Nabcep SH Guide 8-5-13

NABCEP
Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide

v.1.1/2013
V.5.0 / 10.11
Prepared by:
www.nabcep.org
Chuck Marken and Vaughan Woodruff
Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1 NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide 1
www.nabcep.org
Raising Standards. Promoting Confidence
2 NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide
Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1
Acknowledgements:
NABCEP wishes to thank the companies and
individuals who have made this Resource Guide
possible. This document is the result of the
efforts of its principal authors: Chuck Marken
and Vaughan Woodruff of Kennebec Valley
Community College and Insource Renewables. We
also wish to thank Les Nelson, Technical Editor of
the Resource Guide. Les is a founding Director of
NABCEP, and is the Director of Solar Heating &
Cooling Programs at the International Association
of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials (IAPMO).
We could not have produced a document of such
high quality without the support of the New York
Energy Research and Development Authority
(NYSERDA).
Finally NABCEP would like to express our
gratitude to Kathryn Sikule at Brownstone
Graphics who has turned the work of the
contributors into a beautiful document.
Forward/Scope
This document was developed to provide an
overview of some of the basic requirements for
solar heating (SH) system installations and
those who install them. Readers should use
this document along the other resources listed
on the NABCEP website. These resources

include: training materials; reports; and, codes
and standards associated with the design and
installation of solar heating systems.
This document is a collaborative effort between
the authors, editors and you the reader. It is
considered a work in progress. Future editions
of this guide will incorporate comments,
corrections and new content as appropriate
to reflect new types of products, installation
methods or code requirements. Public comments
are welcomed and can be directed to the
following: www.shstudyguide.org.
Units of Measure
Both the International System of Units (SI)
and the U.S./Imperial customary units of
measure are used throughout this document.
While SI units are generally used for solar
radiation and electrical parameters, U.S./
Imperial customary units are used most
commonly in the U.S. construction industry for
weights or measure. Solar Heating professionals
U.S. and Canada are expected to be comfortable
with using both systems of measurement
and converting between the two given the
appropriate unit conversion factors.
Thank you to our Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide Sponsor
Non Endorsement Statement: The North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP) does not assume any legal liability
or responsibility for the products and services listed or linked to in NABCEP publications and website. Reference to any specific commercial
product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not constitute or imply NABCEPs endorsement
or recommendation.
NABCEP - 56 Clifton Country Road, Suite 202

Clifton Park, NY 12065

800-654-0021 / [email protected]
www.nabcep.org
NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide 3
Welcome
to the 2012 edition of the NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer

Study and Resource Guide. This edition follows the most recent version of the NABCEP
Solar Heating Installer Job Task Analysis which can be found at www.nabcep.org.
Over the years we have received many suggestions for improving our Study and Resource Guide. We often receive suggested corrections to perceived inaccuracies in the
copy. With the publication of this guide we are setting up a special email account to receive comments and suggestion about this publication: [email protected]. We will monitor this email account and the Study Guide Committee will review all submissions. The
most relevant and appropriate suggestions that are received will be added to the next
edition of the Guide. We think that this approach of actively seeking input from readers
will ultimately improve the Study Guide and are looking forward to hearing from you.
Please keep your postings positive and as brief and succinct as possible. A second edition
of the Guide that reflects the comments and suggestions received will be published in the
fall of 2012.
As ever, we wish to remind all readers of this Study and Resource Guide that it is in no
way intended to be the definitive word on Solar Heating installation nor is it intended
to be viewed as the sole study resource for candidates for the NABCEP Certification
Examination. The NABCEP website has a list of additional study resources that are
useful for candidates who are preparing for the Installer Exam. However all candidates
should be cognizant that there are many other sources of good information on the topics
covered by the JTA and they should use them. The ultimate way to prepare for the
NABCEP exam is by reviewing the Job Task Analysis and Exam Blueprint. An honest
and thorough self-evaluation of these will best help the candidate to see what areas in
the body of knowledge required to pass the exam they need to study the most.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction.........................................................................5
9 Commission the System......................................120
2 Glossary...................................................................................7
10 Service and Maintain the System..............124

11 Case Studies
3 Basic Solar Principals and Knowledge........10
6 Evaluate the Site............................................................55
7 Plan System Installation.......................................68
12 Study Guide Review Questions..................154
8 Install System. .................................................................72
13 Additional Study Resources...........................157
4 Collectors, Systems, and Applications. ....18

5 Prepare for Project.......................................................45
Case Study A .......................................................................144

Case Study B.........................................................................147
Case Study C. .......................................................................149
Case Study D........................................................................152
Introduction
The Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide was written
for those individuals seeking Solar Heating Installer
Certification through the North American Board of
Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP). This guide
provides an overview of solar heating technology and
discusses a number of skills required for successful
installation of these systems. Candidates should use
this resource in conjunction with the NABCEP Solar
Heating Job Task Analysis (JTA) and the primary
and supplemental references listed on NABCEPs
websitewww.nabcep.orgto prepare for the Solar
Heating Installer Exam.
Solar Heating
Job Description
In late 2011, NABCEP decided to begin using Solar

Heating for its Installer Certification and Entry Level
Programs. This transition was made to provide greater
for NABCEP
Certified Solar Heating Installer
clarity regarding the scope of NABCEPs work. Solar

Thermal has become the term of choice when referring to Concentrating Solar Power (CSP), a utility-
Given basic instructions, manufacturer installation

manual(s), major components specifications, and
scale technology that utilizes heat generated by the

sun to produce electricity. NABCEPs focus is on distributed systems that are smaller in scale and utilize
solar radiation to produce heat for use in buildings,
including water and space heating, and for swimming
schematics and drawings, the installer is required

to install a solar water heating system that meets
the performance and reliability needs of customers
pool heating. NABCEP believes that Solar Heating

better defines the family of solar-related products this
guide focuses on, and will help prevent confusion with
in the United States and Canada by incorporating

quality craftsmanship and complying with all
other technologies.
applicable codes, standards, and safety practices.

Les Nelson, NABCEP Board of Directors
Introduction
continued
The JTA
The NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Exam serves to assess the
knowledge of a professional engaged in the installation of solar
heating systems. To be eligible
for the exam, a candidate must
demonstrate a combination of
experience and training directly
related to solar heating system
installation. NABCEP recognizes
several pathways, or qualifying
categories, for meeting these eligibility requirements. Details are
available at www.nabcep.org/
certification.
Exam Blueprint
The table below shows the blueprint (test specifications) for the NABCEP Certified Solar
Heating Installer Examination. It is provided for candidates and educators use to determine
which specific knowledge areas to focus on when preparing for the examination.
NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer Exam Blueprint

% of exam
# of items
A. Prepare for project
12%
B. Evaluate the site
13%
C. Plan system installation
19%
1112
D. Install the system
30%
18
E. Commission the system
14%
89
F. Service and maintain the system
12%
100%
60
TOTAL
The content of this guide is

based on the JTA, which details
the minimum tasks necessary for the successful installation of a solar heating system. The guide addresses
the six content areas of the JTA and the subtasks for
each. In order to effectively prepare for certification, a
candidate must be familiar with all aspects of the JTA.
The primary purpose of this guide is to supplement
and augment the content of the JTA and the reference documents listed by NABCEP for Solar Heating
Installer Certification.
The NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Exam itself is also
based on the JTA. The exam questions are weighted as
in the chart above.
While this guide serves to assist candidates in their
preparation for NABCEP Solar Heating Installer
Certification, it should not be taken as an all-inclusive
overview of the exam. Questions on the exam are not
necessarily based on the content of this guide. A discussion of the rigor of the exam and several questions
from previous versions of the exam are presented at the
end of this guide to assist candidates with their exam
preparation.
The JTA was constructed and reviewed with the

consensus of over 100 solar heating professionals
in the US. The workflow associated with a larger
installation company is the criteria used in the order
given for the six areas of tasks in the JTA. Smaller
companies that purchase materials on a job-to-job
basis may find that the areas do not conform to their
customaryworkflow. For example, Evaluate the Site
might logically come before Prepare for Project for
some unique projects, rather than in the opposite
order as presented in the JTA and this RG.
Sections 5 through 10 of this Solar Heating Installer
Resource Guide are aligned with the content areas
of the JTA. Tasks and subtasks in the JTA are listed
in order of their criticality in each section (area) of
this guide. These tasks and subtasks are organized
in this guide to follow the normal flow of work on
a job site and may not correspond exactly with the
JTA ordering.
Glossary
absorber the portion of a solar collector that receives radiant solar energy and transforms it into heat energy
condenser bulb heat exchanger at the top of a heat pipe in

an evacuated tube collector
active system a solar heating system that utilizes mechanical means, such as a dedicated pump or fan, to circulate
heat from collectors to a point-of-use or storage
conduction the transfer of heat through a solid or fluid

convection the transfer of heat by the circulation or movement of a liquid or gas solids dont convect
albedo radiation solar radiation that is reflected off the
counter flow heat exchanger type in which two fluids flow
Earths surface
through the heat exchanger in opposite directions
altitude angle measure of the angle formed between the

sun and the horizon
cycling, pump pump on and off states, one on and one off
is a cycle
anode rod a sacrificial metal component installed in coated

steel tanks to protect the tank vessel from corrosion
datalogger a device used to measure system properties,

such as temperatures, pressure, and flow rates, over a
Antifreeze system (AF) indirect forced circulation system

that utilizes a nontoxic heat transfer fluid
period of time; may be integral to the differential

controller or a standalone device
aquastat a mechanical device that opens and closes a
differential controller control that provides power to a
switch based on the temperature of a fluid
relay based on the difference in temperature between
azimuth the orientation of a collector array, expressed in

degrees
two sensors
diffuse radiation solar radiation that is transmitted to
batch heater a type of water heater that utilizes an uninsulated black tank to collect and store solar energy
the Earths surface after significant scattering by the

atmosphere
brazing a process in which a heated metal filler is used to

join two metals
direct beam radiation solar radiation that is transmitted

to the Earths surface with minimal scattering by the
British Thermal Unit (BTU) the amount of energy
atmosphere
required to raise the temperature of one pound of water

by one degree Fahrenheit
Direct Forced Circulation system (DFC) system that utilizes a bronze or stainless steel pump to circulate potable
chase an enclosed cavity that conceals piping
water from the solar storage tank through the collectors
check valve a valve that allows flow in one direction only

circulator pump electromechanical device used to circulate
fluids in forced circulation systems
direct system system in which potable water flows

through the collectors
double-wall heat exchanger device that utilizes an air gap
closed loop system containing a fixed amount of fluid that

is isolated from the atmosphere or other piping systems
collector device that captures the suns energy, converts
between two walls to prevent contamination of potable

water by a heat transfer fluid
Drainback system (DB) indirect forced circulation system
it to heat, and allows transport of the collected heat to
that is flooded only when the pump is operating; the
storage tanks and/or end-use locations, such as hot water
system is protected from freezing and overheating by
fixtures or space heating systems
allowing the heat transfer fluid to drain from the
collector loop portion of a solar water heating systems
collectors and exterior piping by means of gravity
plumbing that contains the solar collectors. In an indirect

system, this includes the piping and other components
on the collector side of the heat exchanger. In a direct
when the pump is off

drainback tank or reservoir a tank of a size adequate to
hold the entire fluid volume of a collector loop
system, this includes all of the components between the

collector(s) and the storage tank.
dynamic head the resistance that occurs between a fluid

and the pipe through which it travels
collector tilt the measure of the angle between the collector slope and a horizontal plane
emissivity a measure of a surfaces ability to radiate heat

equinox the two times each year (March 20th or 21st
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) high temperature, large-
and September 22nd or 23rd) when night and day are
scale solar systems used to generate electricity by means
approximately equal; the sun is directly overhead at the
of a turbine; also known as solar thermal
equator and rises true east and sets true west
Glossary
evacuated tube collector collector that utilizes cylindrical
tubes containing a vacuum to limit thermal losses
expansion tank device that utilizes a pressurized air bladder to buffer a heating system from pressure variations
that result from changes in temperature
by means of a flat absorber plate
insolation the amount of solar radiation received from the

sun over a period of time
which the solar storage is also the absorber
International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical
flat plate heat exchanger a device that utilizes narrow,

alternating channels to allow efficient heat transfer between two fluids
Officials (IAPMO) nonprofit corporation that certifies

and rates collectors and systems
interrow shading the obstruction of solar radiation caused
flow rate a measure of the quantity of fluid that moves

through piping during a fixed period of time
by a bank of collectors positioned in front of another

bank of collectors
frictional head see dynamic head
irradiance an instantaneous measurement of power re-
glazing transparent cover on solar collector
ceived from the sun
glycol a heat transfer fluid with a lower freeze point than

water that is used to provide freeze protection
low iron glass glass with most of the metallic iron removed; has a higher transmittance than window glass
gravity head the resistance that a pump must overcome to

raise a fluid above its static level
magnetic declination measure of the difference between

true north and magnetic north at a particular site, ex-
hardwired refers to electrical equipment that is connected

directly to line voltage via wiring, rather than connected
via a cord and outlet
pressed in degrees
manifold a system of piping with a single inlet and multiple outlets or multiple inlets and a single outlet
header the portion of a collector that serves as the inlet

and/or outlet for the primary heat transfer fluid
heat exchanger a device that conducts heat through a
solid material, such as metal, to transfer energy from one
medium to another
open loop system that introduces new water into the

collector loop from the water supply or is vented to the
atmosphere
optimal efficiency the efficiency of a collector when there
is no temperature difference between the inlet tempera-
heat transfer fluid a liquid or gas that is used to capture

and distribute heat energy
ture and the ambient environment; also referred to as the

y-intercept
heat pipe device in an evacuated tube collector that transfers heat from the absorber to the manifold
output power that is provided from a controller by means

of a relay for running pumps, valves, or other devices
hydronic system a system that uses water or glycol to collect and distribute heat for space heating
passive system a solar heating system that relies on natural convection to circulate the heat transfer fluid
hysteresis the dead temperature band between a turn-on

and turn-off setting in a control
personal fall arrest system fall protection that consists of a

safety harness and lanyard that connects to a safety rope
immersed coil a heat exchanger that is contained in the

storage fluid volume of a solar storage tank
or lifeline
pH a measure of hydrogen ions used to determine the
incidence angle the measure of the angle between the

solar radiation and the collection surface of the collector
Indirect Forced Circulation system (IFC) a system that
utilizes a heat exchanger and a pump
acidity, neutrality, or alkalinity of a solution

photovoltaic (PV) the process or device used to convert
solar radiation into electrical energy
potable water that is drinkable
indirect system system in which solar energy is transferred from the collectors to the potable water and/or
space heating system through the use of a heat transfer
a controller to determine system functionality
Integrated Collector Storage system (ICS) a system in
flat plate collector collector that captures the suns energy
fluid and a heat exchanger
input a measuring device, such as a sensor, that is used by
propylene glycol non-toxic heat transfer fluid

pressure relief valve a safety valve that actuates on excessive system pressure
radiation the transfer of heat from one medium to another
Glossary
refractometer a device used to measure the specific gravity
standby losses heat that is lost from a solar storage tank

due to the difference in temperature between the fluid in
of a fluid; a glycol refractometer is calibrated to deter-
the tank and the surrounding environment
mine the concentration of glycol in a solution

relay a powered switch that provides or disconnects
static head see gravity head

stratification the layering of heat in a solar storage tank in
power to a pump or valve
which the hottest water is at the top and the coldest water
riser flow channel in a flat plate or pool collector that
is at the bottom
transports the heat transfer fluid through the absorber

selective surface absorber coatings that have high absorp-
temperature and pressure relief valve (T&P valve) a

safety valve required on all water heaters set to actuate
tance and low emissivity

sensor device that creates a change in electrical resistance
at dangerous temperatures or pressure

tempered glass safety glass that breaks into small pieces
with a change in temperature

sight glass transparent tubing that is installed on the side
of a drainback tank to indicate the water level in the vessel
rather than large shards; used in patio and shower doors

and in solar collectors
thermal losses heat lost by a collector due to the difference
solar noon the time of day at which the sun reaches its
in temperature between the collector temperature and the
highest point in the sky
ambient outdoor environment
short cycling a pump turning on and off repeatedly, a
thermostat device that closes or opens a switch based on
symptom of a differential setting that is too narrow
air temperature
Solar Rating & Certification Corporation (SRCC)

nonprofit corporation that certifies and rates collectors
thermosyphon circulation of a fluid based on the phenomenon of natural convection, in which heated fluids rise
and systems
and colder fluids sink
solar south true south

solar storage tank a vessel used to store quantities of heat
Thermosyphon system (TS) passive system that utilizes

natural convection for heat transfer fluid circulation
in liquid (usually water) for later use

solar window the portion of the sky that is defined by the
suns path on the winter solstice and the summer solstice
three port valve a valve with three ports that allows flow
in two paths, one at a time in each of two settings
unglazed collector a collector that does not utilize an insu-
and the three hours on either side of solar noon
lated casing, such as a standard pool collector
solstice the two times of the year when the sun is at its
lowest and highest altitude angles; in the Northern Hemi-
Uniform Solar Energy Code (USEC) Code established by
sphere these days correspond with the shortest day of the
the International Association of Plumbing and Mechani-
year, December 21st or 22nd, and the longest day of the
cal Officials (IAPMO) relating to the proper installation of

solar energy systems
year, June 21st or 22nd
volute the main flow path through a circulation pump that
SRCC Standard 100 SRCC Standard 100 Test Methods

and Minimum Standards for Certifying Solar Collectors
houses the impeller, also known as the impeller housing

warning line system fall protection method that utilizes
SRCC Operating Guidelines 100 (OG-100) SRCC

Document OG100 Operating Guidelines and Minimum
temporary stanchions and a line that meets specific
Standards for Certifying Solar Collectors
OSHA guidelines; a safety monitor may be required to

keep workers within the warning line depending upon
SRCC Operating Guidelines 300 (OG-300) SRCC

Document OG300 Operating Guidelines and Minimum
Standards for Certifying Solar Water Heating Systems
the application and jurisdiction

wraparound heat exchanger a heat exchanger that is in
protocol used to certify and rate solar water heating
direct contact with the outside of the fluid containment
systems
vessel of a solar storage tank and covered by the tank
stagnation phenomenon that occurs when there is no flow

through a solar collector when there is sufficient solar
radiation for providing heat to the system
insulation
zenith the point in the sky that is directly above the head
of the observer
3 Basic Solar Principals and Knowledge

Written records of modern solar heating techniques date back to the use of passive
solar architecture in ancient Roman bathhouses. The use of glass to trap heat and the
importance of proper orientation were implemented at the community scale in Europe
and made their way to America with European settlers. Indigenous cultures in North
America already had a profound understanding of the importance of solar orientation
and the solar cycles, as is readily apparent in the indigenous architecture of the American
Southwest.
Modern solar water heating (SWH) and solar pool heating (SPH) systems are more
technologically advanced uses of the suns energy, but their design is based upon collecting the same solar resource. In order to maximize the production of these systems, it is
critical to understand basic solar principles and how they affect the performance of solar
heating systems.
3.1 Irradiance and insolation
DIRECTLY
OVERHEAD
ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE
= 0 DEGREES
Irradiance is a measure, usually expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2), of the
suns power at a given moment. Insolation is the total amount of solar energy available over a period of time and is typically measured in kilowatt-hours per square meter
per day (kWh/m2/day). For example, the irradiance on a solar collector may vary from
700W/m2 to 900W/m2 from 9am to 3pm on a sunny day at a given location. The insolation that this collector receives during this period
might be 45kWh/m2. The efficiency of a SWH
system is based on its ability to convert insolation
to usable energy.
MORNING
ANGLE OF
INCIDENCE
Insolation may also be described using the unit of
= 50 DEGREES
sun hours. One sun hour is the equivalent of 1000
Wh/m2, or 317 BTU/ft2.
Irradiance and insolation are influenced by the
earths atmosphere. Due to solar angles, the amount
of atmosphere the solar energy must pass through
varies with the day and time of the year. Irradiance
is most intense during midday and in the summer when the suns radiation travels more directly
through the atmosphere, thus minimizing the
absorption and reflection of the suns energy
(Figure 3-1).
HORIZONTAL
COLLECTOR
ATMOSPHERE
EARTH'S
SURFACE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
Figure 3-1 Illustration demonstrating the effects of the angle of incidence on the amount of
atmosphere through which irradiation must pass. The suns energy must pass through more
atmosphere in the morning and afternoon, which leads to more reflection and absorption of the
suns energy by the atmosphere. Similarly, the suns energy must pass through more atmosphere
during different times of the year, which contributes to seasonal fluctuations in solar insolation.
Figures 3-2 and 3-3 illustrate the monthly distribution of average daily insolation on the Earths surface in Honolulu, HI and Anchorage, AK. While the
insolation is greater in the summer than the winter
in both locations, in Anchorage the summer insola-
Figure 3-2 Average daily insolation values by month for Honolulu, HI.
Figure 3-3 Average daily insolation values by month for Anchorage, AK
tion is far greater than the winter insolation. This is due to Anchorages more northerly
latitude, which causes greater seasonal variations in the length of day. As a rule, sites
closer to the equator experience less seasonal variation in insolation than those toward
the poles.
The amount of irradiance that strikes the Earths surface is also dependent upon weather.
Moisture in the airincluding cloudswill absorb and reflect significant portions of the
suns energy. The energy that is transmitted through clouds is called diffuse radiation,
which is far less intense than direct beam radiation. During an overcast day, the earths
surface receives roughly 60% less solar energy than on a clear day.
428 BTU/HR/SQ.FT.
UPPER ATMOSPHERE
(SOLAR CONSTANT)
ATMOSPHERIC
LOSSES ABOUT
30% MINIMUM
REFLECTED
IRRADIANCE
(ALBEDO)
DIRECT
BEAM
IRRADIANCE
DIFFUSE
IRRADIANCE
MAXIMUM IRRADIANCE ABOUT

300 BTU/HR/SQ.FT. AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
Figure 3-4 The effects of the atmosphere

on irradiation.
3.2 Solar angles

Seasonal variations result from the tilt of the Earths axis, which is 23.5 from the plane of
its orbit around the sun. At winter solstice, which occurs on December 21st or 22nd in the
northern hemisphere, the earth is tilted 23.5 away from the sun. On summer solstice
June 21st or 22nd in the northern

hemispherethe Earth is tilted 23.5
towards the sun. This results in the
variance of the daily sun path across
the sky at any given latitude. The
sun path, and thus the total hours of
sunlight, is shortest on winter solstice
and longest on summer solstice.
The solar angles at any given site are
determined by the sites latitude. A
sites latitude represents the measure
of the angle between the zenitha
theoretical point in the sky that is
directly overheadand the suns
altitude angle at solar noon on the
spring or fall equinox. The equinoxes
Figure 3-5 Solar angles. (Courtesy of the NABCEP PV Resource Guide 2011, Brooks/Dunlop)
occur on March 21st or 22nd and on September 21st or 22nd and represent the days in which there is an
equal amount of day and night. The suns altitude angle is the angle formed between the sun and the horizon (see Figure 3-5); solar noon is the time of day when the sun has reached its highest point in the sky. At a
latitude of 30N, the measure of the suns altitude angle at solar noon on either equinox is 60.
When the Earth reaches its maximum tilt toward the
sunon the summer solsticethe suns altitude angle
at solar noon is 23.5 greater than on the equinox. At
a latitude of 30N this equates to an altitude angle
of 83.5. Conversely, the suns altitude angle at solar
noon on the winter solstice is 23.5 less than on the
equinox. At the same site, the suns altitude angle is
36.5 at solar noon on the winter solstice.
Figure 3-6a, 3-6b, and 3-6c Sun paths for sites at latitudes of 0, 23.5N, and 47N.
Note that each location has 47 degree difference between the summer and winter solstices.
(Courtesy of the NABCEP PV Resource Guide 2011, Brooks/Dunlop)
Figure 3-6a
Figure 3-6b
Figure 3-6c
These altitude angles are important

in determining the collector tilt angle required to maximize the usable
energy produced by a SWH system,
as well as to determine whether
nearby obstructions might shade the
collector array.
Solar altitude angle at solar noon

Latitude
Winter Solstice Spring/Fall Equinox Summer Solstice
0 (the equator)
66.5
90
66.5
10
56.5
80
76.5
20
46.5
70
86.5
43
66.5
90
36.5
60
83.5
23.5 (the Tropics)

30
In the early morning and the late

40
26.5
50
afternoon when the suns altitude
50
16.5
40
angle is low, sunlight must pass
60
6.5
30
through more atmosphere or air
70
20
mass. This results in significantly
80
10
less irradiance reaching the earths
90 (the Poles)
0
surface. As a result, approximately
90% of daily insolation strikes a site
during the six hours that bracket
solar noon. The area of the sky that falls between these hours and between the suns
paths on the winter and summer solstices is called the solar window (Figure 3-7). Ideally,
collectors should be sited in a location that is not shaded within the solar window. When
shading is unavoidable, considerations should be made for the impact on system performance. Considerations could include a reduction in performance estimates or the addition of extra collectors to accommodate the diminished available solar energy. Tools used
to evaluate shading and its effects are addressed in Section 5.
73.5
63.5
53.5
43.5
33.5
23.5
Figure 3-7 Illustration of the solar window. The top and bottom of the window are defined by the solstices; the edges of the
window are defined by a 6-hour span centered on solar noon. (Courtesy of Solar Energy Internationalwww.solarenergy.org)
3.3 Collector orientation

Solar collectors are most effective at collecting solar
energy when the surface of the panel is perpendicular to
the suns rays. When the incidence angle of the sunlight
on the collector is not perpendicular, more energy is
reflected from the collector surface and the intensity of
irradiance is diminished.
Figure 3-8 Variation of magnetic declination in Washington, DC between 1750 and

