditions.
Recognizing the developing symptoms of anxious feelings and taking steps to manage the
condition without medical assistance should be the first port of call.
However, if this does not reduce the impact of anxiety symptoms, or if the onset is
particularly sudden or severe, other treatments are available.

Self-treatment
In some cases, a person can manage anxiety at home without clinical supervision. However,
this may be limited to shorter and less severe periods of anxiety.
Doctors recommend several exercises and techniques to cope with brief or focused bouts of
anxiety, including:
 Stress management: Limit potential triggers by managing stress levels. Keep an eye
on pressures and deadlines, organize daunting tasks in to-do lists, and take enough
time off from professional or educational obligations.
 Relaxation techniques: Certain measures can help reduce signs of anxiety, including
deep-breathing exercises, long baths, meditation, yoga, and resting in the dark.
 Exercises to replace negative thoughts with positive ones: Write down a list of any
negative thoughts, and make another list of positive thoughts to replace them.
Picturing yourself successfully facing and conquering a specific fear can also provide
benefits if the anxiety symptoms link to a specific stressor.
 Support network: Talk to a person who is supportive, such as a family member or
friend. Avoid storing up and suppressing anxious feelings as this can worsen anxiety
disorders.
 Exercise: Physical exertion and an active lifestyle can improve self-image and trigger
the release of chemicals in the brain that stimulate positive emotions.

Counseling and therapy

Standard treatment for anxiety involves psychological counseling and therapy.
This might include psychotherapy, such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) or a
combination of therapy and counseling.
 CBT aims to recognize and alter the harmful thought patterns that can trigger an
anxiety disorder and troublesome feelings, limit distorted thinking, and change the
scale and intensity of reactions to stressors.
 This helps people manage the way their body and mind react to certain triggers.
 Psychotherapy is another treatment that involves talking with a trained mental
health professional and working to the root of an anxiety disorder.
 Sessions might explore the triggers of anxiety and possible coping mechanisms.

Medications
 Several types of medication can support the treatment of an anxiety disorder.
 Other medicines might help control some of the physical and mental symptoms.
These include:
 Tricyclics: This is a class of drugs that have demonstrated helpful effects on most
anxiety disorders other than obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). These drugs are
known to cause side effects, such as drowsiness, dizziness, and weight gain. Two
examples of tricyclics are imipramine and clomipramine.
  Benzodiazepines: These are only available on prescription, but they can be highly
addictive and would rarely be a first-line medication. These drugs tend not to cause
many side effects, except for drowsiness and possible dependency. Diazepam, or
Valium, is an example of a common benzodiazepine for people with anxiety.
 Anti-depressants: While people most commonly use anti-depressants to manage
depression, they also feature in the treatment of many anxiety
disorders. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) are one option, and they have fewer
side effects than older anti-depressants. They are still likely to cause nausea and
sexual dysfunction at the outset of treatment. Some types include fluoxetine and
citalopram.
 Other medications that can reduce anxiety include:
 beta-blockers
 monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
 buspirone
 Stopping some medications, especially anti-depressants, can cause withdrawal
symptoms, including brain zaps. These are painful jolts in the head that feel like
shocks of electricity.
 An individual planning to adjust their approach to treating anxiety disorders after a
long period of taking anti-depressants should consult their doctor about how best to
move away from medications.
 If severe, adverse, or unexpected effects occur after taking any prescribed
medications, be sure to update a physician.

Prevention
 Although anxious feelings will always be present in daily life, there are ways to
reduce the risk of a full-blown anxiety disorder.
 Taking the following steps will help keep anxious emotions in check and prevent the
development of a disorder, including:
 Consume less caffeine, tea, soda, and chocolate.
 Check with a doctor or pharmacist before using over-the-counter (OTC) or herbal
remedies for chemicals that might make anxiety worse.
 Keep up a balanced, nutritious diet.
 Regular sleep patterns can be helpful.
 Avoid alcohol, cannabis, and other recreational drugs.

Takeaway
 Treating an anxiety disorder focuses on psychological therapy, medication, and
lifestyle adjustments. Treatment will be different for each person depending on the
type of anxiety disorder they have and the presence of any underlying conditions.
 Self-management is the first step for managing anxious feelings and often involves
relaxation techniques, an active lifestyle, and effective time management. If these
measures do not bring anxious reactions under control, visit a doctor and seek other
avenues of treatment.
 If anxious reactions are severe from the outset, for example taking the form of panic
attacks, seek treatment.
 Psychological therapies, including CBT, can help a person adjust the way they react
to stressful life events and triggers, as well as the scale of the reaction. They can also
help to limit distorted thinking and replace negative thoughts.
 Medications that can support treatment include tricyclic medications, anti-
depressants, beta-blockers, and benzodiazepines. Speak to a doctor about any severe
side effects or withdrawal symptoms after stopping.

6. Highlight the types of psychotic disorder

1.schizophrenia
The most common psychotic disorder is schizophrenia. Patients with this condition
experience changes in behaviour, delusions and hallucinations that last longer than
six months. Those diagnosed with this type of disorder often show a decline in social
function, school and work.

2.schizoaffective disorder
Patients with schizoaffective disorder have symptoms of both a mood
disorder, such as depression and schizophrenia.

3. schizophreniform disorder
When a patient with schizophrenia has symptoms that last fewer than six
months are diagnosed with schizophreniform disorder.

4.psychotic behaviour
When a patient has only short, sudden episodes of psychotic behaviour,
the condition is diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder. These episodes are
typically a response to a stressful situation and usually last less than a
month.

5.substance-induced psychotic disorder

Sometimes, withdrawal from substances like methamphetamines and
alcohol cause delusions and hallucinations. This is known as substance-
induced psychotic disorder.