Biology Chapter 8 - Cell Communication
Biology Chapter 8 - Cell Communication
Biology Chapter 8 - Cell Communication
CELL COMMUNICATION
Cellular Communication
Remember playing the game 'telephone' as a kid? One person started with a message that got passed down the line
through whispers. As the message made its way from person to person, it changed into something different and by
the end may have had nothing to do with the original statement. This happens because there is a communication
problem along the line. It shows you just how important good communication is, even with something as simple as a
child's game.
Your cells also rely on good communication, but unlike a game of telephone, if there is a miscommunication, the
consequences can be quite severe!
Cell-to-cell signaling is a critical component of coordinating cellular activities. Through this communication, messages
are carried from signaling cells to receiving cells, also known as target cells. This signaling occurs with proteins and
other types of signaling molecules. What kinds of processes and activities depend on cell communication? Just about
everything you can imagine that happens in your body - growth and development, cellular reproduction, tissue repair,
sensing pain, and much more.
ability to make flirty eye contact, these organisms can tell which cells will help them reproduce and create new
offspring, and they do this by identifying their 'mates' through chemical signals.
There are two mating types, a and alpha;. Chemical signals are secreted from type a that bind to type alpha;cells,
and type alpha; cells secrete a signal that binds to type a cells. Once the signals are received on their cellular
counterparts, the two different types of cells, a and alpha;, grow together and fuse into one a/alpha;cell. The result is
a combination of genes from both 'parents' in this new cell.
The most amazing part? This signaling pathway found in the yeast cells is incredibly similar to the signaling pathways
found in other organisms, like mammals. Yeast and mammals aren't closely related at all. In fact, yeast, which are
single-celled organisms, were around a long time before multicellular organisms (like mammals), so the similarity
between the pathways tells us that this is both an ancient and important mechanism for sustaining life on Earth
because it has endured through many different evolutionary steps.
Lesson Summary
Cellular activity and function relies on good communication between cells. Through signaling molecules and pathways,
cells can 'talk' to each other. These communications help cells develop, repair tissues, reproduce, and much more.
The signals are transmitted from a signaling cell, which sends out a signaling molecule. During this first stage of cell
signaling, called reception, the signaling molecule binds to the receptor protein. The second step,
calledtransduction, occurs when the signal from the signaling molecule travels along the transduction pathway, like
a baton through a relay race. It's during the final stage, called response, that the signal finally gets converted into a
message the target cell can understand.
You should be glad that your cells are better at communicating than a group of people playing telephone. It would be
pretty detrimental to your body if the messages inside got as distorted as they do when we whisper them in someone
else's ear!
The final stage of cell signaling is response, which is when the target cell responds to the signal received. This is like
your friend's response or action to your words hopefully they understood you correctly!
In this lesson we'll focus on signal reception. We'll cover transduction and response in detail in other lessons.
Receptor Proteins
We find receptor proteins in two places within the cell. Most often they're found in the plasma membrane, which is like
the skin of the cell. Because they are found in the cell's membrane, we call these membrane receptors. Receptor
proteins are also found inside the cell, and we call these intracellular receptors.
Ligands can easily reach membrane receptors because they're on the surface of the cell. The types of chemical
signals that reach membrane receptors are quite varied. Some allow ions like sodium and calcium to pass through to
the inside of the cell. Others play roles in things like embryonic development, vision, hearing, and fighting disease.
Ligands that bind to intracellular receptors have to find their way into the cell, going past that outer plasma membrane.
These types of ligands meet up with their matching receptors in the cytoplasm or the nucleus of the target cell. The
ligands are able to reach the receptors inside the cell because they are either hydrophobic or are small enough to
pass through the plasma membrane. Steroid and thyroid hormones are examples of ligands that bind to intracellular
receptors.
Lesson Summary
Effective cellular communication is essential to cellular functionality. Reception of a signal is the first step in a threestep cellular communication process that allows cells to 'talk' to each other. If the signal isn't received correctly, the
target cell certainly can't decode the message and respond to it.