2005. (Courtesy of NOAA)
Figure 3-9 2010 Isogonic Map of the United States. The dark line in the middle represents the locations where magnetic north and true north are equivalent. Locations east of
the line have a western declination; locations west of the line have an eastern declination.
For example, the magnetic declination in San Francisco, CA is between 14 and 15 east.
This means that magnetic north is roughly 14.5east of magnetic north there. At the 10
blue line, the azimuth angle is 170 on the compass. At the 10 red line the azimuth
angle is 190 on the compass. (Courtesy of NOAA)
For this reason, collectors typically gather the most solar

energy annually when oriented toward true south. True
south can be determined at solar noonit lies on the
line between the observer and the sun. True south can
also be determined by using a magnetic compass and
accounting for the sites magnetic declination. Magnetic
declination is the difference between magnetic north
and true north. This difference changes over time (in
some locations up to a degree difference a decade, due
to gradual movement of the magnetic north pole over
time) and varies by location (Figure 3-8). In 2010, the
Mississippi River Valley demarcated the approximate
line where true north and magnetic north were the same
(Figure 3-9). The declination in North America varied
from about 17 to the east of true north on the west side
of the Mississippi to 17 to the west of true north on the
east side of the Mississippi.
Declination is an important consideration when orienting collectors or considering the orientation of collectors.
In order to determine the true orientation of the collector
array, the installer must adjust the magnetic declination
on the compass. The installer must first locate magnetic
north. Once facing magnetic north, s/he must rotate to
his/her right by the correct number of degrees to adjust
for a west declination or to their left to adjust for an east
declination. Once properly aligned toward true north,
the installer must rotate 180 to face true south.
When collectors are oriented facing a direction other
than true south, this may impact the performance of the
system. This angular orientation of the collector array is
called the azimuth. The azimuth may be referred to in
absolute terms, such as 200, or in relative terms, such as
20W of true south. When using absolute terms, 180S
represents true south.
Figure 3-10 Magnetic declination of San Francisco, CA.
The collector tilt angle also affects the incidence angle

of irradiance on the collector array. Collectors that are
(Courtesy of NOAA and Google Maps)
installed at a tilt angle equal to the sites latitude will be perpendicular to the sun during
midday on the equinoxes and will have varying angles of incidence during other times of
the year. In most cases, the tilt angle is determined based upon the slope of the roof and/
or the time of year in which the capture of solar energy is most beneficial.
Surface Orientation Factor (SOF) charts illustrate the effects of collector tilt and azimuth
on the amount of annual solar insolation available at a site (Figure 3-11). These charts
illustrate either the percentage of the maximum solar insolation that is available for a
given orientation or quantify the average total energy that falls on the collector annually
when mounted at a specified tilt and azimuth. SOF charts for various locations in the U.S.
are available via the Annual Insolation Lookup tool at http://www1.solmetric.com/cgi/
insolation_lookup/go.cgi.
SOF charts illustrate that perfecting the tilt and azimuth of the collector array is not necessary. For many sites, orienting the collectors to the southwest or the southeast will have
minimal impact on system production. Often, a less-than-optimal collector tilt will not
reduce the annual system output significantly either.
Figure 3-11 Surface Orientation

Factor Diagrams for Augusta, ME
and Tucson, AZ. The center of the
diagram represents the optimal tilt
angle and azimuth for maximum
annual insolation. This value is
also given in the diagram heading.
(Courtesy of Solmetric)
While SOF charts will help quantify the effects of orientation on annual solar insolation,
their application has some limits when applied to SWH:
l
The charts are based on data collected for flat surfaces. For curved surfaces, such as evacuated tube collectors, the effects of azimuth may be less pronounced.
is not always beneficial to orient collectors to maximize the annual solar insolation. Due to
the limitations of storing large quantities of hot water, SWH systems should be designed to maximize usable solar insolation. If a SWH system is designed to maximize
annual solar insolation, it is likely to produce more heat than can be used or stored in
the summer and less heat than is needed in the winter. The standard recommendations for collector tilt are as follows:
l It
To maximize usable solar energy annually, such as for domestic water heating
systems, the collector tilt angle should be equal to the latitude of the site.
To maximize usable solar energy in the summer, such as for solar pool
heating, the collector tilt angle should be fifteen degrees less than the latitude
of the site.
To maximize usable solar energy in the winter, such as for winter space
heating, the collector tilt angle should be fifteen degrees more than the latitude
of the site.
Exceptions to the collector tilt guidelines above are common with installers in particular
regions. For example, the winter solar resource is so diminished in the Pacific Northwest
that installers often mount collectors at a tilt angle that is 15 degrees less than the latitude. When collectors are mounted at lower tilt angles, care must be taken to alleviate the
potential for overheating under summer insolation levels. In desert areas with an intense
solar resource, many installers will mount collectors at a tilt angle that is 15 degrees more
than latitude to mitigate overheating in the summer.
Collectors may also be mounted at low tilt angles if they are flush-mounted on an
existing roof to provide for a more aesthetically pleasing appearance. This may
contribute to overheating and will make it more difficult for the collector array to
shed snow in colder climates.
It should be noted that adjusting the tilt or azimuth by a few degrees to achieve an optimal orientation may result in very little additional energy collection, require substantial
cost for collector racking hardware, and result in a less aesthetically pleasing installation.
3.4 Effects of ambient air temperature

Ambient air temperature has a significant effect on the performance of SWH systems.
The amount of heat loss from a solar collector is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between the operating temperature of the collector and the temperature of the
surrounding air. Summer has ideal conditions for collecting solar energy due to the high
amount of solar irradiance, longer days, and warmer ambient temperatures. Clear winter
days provide high solar irradiance, but the collectors are less efficient due to thermal
losses from the collector to the colder outdoor air.
Regulation, certification, and research relating to SWH systems

The following agencies and organizations are involved in regulation, certification, and research
relating to SWH systems.
The Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE) is a searchable, interactive
database of incentives for energy efficiency and renewable energy available in the U.S.
The Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) tests and certifies collectors and systems, engages in
research and development, and provides educational programs relating to solar energy.
The International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) develops and
publishes the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC), the Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC), the Uniform
Swimming Pool Code (USPC), and the Uniform Solar Energy Code (USEC), and certifies solar
heating collectors and systems.
The International Code Council (ICC) develops and publishes the International Plumbing Code
(IPC), the International Mechanical Code (IMC), and the International Energy and Conservation
Code (IECC).
The Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC) is a nonprofit organization that works with
stakeholders to advance the implementation of renewable energy technologies. IREC is the National
Administrator of the DOE Solar Instructor Training Network, which works to implement high
quality solar training across the U.S. and is the North American affiliate for the Institute of
Sustainable Power Quality (ISPQ), which accredits renewable energy educational programs,
trainers, and instructors.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) provides support for research and development in the solar heating and photovoltaic industries.
The North American Board of Certified Energy Professionals (NABCEP) certifies professionals
in the fields of photovoltaics, solar heating, and wind energy, and provides entry level testing
programs for selected technologies.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is the office of the U.S. Department
of Labor that provides regulations for workplace safety.
Sandia National Laboratories engages in research and development supporting the solar industry.
The Solar Rating & Certification Corporation (SRCC) certifies solar heating collectors
and systems.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is responsible for research, development, and education
programs relating to technologies that address the countrys energy and environmental challenges.
4 Collectors, Systems, and Applications

Solar Heating encompasses three solar technologies that are used in residential and commercial applicationsSolar Water Heating (SWH), Solar Space Heating, and Solar Pool
Heating (SPH). Two other related technologies are Solar Cooling, which uses solar heat to
drive absorption and adsorption chillers, and Concentrating Solar Power (CSP), which is
used for utility-scale electricity production.
This Resource Guide is focused solely on solar heating technologiesSWH, Solar Space
Heating, and SPH. Each of these solar heating technologies is characterized by different
components, systems, and applications. An installer must have a strong understanding
of how these technologies differ from one another and how each collects and utilizes the
suns energy.
4.1 Collectors
Solar collectors produce the heat in solar heating systems. Collectors vary in design from
very simple to quite complex. Four standard collector designs are in wide use throughout
the world todayunglazed flat plates, glazed flat plates, evacuated tubes, and concentrators. These collector types are used in complete systems that address applications ranging
from heating swimming pools to generating electricity for the utility grid.
Figure 4-1 Classifications of solar collectors are based upon the end-use temperatures of the
application. (Based on United States Energy Information Administrations Solar Thermal Collector
Manufacturing Activities report)
The classifications for solar heating

collectors are based on the approximate operating temperatures that
can be produced under normal levels of solar radiation. Low temperature collectors are used for applications where operating temperatures
are below 110F (45C), such as for
heating swimming pools. Medium
temperature collectors are used in
applications ranging from 110F
(45C) to 180F (80C), including
domestic water heating (DWH),
space heating, indoor pool heating,
car washes, and other commercial
applications with sufficient heat
demand. High temperature collectors concentrate the suns heat
and are used for industrial process
heating and other applications that
require temperatures above 180F
(80C), including the production
of steam for utility-scale electricity
production.
Due to the fundamentals of physics and

economic considerations, particular styles of
collectors best correspond with specific applications. For example, high temperature collectors
can be used for DWH, but the return on investment and overall system effectiveness will
usually be far greater if medium temperature
collectors are used instead.
DIFFUSE
INSOLATION
DIRECT
BEAM
INSOLATION
REFLECTED LOSS
OFF GLASS
The suitability of collectors for specific applicaLOSS ABSORBED BY

THE GLASS
tions is based upon their performance under
REFLECTION OFF ABSORBER
specific conditions. The optimal efficiency of
solar collectors occurs when the fluid inlet temABSORBER THERMAL EFFICIENCY LOSS
perature is equal to the temperature of the amSOLAR COLLECTOR
bient environment (Figure 4-2). Thermal losses
occur due to temperature differences between
the absorber and ambient air surrounding the
Figure 4-2 Illustration showing efficiency losses of a
solar collector. Optical losses in a collector are constant;
collector. Collector insulation, glazing, and lowthermal losses vary based on the temperature difference
emissivity absorber coatings are used to limit
between the absorber and the ambient air.
these thermal losses. Collectors used in low
temperature applications are less concerned
with thermal losses than collectors used in medium and high temperature applications.
These considerations impact the design of each style of collector.
GLASS
ABSORBER
INSULATION
4.1.1 Low temperature collectors

Low temperature collectors are also commonly known as unglazed collectors or pool
panels. These collectors are commonly used for swimming pool heating (SPH), which is
currently the most popular type of solar heating system in the United States. Low temperature collectors are simple and inexpensive. In many locations, SPH systems offer
such good returns on investment that they are often excluded from incentive programs.
Pool collectors are specifically designed for heating large amounts of water to relatively
low temperatures, typically 80F (27C) to 90F (32C).
Solar pool heating collectors are usually made of polypropylene,
a high temperature polymer that contains inhibitors to protect it
from ultraviolet (UV) degradation from sunlight. Most pool collectors used for heating outdoor swimming pools are unglazed and
uninsulated, meaning they do not have a glass cover plate or an
insulated enclosure. These characteristics limit pool collectors from
producing the operating temperatures typical of medium temperature applications except in very mild climates.
Polymer-based pool collectors are usually warranted for 1012
years, but some types last 20 years or more. These collectors have
large header tubestypically 1 or 2 in diameterand small
riser tubes that connect the headers. The riser tubestypically
Figure 4-3 Cutaway view of a corner of a standard solar

pool collector.
in diameter or lessare adjacent to each other, providing a surface area with a high
proportion of tube area to total absorber area (the wetted surface area). This characteristic
helps to alleviate the inefficiency of using polypropylene, which has relatively low heat
conductance.
Because pool collectors have no glass to absorb or reflect light from the sun, a larger portion of incoming sunlight reaches the collection surface than medium temperature glazed
collectors. This means that the panels can reach efficiencies of 85% or more when the
ambient air temperature and the pool water temperature are equivalent. However, due to
the lack of glazing and insulation, low-temperature collectors have high thermal losses
their efficiency falls off quickly if the pool temperature is more than 15F (8C) to 20F
(11C) above the outside daytime temperature. Therefore, they arent capable of producing usable heat for pools during the winter in moderate or cold climates.
Distributors typically stock pool collectors in 4x8, 4x10, and 4x12 sizes, and a normal
residential system consists of 612 collectors depending on the pool size, location, and
length of the pool heating season. Pool collectors have also been used for heating domestic hot water in mild climates.
4.1.2 Medium temperature collectors

Medium temperature collectors are used for DWH systems, space heating, indoor pool
heating, commercial systems, and other applications. The two categories of medium
temperature collectors are flat plates and evacuated tubes. The type of collector selected
by the designer or installer depends upon the application and local climate. To be eligible
for federal residential solar investment tax credits, the collectors must be certified by the
Solar Rating & Certification Corporation (SRCC). In some jurisdictions, an equivalent state-recognized certification is acceptable in lieu of SRCC certification to qualify for
the federal tax credit. Commercial- and industrial-scale projects do not require collector
certification to be eligible for the 30% credit.
4.1.2a Flat plate collectors

Flat plate collectors have been commercially available since 1909. The collectors are
named for their flat absorber plate. All medium temperature flat plate collectors are
comprised of an absorber enclosed within an insulated and glazed casing.
The casing provides the structural integrity for the collector; it is usually constructed
from extruded aluminum, though some models are made from fiberglass or a UVprotected polymer. The insulationtypically rigid foam or mineral woolmust be rated
for high temperatures and provides thermal protection on the back and sides of the casing. Low-iron tempered glass is the most common glazing used in flat plate collectors due
to its durability and ability to transmit more light than standard tempered glass. Despite
the advantages of low-iron tempered glass, some collectors utilize standard tempered
glass or polycarbonate glazing to reduce cost.
The use of tempered glass is critical, as it is strong enough to withstand all but the largest
hail. Tempered glass can break, however breakage results in thousands of small pieces
Figure 4-4 Cutaway image of

a standard flat plate collector
(Courtesy of SunEarth)
that will result in little or no injury. Glazing durability requirements must be met in
order to achieve SRCC Operating Guidelines (OG-100) Certification. In areas where the
Uniform Solar Energy Code (USEC) applies, all glazed collectors must use tempered glass.
This is a controversial requirement in those jurisdictions that have adopted the USEC,
since it excludes evacuated tube collectors from being used in SWH projects.
Flat plate collectors available in North America also vary by the type of absorber plate,
the configuration of internal tubing, the connection between the absorber and tubing,
and the type of absorber coating.
Absorber plates
Absorbers can be categorized by the configuration of their tubing. One design utilizes
multiple riser tubes spaced a few inches apart and brazed to larger headers. The entire
tube assembly is then mechanically bonded to the plate. This design minimizes flow
restriction through the collector by splitting the flow into several parallel paths. These
harp-style, or grid-style, collectors are the predominant style of flat plate produced by
U.S. manufacturers.
Another design utilizes a single tube bent back and forth in a serpentine pattern. The
tubing may be connected to headers, depending upon the manufacturer. This single
tube is bonded to the plate. These serpentine, or meander, designs are utilized in many
systems and are preferred by many European manufacturers. They can also be used in
Direct Forced Circulation (DFC) systems.
In both designs, the absorber plate is constructed from copper or aluminum; usually one or two thin sheets span the entire collector or multiple sheets are attached to
individual risers. Standard flat plate collectors range in size from 2040 ft2 (1.8-3.7 m2);
the largest collectors used in residential systems are

typically 4 ft (1.2m) x 10 ft (3.0m). Regardless of the
design, the tubing is bonded to the plate by soldering,
brazing, or welding to promote efficient transfer of
heat between the absorber plate and the tubing. Many
manufacturers use laser or ultrasonic welders and
automated machinery to complete this labor-intensive
bonding process.
Absorber coating
The finish on the absorber plate has a significant
impact on collector efficiency. The ideal finish absorbs nearly 100% of the solar energy that strikes the
surface and emits, or reradiates, minimal amounts of
the collected energy to the surrounding environment.
Due to its high absorbance, flat black paint was used
on all absorbers until recent decades. Flat black paint
absorbs about 95% of solar radiation, but it also emits
Figure 4-5 Cutaway image of the tubing in one type of serpentine collector.
about 95% of the collected heat as infrared radiation.
(Courtesy of Schco)
To reduce the inefficiencies that result from this high
emissivity, or radiative loss, selective surface coatings were developed in the 1970s. These
coatings absorb about as much radiation as black paint but emit only 10% to 20% of the
collected heat. This amounts to a gain of a few percentage points in overall collector
performance. A selective coating is a more complex and expensive process than painting
the absorber but is worthwhile in colder climates or applications that require elevated
system temperatures. Selective surface coatings may be referred to as black chrome, black
crystal, sputtered aluminum, or other trademarked names. Many U.S. manufacturers still
offer painted absorbers for use in mild climates where the performance gains of the selective surface absorber is not significant enough to justify the added expense. In areas with
intense sunlight, like the southwestern U.S., use of collectors with a selective surface may
lead to system overheating in the summer.
4.1.2b Evacuated tube collectors

Like flat plates, evacuated tubes derive their name from the physical configuration of
the collectors. Tube collectors are a more recent development in the industry. During the
1970s, two styles of evacuated tubes were developed. One designthe single-wall evacuated tubeplaced the absorber inside a vacuum. Another design isolated the absorber from
the ambient environment by utilizing two layers of glass with a vacuum between them. In
this twin-glass evacuated tube the absorber is not in the vacuum itself, but is insulated from
the vacuum by being placed against the inner layer of glass. The vacuum in both designs
is used as insulation to provide heat retention capability. Thermos bottles have gained
significant commercial success using the same principle to keep liquids hot or cold. Even a
relatively small space filled with a vacuum prevents heat loss better than the insulation in
a flat plate collector. Due to the superior heat retention, evacuated tubes are often marketed
to regions with cold, cloudy, harsher climates or in higher temperature applications where
flat plates might experience significant thermal losses. Today, most evacuated tubes are
made in China, where the technology has seen widespread market adoption.
Twin-glass
Twin-glass evacuated tube collectors are constructed
by melting together, or otherwise bonding, two
separate glass tubes, an inner and an outer. All air is
removed from the thin space between these tubes,
leaving a vacuum between the glass walls that acts
as a highly effective insulator. Within the inner glass
tube (not within the vacuum) is the absorber assembly. There are two primary designs for the absorber:
flooded tube and heat pipe.
In a flooded tube style collector, the systems primary
heat transfer fluid (HTF) flows through the evacuated
tube. Solar heat is transferred directly from the absorber surface to the fluid, which is pumped through
heat exchangers to deliver the heat to an end-use
application such as water or space heating.
Figure 4-6 Cutaway illustration of a

single-wall evacuated tube. (Courtesy of
RETScreen International)
In a heat pipe style collector, a device called a heat pipe is used to absorb the suns energy.
A heat pipe design utilizes a fluid that boils at a relatively low temperature due to a
vacuum inside the partially filled, sealed heat pipe. This pipe is in physical contact with
a small absorber inside each tube to collect available solar energy. In most twin-glass
evacuated tube collectors, the selective surface is applied to the inside of the inner wall,
which is in contact with the absorber and heat pipe. The solar radiation heats the glass,
which transfers its heat to the absorber and heat pipe. The fluid in the heat pipe boils and
the vapor rises in the tube. A condenser bulb is located at the top of the heat pipe and
transfers the collected heat to the systems primary HTF in the manifold.
The heat pipe design utilizes each tube as a separate collector, making the entire system modular. This modularity is popular with some installers because it allows
the collector to be assembled on the roof by one person,
in contrast to flat plate collectors that require multiple
installers. The design also facilitates the replacement of
individual tubes without the need to drain the system.
Single-wall
In a single-wall evacuated tube, the absorber is inside the
vacuum. The absorber may be a flooded tube or heat pipe
style. The flooded tube design provides more efficient collection of solar energy by directly heating the primary HTF, but the design is not modular
like the twin-wall design, thus the system must be drained if a tube requires replacement
due to a broken tube or loss of vacuum. Unlike twin-tube collectors, the absorber plates in
single-wall evacuated tubes are typically mechanically bonded to the heat pipes.
Figure 4-7 Twin-glass

evacuated tube.
Borosilicate and soda lime are the two most common types of glass used in evacuated
tube collectors. Glass tubes are not tempered due to the difficulty of tempering curved
glass, thus they are more prone to breakage than standard flat plate collectors.
4.1.2c Air collectors

Solar air collectors are most commonly used for space heating. Modular glazed collectors are used to heat air that is circulated from the building, while unglazed collectors are
used to preheat outside air that is used in the ventilation system of large facilities.
Glazed air collectors are similar to liquid flat plate collectors and are difficult to differentiate from a distance. They have a similar enclosure, insulation, and glazing. Because
the HTF is air, collectors utilize large flow channels adjacent to or through the absorber
plate rather than tubing. Ducting is used for the inlet and outlet of the collector. Air from
Collector Efficiency
A common discussion point for collector manufacturers is the concept of collector efficiency. One
method to illustrate the efficiency of a collector for
varying temperatures is the use of efficiency curves.
These curves can serve to illustrate the differences
in the optimal efficiency and the thermal losses for
the various types of solar collectors. Where these
curves cross the vertical axis, commonly referred
to as the y-intercept, the collector temperature and
the ambient air temperature are the same. The yintercept represents the optimal efficiency of the collector. In the diagrams below, optimal efficiency of
the flat plate collectors is 75%. This means that the
flat plate collector is able to absorb 75% of the available solar radiation. As the temperature difference
between the collector and the ambient air increases,
Figure 4-8 Performance slopes for typical collector styles. (Courtesy of homepower.com)
the efficiency decreases. This is due to collector

thermal losses. The steeper the efficiency curve, the
more susceptible the collector is to losing its heat to
area, which is the footprint that a collector has
the ambient environment.
on the roof. Other times, it may be based on the

absorber, or net, area. For flat plate collectors, the
When discussing efficiency, it is important to con-
absorber area is nearly equivalent to the gross
sider the conditions under which the efficiency is
area. For evacuated tubes, the absorber area is
being measured. A collector could be more efficient
significantly less than the gross area due to the
when producing low temperature heat, but less ef-
gaps between the absorbers.
ficient when producing high temperature heat, such

as pool collectors. This all depends upon the types
Efficiency may be a consideration, but it is much
of losses and the application. This is why certain
more valuable to compare collectors based on
collectors are best suited for specific applications.
production. In the end, the client cares more

about how much energy is being produced by
Area must also be considered when discussing
the system than about how efficiently the system
efficiency. Sometimes efficiency is based on gross
produces that energy.
the building is circulated by a blower fan and passes over or through

the aluminum absorber. The air is heated and then returns back into
the building. The fan is controlled using a thermostat and can be
powered by standard line voltage from the building or directly by a
PV panel. Air collectors can be mounted vertically on a wall or can
be roof-mounted at a desired angle. Mounting air collectors vertically
minimizes heat collection in the summer and maximizes heat collection in the winter, especially if albedo radiation can be collected from
the reflection of the sun off of snow.
Unglazed air collectors are also referred to as transpired air collectors. Transpired air collectors are typically used on large facilities and
are constructed of corrugated sheet metal. The sheet metal acts as the
absorber, and small perforations are punched or drilled in the sheeting during the manufacturing process. A large blower fan slowly
draws outside air through the perforations in the absorber to preheat
makeup air required by the ventilation system. Due to their size and
simplicity, transpired air heaters are extremely cost-effective for large
commercial applications.
Figure 4-9 Glazed solar air heater.

(Courtesy of Environmental Solar Systems)
4.1.3 High temperature concentrating collectors

High temperature concentrating collectors are the most efficient solar
collector for producing process heat and are capable of making high
pressure steam (400F750F or 200C400C). Due to their operating
temperatures, these collectors are typically used in industrial applications and for utility-scale electricity production.
Concentrating collectors used to produce process heat from 180F
(80C)240F (115C) may look somewhat similar to flat plate and
evacuated tube collectors. There are
several types of parabolic trough collectors that are contained within a hot box
similar to that of a flat plate collector.
Rather than having an absorber plate that
is bonded to the risers, the collectors utilize reflectors that focus direct radiation
on the riser. Evacuated tube concentrators utilize parabolic reflectors behind the
evacuated tubes to increase the temperature output of the collector.
Types of concentrators used for largescale concentrating solar power (CSP)
include dishes, towers, and parabolic
troughs. Concentration of the suns rays
requires direct beam solar radiation and
the collectors must track the sun through-
Figure 4-10 System diagram for glazed solar air heater.

(Courtesy of Environmental Solar Systems)
Figure 4-11 Transpired solar air collectors are similar in appearance to corrugated metal siding. This installation utilizes nearly the entire available wall area for solar collection. (Courtesy of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
Figure 4-12 Parabolic trough

collectors at Kramer Junction, CA.
(Courtesy of Sandia National Laboratories,
photo credit Greg Kolb)
out the day in order to be effective. In contrast, low and medium temperature collectors
can produce heat in cloudy weather. Diffuse radiation cannot be concentrated and limits
the geographical locations suitable for efficient use of the collectors. Desert climates are
ideal for concentrators.
4.2 Systems
The terminology associated with solar water heating (SWH) systems can be confusing.
Open and closed, direct and indirect, passive and active, forced circulation and thermosyphon are all terms used to categorize solar heating system types. An open loop,
or direct, system typically circulates potable water in the solar collectors. An indirect
system uses a closed loop of fluid circulating through the collectors that is separate from
the buildings potable water. As a result, indirect systems must have a heat exchanger to
transfer the heat from the collector fluid to the domestic hot water. Figure 4-13 illustrates
standard SWH systems and their classifications.
Figure 4-13 Classification of solar water heating systems.
Systems are also classified by the method in which the fluid moves in the system. Passive systems contain no mechanical moving parts such as pumps or fans. Flow is accomplished in passive systems through the phenomenon of free convection, where warmer,
less dense fluids rise and cooler, heavier liquids fall, or by water main pressure (appli-
cable to batch, ICS, and some thermosyphon systems), where the opening of a hot water
fixture in a building causes flow of water through the water heating system (and the solar
collector) because the water supply to the building is pressurized. Active, or forced circulation, systems rely on a dedicated pump to circulate the fluid(s) in the system.

SRCC OG-300 System Schematics

SRCC certifies systems under the
Operating Guidelines 300 (OG-300)
protocol. This protocol is illustrated
in Figure 4-14.

SRCC OG-300 Certification Process
OG-100 certified collector:

-
Flat plate
-
Tubular
-
Concentrating
-
Integral Collector Storage
OG 300 Design
and Installation
Guidelines Review
TRNSYS
Performance
Computation
OG 300
Certification
and System
Rating
The purpose of OG-300 Certification

is to provide an independent review
of system design and installation
specifications to help assureproper
Figure 4-14 SRCC OG-300

Flow Chart. (Courtesy of SRCC)
function and consumer protection. Companies who sell packaged SWH systemstypically
collector or tank manufacturerssubmit system specifications to SRCC or IAPMO, which
performs a review process to determine whether the design meets the SRCC OG 300 Operating Guidelines and Minimum Standards for Solar Water Heating Systems. If the design meets
these requirements, the system is modeled in TRNSYS, a computer program that estimates
system performance. These estimates are based on a specific set of design conditions for
selected cities in the United Statesthe actual system performance may vary somewhat
from the OG-300estimates. Procedures for obtaining system-specific estimates are discussed in Section 6. The SRCC OG 300 Operating Guidelines and Minimum Standards for Solar
Water Heating Systems, which is a primary reference for the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer
Exam, and ratings for OG-300 Certified systems are available at www.solar-rating.org.