Signaling cells act as the communicator in a conversation, sending out a signaling molecule called a ligand. These
are molecules that specifically bind to another molecule. In this case, the molecule that it binds to is areceptor
protein located in the plasma membrane or inside the cell itself. When the ligand 'key' is turned in the receptor protein
'lock,' the rest of the communication process can move forward. It's like the protein has been turned 'on,' which triggers
a pathway that decodes the message and allows the target cell to respond accordingly.
Transduction in Cells
Chapter 8 / Lesson 3 Transcript
Once a cellular signal is received, a chain of events begins that helps the receiving cell decode the signal. In this video
lesson you will learn about this second step of cellular communication and its importance to the overall process.
What Is Transduction?
Effective communication has two major components: the sender and the receiver. The sender of a message must be
clear about what they are saying, and the receiver must not only be able to receive that message but also clearly
understand it.
Communication between cells works the same way. Cells 'talk' to each other through signaling molecules
calledligands. These are molecules that bind to other specific molecules, similar to how a key only fits into a specific
lock. The molecules that ligands bind to are called receptor proteins because they receive the signal sent to them.
This first step in cellular communication is called reception because this is the stage where the target cell receives
the signaling molecule.
But what happens after the message is received? Just like your friend's brain has to 'decode' your words in a
conversation, the ligand's signal must be 'decoded' so it can be understood by the cell. In cellular communication, this
step is called transduction. It's a series of events that converts the signal so the target cell can respond.
The final step of cellular communication is response, which is when the target cell responds to the signal it received.
This is just like your communication partner responding to your words by smiling, crying, or getting angry, depending
on what you said to him or her.
In other lessons, we go into detail about reception and response. So in this lesson, we'll focus on transduction, the
second step in the cellular communication process.
A Multi-Step Process
Transduction often occurs in multiple steps, called the signal transduction pathway. The message itself gets relayed
down the line, like a baton in a relay race being passed from one person to the next.
This multi-step approach can be beneficial to the cell for a few reasons. One way this may help the cell is that the
signal itself can be amplified to numerous molecules at each individual step. This works similarly to how a chain letter
spreads. You start by sending the letter to five people, who each send it on to five more people. In just two steps, your
letter has now reached 30 people, whereas if it was only sent to one person at a time, you would have reached only
two. By amplifying the signal like this, there will be more activated molecules at the end of the pathway in the cell.
The multi-step process of transduction also serves to fine-tune the signal as it moves along. This is like the chain of
command in an office. One person may write an office memo, but before it goes out to all employees, it's reviewed by
a supervisor. It may then be further reviewed by that person's supervisor, and so on up the line. This controls the final
message that is sent out, refining it as it moves along the pathway.
While kinases are indeed very important, other non-protein molecules serve important roles in transduction as
well. Second messengers are small, water-soluble molecules that relay signals. Why second? Because the ligand
is considered the 'first messenger' as it is the first molecule to deliver the signal to the cell, which occurs earlier during
reception.
Lesson Summary
Once a signal has been received at the receptor protein during reception, the signal must now be relayed like a baton
through the cell. This second stage of cell signaling, called transduction, actually consists of multiple steps along
the signal transduction pathway.
Signals don't just magically travel down the pathway, though. One of the most important components of transduction
is an enzyme called protein kinase, which adds a phosphate group to a protein, a process known
as phosphorylation. When a protein kinase triggers the phosphorylation of other protein kinases, we get
aphosphorylation cascade. Similar to a row of falling dominoes, each protein kinase is acted on by the one before
it, relaying the signal along the pathway.
Conversely, protein phosphatases are enzymes that remove phosphate groups from proteins, a process known
as dephosphorylation. This is what turns the protein kinase off, making it available for use at a later time.
After reception of a signaling molecule and movement of that signal through transduction, the cell can now respond.
There are different types of cellular response as well as different mechanisms the cell uses to make this process more
efficient.
Protein synthesis is just a fancy way of saying 'making proteins.' Proteins do all sorts of things, like receive signaling
molecules, assist with DNA replication, or help break down food into smaller particles so that you can utilize its
nutritious goodies.
In addition to making proteins, regulating when they are 'on' or 'off' is also important. Some proteins regulate ion
channels in a cell's plasma membrane. You don't want this on or off all the time because your cells need to maintain
a certain ionic balance. Turning this protein 'on' at only the appropriate times helps maintain that balance.