Certification and Rating of Solar Heating Equipment

During the decade between 1975 and 1985 the U.S. Government, as well as numerous individual states, implemented
financial incentive programs for solar heating products,
including tax credits and grants. Nearly all of these programs had no associated requirement for product testing
or performance rating. As a result, many products entered
the market without the benefit of third-party quality assurance assessment.
Today, solar heating incentive programs in the U.S. have
product quality and performance requirements intended
to help assure that installed products function and perform
as designed. The Solar Rating & Certification Corporation
(SRCC) has developed several standards for testing solar collectors, and certifies collectors that have been tested according to those standards by independent laboratories.
The International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical

Officials (IAPMO) also certifies solar collectors, as well as
solar storage tanks, conventional back-up water heaters,
and a wide variety of plumbing components. In addition,
IAPMO developed and maintains the Uniform Solar Energy
Code and the Uniform Plumbing Code, which is used as the
basis of state and local plumbing codes around the country.
In some areas of the country, IAPMO product certification is
required by state or local building officials before construction permits may be issued.
Both IAPMO and SRCC also certify complete solar water
heating systems, performing a design review and generating
an annual performance prediction via computer modeling.

- Les Nelson
In addition to certifying and rating SWH systems, the SRCC publishes mechanical plans
with details on specific system designs. These system schematics use standardized symbols for the components of SWH systems that are derived from the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). These symbols are
often used in engineered drawings as well. Descriptions of the symbols, the components
they represent and the purpose of these components are detailed below.
Flatplate collector
Collects suns
radiation to
produce heat
Evacuated tube
collector
Systems
Collects suns
radiation to
produce heat
Storage tank
Purpose
Stores the
energy
collected by
the system
for future use
Immersed heat
exchanger
Photo
Transfers
heat from
collector
loop to
potable
water
Indirect systems
Wraparound heat
exchanger
Symbol
Transfers
heat from
collector
loop to
potable
water
Indirect systems
All
All
All
All
External heat
exchanger
All (possible)
Boiler
Indirect systems
Transfers
heat from
collector loop
to potable
water
Provides
auxiliary heat
for SWH
Electric element
Systems
Provides
auxiliary heat
for SWH
Controller
Purpose
Provides
power to
pumps and
other
outputs
Expansion tank
Photo
Buffers
closed
systems from
excessive
pressure
Collector loop of
IFC Antifreeze
systems; potable
piping of all systems
(possible)
Pressure relief valve
Symbol
Protects
collector
loop from
excessive
pressure
All
All forced circulation

systems
Pressure &
temperature relief
Protects
storage tank
from
excessive
pressure and
temperature
Mixing valve
Tempers hot
water from
storage tank
to protect hot
water
consumers
Flow meter
Systems
Indicates
flow rate in All forced circulation
systems
collector loop
Pump/circulator
Purpose
Lifts fluid to
collectors in
drainback
systems;
All forced circulation
circulates fluid
systems
in other forced
circulation
systems
Check valve
Photo
Permits fluid
flow in one
direction only
DFC and IFC

Antifreeze systems
Ball valve
Symbol
An on/off
valve used
to isolate
portions of
the system
All
All
All
Purpose
Systems
Drain
Allows access
to the system
usually for
draining and
or filling
All
Pressure gauge
Indicates
system
pressure
IFC Antifreeze
systems
Thermometer
Indicates
system
temperature
All
Temperature sensor
Measures
system
temperature
for controller
functionality
All forced
circulation systems
Vacuum breaker
Photo
Permits
entrance of
air into
system when
under
negative
pressure
IFC Drainback
systems
Air vent
Symbol
Permits
elimination
of air from
system
IFC Antifreeze
systems
Photo
Direction of flow
Purpose
Releases fluid
from collector
loop to allow
circulation of
warmer water
from storage
tank
Freeze valve
Symbol
NA
Indicates
direction of
fluid flow
Systems
DFC systems
All
4.2.1 Integral Collector Storage (ICS)

Integral Collector Storage (ICS) systems are manufactured with the collector and storage tank as a single unit. They are available as batch heaters or thermosyphon systems.
Batch-type units use either a one large tank or multiple tubes for hot water storage.
ICS systems are considered passive solar water heaters because they do not require a
separate electro/mechanical device like a pump to operate. The systems are only appropriate for year-round use in those areas of the contiguous U.S. and Hawaii where freezing conditions occur infrequently during winter months.
4.2.1a Batch heaters

Batch water heaters are the simplest of all solar water heaters. They utilize a cylindrical tank that is painted black and placed inside an insulated hot box. To provide added
insulation on the glass face of the collector, most batch heaters are manufactured with
two pieces of glass, similar to double-glazed windows. The tank is filled with domestic
potable water from the building that it serves. The operation is simplethe sunlight
shines through the glass, hits the black tank and heats it and the water within. Batch water heaters use tanks between 30 U.S. gallons (113 L) and 66 U.S. gallons (250 L). The tank
enclosure is insulated by 12 of high temperature foam insulation. Batch solar water
heaters are very effective in mild climates and the tropics. Since the only thing between
the hot tank and the cold outside air is two layers of glass, during winter evenings in
harsher climates the tank tends to lose most of the energy gained during the day. Batch
water heaters are simple, reliable, easy to
install, and are typically inexpensive. They
can provide 50%90% of hot water needs
depending on usage and climate.In moderate
climates, the tank in the water heater has too
much mass to freeze, but the piping to and
from the heater is susceptible to bursting in
freezing conditions. Even a well-insulated
pipe will freeze at or slightly below 0F if the
temperature is sustained for a few hours.
Progressive tube is another style of batch water
heater. Instead of a single large tank, the water is contained in several 4 diameter copper
tubes. The tubes are piped in seriesthe cold
water enters at the bottom of the collector
and is heated in the tubes before exiting at the
top. The progressive tube design allows the
water to stratify more than tank type models
by eliminating the ability of the incoming cold
water to mix with the exiting hot water. Both
the tank type and progressive tube batch heaters are classified as ICS units.
Figure 4-15 OG-300 System

Schematic for Integral Collector Storage preheat system for an electric
water heater. (Courtesy SRCC)
4.2.1b Thermosyphon Systems

Thermosyphon systems that are manufactured with the tank and the collector as a single
unit are classified as ICS systems. Thermosyphon systems use the natural convection of
liquids to circulate the fluid through the collectors and storage tank. With proper design,
the system can achieve adequate flow rates without the use of a pump. Thermosyphon
systems must be configured with the storage tank above the collectors to work effectively. A direct thermosyphon system uses potable water as the medium of heat transfer, and
the flat plate and evacuated tube collectors used are similar to those in active systems.
In these systems the tank is oriented horizontally. As the water in the collector is heated
by the sun, it rises through piping to the top of the storage tank due to natural convection. The colder water in the bottom of the tank flows to the bottom inlet of the collector.
As long as there is sufficient solar energy, there is continuous circulation of the water
through the collector and tank.
This system type does not require a control
and will not cycle backwards at night if the
tank is mounted at an adequate height above
the collector. Systems with less height use a
passive check valve in the system to prevent
reverse thermosyphoning at night. This allows
the tank to be just slightly above the collector,
thereby facilitating a lower profile appearance.
Figure 4-16 OG-300 System Schematic for Direct Thermosyphon

System with an electric backup. (Courtesy SRCC)
Unpressurized thermosyphon systems that

utilize evacuated tubes are widely used in
some countries. Each tube is inserted into a
port at the bottom of an insulated stainless
steel tank. The ports have the same diameter
as the outside of the evacuated tube. When the
tank is filled with water, the fluid also fills the
inner tube. As the sun heats the fluid in the
tubes, the water inside naturally rises to the
storage tank. The evacuated tube thermosyphon system has a freeze tolerance advantage
over flat plate thermosyphon systems due to
the high insulation value of the vacuum.
Split Thermosyphon Systems

Thermosyphon systems are sometimes designed with separate components that are assembled on site. These split thermosyphonsystems consist of standard flat plate or evacuated tube collectors and a standard storage tank mounted separately and can be installed
as either direct or indirect systems.
Direct split thermosyphon systems with flat plate collectors were first introduced commercially in 1909 by William Bailey. Baileys initial Day and Night solar water heaters
were popular in California until widespread freezing events led to massive system failures. These systems utilized small riser tubes in the collector, making them particularly
susceptible in the event of periodic freezing winter temperatures.
Figure 4-17 Indirect Thermosyphon System.
Figure 4-18 Unpressurized Thermosyphon evacuated tube system.
4.2.2 Indirect Thermosyphon Systems

The failures of the Day and Night led Bailey to develop the indirect storage tank and modify his system to an indirect split thermosyphon system.
This modification alleviated the freeze issues of his initial model. While
these systems can still be used effectively today, they are somewhat rare
due to the necessity of either mounting the collectors low or installing
solar storage tanks in attics.
A few notes about

thermosyphon systems:
In all thermosyphon systems, the
tank is well-insulated to help keep
the water hot overnight. By reducing
thermal losses, these systems tend to
These systems use a heat exchanger between the glycol solution in the
collector loop and the tank. As the glycol solution is heated, it moves by
natural convection to the heat exchanger and transfers the energy to the
water in the storage tank. The colder, heavier glycol solution in the heat
exchanger flows to the bottom inlet of the collector. Like direct thermosyphon systems, indirect thermosyphon systems require the tank to be
elevated adequately to allow natural convection of the fluid.
be more effective than batch systems.
Passive systems do not require temperature controls, and many installations include either a tempering or an anti-scald valve in the design. The
ports on these valves are labeled hot, cold and mix, and utilize a bimetal
spring assembly to ensure the delivered water temperature is no hotter
to remove the mineral buildup on the
than the dial setting on the valve. Antiscald valves are specified or required
in many system designs since they are
more accurate than tempering valves
and have a fail-safe design that delivers
only cold water upon valve malfunction. Anti-scald valves are about twice
the cost of the less accurate tempering
or mixing valves.
As with any direct system that utilizes flat plate collectors, thermosyphon
systems installed in areas with hard
water require periodic maintenance.
Provisions should be made upon installation to be able to circulate a mild
acidic solution through the collector
inside of the riser tubes. More detail on
this is given in Section 8.
Careful consideration must be
made regarding the placement of
storage tanks due the filled weight of
the equipment and other hazards of
locating equipment in attics and other
elevated locations. Water weighs 8.3
pounds per U.S. gallon (2.2 lb/L). As
a result, a full 80-gallon (300 L) tank
will often exceed 750 pounds. Placing
this amount of weight on roofs or in
attics requires attention to roof design,
as well as to the potential damage that
Figure 4-19 Example of a standard anti-scald

valve used in SWH systems.
could occur due to leaking equipment.
4.2.3 Direct Forced Circulation Systems

Direct forced circulation (DFC) systems are popular in locations like Hawaii and the
southern quarter of Florida, where freezing conditions are rarely or never experienced.
These systems are called direct, or open loop, because the collectors heat the potable
water directly. The main components of a DFC system are the collector(s), storage tank,
pump, and an electronic control to energize the pump when there is enough sunshine to
provide usable heat to the storage tank.
DFC systems are simple, efficient and reliable when properly installed in a suitable
climate. A single low-head pump circulates the storage tank water through the solar
collector(s). The coolest water is circulated from the bottom of the tank to the inlet at the
bottom of the collector. The heated water exits the top of the collector and is circulated
back to the middle of the storage tank. The pump is
controlled by a differential controller, which constantly
monitors the tank and collector temperatures using two
sensors. When the collector is 10F (5C)20F (11C)
higher than the water in the bottom of the tank, the
controller sends power to the pump. When the collector
is only a few degrees warmer than the tank the controller shuts the pump off, providing complete automatic
operation.
Of all SWH system types, DFC systems have the least
dependable freeze protection mechanism. As a result,
these systems should only be installed in areas where
freezing is nonexistent. California has opted to exclude
DFC systems from their current incentive program due
to past widespread system failures in the state.
Figure 4-20 OG-300 System Schematic for Direct Forced Circulation

with PV control. (Courtesy of SRCC)
Direct current (DC) systems are controlled with a photovoltaic (PV) panel that provides power to the pump
when there is enough solar energy to produce adequate
electrical power. If the pump and PV panel are correctly
sized, a differential controller is not required. PV panels
should be sized based on the pump manufacturers specifications. The module must be
large enough to run the pump when there is enough solar energy available for the collector
to heat the tank. PV-powered DC pumped systems are known to have small inefficiencies
due to the pump being energized too early or too late in the afternoon. DC differential controls are available and can be used to make PV-powered systems more efficient.
DFC systems require a check valve that allows the fluid to travel in just one direction. The
check valve prevents nighttime heat loss caused by hot water in the tank thermosyphoning through the colder collectors and back to the tank.
Periodic maintenance is required if hard water with high mineral content is circulated
through the collectors. More detail on the effect of hard water in SWH systems is given in
Section 10.
Freeze Tolerance
After decades of sporadic freezing failures, most of the solar heating industry agrees that
direct systems should only be installed in the mildest of climates. While there are numerous benefits of direct systems, including cost and productivity, freeze failures are catastrophic. There are a number of solutions that offer freeze protection for direct systems,
but these measures have their limitations. Freeze valves that induce a small flow in the
collectors during freezing weather are susceptible to failure in areas with hard water.
DFC systems that use differential controller functions to circulate the storage tank water
through the collectors during freezing conditions are ineffectual during power interruptions or if failure occurs in a pump, controller, or sensor during freezing weather. Reliably
protecting solar collectors from damage due to freezing is the reason for the complexity
and cost of the freeze-protected indirect systems. The Solar Rating & Certification Corporation (SRCC) publishes the freeze tolerance limit of systems that are certified under
SRCC Operating Guidelines 300 (OG-300).
In direct systems, collector tubing will burst with a hard freeze. The conditions that will
cause a pipe to burst include the magnitude and duration of the freezing temperatures, as
well as the size and type of tubing. While it is common practice to install direct systems
in locales that have never had a record low temperature below freezing, an installer must
recognize that an extreme weather event could cause a freeze and lead to major system
failure.
The least freeze-tolerant systems are DFC and direct thermosyphon systems that utilize
flat plate collectors. The relatively small riser tubes in the collectors make these systems
susceptible to freeze damage at temperatures around 20F (-7C). Any system with an
integrated tank outside the heated space (ICS batch and thermosyphons) will have 3/4
potable water lines piped outside to and from the tank subject to freezing. Pipe insulation
can be a factor for short, moderate freezes. Progressive tube ICS systems are less tolerant
and will freeze at higher temperatures (about 10F20F) due to uninsulated 3/4 tubes
inside the collectors that connect the 4 tubes.
Probability of at Least One

Pipe Freeze in 20 Years
Figure 4-21 Freeze map for the
continental United States for copper
tubing with 1 insulation. As is illustrated,
there are very few locations in the country
where direct systems with exposed piping
(including in the collector) are appropriate.
Though freeze protection measures such
as forced circulation of warm or hot water
or the use of freeze valves are included in
many direct systems, they can be unreliable
due to interruption in power or valve failure.
(Courtesy of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory)
4.2.4 Indirect Forced Circulation Systems

Indirect Forced Circulation (IFC) systems are the most reliable systems in areas that
experience recurrent freezes. IFC systems are classified into two typesdrainback (DB)
and antifreeze (AF). A Drainback system provides freeze protection by allowing the
water to drain from the collectors when the pump(s) is/are not energized. Antifreeze
systems utilize a nontoxic antifreeze, such as propylene glycol, to eliminate freezing in
the collector loop.
4.2.4a Drainback Systems

The freeze protection in Drainback systems is not as fail-safe as Antifreeze systems but
is sufficient when the system is designed and installed properly. Freeze protection depends on the water in the collector loop draining back to a drainback reservoir when the
pump(s) turns offleaving the collectors and piping filled with air. Drainback reservoirs,
also referred to as drainback tanks, are unpressurized tanks located above the pump on its
suction side to allow the pump to pull fluid from the tank to fill the collector(s). When the
controller activates the pump, the air above the drainback tank is forced into the drainback
tank by the fluid filling the collectors. This air returns to the collectors when the pump
turns off. The drainback tank may be separate from the solar storage tank, or an unpressurized solar storage tank may function as the drainback reservoir.
Figure 4-22 OG-300 System Schematic for a single-pump Drainback

system. (Courtesy of SRCC)
Drainback systems are unforgivingthe collectors and all piping must slope a minimum
of per foot (2cm per meter) to the drainback
tank to assure draining of the collectors and
piping when the pump is de-energized. Otherwise, fluid will remain in the collector and
burst the piping under freezing conditions. In
addition, accommodations must be made to
ensure that the air can return to the collectors
to allow the fluid to drain. This is typically
accomplished by means of a weep hole in the
dip tube of the drainback reservoir. The hole
must be above the fluid level of the reservoir
for proper operation. A sight glass is frequently
provided, allowing for the fluid fill level to
be checked during installation. Inadequate or
excessive heat transfer fluid in a Drainback
system can lead to operational problems and
possible system damage.
Drainback systems can be designed as a single-pump or a double-pump system. A singlepump system uses a storage tank with an integrated heat exchanger. The integrated exchanger is a coil of suitable tubing wrapped around or immersed in the tank. The pump
must have sufficient head, or pumping power, to pump the collector loop fluid from the
initial system fill level to the top of the collector array with enough velocity to create a
siphon and flood the system piping. As the system is filled following pump start-up, the
fluid flow rate decreases until the siphon closes. Once the siphon closes, the flow rate
increases due to the elimination of static head, which is the pressure that the pump must
overcome due to the vertical height of the system. At this point, the pump only needs
to overcome the resistance resulting from the friction between the fluid and the fittings,
obstructions, and pipe walls in the loop. This resistance is referred to as the dynamic
head or frictional head.
A double-pump Drainback system utilizes an
external heat exchanger and two pumps. The heat
exchanger may be inside the drainback reservoir or
external to both the storage tank and reservoir. One
option is a stainless steel flat plate heat exchanger.
A flat plate heat exchanger features channels
between mechanically connected plates. The fluid
from the collector loop passes through alternate
channels of the heat exchanger. Potable water
passes through the adjacent channels. This design
assures very efficient heat transfer due to the high
wetted surface area between the two fluids and the
turbidity of flow through the channels. Flat plate
heat exchangers are manufactured in single- and
double-wall models.
Drainback designs are adaptable to both large and
small systems and are favored when overheating is a concern. Smaller, one- to three-collector
SWH systems are frequently available as a preengineered package. Larger systems are not
typically available in a packaged form, meaning
many aspects of the system design will need to
be engineered based on specific site and system
parameters.
Figure 4-23 Double-pumped Drainback system. (Courtesy of SRCC)
Most differential controls have an adjustable high limit feature that will shut off the
pump(s) when a desired storage tank temperature is reached. The collectors are not
harmed and the system will not experience excessive pressure since the water will have
drained into the drainback reservoir leaving the collectors filled only with air. The drainback tank configuration also prevents nighttime thermosyphoning.
Drainback systems are usually not powered with a PV panel, since reliable DC pumps
capable of overcoming large static head are difficult, if not impossible, to find.
In the past, vacuum breakers were used in Drainback systems to break the vacuum at the
top of the collectors. This is problematic in areas with hard water as the vacuum breakers
will scale up and clog shut. Reliable solar energy system freeze protection should never
depend on valves or the presence of electrical energy.
Closed-loop heating systems typically require a pressure relief valve and expansion tank
to accommodate the expansion of fluid that occurs with temperature increases. This is
not necessarily true in Drainback systems. An expansion tank is not required in a closed-
loop Drainback systemthe air in the system absorbs any expansion due to temperature
increases. Because the system is closed, it requires a pressure relief valve in case system
pressures exceed the pressure ratings of various components.
4.2.4b Antifreeze Systems

Antifreeze (AF) systems utilize propylene glycol as a heat transfer fluid to ensure freeze
protection. Propylene glycol, like other antifreeze solutions, has a low freezing point. Unlike ethylene glycol, which is typically used as automotive antifreeze, propylene glycol is
nontoxic. Ethylene glycol should never be used
in SWH systems. Due to this lack of toxicity and
its chemical stability at the temperatures common to SWH systems, propylene glycol solutions
are the standard for SWH systems in freezing
climates. A 50% glycol and water solution is
used in most of North America and a 30% glycol
solution is common in mild climates. In extremely harsh climates, such as parts of Canada
and Alaska, many installers prefer a solution
of 60% propylene glycol and water. Providers
of propylene glycol solutions for solar systems
typically use nontoxic additives, which enhance
the fluids ability to withstand the high operating
temperatures of solar systems.
The type of propylene glycol used in Antifreeze
systems is critical to system performance. Glycol includes inhibitors to maintain the fluids
integrity over time. Propylene glycols used in
Antifreeze systems must use inhibitors that
Figure 4-24 OG-300 System Schematic for a single-pump Antifreeze system. (Courtesy of SRCC)
maintain fluid stability above temperatures of
300F. If the glycol is not rated for such conditions, the inhibitors will acidify and deteriorate components in the collector loop. High quality propylene glycol solutions that
are not subjected to extensive overheating can last for years, even decades, but should be
checked for pH (acidity) and freeze protection level every few years.
Single and double-pump designs are also options in Antifreeze systems. The systems
require only low to mediumhead pumps and consume less electricity than the highhead
pumps used in Drainback systems. This is because the pumps in Antifreeze systems must
overcome frictional head only, unlike pumps in Drainback systems which must overcome
both static and frictional head. A single-pump system uses a tank with an integrated heat
exchanger. Double-pump Antifreeze systems use an external heat exchanger, such as a
flat plate heat exchanger.
Antifreeze Systems and Stagnation
Antifreeze systems are susceptible to stagnation, a phenomenon that occurs when the
collector array is subjected to high levels of solar insolation and the heat transfer fluid
is not circulating. This may occur due to a power outage, a pump failure, or a controller malfunction, for example. It may also occur intentionally; once the solar storage tank
continue on page 42
Figure 4-25 Double-pumped Antifreeze

system. (Courtesy of SRCC)
Dealing with Stagnation

Stagnation may occur due to system failures, such as
a power interruption, broken pump, shaded sensor, or
controller error. Stagnation may also occur by design.
Most differential controls include a feature that will
deactivate the solar pump if the solar storage tank temperature exceeds a setpoint. The purpose of this setting
is to protect the integrity of the tank and to prevent
steam formation.
Stagnation is an issue in Antifreeze systems because it
can lead to depressurization. It can also cause acidification of the glycol inhibitors, which can cause deterioration of system components.
While measures can be taken to avoid stagnation, it is
nearly impossible to eliminate the threat. Protection
measures such as battery or generator backup can
maintain system operation during a power outage,
but these are also not immune to component failures.
Powered heat dumping strategies or the inclusion of
redundant pumps are only effective if the power is
uninterrupted and all components are functioning
properly. An experienced solar designer evaluates stagnation risks and determines an appropriate strategy.
Some designers have recognized the probability of stagnation and have designed their systems to minimize the
effects of stagnation rather than try to avoid them. These
methods include:
Sufficiently sizing the expansion tank to accept the
expansion caused by steam formation in the collectors.
This method aims to keep the system pressures below
the relief valve rating to allow for steam formation and
continued system operation. Once the heat dissipates
from the collectors and the heat transfer fluid condenses,
the system returns to normal operation.
Sufficiently sizing the expansion tank and using a
high-rated pressure relief valvetypically 150psito
prevent steam formation. As pressures increase, so does
the boiling point of the glycol solution. If the increases in
pressure and temperature correspond with one another
properly, steam formation can be prevented. This is a
balancing actif the temperature rises too fast, the solution will steam; if the pressure rises too fast, it can cause
the relief valve to open.
Inclusion of a reservoir that acts in a manner similar to
the antifreeze reservoir in an automobile. If pressures are
excessive, some of the glycol solution is expelled into the
reservoir. When the pressure drops, the glycol is drawn
back into the solar loop.
Whats the best

IFC system?
Different installers have their
preferences and history offers some
guidance. Antifreeze systems have
less chance of collector damage due
to freezing. Over-temperature issues
can be better addressed with Drainback systems. Drainback systems
have little tolerance for installation
errors while Antifreeze systems tend
to be more forgiving. Antifreeze
systems can easily accommodate PV
powered pumps. Installers in regions
with mild to moderate climates tend
to prefer Drainback systems because
of the inherent overheating protection featurethe harsher the winter,
the more installers prefer Antifreeze
systems.
Whats best? Some installers have
combined the systems by adding
propylene glycol to a Drainback
tank. With the right mixture of
antifreeze, the collectors will never
freeze and still have Drainback system overheat protection. This works
but the fluid must be monitored if
the system stagnates frequently from
a high limit setting. Antifreeze solutions dont drain from collectors as
cleanly as water. Small amounts of
the glycol solution stick to the riser
tubes and this residue is blackened
from the high collector temperature.
Antifreeze solutions that overheat
can turn acidic and harm copper
tubing. Glycol/drainback systems
are known for the antifreeze solution turning black and blackening
the entire interior of the collectors,
Drainback tank, heat exchanger,
pump(s) and piping. The pH of the
heat transfer fluid in these systems
should be checked every 12 years.
This procedure is detailed in Section
10 along with procedures for flushing and refilling the system.
has reached its maximum temperature, many controllers are designed to turn
off the pump to protect the tank from overheating. Prolonged stagnation can
result in collector temperatures that exceed 400F (205C). These temperatures
increase system pressure and can cause release of the pressure relief valve,
which leads to system depressurization.
These pressures also create complications as it relates to the use of heat
exchangers. In jurisdictions that have adopted the Uniform Plumbing Code,
the rating of the pressure relief valve is limited to 30psi when using a singlewall heat exchanger. If the system is engineered, the pressure relief valve
rating may be increased as long as it does not exceed the normal operating
pressure of the potable water system. This requirement is in place to protect
the potable water from being contaminated by the propylene glycol solution if
a leak occurs in the heat exchanger. Alternately, a doublewalled heat exchanger
with leak detection can be used without limiting the pressure relief valve
rating to the pressure of the potable system.
In jurisdictions with a strict interpretation of the code, singlewalled heat
exchangers are impractical due to the difficulties of maintaining Antifreeze
systems below 30psi. Without the ability to exceed 30psi, it is difficult for an installer to purge the air from the collector loop when the system is initially filled
with antifreeze. Additionally, a relatively large expansion tank is required to
prevent an Antifreeze system from exceeding 30psi under stagnation conditions.
Antifreeze systems require an expansion tank to alleviate variations in system
pressures. Expansion tanks are sized based on the maximum system temperature, the volume of the system, and the pressure difference between the initial
system pressure and the relief valve rating. If the expansion tank is designed to
allow the system to stagnate without exceeding the pressure rating of the relief
valve, it must be capable of accepting normal system expansion and the expansion that occurs due to steam generation in the collectors.
Antifreeze systems require more components than DFC and Drainback
systems. As in DFC systems, Antifreeze systems require a check valve in the
collector loop piping to prevent reverse thermosyphoning, as well as fill/drain
valves, an expansion tank and a pressure gauge. A number of manufacturers
assemble these components along with the pump(s) and controls into a pump
station package. Pump stations and individual components are explained in
detail in Section 8.
Antifreeze systems can be PV-powered since low to medium head DC pumps
are readily available.
4.2.5 Solar Pool Heating Systems

Solar pool heating (SPH) systems are considered low-temperature systems due
to their typical operating temperature range of 75F (24C)85F (29C). Systems used for heating outdoor pools differ considerably from those used for
indoor pools in freezing climates. The components of the collector loop used in an indoor
pool system often resemble the components of IFC systems. Outdoor systems are typically seasonal and do not require freeze protection, thus they are less complex and do not
require the use of high-temperature components. In freezing climates, pool systems must
be designed and installed to drain completely.
Outdoor pool systems
A standard residential, open-air SPH system utilizes pool collectors and the existing pool
pump. The collector loop is constructed of PVC pipe, fittings and valves. Because the system is open-loop and operates at low temperatures, components do not need to be rated
to the pressures and temperatures required of components in closedloop SWH systems.
VACUUM
BREAKER
SENSOR
CONTROL
SENSOR
FILTER
3 PORT
MOTORIZED
VALVE
HEATER
OPTIONAL
PUMP
POOL
Figure 4-26 System diagram for standard outdoor solar pool heating system.
The PVC pipe and fittings are typically glued together using PVC cement, and rubber
couplings secured with hose clamps are used to join individual collectors. Larger pools and
some residential pools may require a booster pump in the collector loop to ensure adequate
flow through the collectors. Public pools will almost always require a solar system booster
pump because of health regulations requiring adequate filter flow to maintain water quality.
Collectors are usually installed on an adjacent roof or trellis, but they can also be mounted
on ground racks. Most pool collectors require full support by the roof or rack because
they are not made with an integral frame. The panels are strapped to the mounting structure in a manner that will allow for the expansion and contraction of the solar collectors
that occurs due to temperature fluctuations. Failure to allow for expansion/contraction
can cause premature failure of the panels.
Systems using polymer panels are usually configured similarly to Drainback systems. The
system is controlled with a differential control that operates at a low temperature differentialtypically 5F (3C) or less. The control is used to energize a three-port motorized
valve that diverts the pool water to the collectors. Sensors measure the temperature of the
SPH systems for indoor

pools resemble IFC systems.
collectors and the temperature of the pool water. Whenever there is enough heat
in the collectors to add heat to the pool, the valve is actuated. When the sun is not
shining, the valve directs the flow only through the pools standard piping.
They can function similarly to

Drainback or Antifreeze systems
using an external heat exchanger.
These heat exchangers must be
stainless steel or titanium, de-
Many residential pools are heated only with solar. SPH systems may also be used
in conjunction with an auxiliary heater when the suns energy is insufficient. A
properly sized system will maintain a swimming pool temperature of 75F (24C)
85F (29C) through the swimming season.
pending upon the chemical composition of the pool water. Due

to the high flow rates produced
by the pump on the pool side
of the heat exchanger, special
consideration must be given to
Indoor pool heating

While PVC and polypropylene are advantageous due to cost, these materials
are also necessary due to the corrosivity of standard pool chemicals. Standard
plumbing materials such as copper and iron will affect pool water quality due to a
chemical interaction with chlorine and will eventually fail.
the frictional head loss, or pres-
PRESSURE RELIEF
AND AIR RELIEF
sure drop, caused by the heat
SENSOR
exchanger. Shell-and-tube heat

exchangers are commonly used
for this reason. The collector
loop side of the heat exchanger
is designed similarly to other
large IFC systems.
PUMP
EXPANSION
TANK
HEAT EXCHANGER
PRESSURE
GAUGE
P
Another difference between
CHECK
SPH systems for indoor pools

FILL/DRAIN
and open-air pools is consideration of the natatoriumthe

building that houses an indoor
DIFFERENTIAL
CONTROL
SENSOR
pool. The systems within a na-
FILTER
tatorium are complex due to the
HEATER
OPTIONAL
PUMP
need to maintain indoor air qual-
POOL
ity and temperature. Mechanical

systems often include heaters,
3 PORT
MOTORIZED
VALVE
Figure 4-27 Indoor solar pool heating system.
air conditioners, dehumidifiers,

and ventilation. In open-air SPH
systems, an increase in water
temperature above the pools set
Corrosion considerations are more significant in SPH systems for indoor pools
than for outdoor pools due to the common practice of using medium temperature
collectors to improve year-round solar heat collection.
temperature only impacts comfort. In an indoor pool heating

system, an increase in pool temperature may increase evaporation of the pool water and affect
the ancillary mechanical systems
in the natatorium. SPH systems
for indoor pools should be engineered by qualified professionals
familiar with the conditioning of
natatoriums.
Pool water in residential indoor pools is often maintained at or slightly above a

pH of 7. Under these conditions, the SPH system can be designed as a Drainback
system using the pool as the Drainback reservoir. Care must taken when using
the PVC piping in these systemsif an electrical power interruption occurs when
the sun is shining, the collector temperatures can exceed 300F (150C). PVC pipe
begins to soften at 140F (60C).
The pH scale measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A solution with a pH of 7 is neutral.
Acidic solutions have a pH of less than 7 while alkaline, or basic, solutions have a pH greater than 7.
In solar heating systems, pH is used to monitor the acidity of pool water, glycol solutions, and water
in unpressurized storage tanks.
5 Prepare for Project

The successful installation of a solar heating system is dependent upon proper planning.
Experience is a critical asset in this process. An experienced installer is familiar with standard construction plans and is able to use these plans to assemble the materials, tools,
and safety equipment needed for the job.
5.1 Review the construction plans

Construction plans may be required by the Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) for
permit approval. The AHJ may be the Building Department of a town, city, or county,
or in some cases a state. Regardless of whether they are required by the AHJ, construction
plans should be provided for all SWH systems. Plans may serve several purposes,
including:

Providing details for bidding purposes

Serving as a working document between the designer and the installer
Allowing the installer to assemble a parts list
Providing details to the installer for proper installation
Detailing system design and operation for the owner after system
installation
Depending upon the application and jurisdiction,

construction plans may be produced by a mechanical engineer, the system manufacturer, or the installation firm. Engineers will most likely be involved in
larger commercial, industrial, and municipal systems.
Smaller systems, such as residential domestic water
heating systems, are more likely to be based on OG-300
or manufacturer-provided designs. Design requirements vary by jurisdiction and must be verified by the
installer.
Figure 5-1 Mechanical plans.
A qualified installer must be able to interpret construction drawings to determine the functionality of the
system, identify potential issues with the design, ensure code compliance, compile a
list of required equipment and tools, and properly install the system. All details on the
construction plans should be verified prior to installation.
Construction plans may consist of various types, including:

Architectural plans illustrate the dimensions and appearance of a structure through
the use of floor plans, profile views, details, and sections. They can often be used to
determine roof pitch, utility room layout, and the location of collector loop piping.
Structural plans lay out the location and size of load-carrying members in a
building. These can be used to determine appropriate attachment points for
collector racking.
Mechanical and plumbing plans give specific details on the location and type of tanks,
valves, piping, etc. In engineered systems, these plans are the blueprint for the SWH
system installation.
Construction plans are used to visualize the project before it is installed. Specifications
often accompany these plans and describe the exact equipment and procedures required
for the installation. Plans and specifications must be reviewed prior to the installation
to assure that the system can be installed as designed and will perform effectively
as designed.
Prior to installation, the installer should review the system design to verify the following:

The system is suitable for the specific application.

All critical components are included.
The components are sized appropriately.
The system is properly integrated with the auxiliary heating system(s).
The system meets national and/or local code requirements.
Any discrepancies or questions should be addressed immediately with the system designer or manufacturer.
5.1.2 Create a materials list

Construction plans assist the installer with creating a list of materials and equipment
needed for the installation. Some designs will specify the manufacturer and model of
each major component in the system, while others will identify the type of component
to be used (e.g., circulator, collector, air vent) and leave the component selection to the
installer.
While an OG-300 certified system utilizes specific collectors for each design, an engineered design may specify the style of collector (flat plate or evacuated tube) and the
required output of the collector array under appropriate conditions.
When the installer is selecting other components that have not been specified, s/he must
consider the operating conditions of the system. The components must be rated for the
appropriate maximum temperature and pressure and must be constructed of materials
that are compatible with the fluid(s) used in the system. Failure to recognize the design
conditions for particular systems can lead to premature failure of system components,
may threaten the health of building occupants, and/or may affect the operation of the
system. For example:
An automatic air vent used in a standard boiler application will not be rated for the
stagnation temperatures in an AF system.
A cast iron pump used in a DFC system will corrode.
A standard hydronic expansion tank rated to 100psi (7 bar) is not acceptable in a system with a 150psi (10.3 bar) relief valve.
Any components that are used in the potable piping system must be constructed of
materials that do not exceed the lead content limits of the local plumbing code.
Example
Specifications for the collectors on a small commercial installation read as follows:
Collectors: Solar collectors shall be flat-plate style with a single layer of low-iron
tempered glass. The array output shall be 150,000 BTU/day (44 kW/day) based on
Specifications for the collectors on a small commercial installation read as
SRCC OG-100 Category C, Mildly Cloudy conditions.
follows:
Collectors: Solar collectors shall be flat-plate style with a single layer of
In this scenario, the installer must determine the type and quantity of collectors
low-iron tempered glass. The array output shall be 150,000 BTU/day (44
required to fulfillkW/day)
the project
BesidesC,considering
output requirebased specifications.
on SRCC OG-100 Category
Mildly Cloudythe
conditions.
ments, the installer must also consider limitations relating to the available roof area
In this scenario, the installer must determine the type and quantity of collectors
for the collector
The
ratings and Besides
collector
area arethe
found
on the SRCC
requiredarray.
to fulfill
theoutput
project specifications.
considering
output
requirements,
the installer
must also Ratingavailable
consider limitations relating
to the
OG-100 Collector
Thermal
Performance
at www.solar-rating.org
available roof area for the collector array. The output ratings and collector area
and the are
collector
dimensions
are available
from the
manufacturer.
found on
the SRCC OG-100
Collector Thermal
Performance
Rating
available at www.solar-rating.org - and the collector dimensions are available
from
the manufacturer.
Suppose the
installer
plans to utilize a collector with the following ratings:
Suppose the installer plans to utilize a collector with the following ratings:
COLLECTOR THERMAL PERFORMANCE RATING
Kilowatt-hours (thermal) Per Panel Per Day
Thousands of BTU Per Panel Per Day
High Solar
Radiation
(6.3 kWh /
m2.day)
Medium Solar
Radiation
(4.7 kWh /
m2.day)
Low Solar
Radiation
(3.1 kWh /
m2.day)
A (-5 C)
12.5
9.4
6.4
B (5 C)
11.4
8.3
5.3
C (20 C)
9.5
6.5
D (50 C)
5.7
E (80 C)
2.2
Climate
CATEGORY
(Ti-Ta)
High Solar
Radiation
(2000 Btu /
ft2.day)
Medium Solar
Radiation
(1500 Btu /
ft2.day)
Low Solar
Radiation
(1000 Btu /
ft2.day)
A (-9 F)
42.6
32.2
21.8
B (9 F)
38.8
28.3
18.0
3.6
C (36 F)
32.5
22.3
12.1
3.0
0.7
D (90 F)
19.5
10.3
2.3
0.3
0.0
E (144 F)
7.6
1.1
0.0
Climate
CATEGORY
(Ti-Ta)
A- Pool Heating (Warm Climate) B- Pool Heating (Cool Climate) C- Water Heating (Warm Climate)
D- Water Heating (Cool Climate) E- Commercial Hot Water & Cooling
Figure 5-2 - SRCC OG-100 Collector Rating. (Courtesy of SRCC)
Figure 5-2 - SRCC OG-100 Collector Rating. (Courtesy of SRCC)
For Category C, Mildly Cloudy conditions, this collector has a rating of 22,300
BTU/day (6.5 kWh/day). To determine the number of collectors required to
satisfy the design specifications, the installer must divide the specified output of
For Category
C, Mildly
conditions,
the array
by the Cloudy
rating of each
collector: this collector has a rating of 22,300
BTU/day (6.5 kWh/day).

Tocollectors
determine
thearray
number
required to
Number of
= Total
outputof collectors
Collector output
satisfy the design specifications, the installer must divide the specified output
Number of collectors = 150,000 BTU/day 22,300 BTU/day
of the array by the rating of each collector:
Number of collectors = 6.7
this example,
the installer
need
use 7 collectors.
Number ofIncollectors
= Total
arraywould
output
to
Collector
output
Number of</Sidebar>
collectors = 150,000 BTU/day 22,300 BTU/day

Number of collectors = 6.7
In this example, the installer would need to use 7 collectors.
Other considerations for component selection may include: availability, cost, quality, and
the length and type of warranty. Prior to purchase, the installer must review the manufacturers specifications and instructions to ensure that the equipment is appropriate for
the system and to ensure proper installation.
5.1.3 Identify safety equipment needed

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that employers
implement appropriate safety training and safety protection for their employees. Regulations for the solar industry are contained in 29 CFR 1926 General Construction. While
the employer is responsible for the oversight of company safety programming, it is the
installers responsibility to assess job risks and work with his/her employer to provide
appropriate protection.
During the construction plan review or the site evaluation (see Section 6), the installer
must determine how the installation will be completed safely. Particular attention should
be paid to roof and attic work, areas where work
needs to be performed from ladders, scaffolding,
or man-lifts, and situations where heavy equipment, such as storage tanks, must be transported
through the work area.
Upon review of the construction plans and
during the site evaluation, the installer should
determine a specific plan for providing fall
protection while working on the roof. The plan
should identify measures for providing appropriate attachment points and safety hardware
Figure 5-3 Fall protection equipment.
Solar installer falls three stories

to his death
On April 7, 2010, a solar installer in California was working
on the roof of a three-story multi-unit apartment building.
The roof had a slope of 9:12 or 37. The installer was working without a personal fall arrest system and there were no
other fall protection measures installed.
The 30-year-old installer was verifying the alignment of
solar brackets that had been mounted on the roof. The installer observed the mounting hardware from near the gable
end of the structure and likely stepped backward off the
roof. He fell 45 feet (15 m) onto a concrete sidewalk. He
was pronounced dead at the hospital following an airlift.
The largest number of deaths in the construction industry
is due to falls. Because collectors are often installed on
roofs, solar heating installers incur significant risk. When an
individual opts not to follow common safety practices, s/he
could be risking his/her life.
Figure 5-4 - Accident site. (Courtesy of NIOSH FACE Reports)
for attaching work harnesses when working on steep

roofs (slope greater than 4:12). On low-slope roofs, the
safety plan may include work harnesses, warning lines,
guardrails, or other OSHA-approved techniques. See 29
CFR 1926 Subpart E (Personal Protective and Life Saving
Equipment) and Subpart M (Fall Protection) for more
details.
Attics present unique hazards. Whenever work needs to
be performed in an attic, attention must be paid to preparing a safe means for accessing the attic; providing a
safe workspace in the attic; and the use of skin, eye, and
respiratory protection when working around insulation.
The installer should also determine what type and size
of ladders and/or scaffolding should be used to access
roofs or complete overhead work. The safety plan must
utilize methods in accordance with 29 CFR 1926 Subpart
L (Scaffolding) and Subpart X (Ladders).
Figure 5-5 Common roof slopes.
The safety plan may also include minimizing risk by utilizing hoists, man lifts, pallet
jacks, lift gates, or other equipment that assists with lifting, accessing roofs, or moving
heavy equipment. If machinery is used to mitigate risks associated with lifting heavy
objects or providing access to elevated work areas, the equipment must be operated by
properly trained personnel.
Ladder duty ratings

OSHA requires portable ladders to be designed for at least four times
the maximum intended load with the exception of extra-heavyduty type ladders, which must be designed for at least 3.3 times the
maximum intended load. The American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) requires manufacturers to label ladders based on a standard
duty rating system. The weight of the installer and any tools or equipment that s/he uses while on the ladder must not exceed the duty
rating of the ladder. Duty ratings are as follows:
Ladder Type
Duty Rating
Application
Type IAA
375 lb
Extra heavy duty industrial
Type IA
300 lb
Extra heavy duty industrial
Type I
250 lb
Heavy duty
Type II
225 lb
Medium duty
Type III
200 lb
Light duty
Figure 5-6 Ladder stabilization device. (Courtesy of Safe-T-Climb)
Type II and Type III are not allowed on construction worksites.
5.1.4 Prepare project schedule

Effective project scheduling requires the installer to be knowledgeable of the tasks
required to complete the installation; to be able to adapt to schedule changes that result
from weather, equipment availability, or other unforeseen events, and to be an effective
communicator.
Project scheduling is often unique to the project, the client, and the installation company,
thus it is difficult to provide a concise discussion of the topic that is both thorough and
universally applicable. Instead, the following sections provide general guidelines and
considerations to assist installers with effectively scheduling SWH installations.
Based on the scope of the project, an experienced installer is able to estimate the size of
the crew and the number of work hours required to complete the project. S/he may be
responsible for, or assist with, scheduling crews for the installation. While some projects may have flexibility in the order of taskse.g. it may not matter if the collectors are
installed before or after the solar storage tankthe installer must ensure that sufficient
equipment and labor are available when needed. For example, if a lift is rented to transport collectors to the roof, the proper fall protection and work crew will need to be on-site
to coincide with the availability of the lift.
Portions of the installation may require licensed technicians, such as hardwiring the
controller, replacing a combustion appliance, or connecting to the potable water supply.
Other tasks may require other construction specialists, such as roofers and carpenters.
Scheduling considerations are critical when subcontractors and other specialized
personnel are involved.
During installation, it is the installers responsibility to follow the plan and adapt as
needed. Because SWH projects require outdoor work, weather has a significant impact
on project scheduling. Additionally, equipment delays and scheduling overruns on other
projects may affect the initial installation timeline. Delays are inherent to contracting. An
effective contractor recognizes the importance of maintaining effective communication
with the client, with vendors, and with other personnel to minimize the difficulties that
can arise due to such delays.
5.2 Assemble materials

Supply chains for SWH equipment vary by region. Some installers have the luxury of close proximity to local supply houses that
carry solar equipment in inventory. Others may have to special
order solar equipment or stock specific equipment in inventory to
minimize supply chain delays. An experienced installer is familiar
with time frames for receiving standard equipment and is aware
that certain equipment is less- frequently used and may require
more lead- time to obtain.
Figure 5-7 Copper tubing with standard fittings.
Once the appropriate equipment has been purchased and received, the installer should inspect and verify that the compo-
nents are the correct model and are

operational. For installations in remote
locations, it may be necessary to test
equipment prior to loading it on the
work truck. It is often advantageous
to carry extra quantities of standard
components, such as controllers, sensors, pumps, and fittings, in case a
part is defective or is damaged during
installation.
Job site efficiency starts prior to setting
foot on the site. A well-organized work
vehicle minimizes time spent searching for misplaced tools and equipment. Attention to detail will also
minimize trips to the supply house,
which increases profitability and demonstrates professionalism to the client.
Fitting notation
Fittings for copper tubing come in a variety of sizes and styles. The table below lists and describes the common industry abbreviations used to describe
standard styles of joints. Each fitting will have at least two joint notations.
Abbreviation
FTG
Name
Description
fitting
end of the fitting is the

same diameter as the
tubing
cup
tubing fits inside this end

of the fitting
male
end has male thread
female
end has female thread
Type of
fitting(s)
Example
couplings
1"x" FTGxC (reducer)
elbows
" FTGxC 45
adapters
couplings
adapters
elbows
tees
adapters
adapters
brass tees
" FTGxF
" CxC
1" CxM
" CxC 90
"x"x" CxCxC
1" CxM (see above)
" FTGxC (see above)

" CxCxF
Site access must be coordinated with

the client prior to installation. If large
equipment, such as tanks and collectors, will be delivered directly to the
site, the installer must ensure that
proper personnel are there to receive
the shipment. It is in an installers best
interests to inspect all delivered equipment and ensure it was not damaged
during shipping. Many shipping companies will only consider a damage
claim if it is made at the time of delivery. Some freight companies require
that the recipient reject delivery if the
equipment is damaged in order to
make a claim. If damaged equipment
is presented for delivery, the installer
should review the freight companys
policy prior to accepting the shipment.
At the very least, any discrepancies in
the shipment should be noted on the
delivery paperwork and the delivery
person should be asked to initial.
Because installation may require
access into the living space and/or
interruption of the water supply, it is
important for the installer to verify
Figure 5-8 Standard copper fittings with their designated notations.

(Courtesy of Copper Development Association, Inc. in New York, New York)
appropriate times to install the system. Scheduling may be more difficult in new construction, where the timeline will likely depend upon the general contractors schedule.
At times, these projects require the installer to respond quickly to the schedule of the
roofing, drywall, and heating contractors.
5.3 Assemble and inspect safety protection equipment

All safety equipment should be laid out at the shop and inspected. This includes fire
extinguishers, ropes, harnesses, ladders, ventilators, masks, gloves, hearing protection
devices, and other hardware associated with this equipment. Visual observation should
determine the status of the equipment. In some cases, stress testing (pulling or tearing
movements) are required to fully assess equipment like harnesses or ropes. Safety equipment found unserviceable for its purpose should be discarded and replaced.
5.4 Assemble tools

An experienced installer has a thorough collection of tools needed for a standard SWH
installation (see below). These tools should be well organized in work bags, tool boxes,
and bins. Often these tools are stored in work vans, in truck boxes, or in a utility trailer.
Best practice is to have fixed locations for tools so that they are readily accessible. This
minimizes the chance of forgetting critical tools and helps to support a clean, organized,
and safe work site.
Figure 5-9 - Soldering kit.
Figure 5-10 Adjustable wrenches.
Soldering kit:
Flux brushes for applying acid flux to tubing and fittings
Wire brushes for cleaning fittings; one required for each size of
tubing used
Tubing cutter(s) for cutting tubing to length
Deburring tool for smoothing out tubing after it is cut
Emory cloth or sand cloth for cleaning tubing
Torch used with propane or MAPP gas to heat fittings during the
soldering process
Rags for wiping joints after soldering
Inspection mirror for inspecting joints
Torpedo level for checking plumb and level of piping
* Acetylene torch for brazing joints
Wrenches:
Allen wrench set for adjusting mixing valves, removing pump
cartridge housing, etc.
Adjustable wrenches for tightening screwed joints, bolts, etc.
Pipe wrenches for tightening screwed joints
Open-end wrenches for tightening flange bolts, collector rack
hardware, etc.
Socket wrench set for tightening flange bolts, collector rack
hardware, etc.
Figure 5-11 Pipe wrench.

Power tools:
Cordless drill for drilling pilot holes and making roof and
wall penetrations
Cordless impact driver for installing screws
Reciprocating saw for general construction
Circular circular saw for general construction
Corded drill for drilling holes for piping
Bits:
Hole saw kit for drilling roof and wall penetrations
Spade or auger bits for drilling penetrations in framing members
Assorted bits for drilling pilot holes, etc.
Driver bits for installing screws
Extension bit for extending drill bits when drilling through wall
and floor assemblies
Installer bit long pilot bit for drilling holes and feeding sensors
wires
Electrical:
Extension cord
Multimeter for testing sensors, diagnosing circuits, etc.
Wire strippers for preparing wiring
Circuit tester for quickly identifying if a circuit is live
Precision screwdriver set for installing the controller
Fish tape for running wires in walls
Figure 5-12 Cordless drill.
Figure 5-13 Cordless reciprocating saw.
Figure 5-14 - Wire strippers.
Figure 5-15 Multimeter. (Courtesy of Home Power)
Hand tools:
Chalk line for collector layout
Caulk gun for sealing penetrations
Hacksaw for cutting all-thread and insulation
Hammer for general carpentry, installing hangers, etc.
Inclinometer for measuring collector tilt and roof pitch
Utility knife for opening boxes, cutting shingles, etc.
Level for checking slope of collectors, tanks, and piping
Pliers for general construction and wiring
Spring clamps to hold back pipe insulation while soldering; for securing
hoses in bucket
Screwdriver set various sizes of standard and Phillips-head screwdrivers
for general work
Tin snips for cutting flashing
Flat pry bar for lifting shingles
Hand truck for transporting tanks and other large equipment
Figure 5-16 Antifreeze filling station.
Figure 5-17 Drill pump and washing machine hose.
Miscellaneous tools:
5-gallon buckets to collect drained fluids; to hold heat transfer fluid during
filling process
Compass to verify true south and the collector azimuth
Flashlight for work in dark areas
Drop light for work in dark areas
Compressor for filling expansion tanks and pressure testing piping
Washing machine hoses for filling and draining the system
Garden hose for draining tanks
Refractometer or hydrometer for testing glycol concentration
Tire gauge for measuring the expansion tank air bladder pressure
Lighter for testing sensors
Tools should be inspected prior to and after use to ensure they are in proper
operating condition. Tools that are not functioning properly should be removed from inventory until they have been repaired or replaced. Good tools
help perform good work; bad tools can lead to injuries and poor craftsmanship. Tool inspection may include:
Visually inspecting cords on power tools
Checking the sharpness of tube cutters, saws, and drill bits
Verifying inventory of consumables such as torch gas, solder, acid flux,
emory cloth, and pipe thread compound
Charging batteries for cordless tools
Visually inspecting tool handles for wood or fiberglass splinters
When specialty tools are needed, the installer should arrange for purchase or
rental. These tools may include hammer drills, core drills, excavators, concrete saws, conduit benders, and pipe clamping tools. Tool availability may
have an impact on project scheduling.
6 Evaluate the Site

Upon his/her first trip to the site, an experienced installer will perform a site assessment
to determine the details and tasks required to install a SWH system. During a site
evaluation, the installer will envision all facets of the installation, including the
equipment that will be needed; the layout of this equipment; and the labor, tools, and
safety measures that will be required. When done well, the site evaluation lays the
foundation for a successful project by providing appropriate expectations for the client,
assuring the system meets the clients particular needs, and providing the planning
information needed to run an efficient and profitable installation.
The scope of a site evaluation will depend upon the installers specific responsibilities
and the type of SWH system being installed. Purposes of the site evaluation may include:
determining the heating loads for the system
measuring the amount of available solar insolation
determining appropriate layout for the system, including collector and storage tank
locations, piping locations, and integration with the auxiliary heating system
assessing the labor required for the installation
determining the specific equipment and tools required
preparing a safety plan for the project
assessing the suitability of the system design for the specific site
marketing the installation company to a potential client
6.1 Compare design to site