Regulating cell division and growth is an important response because uncontrolled cell reproduction and growth are
major contributors to the development of cancer.
Cellular response may occur in either the cell's nucleus or in the cytoplasm, but regardless of where it occurs, the
response needs a bit of tweaking before it's ready for action.
Scaffold Proteins
Yet another way that cellular response is made more efficient is with scaffold proteins. These are large proteins that
are attached to other proteins involved in transduction. Proteins that are involved in transduction are not all connected
in a line, just waiting for a signal to turn them on. They are floating around in the cytoplasm of a cell, but because they
are fairly large, they don't move around very quickly.
What a scaffold protein does is move many proteins at once, much like large ship carries many soldiers to shore at
the same time. If each of the people on the ship were to travel by canoe to reach that same destination, it would be a
much less efficient process because each of those people would be taking up space on the water and along the shore
with their canoes. Additionally, each canoe would require a lot of paddling effort, taking more time to travel than the
ship would to move the same number of people the same distance. Can you see how moving many proteins at once
would be more efficient for cellular response?
Lesson Summary
Cellular response, or a cell's response to a signal, is the final step in the signal transduction pathway. Cellular
response may be amplified during the transduction process, which increases the efficiency of the response because
more responses can be triggered in a shorter amount of time. Signals can also be coordinated so that they respond
appropriately. Different types of cells may respond differently to the same signal, but a single cell may also have
different ways it can respond to a signal.
Cellular response may also be made more efficient with the use of scaffold proteins, which move multiple proteins
through the cytoplasm at once. Once cellular response is complete, it's important for the cell to turn off the signal
transduction pathway. The signaling molecule leaves the receptor protein, switching all of the proteins down the line
to the 'off' position. This then frees the cell to receive and respond to a new signal, which starts the process all over
again.
What's a Heterotroph?
Think about all of the food you ate today. It must come from somewhere, right? All of that food came from other
organisms that used to be alive. We need to eat these other organisms because they provide energy for us to live.
Because you need to eat other organisms to get energy, this makes you a heterotroph. Heterotrophs are also called
'other feeders' and because they need to consume energy to sustain themselves, they are also known as 'consumers.'
Some organisms are actually able to survive by making their own food. These organisms are calledautotrophs.
Autotrophs are also called 'self-feeders' and they are able to produce energy from sunlight and carbon dioxide and
are therefore known as 'producers.' The only autotrophs that we know of are plants and some types of algae. This
makes all other organisms heterotrophs.
Examples of Heterotrophs
Not all plants are autotrophic; a few are actually heterotrophic. The European mistletoe is a parasitic plant, surviving
off of a host plant. Other plants, such as pitcher plants, are carnivorous and feed on other organisms like insects.
You are a heterotroph. Your dog, cat, bird, fish, etc. are all heterotrophs too because you all depend on other
organisms as an energy source. Other animal heterotrophs you are likely familiar with include deer, squirrels, rabbits,
mice, and other animals you may see around your yard or a nearby park or forest.
Bacteria are also heterotrophs, as well as fungi. Fungi break down dead and decaying organisms, which makes
them detritivores. Detritivores serve an important role in helping to recycle plant and animal material that is no longer
living and return those nutrients to the ecosystem.
It is important to note that not all heterotrophs rely on the same food sources for energy. Some heterotrophs eat only
producers, like a gazelle eating grass. Some eat both producers and other consumers, like a bear eating game and
berries. And some eat only other consumers, like a cougar eating a deer. Consumers that eat only producers are
called herbivores, those that eat only other consumers are called carnivores, and those that eat both producers and
consumers are called omnivores.
Lesson Summary
Any organism that can't make its own food is a heterotroph. Heterotrophs may eat food sources that are different
from other heterotrophs, but as long as they are not able to produce their own food, they are 'other feeders.'
In contrast, autotrophs are able to produce their own food and because of this, autotrophs often provide food to many
heterotrophs. Most organisms on Earth are heterotrophs, even some plants, which are parasitic orcarnivorous.