Any type of heating system is site-specific.
For instance, a natural gas boiler is only
appropriate in an area where there is an
infrastructure for delivering natural gas
to the site. Likewise, a responsible heating
contractor wouldnt put a 50,000 BTU/
hr furnace in a building with a heating
demand of 150,000 BTU/hr. The same
fundamentals hold true for SWH systems.
Significant attention needs to be paid to the
availability of energy and the demands on
the system. While solar heating technologies
can be efficient and cost-effective in many
applications, there are situations in which a
system isnt suitable for the particular site.
Figure 6-1 Possible roof location for solar collector.
Qualified installers must understand the principles of system sizing and selection in
order to effectively serve their clientele. For small residential systems, the installer may
be responsible for ensuring the proper installation of a predesigned SWH package, such
as an SRCC OG-300 Certified system. For larger residential systems and commercial
applications, the installer may be responsible for installing a system that has been
Figure 6-2 An existing water heater.
If the site evaluation is

performed to assist with
bidding or the development of a proposal, it
may be necessary to
estimate the number of
Figure 6-3 The proposed layout for the system should be verified by the installer to ensure that the collectors are oriented properly and that
shading will not be a significant issue.
hours required for the installation. An experienced

installer should be able to
provide an accurate estimate upon completion of
the site evaluation. Some
designed by an engineer to meet the specific needs of the site. In either situation,
the installer must be aware of the solar access at the site, the magnitude of water
heating demands for the facility, and understand how the system will integrate with
the auxiliary heating system and building structure. A quality site evaluation is
fundamental to this process.
installation companies
may have a formula they
use to assist in estimating projects that are large
in scope or pose unique
installation challenges.
6.1.1 Verify system type is appropriate for site

An installer must be knowledgeable about the types of systems that are appropriate
for the climate(s) within the companys service range. The predominate system
types used in North America are DFC and IFC systems. DFC and ICS systems are
very limited in their applicability and should not be used in climates that might be
susceptible to freeze. IFC systems are appropriate across the entirety of North America.
Drainback (DB) systems may have limitations due to the inability to properly slope
piping in some buildings and in far northern climates due to severe cold weather.
Antifreeze (AF) systems are less preferable in hot climates where system overheating
may be common. See Section 4 for a more detailed discussion of system types and
their appropriateness for particular climates.
Appropriate system selection also relies upon an accurate understanding of the water
heating demands of the site during the life-cycle of the system. Many standard SWH
systems are designed to last for at least twenty years. Consequently, the system size will
depend upon current and future heating demands. Clients with teenagers in the home
may have a drastic change in water heating demands once the children move out of the
house, while a childless couple may have increased

demands as their family grows. In many locales, it is
important to consider the size of residence due to the
turnover of the real estate market. A four-bedroom
home owned by a retired couple could be sold to a
family of five.
There are a number of methods for estimating the
water heating loads of a residence:
Household size estimates

For systems based upon occupancy size, general
estimates can be made based upon average hot water
use for the household size. Below are estimates based
upon household size from two sources: Residential
Energy, a text used for training energy auditors, and
RETSCREEN, an energy modeling software.
Household Residential Energy

size
estimate (gal/day)

1
25

2
40

3
50

4
65

5
75

6
85
Figure 6-4 During a site evaluation, the installer will need to inspect most
of the building to identify the location of collectors, mechanical equipment,
and the solar piping. (Courtesy of Schco)
RETSCREEN
estimate (gal/day)
16
32
48
63
79
95
These are rough estimates and do not account for households that are thrifty and use
energy-saving measures, nor for others that may use excessive quantities of hot water
due to long showers or the use of a large bathtub.
Direct Forced-Circulation:
Open-Loop
Indirect Forced-Circulation:
Closed-Loop, Drainback
Potable Water
in Open,
Pressurized
Collector Loop
Collector
Collector
Indirect-Forced-Circulation:
Closed-Loop, Antifreeze
Separate
Heat-Transfer Fluid
in Closed,
Unpressurized
Collector Loop
Collector
Separate
Heat-Transfer Fluid
in Closed,
Pressurized
Collector Loop
Drainback
Tank
Hot Out
Hot Out
Storage
Tank
Circulation
Pump
Cold Supply In
Storage
Tank
Circulation
Pump
Hot Out
Storage
Tank
Heat
Exchanger
Cold Supply In
Circulation
Pump
Heat
Exchanger
Cold Supply In
Figure 6-5a,b,c Generalized schematics of the three most commonly installed systems in North America. (Courtesy of homepower.com)
These estimates are similar to the daily hot water use estimated by the Department of
Energy and used for SRCC OG-300 performance models. The SRCC OG-300 annual
performance estimates are based upon a four-person household with an average hot
water use of 64.3 US gallons per day. This is a key consideration when using an SRCC
OG-300 Certified system performance estimates to select a system for a specific site.
Estimates for specific households

A designer or installer may use more complex methods
to estimate hot water use, such as the technique
presented in Modeling Patterns of Hot Water Use in
Households by Lutz, et al., that account for the age of the
occupants, the types of appliances in the home that use
hot water, whether occupants are home during the day,
and a variety of other factors.
Daily hot water use can also be estimated based on
the specific behavior of the occupants. A thorough site
evaluation includes a hot water use survey to assist with
estimates. The Department of Energy recommends using
the following average values to for such estimates:
Figure 6-6 Average U.S. household energy use for 2005.
shower, 8 minutes = 10 U.S. gallons of hot water

clothes washer, one load = 7 U.S. gallons of hot water
dishwasher, one load = 6 U.S. gallons of hot water
kitchen faucet flow = 2 U.S. gallons per minute
bathroom faucet flow = 0.5 U.S. gallons per minute
More information about the Department of Energys method for estimating residential
hot water use can be found at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/technologies/eep_
waterheaters_calc.html.
Care should be taken in households that utilize modern energy efficient washing
machines and low-flow fixtures, as well as in homes where the occupants minimize hot
water use by taking short showers and use the cold cycles on their washing appliances.
The aforementioned estimating models are often based on household data that predates
efficiency advances and represents average household hot water use.

Metering
In some instances, an in-line water meter can be installed or an ultrasonic flow meter can
be placed on the inlet piping to the existing water heater to get a more accurate estimate of
hot water use. This method is used infrequently in residential applications due to cost and
the level of accuracy that is necessary for sizing residential systems but is common in large
commercial systems where hot water use is difficult to estimate by standard models.
The accuracy of water heating estimates needed for a particular project is heavily
dependent upon the application. In residential systems, the standardization of collector and
tank sizes establishes the level of accuracy necessary. If the initial estimate of residential
hot water use is off by 20%, there will be limited impact on system overheating and system
efficiency. In large commercial systems, a 20% difference in facility hot water use could
have much larger impacts on the performance and cost-effectiveness of the system.
While it is the system designers responsibility to ensure that the system is sized
appropriately, a qualified installer must be aware of these issues to ensure that the
system is appropriate for the site.
6.1.2 Confirm collector location, tilt, and azimuth

The amount of solar energy available to a collector array is dependent upon a variety
of factors, including:

weather and climate

orientation of the collectors
the sites latitude
the presence of shading obstructions at the site
The potential effects of latitude and orientation are considered during a site evaluation
as an installer assesses appropriate collector locations. A majority of SWH systems are
roof-mounted, but wall- and ground-mounts may be more appropriate if the building
structure is oriented unfavorably, the distance between the roof and the mechanical room
would cause severe inefficiencies, or if roof-mounting would cause structural or aesthetic
issues. During the site evaluation, these issues are considered by documenting the
building orientation, the roof pitch, the location of the piping between the collectors and
the storage tank, and any other factors that might affect collector location.
For most residential installations, the collector azimuth and tilt are driven by the
properties of the building structure. Roof-mounted collectors are often mounted at the
same angle as the slope of the roof and in-line with the existing structure for aesthetics.
Figure 6-7a Standard roof mounting configurations of an antifreeze system. (Courtesy of SunEarth)
Figure 6-7b Standard roof mounting configurations of a drainback systemnote the lack of a
landscape recommendation. (Courtesy of SunEarth)
6.1.3 Evaluate present and future collector shading

During a site evaluation, it is critical to determine whether trees, buildings, chimneys,
dormers, or other rows of collectors will cause shading of the array and assess the impact
of any such shading on the systems performance. The effect of existing obstructions can
be measured using a variety of solar shade tools. These include, but are not limited to:

Figure 6-8 Solmetric

SunEye shade analysis tool.
(Courtesy of Solmetric)
Solar Pathfinder www.solarpathfinder.com

Solmetric SunEye www.solmetric.com
Wiley ASSET www.we-llc.com
Solmetric iPV application for iPhone and iPod www.solmetric.com
Each of these tools uses a trace of the obstructions at a site and superimposes this shading
on an appropriate sun path diagram to determine the monthly effects of shading. Solar
Pathfinder also offers its Solar Pathfinder Assistant software with Thermal Plug-In, which
utilizes the shade analysis results to estimate system production. With the other tools, the
shading analysis results must be imported into third-party design simulation
software specific to SWH applications. Installers should be familiar with
these tools and their proper operation. Instruction manuals for each tool are
available at the websites listed above.
In order to assess shading at sites that have yet to be built or that are
impractical to access for planning purposes, the SunEye can be used with an
extension pole and the Pathfinder Assistant software allows the installer to
take a shading measurement from the ground and adjust the results for the
collector height.
Figure 6-9 Solar Pathfinder shade analysis tool.
On systems that require multiple rows of collectors,

care must be taken to avoid or account for the effects
of inter-row shading. This occurs when insufficient
spacing between collector rows causes one collector
bank to shade the other.
The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
recommends that the minimum row spacing for
commercial SWH systems should be based upon the
suns altitude angle at 10am on December 21. This
spacing guarantees that the front row(s) will not
shade the collectors from 10am to 2pm on winter
solstice. The minimum row spacing is dependent
upon the following factors:

Figure 6-10 Output from Solar Pathfinder Assistant software.
the length of the collectors

the collector tilt angle
the azimuth of the array
the sites latitude
the slope of the mounting surface
Figure 6-11 The ratio of the

required spacing between collector
rows and the length of the collector
can be determined using the chart
to the left for collectors mounted
due south at the same elevation.
For a collector array with collectors
mounted at a tilt angle of 40at a
site with a latitude of 35N, this ratio would be approximately 1.95.
If 4x8 collectors were mounted
in portrait orientation, there would
need to be approximately 15.6 of
spacing between the collector rows
to meet ASHRAEs recommendations for inter-row spacing.
Figure 6-11 illustrates the minimum row spacing for specific latitudes based on ASHRAE
recommendations. These figures are based upon collectors that are oriented on a flat
surface and oriented due south. For installations that are not oriented due south or are
on a sloped surface, trigonometry or drafting software can be used to eliminate inter-row
shading or to account for its effects.
6.1.4 Verify balance-of-system equipment suitability

In addition to siting the collector array, the installer should also determine the layout
of the balance of the system. This includes the collector support, the solar loop piping,
the storage tank, and the interconnection to the existingor futurewater heating
equipment.
Solar loop piping

During the site evaluation, the installer must identify an appropriate layout for the solar
loop piping in order to determine the type and length of piping and pipe insulation
required, identify flashing and other methods for sealing penetrations, and determine
District Energy
Solar Thermal Project
While reducing or eliminating inter-row shading
is often desirable, there are instances in which it
is more preferable to install collector rows closer
together than ASHRAEs minimum recommendations.
Figure 6-12 View of collector array for the solar thermal District Energy project.
(Courtesy of District Energy St. Paul)
One example is the District Energy Solar

Thermal Project in Saint Paul, MN. This project
there is significant demand for hot water year-
utilizes 144 flat plate collectors that are each
round. The decision was made to install three rows
approximately 19.5 (6.0m) wide and 7.5 (2.3m)
of collectors to maximize solar production in the
tall. The collectors were installed at a tilt angle of
available roof space. As a result, the system could
45degrees and were aligned with the roof of the
utilize 50% more collector area while inter-row
Saint Paul RiverCentre, which has an azimuth of
shading would reduce annual system production
186. Engineers had 32 of roof depth available
by approximately 34% when compared to optimal
for installing the collector array.
row spacing.
Based on ASHRAE guidelines, the system
While the size and scope of the District Energy Solar
would have required a row spacing of approxi-
Thermal Project is unique, their approach to dealing
mately 24 to eliminate inter-row shading for a
with shading issues is not. In residential systems, it
four-hour window on December 21st. To meet
is not uncommon to increase the size of the array or
these guidelines, only two rows of collectors
accept decreases in system performance during the
could have been installed on the roof.
winter as a result of collector shading.
Since the system serves a district water heating

system that provides heat and hot water to a
More information on the District Energy Solar Ther-
majority of buildings in downtown Saint Paul,
mal Project is available at www.solarsaintpaul.com.
whether chases will need to be built to conceal piping. If piping needs to be

run through structural members, such as trusses or joists, the installer may
need to consult the building code to avoid compromising the integrity of
the structure.
Installing Solar on
Commercial Roofs
Collector racking
When evaluating a
When installing a system on an existing structure, the roofing should be

inspected to verify its integrity. Since the SWH system is designed to last for
decades and re-roofing often requires the removal of collectors, it is typically
most economical to replace the roofing under the array prior to installation if
it will require replacement during the life of the SWH system. Of course, this
work must be priced into the system installation and care should be taken to
avoid compromising the existing roof surrounding the collectors. Installers
must be vigilant when inspecting the integrity of the roof in the vicinity of
the proposed collector array; if any problems arise with the integrity of the
roofing, the occupants will likely assign blame to the solar installation.
commercial roof for a large

solar system, the quality of
the existing roof becomes
a more significant issue. In
some cases, if the building
owner is not interested in
repairing the roof (roof repair
costs are not eligible for state
or federal solar incentives),
it may be necessary for the
contractor to walk away
Additionally, the installer must determine how the collector will be attached
to the structure (spanners, J-hooks, lag bolts) and assess the integrity of
the roof structure for roof-mounted arrays. For older roofs or systems that
require collectors to be installed at steep angles, this may require analysis by
a structural engineer. If structural reinforcement is required, this should be
noted during the site evaluation.
from a project. In some

circumstances, the existing
roof quality may be so poor
that the mere act of carrying
heavy solar collectors onto
the roof surface may damage
the roof beyond repair. This
For ground-mount systems, the installer must consider the soil conditions on
the site. Shallow bedrock and clay present unique opportunities for installing
stable foundations.
will almost certainly become

the responsibility of the
contractor, unless the building
owner is willing to sign a
Storage tank
legal waiver exempting the
Allocating an appropriate location for storage tanks can be difficult in both

residential and commercial SWH systems due to space restrictions. These
restrictions may include floor space, height clearance, and the width of
access doors to the installation site. The installer must verify these clearances
to ensure the system can be installed as specified or to assist with proper
tank selection.
In most, if not all cases with

larger systems on commercial
roofs, it is advisable to secure
the services of a professional
roofing contractor to
ensure that all of the roof
Interconnection to auxiliary heating equipment
penetrations and attachment
Proper integration between the SWH system and the auxiliary heater(s) is
needed to ensure that the SWH system produces as much usable energy
as possible and to minimize the energy requirements of auxiliary heating
equipment. Poor integration of the systems can make even the most robust
SWH system ineffectual. A qualified installer must be knowledgeable
of conventional water heating systems and have the ability to interpret
construction plans and evaluate as-built heating systems to determine the
appropriate means for connecting the SWH system. During a site evaluation,
an existing schematic should be verified or a new one should be developed if
not already available.
contractor from responsibility.
points are properly flashed

and sealed. In this way,
the roofing subcontractor
assumes responsibility for the
roof integrity, rather than the
installing contractor.
- Ed Murray, Aztec Solar
6.2 Inspect and document existing site conditions

Another purpose of the site evaluation is to perform a risk assessment. These risks may
include:
deficiencies with existing equipment or building structure. If an installer notices that
existing hot water piping is uninsulated, that the auxiliary heater or roofing will need
to be replaced in the near-term, or that the roof is structurally unsound, it should be
documented and communicated to the owner.
safety hazards that were not identified during the initial construction plan review.
Hazards such as overhead power lines, the presence of vehicular or pedestrian traffic
adjacent to the worksite, or unstable ground where ladders or scaffolding might be
used should be noted and discussed with other installers during daily safety meetings.
liability risks, such as equipment or structural damage in areas where installation
tasks will be performed. Such damage should be documented and reported in
accordance with company policy.
additional work that is outside of the contract scope. If piping will need to be
concealed in a chase or an electrician will be needed to relocate or install a service
box to power the controller, this should be noted and resolved.
6.3 Ensure code compliance

The lawful installation of SWH systems is governed by building codes and local
requirements for installer credentialing. These regulations have little uniformity across
the United States. This is in contrast to Canada, which utilizes fairly standardized
national codes that may have some local variance.
6.3.1 Codes
Local codes relevant to SWH installations may include the following:
Building codes address the structural considerations of SWH systems, including:
attachment to the building structure, the substructure of ground mounts, and
appropriate piping penetrations. The major building codes in the United States are
the International Building Code (IBC) and the Uniform Building Code (UBC). In Canada,
many provinces have their own building codes; most are based on the National
Building Code.
Plumbing codes are requirements for the portion of a SWH installation that impacts
a facilitys potable water system. The purpose of the code is to eliminate hazards
associated with temperature and pressure, to ensure system durability, and to
protect the potable water system from contamination by foreign substances. The
two dominant plumbing codes in the U.S. are the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC),
developed by the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials
(IAPMO), and the International Plumbing Code (IPC), by the International Code
Council (ICC). Figure 6-13 illustrates the plumbing codes used by jurisdictions in the
United States. Most provinces in Canada model their plumbing codes on the National
Plumbing Code (NPC), published by the National Research Council of Canada.
Figure 6-13 Plumbing code adoption in the U.S. (Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Mechanical codes typically relate to the collector loop side of the heat exchanger in
indirect systems. Like plumbing codes, mechanical codes address hazards associated
with temperature and pressure, the integrity and durability of the mechanical
installation, and the protection of the potable water system. Additionally, these codes
may address requirements pertaining to the installation of solar collectors. IAPMOs
Uniform Mechanical Code (UMC) and ICCs International Mechanical Code (IMC) are
the two dominant mechanical codes in the United States. Additionally, IAPMO has
produced the Uniform Solar Energy Code (USEC), which specifies the mechanical and
plumbing requirements of SWH systems. USEC is one of the primary references
for the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Exam. In Canada, The Canadian Standards
Association has an installation code for packaged SWH systems: CSA Installation
Standard F383. F383 applies to the installation of pre-packaged systems that meet
the CSA F379 Manufacturing Standard. The F383 Standard is similar to the SRCC
Operating Guidelines 300 (OG300) in the United States.
Figure 6-14 Mechanical code adoption in the U.S.
Electrical codes address the wiring of photovoltaic modules, controls, pumps, and
motorized valves in the system. The predominate electrical code in the U.S. is the
National Electrical Code (NEC) by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).
The Canadian Electrical Code (CEC), published by the Canadian Standards Association
(CSA), is commonly used in Canada. The CEC is also referred to as CSA Standard
C22.1.
Energy codes are requirements for addressing the efficiency of a SWH system. These
codes often address insulation levels for piping and storage tanks, proper sealing
of penetrations, heat traps, and the set temperature for mixing valves and auxiliary
water heating equipment. The dominant energy code in the United States is the
International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) by ICC.
It is critical that the installer
identifies the Authority
Having Jurisdiction
(AHJ) and has a thorough
knowledge of the applicable
codes while preparing for
the project. Requirements
may vary greatly by
jurisdiction; a system that is
code-compliant in one town
may have major infractions
in a neighboring jurisdiction.
For example, in jurisdictions
that have adopted the IPC,
it is perfectly acceptable to
install an indirect system
with a single-wall heat
exchanger and a pressure
Figure 6-15 Plumbing, mechanical, electrical, conservation and solar code books used in the U.S.
relief valve rated at 87psi
(6 bar). The same system
installed in a jurisdiction governed by the UPC would require the use of a double-wall
heat exchanger or a pressure relief valve that is rated at 30psi maximum.
Another resource for understanding the particular requirements of certain jurisdictions
is the New York State Energy and Research Development Authoritys (NYSERDA) Field
Inspection Manual for Solar Heating Systems. While this document is specific to building
codes in New York State, these codes are based upon the International Codes and NEC
and are therefore applicable to many other jurisdictions in the United States.
6.3.2 Permitting
Like codes, permitting and licensure requirements vary greatly by jurisdiction. All new
SWH systems that heat domestic water usually require a plumbing permit for installing
the potable tie-in. Some jurisdictions may require building, mechanical, and/or electrical
permits depending upon the application. It is important that the installer obtains all
required permits prior to the installation of the system.
6.3.3 Homeowner Association approval

Increasingly, additional approval for a SWH system is required when
the system is installed in a community governed by a Homeowner
Association (HOA). HOAs are sometimes established during the creation
of new residential housing developments. When a home is sold within
the jurisdiction of a HOA, development is subject to certain conditions,
covenants, and restrictions (CC&Rs).
Some HOAs adopt restrictive covenants that apply to the installation of
Figure 6-16 Permits are usually required for
solar systems. In these jurisdictions an application for the installation may
SWH installations.
be required by the HOA, sometimes through the Architectural Committee.
It is in the installers best interest to submit all requested diagrams, pictures, product
information etc., so the HOA cannot reject the application on the grounds that it is
incomplete. The HOA will evaluate the submittal and may suggest reasonable changes to
that original submittal.
Prior approval is critical. If the installer does not seek and receive approval prior to
installation, the Homeowner Association may have the right to require that the system
be removed at the expense of the installer or the homeowner. More information on
this topic can be found in Bringing Solar Energy to the Planned Community: A Handbook
on Rooftop Solar Systems and Private Land Use Restrictions available at http://www.
consumerenergycenter.org/erprebate/documents/CC+Rs_and_solar_rights.pdf.
6.3.4 Licensure
The AHJ may require specific credentials, such as a plumbing or general contractor
license, for obtaining the necessary permits. Additionally, local regulations will detail
the requirements for individuals working on the plumbing, mechanical, and electrical
portions of a system. All SWH installation work must satisfy licensure requirements.
Some incentive programs may require installer certification in order for an installation to
qualify for a rebate or tax credit. Certification differs from licensurewhile a license is a
legal requirement to satisfy a government agency, a certification is typically a voluntary
credential that proves a level of proficiency in a trade or profession. Often installer
certification is not required to legally install a system, but rather to be eligible for local
incentive programs.
6.4 Ensure OSHA compliance

There are several tasks involved in a SWH installation that may require larger work
crewsnamely transporting and installing collectors on a roof, and installing solar
storage tanks. When possible, lifting equipment should be used to assist with these tasks.
When used properly, lifts mitigate some of the risk inherent in transporting equipment
that is heavy or must be lifted to roofs. All such installation requirements should be
assessed during the site evaluation.
See Section 8 for more details regarding proper safety practices.
7 Plan System Installation

Positioning of the collector array, the system piping, and the storage tank(s) are important considerations that must be determined during the site evaluation and design
process to ensure that the system can be installed as proposed. Site limitations, such
as a confined mechanical room, limited roof space, narrow door widths, or the need to
construct mechanical chases for concealing system piping may have significant impacts
on component selection. For example, most solar storage tanks are too tall to be installed
in a crawl space. The failure to pre-identify such limitations or to select appropriate locations for solar heating equipment prior to system installation can lead to construction
delays and cost overruns.
Many of the details of the installation should be determined prior to arrival at the site.
Once at the site, the lead installer must review these details and ensure that the system
can be installed per design specifications. This process will often require the installer to
resolve discrepancies between the construction plans and the site or to develop solutions
for portions of the installation that are not specifically detailed in the plans. This is often
the case in retrofit installations where concealed work is required. Frequently, the plans
must be modified as the installation progresses.
Unpleasant surprises
The importance of a thorough site assessment is
rarely more evident than when a crew arrives at a
jobsite and discovers that major modifications will
be needed or that the system cant be installed at
all. Here are a few unpleasant discoveries that can
be avoided with attention to detail:
Client asks, When can the gas/electric meter

be taken out?
An uncovered pool in a room with northern
glass and the ventilator is dumping air outside
when it's below freezing.
Existing, uninsulated hot water recirculation
loop under the slab to a bathroom 50 feet
away.
Roof is barely capable of holding itself up and

the shingles are fifteen years old.
Gated community with nothing on any

other roofs.
Tall conifers are shading the collector location

on a summer day and theyre located on the
neighbors side of the property line.
Homeowners association was not contacted

for approval.
Customer was not told of the location of the
panels and/or tank.
Piping runs cannot be sloped continuously for

a drainback system.
Panels do not fit in the designated roof area.
Storage tank wont fit through the front door.
Valves do not work to shut off the water inlet.
Existing water heater is in the attic or a bedroom closet.
There is no electricity for the controls and

pumps near the tank location.
The only place to put the collectors is on a

slate roof.
Customer was not told to have the work area

cleared out.
Occupants are renting their home.
There is no attic access or there are vaulted

ceilings.
Occupants have little or no taxable income.
7.1 Layout collector(s) installation

For roof-mounted arrays, the attachment points must be located and marked on the
roof surface. Locating the centerline of roof rafters or trusses is important for maintaining the integrity of the roof and the collector attachment to the building. There are
several methods for locating these attachment points:
Drilling from below When attaching directly to a rafter or truss, a quick and reliable method is to drill a 1/8" (3 mm) pilot hole up from the attic directly adjacent
to the structural member. Consideration should be made to locate this pilot hole
near the proposed location of the collector rack. It is advantageous to have an installer above the roof to help identify an appropriate drilling location and to mark the
location of the structural member once the hole has been drilled. Care must be taken
on metal roofs to ensure that the drilling location does not fall on a seam or rib.
Drilling from above If a spanner or blocking is used to connect to the structure, the
pilot hole can be drilled from above the roof surface. As with drilling from below,
it is helpful to have one person on either side of the roof during this process. Once
the pilot hole has been drilled, the installer below the roof can position the spanner
or blocking at the appropriate location.
Using reference objects Plumbing vents, chimneys, or other objects that penetrate
the roof surface can be used to identify structural members, as well. By measuring the offset distance between a roof rafter and a plumbing vent, an installer can
identify the rafter from above the roof. In buildings with cathedral ceilings or
inaccessible attic spaces, locating nails at the eaves where the fascia boards are fastened to the ends of rafters and the use of stud finders on the interior ceiling may
assist with locating structural members.
Figure 7-1 Drilling a pilot hole from below to

locate roof rafters.
Other methods Roof structural members can sometimes be located using technological means such as specialized stud finders or infrared cameras. Some installers
are proficient at finding trusses and rafters by tapping a hammer on the rooftop
and listening for changes in the roof vibration. A qualified installer uses careful
consideration when locating structural members since any hole in the roof surface
threatens the integrity of the entire roof.
When installing collectors on shingled roofs, pilot holes can be drilled underneath the
upper course of shingles to verify the location of structural members. Any pilot hole
that misses a structural member should be filled and sealed in accordance with the
roofing manufacturers recommendations.
Once the roof attachment locations have been identified, the mounting hardware
should be installed. The sealant, hardware, and tools should be loaded on the roof
and secured in canvas buckets, work bags, or other suitable containers that will help
prevent equipment and tools from sliding or rolling off the roof.
Structural modifications are not within the scope of work for a solar installer unless
a qualified person is performing or supervising the work. Trusses, rafters, and joists
should not be modified unless approved by an engineer or the local building inspector. General building regulations and rules may exist even for minor structural modifi-
cations, such as drilling holes for wiring and piping. Spanners and blocking as described
in Section 8 are structural additions, not modifications.
7.2 Plan solar loop piping

To maximize system efficiency, it is preferable to locate the collector loop piping in a direct line between the collectors and the location of the solar storage tank. In practice, this
can be difficult due to the layout of the building. Horizontal piping runs located inside of
the structure are typically routed through unfinished spaces such as attics or basements
or above drop ceilings. Vertical runs are often run through closets or in the corner of
rooms, where they can later be concealed in a chase. In new construction, piping may be
concealed within wall or floor cavities.
Building penetrations are necessary to pipe the collectors to the storage tank and/or
other mechanical equipment. This often involves drilling and cutting into concealed
spaces where existing wiring and piping may be present. A small light and mirror can
assist an installer in determining if a location is suitable for a larger penetration. Boroscopes, which utilize a camera probe with an inspection display, are valuable in detecting
concealed obstructions. The probes can be inserted in roofs and walls through drilled
holes as small as " inch (13mm).
Residential flat roof installations require special consideration. Penetrations are typically made into a concealed space
between the roof joists. Joists will often change directions in
flat roof construction and this may not be detectable from the
roof or the ceiling below. Where roof joists can be identified
from below, an installer can often measure the distance from
existing plumbing and mechanical vents to the joists on the
underside of the roof in order to locate the joists from the roof
surface. A goal with all installations is to place the collectors
as close as possible to the tank locationthis is particularly
true for flat roof installations. Otherwise, long piping runs
may be required on the roof.
Figure 7-2 A camera-type boroscope and a higher-end stud finder can

help with installation planning.
Piping layout is critical and unforgiving with Drainback

systems. Some building layouts are unsuitable for drainback
systems due to the inability to route piping in such a way that
a continuous piping slope of at least " per foot (2 mm per
meter) can be maintained. Minimizing the length of piping
and the number of fittings in all active systems can help minimize pumping energy by limiting frictional head loss.
Figure 7-3 It is often beneficial to

locate the pump station and controls
near the storage tank.
7.3 Plan mechanical room/area

When installing a solar preheat system that utilizes a separate solar storage tank, the
solar preheat tank should be installed as close as possible to the auxiliary water heater
to minimize the piping required between the two tanks. In these systems cold water is
plumbed into the solar storage tank, and the hot outlet of the storage tank is then directed to the cold inlet of the auxiliary heater. Piping between the two tanks reduces system
efficiency, as water in that piping will lose heat between the solar storage tank and the
auxiliary heater during times of no flow.
In a single tank system, the solar storage tank is plumbed like any traditional tank-type
water heater. In a retrofit situation, the hot, cold, and relief piping may need to be modified to accommodate the new solar tank, which is often larger than the existing heater. If
the new tank replaces a combustion appliance, the existing venting should be terminated
in accordance with local regulations. Dampers or vents that were required for providing
makeup air for the removed combustion appliance may be sealed or removed if they do
not supply another combustion appliance in the room.
The tie-in to the potable water system will require a temporary interruption of the hot
water service. It may also require shutting off the entire buildings cold water supply if a
shutoff valve is missing or is leaking. The occupant(s) of the building should be informed
of any interruption and given an approximate time and duration of the inconvenience.
The positioning of the balance of system (BOS) components, such as pumps, valves,
gauges, and controls, is typically adjacent to the solar storage tank location. Wall space in
garages and utility/mechanical rooms are often used for these components. The location
of piping to and from the collector array and the tank location should dictate the logical
placement of the other components.
8 Install System
System installation must be carried out in accordance with specifications. For residential
and small commercial SRCC OG-300 Certified solar water heating systems, these
specifications are provided by the system manufacturer. For small systems that are not
SRCC OG-300 Certified and larger systems that are outside the scope of the SRCC OG300 Certification program, specifications are often provided by an engineer or designer.
It is critical to ensure that all components are installed per manufacturers specifications.
Specifications and installation instructions are typically included with each component.
The size of the work crew required for the installation of an SWH system will depend upon
the size and scope of the project. Small residential systems are a job for a crew of two or
more. While many facets of a residential installation can be completed by a single installer,
two or more people are often needed for transporting collectors to the roof, moving storage
tanks, and minimizing installation time. Commercial, industrial, and municipal systems
may require larger crews due to the scale of work and tighter work schedules.
Though a single person can handle evacuated tube and pool collectors, care must be taken
to ensure that the installation is performed safely. OSHA requires that installers use at
least one hand to grasp the ladder when progressing up and/or down the ladder (29
CFR 1926.1053(b)(21)). It is often most practical to have at least two installers involved in
transporting collectors to the roof in order to adhere to these safety regulations. Collector
arrays mounted near the ground, including ground-mounted or some wall-mounted
arrays, may provide more flexibility in work crew size due to easier accessibility.
Other work areas will include mechanical rooms, attics, occupied rooms, garages, and
basements. The specific work areas and safety risks associated with working in these areas
should be identified during the initial project risk assessment. Once on site, the installer
must review the safety plan and the site to verify proper adherence to OSHA regulations.
Note: This section includes all of the tasks given in Part D of the Solar Heating Installer Job Task
Analysis, however the material in this guide is not necessarily presented in the same order. The task
and subtask ordering in this guide reflects the order that work most often progresses on a jobsite.
8.1 Implement site safety plan

Site safety plans should be implemented on arrival at any
jobsite. All workers should be able to:
Figure 8-1 Roof fall protection kit in a bucket.
demonstrate safe and accepted practices and the use of

proper safety equipment
identify appropriate codes and standards concerning
installation, operation, and maintenance of solar heating
systems and equipment
identify physical personnel safety hazards associated with
solar heating installations (roof work, attic temperature,
electrical work, heavy lifting, etc.)
identify environmental hazards associated with solar heating installations through

demonstrated awareness of pertinent Material Safety Data Sheets and other appropriate documents
determine components that require identification tags and/or labels (per system
certification guidelines)
While careful adherence

to State and Federal
Safety Regulations is the
8.1.1 OSHA regulations
law, another important
The site safety plan should ensure that all work is done in accordance with construction
standards established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
These regulations are covered in Chapter 29 of the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations,
Part 1926 (29 CFR 1926) Safety and Health Regulations for Construction. These federal
regulations detail the minimum safety standards for employees engaged in construction
activities. OSHA standards are adopted and enforced on a state-by-state basis. To ensure
compliance and to protect workers from injuries or death, employers and installers
must be familiar with the specific requirements of the jurisdiction within which work is
performed.
factor comes into play

with safety: contractor liability insurance.
Virtually all insurers will
require the insured to
strictly observe workplace safety procedures
as a condition of coverage. Liability insurance is
expensiveby adhering
to a strict regimen of
8.1.2 OSHA 10 and 30 cards
workplace safety policies
OSHA has two basic safety certifications for workers and supervisors. The programs
are directed at different segments of industrysolar installers will benefit most from the
onsite construction courses. OSHA construction industry courses provide training for
workers and employers on the recognition, avoidance, and prevention of safety and health
hazards in workplaces. The courses also provide information regarding workers rights,
employer responsibilities, and how to file a complaint. Workers can attend 10-hour or 30hour classes delivered by OSHA-authorized trainers (available online). The 10-hour class
is intended for entry-level workers, while the 30-hour class is directed more at supervisors
or workers with some safety responsibility. The program is voluntary, but is customarily
required for many government and commercial jobs and worker certification programs.
and procedures, insurers will be able to offer

the best possible policy
pricing. And should a
workplace injury occur,
follow-up investigation
by the insurance company will focus directly on
the presence or absence
of workplace safety
measures. The price of
noncompliance will likely
8.1.3 Identify unsafe practices
be a legacy of higher
Working safely with SWH systems requires a fundamental understanding of plumbing

and mechanical systems, as well as common sense. The following basic concepts are
fundamental to workplace safety:
When the workplace is cluttered with tools and equipment, the possibility of tripping
over something is significantly increased.
If that work space is a roof, the possibility of falling off the roof is significantly increased.
When tools are left lying out on a roof, the chance of them falling off the roof and injuring someone below is increased.
Tools and equipment should be used for the purpose for which they were designed.
When working on a rooftop in bright sunshine, the chance of sunburn is increased. The
use of sunscreen and proper hydration is appropriate.
Jobsite accidents are more likely when an installer is rushing to perform a task or is not
focused on the work at hand.
insurance premiums, or
worse, harder-to-find
insurance.
- Les Nelson
Unsafe work practices put people at risk, and it is the

responsibility of an installer to follow the companys safety
plan and ensure other co-workers do the same. A colleague
who works on a roof without proper fall protection not only
risks his/her own life, but may also injure others and put the
company at risk. A responsible installer ensures that his/her
entire work crew adheres to appropriate safety practices.
Figure 8-2 Contents of a roof fall protection kit, including a lanyard, rope
grab, and safety rope; a safety harness and a ridge anchor are typically
included and not shown.
Figure 8-3 Solar installers wearing proper fall protection, including safety
harnesses, lanyards, rope grabs, and safety ropes. (Courtesy of Shawn Schreiner)
More common hazards exist as well. These include nicks, cuts,

and burns from sharp or hot components. Gloves should be
used when handling anything that might be sharp, hot, or
rough, or that might splinter. There is always the possibility of
dropping tools or materials on others or on sensitive equipment
or materials. The use of torches for soldering and brazing
creates hazards for fire or severe burns. When an SWH system
is being assembled or serviced, personnel also face the risk of
thermal burns from high-temperature fluids or steam.
Unexpected situations on the jobsite cannot be overlooked.
When working in a potentially dangerous location, it is wise
to keep a conversation going so workers know exactly where
everyone is located. Good communication can alleviate
surprises, such as bumping into another worker on the roof,
which can cause a loss of balance and result in a serious fall.
8.1.4 Safety in attics

Solar heating installations often involve work in attic spaces,
which may require the use of a breathing mask, eye protection,
and clothing that will protect skin from insulation.
Figure 8-4 Temporary guardrail

system for low-slope roof installations.
(Courtesy of ToolUp)
Knowledge of attic floor construction will help identify

locations where it is safe to support the weight of a person
without risk of falling through the ceiling. It is essential when
traversing an attic to support ones weight by stepping only
on the ceiling joists or trusses; the ceiling material itself will
not support the weight of a worker. 1 x 2 furring strips for holding rock lath or plaster
board may be present, but these will not support the full weight of a worker. Note that
these strips may be confused with joists or trusses when they are covered with insulation.
In many cases, planking or boards may be laid on top of the joists temporarily to support
the weight of workers, allowing for easier movement around the attic space.
Because attics can often be dark, confined spaces, it is important to be properly
prepared prior to attic work. It is important to plan an exit route in case of a fire or other
emergency. Droplights may be needed for adequate lighting. Finally, before entering an
attic one should be sure to drink adequate water for personal hydration, particularly if
the attic is hot and if it is expected that the attic work will take more than fifteen minutes.
While working in the attic, an installer must take care with tools and surrounding
hazards. To avoid damaging the ceiling below the attic, care should be taken not to drop
or lay heavy tools onto the ceiling material. Care should be exercised when climbing
around wires, piping, air conditioning ductwork, and any other projections, such
as recessed lighting fixtures, which may be hot. Wires, pipes, etc., present a tripping
or choking hazard to the worker. Special care must be made to avoid crushing air
conditioning ductwork or damaging existing electrical wiring. Additionally, the installer
must exercise caution to avoid lacerations or puncture wounds from nails protruding
from the underside of the roofing surface.
8.2 Install solar collectors

Solar collectors for domestic water heating (DWH) are commonly mounted on roofs,
but may also be wall- or ground-mounted. Roofs are usually less susceptible to shading
from trees and buildings and provide a support structure for the collector array. In the
case of wall-mounted collectors, the walls themselves are used for structural support;
these installations may have limitations due to the wall orientation, the presence of
obstructions that may shade the array, or aesthetic concerns. Ground-mounted arrays
can be effective in specific applications but can be cost-prohibitive due to the need for
construction of a separate support structure for the collectors, as well as the challenges
associated with trenching and burying the collector loop piping and insulation.
The system type may have an impact on appropriate collector location. Roof-mounted
arrays are usually the best option for Drainback systems due to the need for piping to
be sloped towards the storage tank. This is often difficult to accomplish with groundmounted arrays. Large systems may require ground-mounting if there isnt sufficient
area on the roof for the collector array. Wall-mounted collectors may be appropriate for
buildings with steep, sloped roofs that face east and west.
Fire class
Fire extinguishers
A proper fire extinguisher should be included with any
Symbol
Picture
Description
Class A

Ordinary combustibles
including wood, paper,
cloth, and other
ordinary materials
Class B

Flammable liquids
and gases
Class C
Electrical equipment
Class D
none
Combustible metals
Class K
none
Cooking fires
soldering bucket or kit. Fire extinguishers are rated for

the type of fire they are designed to extinguish. There
are four classes of fire as defined by the National Fire
Prevention Association (NFPA).
Fire extinguisher models are available for single classes,
or may be capable of use on multiple classes. Because the
biggest fire risks during installation of a SWH system are
the ignition of ordinary building materials and electrical
fires, installers should use a fire extinguisher that is rated
for Class A and Class C fires.
Collectors may be installed with tilt rack sets to improve collector orientation. These
kits may be supplied by the collector manufacturer or can be assembled on site with
commonly available materials.
8.2.1 Install safety equipment

In the United States, falls are the leading cause of workplace fatalities, with 150200
workers killed each year and nearly 10,000 injured. Installers must remain vigilant when
working from ladders and elevated surfaces to minimize the risk associated with such
work.
Prior to any roof work, all appropriate fall protection must be installed. OSHA requires
fall protection for any work performed more than six (6) feet above an adjacent level.
Standard fall protection systems used when installing collectors on steep roofs include
personal fall arrest systems, which are comprised of an appropriate roof anchor and
safety harness, and guardrail systems. OSHA defines a steep roof as any roof with a
slope greater than 4 in 12 (approximately 1820). Work on low-slope roofs (roofs
with a slope of 4 in 12 or less) may include warning line systems, safety net systems,
guardrail systems, or personal fall arrest systems. Specific regulations relating to
appropriate fall protection are contained in 29 CFR 1926.502.
Care must also be taken to assure that ladders are used properly. Extension ladders
should be secured at top and bottom and must extend above the roof surface by a
minimum distance of thirty-six inches. If the ladder is not long enough to meet this
extension requirement, the top of the ladder must be secured and a grab line must be
installed to provide a safe transition for workers getting onto or off of the ladder. The
ladder must have the appropriate duty rating for the work being performed and must
be angled at a slope of 4:1 (roughly 75).
Like all safety equipment, ladders should be inspected for defects prior to use. If any
signs of damage or defects are present, such as a missing rung, damaged side rail,
or broken foot, the ladder must be marked as defective and removed from service
immediately.
In addition to fall protection practices, it is important to ensure that tools and
equipment are secured on the roof. If an object is dropped from overhead, anyone
below is subject to injury. Typical means for securing tools and equipment include the
use of roof workbags and buckets that are either tied off or supported by staging. The
use of these organizers can also minimize cluttering the roof, which leads to an unsafe
worksite.
Other safety equipment may include scaffolding, hard hats, and other personal
protective equipment (PPE).
8.2.2 Install mounting hardware

Mounting hardware will vary based on the roof type and the orientation, location, and
type of collectors. Much of this equipment will be provided by the manufacturer, but
Figure 8-5 Proprietary flat plate collector mounting rack. (Courtesy of Heliodyne)
there are a number of details that are the responsibility of the installer. Proper collector
mounting requires significant knowledge about general building construction and
common roofing practices.
8.2.2a Roof-mounted installation

Factory mount sets for roof installations typically come in two types: flush- or rackmounted. Flush-mounting refers to collectors that are installed at the same tilt angle as
the pitch of the roof. The most common method of flush-mounting is to use standoffs,
Figure 8-6 Another style of flat plate
which elevate the collector above the surface of the roof. Another style of flushcollector mounting hardware.
mounting utilizes collectors that are specifically designed to be installed on the roof
(Courtesy of Solar Skies, LLC)
sheathing and flashed into the roof surface. When collectors are installed at an angle
steeper than the roof surface, a rack-mount is used. For flat plate collectors, these racks
typically incorporate cut-to-length or adjustable legs that attach either directly to the
collector frame or to an extruded channel support that attaches to the collector frame.
The attachment devices for flat plate collectors are commonly provided by the collector
manufacturer specifically for their own productsthey may consist of a proprietary
clamp that attaches to a groove in the collector casing, self-tapping screws that attach
to the collector frame, or another specially-designed fastener system. When using selftapping screws, structural loads must be considered and care should be taken that the
screw does not penetrate any farther than necessary to avoid contact with collector piping
or glass. Evacuated tube collectors commonly utilize stainless steel racks. Unlike flat plate
collectors, evacuated tube collectors are not self-supporting and require a racking frame
for both flush-mount and rack-mount installations.
Most collector manufacturers offer proprietary racking systems that are specifically
designed for use with their collectors. These racks have been engineered to support the
collector under specific design conditions, including severe wind loading and exposure to
the elements. An installer must ensure that the collector racking is installed in accordance
Figure 8-7 Proprietary

mounting rack for an evacuated
tube collector. (Courtesy of Apricus)
with the manufacturers specifications and is appropriate for the application. Modifying
manufactured racks or building custom collector racks increases an installers liability
and should be done in collaboration with qualified personnel, such as an engineer. In
certain jurisdictions, building inspectors may require wind loading data from an engineer
or collector manufacturer in the permitting process.
Racking materials are selected based on their strength and corrosion resistance. Most
racks are constructed from stainless steel or aluminum. While designs vary by manufacturer, standard kits often utilize sections of channel, angle, or tubing (square or round)
that are joined together with stainless steel hardware. Aluminum and stainless steel are
compatible with one another, unlike other dissimilar metals that may cause galvanic corrosion when in contact with one another. When using other materials, the installer must
be aware of galvanic compatibility and the materials ability to withstand corrosion due
to the surrounding climate. Installers in humid, rainy, or coastal areas must be especially
vigilant. In desert climates with low humidity, painted angle iron can be used for collector racking.
Figure 8-8 Proprietary flat plate collector mounting rack. (Courtesy of SunEarth)
Securing SWH collectors requires attaching the racks

to structural members of the roofthe joists, rafters, or
trusses. Racks fastened solely to the roof decking will
not withstand heavy winds. Some local codes require
that collectors are connected to the structural members
with a J-bolt or spanner. A J-bolt wraps around the
structural member, penetrates the roof, and is bolted to
the mount set. Spanners are constructed of dimensional
lumber or structural metal that are attached beneath or
between two structural members in the attic. Long bolts
or all-thread rod are run through the spanner and the
roof and bolted to the mounts. Spanners are especially
useful when the collector rack does not align with the
roof structural members.
RACK FOOT
PLASTIC ROOF
CEMENT
SHINGLES
ROOF
DECKING
LAG BOLT
RAFTERS
J BOLT
RACK FOOT
PLASTIC ROOF CEMENT

SHINGLES
ROOF
DECKING
RAFTERS
THRU BOLTED
SPANNER
BLOCKING
Lag screws are commonly used for connecting the
collector rack to the roof structure. The lag screws
Figure 8-9 Details for spanner, lag screw, and J-bolt mounting.
should be placed in the center of the structural member
to ensure proper attachment and to keep the structural
member from splitting. Splitting can also be alleviated
by drilling a pilot hole that is 5075% of the screw diameter. The quantity and size of lag
screws required at each attachment point depends upon the loads on the collector and
the geometry of the collector rack. For most tilt rack configurations, uplift forces from
wind will cause the most critical loads to occur at the rear feet of the rack. The collector
manufacturer can often provide assistance in determining these loads. An engineer may be
required by the AHJ depending upon the size and scope of the installation. For redundancy,
a minimum of two lag screws should be used at each foot of a tilt rack; this protects the foot
from prying action and provides an additional factor of safety.
Wind loads will subject lag screws to withdrawal, which is the tendency for the screw to
be pulled out of the structural member. The threads of the lag screw must be embedded
sufficiently to withstand this force. The required embedment depth depends upon the
size of the screw and the species of wood into which it is screwed. Figure 8-11 illustrates a
standard table for determining the minimum embedment depth.
Figure 8-10 Climate plays a significant role in the suitability of materials. The image on the left is a painted steel rack supporting aluminum-framed
collectors in the southwestern United States. After ten years there is no sign of corrosion. A similar installation in the northeastern U.S. creates significant
galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals, as can be seen on the right. (Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Minimum embedment
depth example
An installer is mounting collectors
at an angle of 40 on a 4:12 roof. The
manufacturer determines that each
rear foot must withstand a withdrawal force of 650 pounds (295 kg).
Because the installer is unsure of the
type of wood used for the roof
rafters, Spruce, Pine, or Fir is selected
to be conservative since it is one of
the least dense woods commonly
used in construction. For a 3/16
(5mm) lag screw, the withdrawal
Figure 8-11 Withdrawal capacity for lag screws in various wood species. (Courtesy of Unirac)
strength is 205 pounds (93 kg) for

each inch of thread embedded in the
rafter. The minimum thread depth
required can be determined by dividing the maximum withdrawal force
by the withdrawal strength:
dmin= (650lb)/(205lb/in) = 3.17in
Since two lag screws should be
used per foot, the minimum thread
When installing collectors on flat roofs, standoffs and a separate

substructure for the collector racks may be installed to minimize roof
penetrations. Alternately, curbs may be installed beneath the roof
membrane and attached to the roof structure. Collector racking is then
attached to the curb using methods approved by the roofing manufacturer.
When curbs are installed, considerations must be made to ensure that the
curbs do not impact roof drainage. Any work performed on a warrantied
roof should be done in conjunction with the original roof manufacturer
and/or roofing contractor to ensure compliance with roof warranties.
embedment depth per screw is 1.59in

(40mm).
The installer must select a lag screw
that will have slightly more than 1
(40mm) of thread embedded in the
rafter. For proper lag screw selection,
the installer must consider the thickness of the roofing, the roof sheath-
8.2.2b Ground-mounted installation

Ground-mounted systems eliminate the safety hazards associated with
roof mounts. Ladders and scaffolding are used occasionally, but exposure
to fall hazards is lessened relative to a typical roof-mounted array.
Specific hazards associated with ground-mounted collectors include
working near open trenches that may be required for collector piping
and near foundation holes required for ground-mount footings.
ing, and the attachment hardware,

as well as the length of thread on the
screw itself.
The classic ground-mount installation uses concrete piers to support

the collectors. Precast piers can be used, or footings can be constructed
using a post-hole digger and ready-to-mix concrete. Small installations
of one to three collectors will require at least four piers, the bases of
which must be below the frost depth in freezing climates. The AHJ will
often specify the minimum footing depth. Care must be taken to ensure
proper drainage below the pier; this is typically accomplished

with a layer of gravel or crushed stone. The presence of
bedrock or clay requires special consideration and may require
consultation with an experienced foundation contractor. The
installations are seldom completed in a day regardless of crew
size since the concrete structures require cure time.
ANCHOR BOLT
CONCRETE
PIER
When using concrete piers, an anchor bolt should be embedded

into the concrete. This is used to fasten the collector mounts. A
EXTENDS
string level or laser level tool should be used to level the top of
BELOW FROST
the piers and anchor bolts. Cast-in-place piers can be installed
LINE
efficiently and attractively using commonly available preFigure 8-12 Site preparation for installation of a cast-in-place pier.
manufactured cylindrical cardboard forms. Certain jurisdictions
may have requirements for concrete piers that stipulate the
need for embedded rebar or a minimum height that the pier must extend above
Ground-mounted
ground. The Uniform Solar Energy Code (USEC) stipulates a minimum 6 (15 cm)
arrays
clearance above ground while the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) Solar Water
and Pool Heating Manual recommends a minimum 12 (30cm) above grade. In
Ground-mounted arrays can proareas where snow is prevalent, these clearances will be greater.
vide complexity to an installation
Another option for ground mounts are helical piles. These systems utilize
galvanized steel pipes with an auger welded to the end of the pipe. The pile
design is proprietary and many companies offer a multi-year guarantee against
settling or heaving. In areas subjected to frost, plastic sleeves are used on the piles
to allow the frost to move the sleeve up and down without displacing the pile.
Piping integrity and the potential for excessive pipe lengths require careful
consideration with ground-mounted installations. Long piping runs may
require increasing the pipe diameter and/or the size of the pump. The distance
that piping is buried below grade is rarely specified by the Authority Having
Jurisdiction (AHJ). Several inches of backfill will protect the piping; in cold
climates, consideration should be made to ensure that frost heaving does not
expose the piping. The piping should be insulated with a minimum (19mm)
of closed cell piping insulation or comply with local requirements. Underground
piping and insulation should be encased in a suitable PVC pipe to prevent the
earth from crushing the insulation. Buried sensor wires should also be installed in
suitable conduit.
due to the variability of soil conditions, the possibility of differential settling, and the presence
of underground utilities. When
performing foundation work for
large projects, it is common for
contractors to investigate soil
conditions prior to construction.
If clay or bedrock is encountered
during installation, the complexity and cost of installing a stable
foundation can increase dramatically. An installer also needs to
consider the presence of underground utilities before excavating to ensure safety and avoid
interruption of services to the
building. Additionally, consideration needs to be made for the
potential of differential settling.
8.2.2c Wall-mounted installation

Mounting hardware is easily adapted for mounting collectors to the side of a
building. Wall-mounting is an appropriate solution if a structure is oriented
with a suitable unshaded southern wall. Wall installations eliminate the liability
of sealing roof penetrations and the uncertainty of installing a ground-mount
foundation. On many two-story homes there is enough space on a second story
gable-end wall to install a collector or two without conflict with any windows.
The mounts can sometimes be lag-screwed or bolted directly to structural
members, such as wall studs or concrete walls. Buildings with brick facades or
Differential settling occurs when

one portion of the system remains fairly rigid while another
portion of the system settles or
heaves. For example, if only one
pier supporting a collector array
heaves, it will place undue stress
on the collectors and racking.
concrete block walls will require lag shields or lead anchors.

Adobe walls will usually require that rack components are
thru-bolted to the interior of the structure.
8.2.3 Unglazed collector installation

Most unglazed collectors do not have frames and are
flush-mounted to a roof or other surface. The primary
design consideration for pool collectors is uplift due to
wind. Strapping material is typically used to hold unglazed
collectors to the roof. Additional hardware attaches the top
and bottom headers to the roof and allows expansion and
contraction of the panels. The factory-supplied hardware
is usually screwed into the roof decking unless local codes
require otherwise.
Figure 8-13 Wall-mounted
evacuated tube collector. (Courtesy
of Liquid Solar Systems)
8.2.4 Seal and flash mount penetrations

Roof penetrations must be sealed and flashed appropriately to maintain a weathertight
barrier and to isolate dissimilar metals that could corrode. Sealing can be accomplished
by using roof cement on the mounting screws or bolts and on the surface of the mount
that is directly in contact with the roof surface. Contractors silicone caulking is good for
metal-to-metal or other nonporous surfaces. Plastic roof cementalso known as pookie
is a rubberized, asphalt-based black sealant that has been the standard for sealing roof
penetrations of all kinds for over forty years. It is difficult to remove from tools, skin,
and clothing. As a result, the top of the mounts and fasteners should be sealed as the last
step of an installation to avoid a messy jobsite and the need for excessive cleanup. Newer
polystyrene and other plastic based products are available, but none have been used long
enough to compare their longevity with plastic roof cement. If lag screws are used for
fasteners, they should be dipped into the sealant prior to securing them.
Some manufacturers utilize a neoprene or EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer)
gasket that is installed between the mounting foot and the roof surface. These can also be
custom-made using rubber roofing. While these gaskets are sometimes used on shingled
roofs, they are critical on metal roofs to isolate the dissimilar metals of the collector rack
and the metal roofing. Without this isolation, the reaction between the metals can lead to
galvanic corrosion.
Figure 8-14 Mechanical flashing for structural

attachment points. (Courtesy of EcoFasten Solar)
Figure 8-15 Flashing detail for a cylindrical standoff with boot flashing. (Courtesy of Unirac)
Additionally, there are a number of mechanical flashing

systems used for weatherproofing roof penetrations.
When using cylindrical standoffs, roof vent flashing
boots are often used. The flashing boot consists of a flat
surface that slides beneath an upper course of shingles
and a conical rubber boot with a round hole that slides
down over the standoff. Other proprietary flashing
systems utilize gasketed flashing plates that are sealed
to the roofs surface by the mounting lag screws.
Figure 8-16 Roof boot flashing detail. (Courtesy of Professional Solar Products)
8.2.5 Place panels on roof

Staging solar collectors on the roof requires significant attention to detail. Flat plate
collectors will require several workers due to their size and weight, while the modular
design of evacuated tube collectors allows piece-by-piece lifting. In large installations
with either type of collector, it is beneficial to utilize small cranes or other lifts to
minimize the time, lifting-related injuries and exposure to fall hazards associated with
making multiple trips to the roof. With careful preparation and the proper equipment,
collector arrays can be assembled on the ground and lifted into position for installation.
For installations on single-story roofs, work trucks can be used to facilitate lifting
collectors directly onto a roof.
On steep, shingled roofs, shingle brackets with planks can be installed temporarily to
provide level work surfaces for improved footing during collector installation. Steep
metal roofs may require working from manlifts or the installation of specialized work
platforms designed specifically for standing seam metal roofs.
Of all collector types, ICS systems can be the most difficult to place and attach due to
the weight of the unit. In addition, the size of the systems is often cumbersome. Many
installers use small cranes to lift and place ICS systems. In lieu of a crane, it can require
four or more people to safely lift a heavy ICS system to a roof.
Safety is a critical consideration when transporting collectors to the roof. All individuals
involved in the process must ensure they utilize appropriate fall protection. Because
lifting collectors onto a roof
typically requires installers
to work at the edge of a
roof, fall arrest systems must
be adjusted to ensure that
extension of the lanyard
will not allow the worker to
fall over the edge. Gloves
and eye protection should
be worn when handling
solar collectors. Collectors
should be carried and lifted
using their frames; lifting
collectors by their manifolds
Figure 8-17 Using a crane to transport pre-mounted collectors to the roof.
Sealant should be
applied to the top of
the collector mount
penetrations and
roof jacks, as necessary. While this can
be accomplished
immediately after
installing the collector mounts, applying
exposed sealant prior
to collector installation increases the risk
that the sealant will
be tracked on the roof,
then on the ladder,
and then on the white
carpet in the home.
This should be one of
the last tasks completed on the roof. The
sealant can be painted
with spray paint
to the approximate
color of the roof for
a professional finish.
For best appearance,
metal roof installations are best sealed
with clear silicone.
Figure 8-18 Installation of an ICS thermosyphon system.
can bend the piping, which may damage the collector or cause alignment issues when
plumbing multiple collectors in an array.
8.2.6 Attach panels to mounting hardware

Attaching the collectors to the mounting hardware is usually a simple mechanical
task using hand and power tools. When using racks supplied by a manufacturer,
follow their instructions. When flat plate collectors are tilted up from the roof surface,
a lower profile can be achieved by mounting the collectors in a landscape orientation.
This is accomplished by rotating the collectors so that the long side is parallel to the
ridgeline of the roof. However, most flat plate collectors are manufactured with the
intention that the small riser tubes will be installed in a vertical orientation. Mounting
the collectors in landscape orientation can pose a problem in Drainback systems due
to the sagging of these small riser tubes over time. This can cause a water trap in the
tubing, which can hold water that would otherwise have drained out and cause a
freeze break in the tube(s). Although the flow through the collectors is not a problem
in landscape, the tendency for the risers to sag may limit
the use of landscape-mounted collectors to Antifreeze or
DFC systems. Some manufacturers specifically discourage
landscape mounting of their collectors.
Figure 8-19 Landscape rack for a flat plate collector. (Courtesy of SunEarth)
Evacuated tube collectors with heat pipes should always

be mounted with the manifold housing at the top of the
collector to allow proper phase change in the heat pipe.
Additionally, installers must follow the manufacturers
instructions regarding minimum and maximum tilt
anglesusually a minimum of about 1530 and a
maximum of 75 is recommended to ensure the efficient
operation of the heat pipe.
8.2.7 Plumbing
collectors
The heat transfer fluid must
travel from the coolest
portion of the collector array
to the hottest part for efficient
heat transfer. This flow path
differs for the different type
of collectors. In a harp-style
collector, the HTF should
enter the collector at the
Figure 8-20 Flow path through various styles of flat plate collectors. (Courtesy of Schco, Heliodyne, Bosch Thermotechnology)
bottom header and exit from
the top header at the opposite
corner of the collector. While
this flow path may be similar for certain serpentine collectors, some
models are designed to have both the collector inlet and outlet at
the top of the collector or on the same side.
Most evacuated tube collectors have a continuous manifold that
permits flow from one end to the other. With this configuration, the
inlet can be installed at either end and the outlet is installed at the
opposite end.
Figure 8-21 Harp-style flat plate collectors plumbed in parallel.
When multiple flat plate collectors are used in an array, they should
be plumbed in parallel. Plumbing collectors in parallel splits
the system flow equally through the collectors, which provides
equivalent temperatures in each collector. If collectors are installed
in series, the heat transfer fluid travels through one collector before
entering subsequent collectors. This provides equal flow through
the collectors, but the temperatures in the last collector will be
hotter than in the first collector. This increases thermal losses and
decreases the efficiency of the hottest collectors in the array; flat
plate collectors should not be plumbed this way unless specified by
the manufacturer.
The method for connecting flat plate collectors in parallel varies by
style. Harp-style collectors are connected in parallel by joining the
manifolds together as shown in Figure 8-21. By installing caps on
the unused ends of the headers, this configuration provides
balanced flow through the individual risers. Serpentine flat plate
collector manufacturers often utilize unique absorber designs;
therefore, the proper method for connecting serpentine collectors in
parallel must be considered on a case-by-case basis.
(Courtesy of AET)
Figure 8-22 Flat plate collectors plumbed in series.

(Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Figure 8-23 Plumbing harp-style flat plate collectors in

parallel when oriented landscape requires extra external piping.
(Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Flat plate collector manufacturers will often limit the number

of collectors that can be plumbed together in a single bank.
Figure 8-24 Serpentine collectors plumbed in parallel.
(Courtesy of Bosch Thermotechnology)
Large banks may experience high frictional head loss and excessive
fluid velocities due to the flow rates required for efficient heat transfer.
Additionally, flow does not always balance properly through the risers in
large flat plate arrays.
Piping harp-style flat plate collectors in parallel requires external piping
when the collectors are oriented horizontally, e.g. landscape (Figure 8-23).
Figure 8-25 Evacuated tubes plumbed

in series. (Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Due to lower thermal losses of evacuated tube collectors, many

manufacturers will recommend plumbing these collectors in series by
directly connecting the manifold headers to one another. Connecting too
many evacuated tube collectors in series may cause unacceptable thermal
losses and high fluid velocities, and may lead to excessive stagnation
temperatures. Manufacturers often limit the number of evacuated tube
collectors that can be connected in series. If more collectors are required,
the array must be divided into multiple collector banks.
When an array is divided into multiple banks of collectors, each bank
should be connected in parallel and the flow through each bank should be
balanced. There are three primary ways to accomplish this:
Figure 8-26 Parallel collector banks plumbed

reverse return. (Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Reverse return Reverse return refers to a configuration in which the

fluid path is split between two or more banks and the fluid that travels
through the nearest collector bank must travel through addition piping
on the outlet to ensure that the flow doesnt favor the nearest collector
bank and limit flow through subsequent banks of collectors (Figure
8-26).
Direct return with balancing valves Direct return refers to a
configuration in which the fluid path is split between two banks, and
the fluid that travels through the nearest collector bank is the first fluid
to return to the storage tank or pool. This causes unbalanced flow
through collector banks, as the flow rate through the nearest bank will
be higher than the flow through subsequent banks. To ensure that the
subsequent banks are effective for generating heat, valves must be
used to restrict flow through the nearest bank. If a ball valve can be
used for this purpose, thermometers or flow meters are required to
verify that the flow is properly balanced. Alternately, special balancing
valves can be used that are set to the desired flow rate.
Figure 8-27 Parallel collector banks plumbed

direct return. (Courtesy of NYSERDA)
Separate pumps for each array Some differential controllers allow

the heat from separate collector banks to be transferred via separate
pumps to a common storage tank. In this configuration, a collector
sensor is required for each bank and each pump operates off the
differential between the storage tank and the corresponding
collector bank.
Expansion of copper tubing

Copper tubing expands and contracts with changes in temperature. In typical residential SWH systems, tube expansion needs to be considered at roof penetrations
and pipe supports. In large systems, custom solutions may be required to account for
the significant variations in pipe length that can occur.
The magnitude of expansion (and contraction) for copper tubing can be determined
using the following formula:
L = e L T
L = change in length of copper, ft
e = expansion coefficient of copper = 0.0000094 ft/ft F
L = length of copper, ft
T = change in temperature, F
For a collector array with two (2) 4x8 flat plate collectors, the header is approximately 8-6 long. If the stagnation temperature of the collector is 360F and the
collector was installed when the collectors were approximately 80F, the maximum
header expansion would be:
Figure 8-28 Balancing flow through collector banks

through the use of controls. (Courtesy of Resol)
L = e L T
L = (0.0000094 ft/ft F)(8.5)(280F)
L = 0.0224ft = 0.27in
This expansion is minimal and can be
accommodated by installing an offset between the
collector header and the pipe penetration when flush
mounting the collector.
Suppose instead that a large commercial job required
300 of piping to be buried in a straight trench
between the collector array and the utility room.
The following expansion might be expected:
L = e L T
Figure 8-29 Collector header offsets

for accommodating header expansion.
L = (0.0000094 ft/ft F)(300)(180F)

L = 0.5076ft = 6.1in
(Courtesy of Heliodyne)
If expansion is not accounted for in this system,

significant stress would be placed upon components.
8.3 Install solar loop

The solar loop provides the connection between the collector(s) and the storage tank or
other heat distribution equipment. The size and type of tubing used can have a dramatic
impact on the performance of a SWH system. An experienced installer recognizes these
impacts and is proficient in joining various types of tubing, adequately supporting and
insulating the solar loop, and sealing piping penetrations.
Maximum fluid
velocities in
copper tubing
The Copper Tube
Handbook specifies a
maximum fluid veloc-
8.3.1 Piping considerations

There is a direct relationship between system piping and the amount of pump pressure
required to achieve the desired system flow rates. Dynamicor frictionalhead refers
to the resistance that the piping has on the flow of a fluid. This resistance, also referred to
as pressure drop, can be reduced by using larger diameter piping, reducing the system
flow rate, and minimizing the number of fittings in the system. The relationship between
the system flow rate and pressure drop is exponentialif the flow rate is doubled, the
pressure drop approximately triples.
ity of 5 feet per second

(1.5 m/s) for copper
tube that is used in hot
water systems. Flow
exceeding velocities
of 5 feet per second
(1.5 m/s) may cause
Collector manufacturers specify optimal flow rates through a collector to maximize

collector efficiency. If the pressure drop is too high, a selected pump may not be able
to achieve the desired flow rate. An experienced installer must be able to determine
the pressure drop through system piping and interpret pump curves to assure that the
desired flow rates can be achieved. More information on determining the pressure drop
is contained later in this section.
pipe erosion and cause

excessive noise in the
system.
8.3.2 Seal and flash pipe penetrations

Any location where system piping penetrates a buildings weathertight membrane
or passes through a surface that separates the conditioned portion of a building from
unconditioned space must be sealed. Piping for roof-mounted systems will commonly
penetrate the roof, but may also penetrate a wall. Wall-mounted and ground-mounted
systems will penetrate through a wall or rim joist.
Figure 8-30 Flashing of pipe

penetration and cylindrical standoff.
(Courtesy of Liquid Solar Systems)
Roof or wall piping penetrations can be sized either to the piping or to the diameter of
the piping plus its insulation. Roof penetrations should be drilled slightly larger than the
piping, so that contact between the pipe and building structure can be avoided. Some
installers use plastic roof insulators to isolate the pipe from the building sheathing or
structural member.
Flashing is required for all pipe penetrations. Best practice is to flash the piping, not the
pipe insulation. Flashing directly to the pipe produces a more dependable seal. Standard
pipe flashings utilize an EPDM, silicone, or copper collar. Consideration must be made
for temperatureEPDM is typically rated to intermittent temperatures of 275F (135C),
which is adequate for most systems, while silicone has a 435F (225C) continuous rating.
Flashing is available for single pipes, or in some cases two pipes can utilize the same
flashing. Flashing individual pipes is often easier and more effective and can minimize
the amount of exterior piping on the roof.
On shingled roofs, the hole in the roof should be placed so the flat part of the pipe
flashing can be slid under an upper course of shingles. The flashing is sealed with plastic
roofing cement on both the underside and top of the flat portion of the flashing and
should be nailed or screwed to the roof decking only where covered by a shingle from
above to shed water. When using copper flashing, the cap should be soldered to the
piping but not to the collar to allow for expansion and contraction of the piping without
affecting the integrity of the seal (See Figure 8-31).
When penetrating a metal roof, pipe flashing should

be provided by the roof manufacturer, if available,
and sealed with silicone sealant. With all EPDM
and silicone boots, the manufacturers instructions
for sealing between the piping and the boot should
be followed. Some manufacturers require the use
of a stainless steel hose clamp and sealant. Builtup tar roofing and EPDM surfaces are commonly
used on flat roofs. As with any work on these
types of roofs, the company that installed the roof
should be consulted to assure compliance with the
manufacturers warranty.
Figure 8-31 Copper pipe

flashing with gooseneck for
sensor wire. A collar is soldered
to the copper plate flashing and
concealed under the copper cap
in this photo. The copper cap is
soldered to the copper tubing.
There is no connection between
the collar and the cap or the collar
and the piping; this allows the
tubing to expand and contract
without affecting the integrity of
the copper flashing plate.
Wires for the collector sensor(s) can be flashed with the pipe
penetration, separately through gooseneck flashing, or an extra
penetration can be made for conduit that is sealed with a standard
flashing boot. When sensor wire is run alongside the hot return pipe
from the collectors, attention must be paid to ensure the sensor wire
sheathing is rated above the maximum piping temperature.
Sealing roof penetrations correctly is an ongoing process during roof
work. The pipe flashing and each and every mounting screw or bolt
must be sealed. Any pilot holes used for locating structural members
must also be sealed. Tiny holes are easily overlooked and should be
sealed immediately or conspicuously marked and filled prior to the
days departure from the site.
The use of PEX in

SRCC OG-300 Certified
Systems
In 2010, the SRCC approved the use
of PEX tubing in drainback systems
under very specific conditions. The
requirements are as follows:
The PEX cannot be exposed to UV

radiation.
The Drainback system must
8.3.3 Install pipe
be unpressurized or open to
Copper tubing is the favored material for SWH system piping.

Copper will withstand the hottest temperatures a SWH system can
produce. High Density Cross Linked Polyethylene (PEX) tubing that
is used in some domestic water and radiant floor heating systems is
only appropriate for use in select solar collector loops. Closed loop
systems can exceed the temperature and/or pressure limitations of
PEX. Other types of polymer piping with high temperature limits in
the 200F (90C) range are also unsuitable for closed loop systems.
The exceptions are silicone and Teflon tubing, however both of
these products have limitations due to expense and the availability
of specialized connections. CPVC piping has a temperature limit of
180F (80C), which is unsuitable for SWH system piping. Black steel
pipe is an option for the collector loop of large Antifreeze systems,
but is inappropriate in open loop and Drainback systems. Galvanized
steel can be used in closed loop systems that utilize water, but is
inappropriate for glycol systemsthe zinc will react with the glycol
inhibitors to create sludge. Both black iron and galvanized steel pipe
are less expensive than copper but are more labor-intensive.
the atmosphere.
There must be a minimum of

three feet of uninsulated 3/4 (or
greater) copper piping between the
PEX and the collector inlet and outlet, unless the collector stagnation
temperature is below 210F (99C).
All PEX fittings must be rated for

potable water applications and approved by the PEX manufacturer.
The system must have a pressure

relief valve at the drainback tank
that is rated between 2550 psi.
The collector supply pipe is always connected from the pump to the cold inlet of
the collector. The return pipe runs from the hot outlet of the collector(s) to the pump
equipment area, where the return pipe is plumbed to the heat exchanger in an indirect
system and to an inlet in the storage tank in a direct system.
The proper installation of piping in Drainback systems is critical and unforgiving.
Sloping the piping at a minimum of per foot (2cm per meter) will protect from water
being trapped and then freezing in the piping. Collectors should also be sloped to the
same minimum specifications. Collectors used in DFC and Drainback systems need to be
sloped towards the inlet at a minimum of per foot (2cm per meter) so that they will
drain via gravity. For a four-foot by eight-foot collector mounted with the long dimension
vertical (portrait orientation), this equates to one inch (25 mm) per collector. Piping
should also be sloped to the same minimum specifications. The hot return pipe must be
a minimum size of 3/4 (19mm) and should be installed as vertically as possible. This
allows air in the Drainback tank to quickly rise to the top of the collector and break the
vacuum that will otherwise hold the water in the collector piping.
8.3.4 Soldering copper tubing

Copper tubing is typically joined by soldering or brazingthe two methods are
differentiated by the materials used to join the tubing and the temperatures required for
the process. Soldering takes place at temperatures below 630F (330C); brazing requires
Corrugated stainless steel tubing

A number of manufacturers offer rolls of corrugated stainless steel tubing that
is rated for SWH applications. The tubing connects to copper tubing at the collectors and the pump station with the use of proprietary unions that typically
utilize a compression fitting to seal the flexible stainless steel tubing. Corrugated stainless steel tubing is available in uninsulated rolls or as two runs of
tubing encased in high temperature pipe insulation. The two runs of tubing
can be separated from one another by cutting the insulation. The insulation
may also contain a sensor wire.
The benefit of these products is that they can lessen labor costs by reducing
the number of fittings required in the system and the labor associated with
insulating piping. They also have some disadvantages. Due to the corrugations of the tubing, this product has approximately twice the frictional head
as equivalently-sized copper tubing, which increases pumping requirements.
The corrugations can also trap fluid and may make air elimination during
start-up more difficult. Consideration must also be paid to physical support of
the tubing and to the integrity of the unions.
Figure 8-32 Pre-insulated stainless steel flex

line with sensor wiring.
Clean the outside of the tubing
Flux Brush
FLUX
Clean the inside of the fitting
Clean the outside of the tubing
Flux Brush
Apply flux to the outside of the tubing

FLUX
Wire Brush
Clean the inside of the fitting

Apply flux to the outside of the tubing
Apply
Wire
Brushflux to the inside of the fitting
Figure 8-33 Cleaning copper tubing and fittings.

Apply flux to the inside of the fitting
Apply solder to the tubing, try

to apply it opposite to where the
heat is being applied to the fitting.
Apply solder to the tubing, try
Tubing
to apply it opposite to where the

heat is being applied to the fitting.
Fitting
Tubing
Fitting
Apply heat to the fitting

Apply heat to the fitting
Mapp
Gas
or
Propane
Mapp
Gas
or
Propane
Figure 8-34 Soldering a copper fitting.
Types of Copper
There are six standard types of copper tubing: Type K, Type L, Type M, DWV (drain, waste, and
vent), medical gas, and ACR (air conditioning and refrigeration). The two types of copper tubing
most common to SWH systems are Type L and Type M.
Type L and Type M copper are available in ASTM standard nominal sizes. The outside diameter of
each is 1/8 greater than the nominal tube size. For example, 3/4 Type L and Type M copper have
an actual outside diameter of 7/8. Due to their equivalent outside diameter, these types of pipe
utilize the same fittings, pipe supports, and pipe insulation.
Type M copper has the thinnest wall of all of the six types of copper except DWV. It is only available in straight lengths and is appropriate for potable piping and collector loop piping, unless
otherwise specified or restricted by code. Type M copper is rated well above the temperatures and
pressures common to SWH systems. Type M copper is marked with red labels to differentiate it
from other types.
Type L copper is available in straight, drawn lengths and in 60-foot and 100-foot rolls. Type L rolls
are made of annealed copper, which makes the tubing more flexible. Annealed Type L copper is
required by most jurisdictions for tubing that is buried. It can also be used to make custom heat
exchangers for unpressurized storage tanks. Type L copper is marked with blue labeling.
The Copper Tube Handbook is a valuable resource for specifications of copper tubing and related
fittings and can be downloaded at www.copper.org.
temperatures exceeding 1205F (650C). For collector loop piping, soldering is the
standard method used.
Copper must be properly prepared prior to soldering. Successful, leak-free soldering
is accomplished by following a few simple rules in order. Failure to follow these steps
can result in a leak.
Cut the tubing to length The tubing can be cut to length with a manual tubing
cutter, which is available in fixed or adjustable sizes, or with a motorized tool
Deburr the inside of the tubing Deburring tools, or reamers, are typically attached to a tubing cutter or can be purchased as a separate tool. They are used to
create a smooth inner edge of the piping to prevent an uneven surface that impedes flow.
Clean the tubing and fitting A wire brush or sand cloth can be used to remove
oxidation on the pipe. The copper should be cleaned until it has a bright finish.
Apply flux to the cleaned surfaces Acid flux is used to protect the metals from
oxidizing. An acid brush is used to apply flux to the inside of the fitting and the
outside of the tubing.
Apply heat to the fitting Solder is drawn into the fitting through capillary action.
In order for this to occur, the fitting and piping adjacent to the fitting must be hotter than the surrounding metal.
Apply solder to the tubing Once the fitting and adjacent copper tubing exceeds
the melting point of the solder, the solder should be applied around the edge of
the fitting. Heating the fitting evenly ensures that the solder will be distributed
around the entire fitting. Care must be taken to remove heat from the joint before it
smokes. The smoke results from burning of the flux.
Allow the solder to cool The joint should remain undisturbed until the solder
hardens. Flexing or rotation of the joint could affect the integrity of the connection.
Wipe the joint A wet rag should be used to wipe the join while it is hot to remove any excess flux. Failure to wipe the joint will cause green corrosion on the
tubing over time.
JOINING PVC PIPE
When soldering a fitting or a valve

on a water line that is leaking due
to an old, faulty valve that cannot
be stopped, a piece of bread can be
PVC pipe is relatively easy to deal with if you follow a few simple rules.
1. MAKE SURE THE PVC PIPE AND FITTINGS ARE CLEAN AND DRY FIT THEM TOGETHER
2. USE A GOOD GRADE OF PRIMER, IT IS TYPICALLY BLUISH PURPLE
3. APPLY THE PRIMER TO THE OUTSIDE OF PIPE AND INSIDE OF THE FITTING
4. APPLY THE GLUE (usually gray or clear) TO THE SAME PLACES AS THE PRIMER
5. PUT THE PIPE IN THE FITTING AND TURN IT A QUARTER TURN
6. LET IT SET UP FOR 24 HOURS OR THE AMOUNT OF TIME IN THE DIRECTIONS
used to absorb the water. Even a
Clean the outside of the PVC pipe and the inside of the fitting
pipe that is barely dripping cannot

be soldered because the vaporization of the water from the torch
keeps the temperature of the tubing below the melting point of the
PVC
PRIMER
solder. Cheap, white bread is best.

After the joint is prepared and
Apply the PVC primer to the outside of the pipe and inside of the fitting
fluxed, the bread is pushed up the

tubing and it acts like a sponge to
soak up the water. This gives the
PVC
GLUE
installer enough time to solder the

joint. The bread dissolves in the
water. Another handy soldering
Apply the PVC glue to the outside of the pipe and inside of the fitting. The
joint should be put together while the glue is wet i.e.. right away.
tool is a small piece of galvanized

tin about a foot square. This can
be used to protect finished walls
when soldering close to them. The
tin will reflect the heat off the wall
and protect the finish.
Place the pipe all the way in the fitting and twist it a quarter turn to insure even
coverage of the glue and allow the joints to set for 24 hours or the time
recommended on the glue instructions. Many inspectors will question a joint
where they dont see evidence of primer on the joint. CAUTION: Always glue
PVC pipe together in a well ventilated area and avoid breathing the harmful
fumes of the primer and glue - use personal inhalation protection
Figure 8-35 Gluing PVC pipe.
Other methods for joining copper

While soldering is the standard method for joining copper, a number of
other methods are available that are considered less labor-intensive.
One method utilizes a pressing tool to crimp a specially-designed
fitting to the copper tubing. Press fittings include a seal that is compressed between the copper of the fitting and the copper tubing.
Another style of fitting that does not require heat is a push fitting. Push
fittings utilize an o-ring to make a seal between the fitting and the
tubing. A grab ring holds the tubing in place by preventing the tubing
from being pulled out of the fitting.
If these types of fittings are used in SWH systems, the installer must
verify that the seals and o-rings are compatible with system tempera-
Figure 8-36 Pressing tool used to crimp specialized

fitting; the raised ring on the fitting houses an o-ring
that seals between the fitting and the tubing.
(Courtesy of SunWater Solar)
tures and type of heat transfer fluid. In some press fittings, special seals
may be required. In Antifreeze systems, press or push fittings used near
the collector array must be rated for stagnation temperatures.
8.3.5 Install pipe supports

To protect the integrity of system piping, the tubing must be supported at regular
intervals by appropriate hangers. The hangers must able to support the weight of the
pipe, allow for expansion, and protect the tubing from significant displacement. Also,
the hanger material must be compatible with or isolated from the tubing to avoid
galvanic corrosion.
Support requirements may vary by jurisdiction. For instance, the International Plumbing
Code stipulates that copper tubing with a nominal diameter of 1 or less must be
supported every six feet on horizontal runs and at ten feet intervals for tubing larger
than 1. The Uniform Plumbing Code requires support at every six feet for copper
tube up to 1 and ten feet for tubing that is 2 and above. Both codes stipulate 10 for
vertical runs of all sizes of tubing with the Uniform Plumbing Code requiring additional
support at each story when the ceiling height is less than ten feet. Both codes list support
requirements for other piping materials and should be consulted depending upon the
code adopted by the AHJ. In some cases, state and local rules may be more stringent for
pipe supports and installers must be familiar with these regulations.
PVC piping is used for pool system installations. Both codes require support at a
minimum of 4 for all sizes of PVC pipe on horizontal runs and 10 on vertical piping.
Additionally, mid-story guides shall be used on all vertical piping.
8.3.6 Pressure test collector loop

Mechanical codes require that installers pressure test the collector loop with air
from a compressor to ensure that the system will not leak during normal operation.
Requirements differ by jurisdiction. For example, the Uniform Solar Energy Code
requires that the pressure test for the collector loop on closed loop systems is one and
one-half times the maximum system pressure. The maximum pressure typically equates
to the rating on the pressure relief valve installed on the collector loop. The International
Mechanical Code has the same requirement, but also stipulates that the minimum test
pressure must be 100psi.
Pressure testing requires a compressor fitting that can
attach to a fill valve. For indirect systems, it is usually
most effective to pressure test the entire collector loop once
the pump station has been installed since it will contain a
pressure gauge and fill valve(s). In new construction, it may
be necessary to pressure test the collector loop in stages.
For example, if piping will be concealed in a wall cavity, it
is critical to test the system for leaks before the drywall is
installed.
Figure 8-37 Filling the system with compressed air.
Pressure testing of a solar collector loop requires attention to

detail and introduces some challenges. The minimum time
of the test is fifteen minutes, but it may be greater in some
jurisdictions. If any air vents are present in the system, they should be isolated to avoid
air leaks. If the system loses pressure during the test, the installer must determine the
source of the leak. Leaks at soldered joints will oftentimes be audible. At threaded and
gasketed fittings, leak detection fluid should be used to determine whether a leak exists.
Some codes do not allow for pressure testing of PVC. Therefore, outdoor pool systems
are tested when the system is commissioned.
8.4 Install balance-of-system

The balance-of-system (BOS) components include the valves, pumps, pressure relief
devices, controls, expansion tank(s), and heat exchanger(s). The selection and location
of these components within the system are critical for proper system operation. All
components must be installed per the system schematic and in accordance with
manufacturers specifications.
8.4.1 Install valves

For SPH systems, component selection is standardized. PVC check valves are often used
on the collector return piping when a motorized three-port valve is used to divert pool
water to the array. Vacuum breakers are installed at the high point in the system to allow
the pool water to drain from the collectors. Installers should follow the solar collector
manufacturers instruction manual to ensure proper installation.
Figure 8-38 Proper and improper check valve location in an AF system.
Check valves need to be installed in DFC and Antifreeze systems to prevent

thermosyphoning at night. A malfunctioning or missing check valve can allow the cold
fluid in the collectors to sink to the solar storage tank at night. The hotter fluid will then
rise to the collectors and dissipate the tanks stored heat to the cold sky. In very cold
climates, this phenomenon can cause freeze breaks in external heat exchangers. The
proper installation and operation of a check valve eliminates reverse thermosyphoning
by allowing the collector fluid to flow only in one direction.
If the expansion tank is

installed with the pipe
fitting down (tank
upside down), the
tank will continue to
function in the event
the internal bladder
fails. An expansion
tank placed with the
fitting horizontal will
still hold some air
with a bladder failure
and might continue
to function. A tank
placed with the fitting up, upon failure,
will introduce all the
air in the tank to the
collector loop piping.
This can be a cause of
system failure in older
systems. Expansion
tank manufacturers
often recommend the
tank be installed with
the fitting up.
For Antifreeze systems, a check valve installed between the two boiler drain valves that are
used for purging and filling the system can serve a diagnostic purpose in the future. Using
this configuration, the system is filled from the boiler drain on the downstream side of the
valve. If the fluid immediately flows out the discharge drain valve on the upstream side
of the check valve instead of filling the system, the check valve is defective or stuck in the
open position. The complete fill procedure is addressed later in this section.
Expansion tanks are required in Antifreeze systems to prevent excessive pressure. Fluids
physically expand when heated and contract when cooled. An expansion tank utilizes
a rubber diaphragm and an air cushion to buffer the system from major fluctuations in
pressure. As the heat transfer fluid expands, the air in the expansion tank compresses.
The expansion tank represents the point of no pressure change in the system. If the
expansion tank is located on the discharge side of the pump in large systems, it can cause
negative pressures on the suction side of the pump. This can cause pump cavitation and
make air elimination difficult. However, many small pre-packaged pump stations locate
the expansion tank on the discharge side of the pump without incident.
The location of the expansion tank also impacts the location of the check valve in
Antifreeze systems. During stagnation, steam formed in the collector array should be
able to force fluid out of the array through both the outlet and the inlet. If the check
valve is located between the expansion tank and the collector inlet, fluid will not be able
to be expelled down the collector feed piping. This configuration will increase steam
formation, force superheated fluid through the collector piping, and increase system
pressures. Most pre-packaged pump stations account for this and locate the expansion tank
between the check valve and collector inlet. When an installer builds a custom pump station
for an Antifreeze system, the check valve should be placed appropriately. If the expansion
tank is placed on the suction side of a pump with an integrated flow check valve in
the housing, the check valve should be removed and a separate check valve should be
installed upstream from the expansion tank.
An air vent may be located anywhere that an air pocket is likely to form within the
piping. Air will always move to the top of a piping loop absent any traps. The SRCC
requires either a manual air vent, such as a coin vent, or an automatic air vent at the high
point in the system for Antifreeze systems that are SRCC OG-300 Certified. DFC systems
that are SRCC OG-300 Certified require an automatic high vent. Alternately, a system
may utilize a form of air elimination at the pump station. ICS, Drainback, and direct
thermosyphon systems do not require high air vents.
Air elimination is important in DFC and Antifreeze systems; air that is trapped in a pump
impeller housing or at the top of the system can prevent flow through the collectors.
If installing a two-tank system with an auxiliary water

heater, a three-valve configuration is typically utilized
for SRCC OG-300 Certified systems to isolate the
solar tank and allow the auxiliary heater to remain in
service when the solar tank undergoes maintenance or
replacement (see Figure 8-39). For systems that are not
SRCC OG-300 Certified, plumbing codes often require
isolation valves on the inlet and outlet of water heaters.
Installing a third bypass valve to achieve the three-valve
configuration is best practice. A bypass valve can also
be installed between the inlet and outlet piping of the
auxiliary heater to bypass it during the summer or for
servicing.
Pressure gauges are an important component in
Antifreeze systems; they are used to monitor system
pressure and serve as a service and repair diagnostic tool.
COLD WATER MAIN
WATER HEATER
BALL
VALVES
OPEN
TO AND FROM STORAGE TANK
COLD WATER MAIN
WATER HEATER
BALL
VALVES
CLOSED
TO AND FROM STORAGE TANK
Figure 8-39 Ball valve configuration for two-tank systems. The illustration on
the top shows the valve configuration during normal operation. The illustration on
the bottom shows the valve configuration when isolating the solar storage tank.
Other BOS components, including thermometers and

sight glasses, are not necessary for system operation,
but are useful for monitoring system operation. Welltype thermometers are often installed in the collector
supply and return piping and in the hot piping from the
storage tank. The thermometers can be used to monitor
temperature differentials on either side of the collectors
and the heat exchanger, if present. This information
is useful in assessing system operation. Flow meters
with sight glasses can be used in Drainback systems to
monitor system fluid levels. Alternately, a sight glass can
be installed on the drainback tank for the same purpose.
Figure 8-40 Internal components of a

high head circulator pump.
PUMP
PUMP
8.4.2 Install pumps

Pumps used in active SWH systems are called
circulators. They are rated for 240F (115C) and have no
suction lift, so they cannot draw water from below the
pumpthey must have liquid in the impeller housing
to move any fluid. The impeller in circulator pumps is
not in contact with the inside of the impeller housing.
The impeller circulates fluids by propelling them out
of the housing, much like a squirrel-cage blower does
with air. Because of their design, circulators can last
for a decade or more if installed and used according to
manufacturers specifications.
Considerations must be made regarding the orientation
and location of the pump in a system. Circulator pumps
should always be mounted so that the impeller shaft is
PUMP
PUMP
PUMP
Figure 8-41 Correct pump orientation: The pump shaft should always be
horizontal; when the shaft is vertical, gravity adds to the wear on the shaft
bearings and causes premature pump failure.
horizontal. Mounting a pump with the shaft vertical will cause too much pressure on the
shaft bearings and could lead to premature failure. If possible, the circulator(s) should
pump upwards; this prevents air from getting trapped in the pump impeller housing,
or volute. Also, circulators should be positioned where they will pump the coldest fluid
in the system. The fluid is coldest after it has passed through the heat exchanger and
transferred most of its heat to the storage tank. If using an external heat exchanger, or
in the case of a DFC system, the coldest water is at the bottom of the tank. In Drainback
systems, the pump must be located below the drainback tank and must be able to pull
fluid from the drainback tank to ensure that the pump is always filled with liquid.
8.4.2a Pump materials

Circulators used in fluid pumping applications can be classified according to the material
used for the volute, or pump body. Cast iron pumps are used in closed loop systems,
such as an Antifreeze system or some Drainback systems. Open loop systems require a
bronze or stainless steel pump due to the dissolved oxygen present in potable water; a
cast iron pump used for this application will corrode within a few months. As a result,
bronze and stainless steel pumps are required in DFC systems and on the potable water
loop when using an external heat exchanger in Drainback and Antifreeze systems. Bronze
and stainless steel pumps can also be used with glycol, but they are substantially more
expensive than cast iron pumps.
8.4.2b Pump head

A pumps performance is often described as a relationship between head and flow. The
height a pump can move a liquid is called the gravity, or static, head and is usually
expressed as a unit of pressure (in pounds per square inch, psi) or a unit of height (in
feet or meters of water column). The pressure at the bottom of 2.31 feet of water column
Figure 8-42 Pump curves for the three speed settings

on a standard solar circulator. (Courtesy of Taco)
Determining frictional head loss
tors and heat exchanger. If an antifreeze solution is used
The following information is needed by a designer to deter-
for the heat transfer fluid, the head loss for water must
mine the proper pump for an application:
be increased by up to 23% to adjust for the increased

viscosity.
The type of fluid being pumped

The type and size of piping being used
The length of tubing in the system
An estimate of the number and types of fittings
The head loss characteristics of the collectors
The head loss characteristics of the heat exchanger, for
Since many small residential SWH systems will be

similar in their head loss characteristics, experienced
installers typically use three-speed circulators that can
be adjusted on the jobsite to achieve the desired flow
rate. For larger systems, the pump must be sized more
precisely. Designers may perform pump selection cal-
indirect systems
culations manually or use a computer program to help
The maximum system flow rate
determine the expected frictional head loss for the sysPump sizing is a somewhat inexact science, but the Ameri-
tem piping (see http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/
can Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning
hazen-williams-water-d_797.html). Information about
Engineers (ASHRAE) has a detailed method for approxi-
head loss in the collectors and heat exchanger must be
mating the head loss that will occur in a system based in
obtained from the manufacturers.
the system flow rates. This procedure involves finding the

head loss for water through the tubing and fittings at the
When sizing drainback pumps, the gravity head also
given flow rate and adding it to the head loss in the collec-
needs to be considered.
is equal to 1psi. The standard measures of flow are either gallons per minute (gpm), liters
per minute (Lpm), gallons per hour (gph) or liters per hour (Lph). As the amount of head
a pump must overcome is increased, the flow decreases. The head and flow relationship
is represented by a pump curve, which is commonly presented in a graph or table. When
the height of a pumps maximum, or cut off head is reached, flow is zero. When a pump
is used in an application with minimal head, such as through short lengths of horizontal
pipe, it approaches its maximum flow rate.
The static head is a critical measurement in Drainback systems, but does not have an
impact on pump performance in DFC and Antifreeze systems. This is due to the system
being completely filledbecause the weight of the fluid at the top of the system exerts
pressure on the fluid at the bottom of the system, the pump must only overcome the
dynamic, or frictional, head that occurs between the fluid and the piping and various
fittings in the system.
The magnitude of frictional head is dependent upon the system flow rate. As with air
resistance to a car on a roadway, frictional head loss is much less significant at low fluid
velocities or flow rates. Therefore, frictional head is a much greater consideration in large
systems than in small residential SWH installations. Collector manufacturers will typically
provide optimal system flow rates depending upon the size of the collector array. SRCC OG300 Certified system designs will specify the pumps that are acceptable in their systems. For
large systems where frictional head loss can be a substantial design consideration, engineers
typically select and specify the pumps concurrently with the piping system.
Drainback systems that

start when collectors
have been stagnating
may experience significant noise in the return
pipe for a few minutes as
steam is forced into the
drainback tank. The noise
is a normal result of hot
DB startup.
The differential controller
can be set to prevent this
occurrence, though if it is
set improperly, the pump
may remain off during
times when solar collection is possible due to
the collector temperature
exceeding the controllers
maximum setting.
If the heat transfer fluid
contains glycol, this steam
event can cause the formation of residue in the
collectors and can lead to
degradation of the glycol
inhibitors.
In the solar industry, pumps for smaller systems are usually classified as low-,
medium- or high-head. A low-head pump is capable of overcoming about ten feet of
head or less, medium-head pumps can overcome about ten to twenty feet of head,
and a high-head pump is rated at more than twenty feet. Low-head and mediumhead pumps are typically used in residential closed-loop systems. Residential
drainback systems often require high-head pumps.
A high-head pump is usually required for Drainback systems. The size of the pump
depends on the height and flow rate of the system. The pump must be capable of
lifting the fluid from the drainback tank liquid level to the top of the collector. As the
pump pushes the liquid up through the piping system, the air is forced down into
the top of the drainback tank. All Drainback systems will have a noticeable sound
of gurgling upon start-up as the air and some liquid return to the Drainback tank.
Once the pump forces all of the air from the collector loop piping into the drainback
tank, the system will form a natural syphon, where fluid falling into the drainback
tank from the collector return piping will pull fluid behind it up into the collectors
from below. Once the syphon has formed, the pump must only overcome frictional
head loss in the system. As a result, the system flow rate will increase once the syphon
has formed.
Small hot water circulator pumps suitable for Drainback collector loops usually
have head limits of approximately thirty feet. This head limitation may be exceeded
in some situations, such as a two-story home with the drainback tank located in a
basement. Many higher-head pumps are available for these situations, however they
are expensive and require significant amounts of electricity. To alleviate this, two
identical pumps in series can be used to double the head capacity. Installing two
pumps in series to overcome high-head situations in a Drainback system requires
careful consideration. In the event of failure, both pumps are highly unlikely to fail
at the same time. If one circulator remains functional, the water may only partially
fill the collectors or only rise to the attic level. In cold climates, the partial filling of
the system may result in a frozen and burst pipe, which could cause damage in the
collectors or lead to water damage in the building structure.
Another alternative for overcoming gravity head in a Drainback system is to raise
the drainback tank. By elevating the tank, an installer also raises the water level.
This reduces the height required for pumping. In some circumstances, raising the
drainback tank to a shelf location in a heated upper story room can allow for use of a
medium-head pump.
Two identical pumps can be piped in parallel to double the flow. This is not useful
in Drainback systems, but may be considered in DFC or Antifreeze systems. In large
Antifreeze systems, this configuration allows continued circulation of the antifreeze
solution if one of the pumps fails, facilitates simple replacement of the failed pump,
and eliminates stagnation issues that would arise in a single-pump system when the
pump fails.
8.4.2c DC pumps
Direct Current (DC) pumps are normally powered directly by PV panels. PV-powered
pumps for residential SWH systems are available with a nominal DC voltage of 12V
or 24V. Manufacturers that supply DC pumps to the industry have recommended PV
module sizes to use with each pump; modules of this size or slightly larger should be
used. One drawback of PV-powered pumps is that modules often produce enough
electricity in the afternoon to energize the pump when a solar heating collector cannot
supply usable heat to the already hot storage tank. To alleviate this inefficiency,
differential controls are available for PV-powered SWH systems that will activate the
pump only when the collector is able to add heat to the storage tank.
DC pumps are not as versatile as AC-driven pumps. Reliable DC hot water circulators
with heads higher than about fifteen feet are difficult to find, thus PV-powered pumps are
rarely used in drainback systems. A few small bubbles that are easily evacuated with a
higher powered AC pump can stop the circulation with some small DC pumps.
Brush-type DC circulators are able to vary their speed with the power produced by the
PV modules. This means that the system flow rate will start out low and increase as the
amount of solar radiation increases. A linear current booster may be required to ensure
that the pump starts when morning sun has heated the collectors sufficiently.
The PV module can be mounted either next to or near the SWH collectors. Wherever the
module is located, it should be mounted at the same tilt angle as the collectors. It is critical
for system operation that the PV module is completely unshadedPV modules have
much less tolerance for shade than SH collectors. In northern climates, PV modules may
be unable to shed snow as readily as solar collectors. This may result in stagnation in the
collectors due to the inability for the pump to receive power.
8.4.2d Pump stations

Pump stations have been manufactured for almost three decades, mostly for small
Antifreeze systems. These stations incorporate many of the valves, gauges, pumps, and
controls necessary for a SWH system in a pre-designed package. Pump station packages
may be contained in a molded, insulated case and may include expansion tanks and/
or heat exchangers. The alternative to manufactured pump stations are field-built or
shop-built versions that are designed and assembled by the installer. Custom-made or
manufactured pump stations can save significant time at the jobsite.
8.4.2e Pool system pumps

Small pool systems are usually designed to use the existing pool filter pump to provide flow
through the collectors. Residential pool pumps vary in size from 12 horsepower and are
used primarily to circulate water for filtration and conventional pool heatingsolar heating
is usually an add-on application. As a result, the pool pump may not be powerful enough to
achieve adequate flow through the additional solar collector loop or to maintain sufficient
flow through the filter to maintain pool water quality. When this occurs, a larger pump
should be installed or a booster pump can be added to the pool collector loop. Pool collector
manufacturers can assist with system designs when boosters are needed.
8.4.3 Install system safety devices

Temperature and pressure relief (T&P) valves are required on all water heaters. The
standard valve will release fluid, or pop off, at 210F (99C) and/or 150psi. T&P valves
should be installed per manufacturers instructions and in compliance with local codes.
Pressure (only) relief valves (PRV) are installed on collector loops. PRVs used in SWH
systems are typically rated from 30psi to 150psi. These valves protect system components
from damage or failure due to excessive pressure. A suitable PRV must be rated below
the pressure rating of each component in the system. PRVs can be installed indoors if the
appropriate termination of the relief piping adheres to national and local codes.
T&P and pressure relief valves must adhere to a set of strict rules regarding the drain
piping from the valve to its termination point. Typical requirements for relief valve
piping include:
Restrictions on reducing the diameter of relief drain piping
Appropriate termination locations
The distance the piping must terminate above a designated surface
(concrete, drain, etc.)
Restrictions on installing traps in the piping
In many jurisdictions, pressure relief valves installed at
the collector outlet are exempt from termination rules.
In Antifreeze systems, the rating of the PRV has
significant bearing on the size of the expansion
tank. An expansion tank is sized to maintain system
pressures between the normal operating pressure and
the pressure rating of the PRV. If the expansion tank is
too small, the PRV will release glycol from the system,
requiring servicing of the system. When the PRV
rating is close to the normal operating pressure of the
SWH system, the expansion tank will need to be large
enough to accommodate the thermal expansion caused
by heated glycol and possibly steam.
Figure 8-43 Tank manufacturers typically
include information on scalding temperatures
and mixing valve requirements in installation
manuals. (Courtesy of Rheem)
The International Plumbing Code (IPC) and the Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) have
significantly different requirements for the rating of PRVs in Antifreeze systems. The
IPC allows the use of single-wall heat exchangers regardless of the PRV rating. The
UPC limits the PRV rating to 30psi when using single wall heat exchangers. If the
system is engineered, the UPC allows a slightly higher PRV rating.
Anti-scald and tempering, or mixing, valves are three-port valves that are used to
limit the temperature of water delivers to the hot water fixtures. Two of the ports on
the valve are connected to the cold water supply and the hot water supply from the
storage tank or water heater. The third port is the outlet, or mix, port; its temperature
is controlled by the valve.
Storage tank volume and weight

For a standard cylindrical solar storage tank, the storage volume can be determined using the following formula:
V = r2h
where: V = the volume of the vessel
3.14
r = the radius of the vessel
h = the height of the vessel
When determining a tank vessels volume, it is important that the dimensions account only for the storage area and exclude insulation, jacketing, etc.
For example, a tank with an outside diameter of 26 and a height of 64 is
surrounded by 2of foam insulation and tank jacket. The approximate
volume of this tank is:
r = d/2 = (26-4)/2 = 11
h = 64-4 = 60
V = 3.14(11)260
V = 22,796in3
To convert from cubic inches to cubic feet, divide by 1724. Alternately, the
dimensions could be converted to feet before calculating the volume.
V = 22,796in3 1724 in3/ft3
V = 13.22ft3
There are approximately 7.5 U.S. gallons in one cubic foot, thus the tank
volume in gallons is:
V = 13.22ft3 7.5 U.S. gal/ft3
V = 99 U.S. gallons
To determine the weight of this water, the volume is multiplied by the
density of the water, 8.3 pounds per gallon:
W = (99 U.S. gal)(8.3 lb/U.S. gal)
W = 823lbs
Anti-scald valves are more precise and more expensive than tempering valves,
although they perform similar functions. The difference between the valves is safety:
if an anti-scald valve fails, it will limit the hot water supply to protect occupants from
scalding water.
Anti-scald valves should be installed on the outlet of the auxiliary tank in two-tank
systems to ensure that a failed valve can be identified. If the valve is installed on the hot
outlet of the solar storage tank in these systems, a valve that has failed or is set too low
will be difficult to identify because the auxiliary heater will feed a constant temperature
to the fixtures.
8.4.4 Place storage tanks

Storage tanks used in SWH applications may be pressurized or nonpressurized.
Pressurized solar storage tanks are similar in construction to standard tank-type
water heaters. Nonpressurized tanks are uncommon in conventional water heating
applications, but are sometimes used in custom-designed systems that require large
quantities of thermal storage, such as buffer tanks for wood boilers and large SWH
systems.
Pressurized storage tanks suitable for residential SWH systems range from 30 U.S.
gallons (110 L) to 120 U.S. gallons (450 L). Pressurized tanks that are larger than 120 U.S.
gallons (450 L) often require ASME-certification, which significantly increases costs.
Often, multiple tanks are used when large volumes of pressurized storage are required.
Stratification
Stratification is the phenomenon in which water will remain layered by temperature in
solar storage tanks, with the hottest layers remaining at the top of the tank and cooler layers
towards the bottom. The layering occurs due to the difference in density of water at different
temperatures.
Effective stratification improves system efficiency. For example, a one-tank system relies
upon stratification to minimize the auxiliary heat required. These systems utilize an electric
element or a coil from a fossil fuel boiler in the top portion of the tank; solar energy is used to
heat the bottom portion of the tank. If all of the solar heat has been exhausted from the tank
and the tank maintains good stratification, the bottom of the tank can be the temperature of
the incoming cold water supply and the water at the top of the tank will be at the setpoint
temperature for the auxiliary heat source. This allows the solar collectors to operate towards
their highest efficiency. In essence, stratification allows a one-tank system to function as two
tanks stacked upon one another. Since heat will only migrate upwards in a solar storage tank,
the solar collectors can add heat to the top of the tank, but the auxiliary heat source cannot
add heat to the bottom of the tank.
Stratification is a function of a tanks geometry and inlet piping. Stratification is more
pronounced in tall, narrow tanks and in tanks that minimize water disturbance. The inlet
piping should keep mixing to a minimum when new water is supplied to the tank in order to
preserve thermal layering. Some unpressurized storage tanks are marketed as stratification
tanks. Because the water in these tanks remains stagnant and heat is added and drawn from
the tank with a series of heat exchangers, these tanks are able to eliminate mixing.
A tank with pronounced stratification can be used to increase distribution efficiency, as well.
The hottest water in the top of the tank can be used to supply domestic hot water while heat
in the middle of the tank can be used to assist with space heating in high-mass distribution
systems, such as in-floor radiant tubing.
Larger pressure vessels can be custom made, but they are typically expensive and require
a few weeks to build and deliver.
The choice between a
Non-pressurized, or atmospheric, tanks are available from several manufacturers or

can be constructed on-site. Standard non-pressurized tanks incorporate an insulated
frame and a liner. These tanks hold a fixed quantity of water that acts only as a heat
transfer medium. Heat is transferred to and from the heat transfer medium using either
removable, internal heat exchangers or by pumping the heat transfer medium through an
external heat exchanger. Similar tanks can be constructed on-site using standard building
materials and a liner made from EPDM or other materials rated for the appropriate
temperature. Fiberglass or stainless steel tanks can also be modified as non-pressurized
storage tanks.
single-tank or double-tank
system depends upon
several factors. Single-tank
systems take up less space,
which is a critical factor for
some installations. They
also have less standby heat
loss than double-tank systems. Double-tank systems
can be more efficient than a
Other nonpressurized tanks include European stratification tanks and Chinese

thermosyphon tanks. Stratification tanks utilize the natural thermal layering of water
and multiple heat exchangers to draw usable heat for various purposes, such as domestic
hot water and space heating. The Chinese evacuated tube thermosyphon incorporates a
20 U.S. gallon (75 L) to 30 U.S. gallon (110 L) tank constructed of very thin stainless steel
that will only withstand very small pressures. These tanks are considered nonpressurized
since almost all municipal and private well systems in the U.S. have a minimum pressure
of 20psi to 40psi.
single-tank system depending on the tank insulation

levels and the water usage
patterns of the household.
Depending on tank sizes,
heavy morning usage can
actuate the backup element
in a single-tank more often
than a double-tank system.
Installers may prefer one
type of system to the other,
but ultimately the system
selection should depend
upon the specific requirements of the installation.
060
61120
121180
181250
Figure 8-44 Map of standard

water hardness for locations in
the United States. (Courtesy of USGS)
Concentration of hardness as CaCO3 in mg/L
Standard residential SWH systems are configured as single-tank or double-tank designs.

Single-tank systems incorporate either a single electric backup element or a coil from a
boiler in the upper portion of the storage tank to heat the DHW on cloudy days or during
times of unusually high hot water usage. In systems with two tanks, the solar collectors
are the only source of heat for the solar storage tank, which acts as a
preheat tank for an auxiliary (backup) water heater. The auxiliary heater,
which typically uses natural gas, electricity, propane, or oil, heats the
water when the solar energy is not adequate for the load. Where solar is
installed in conjunction with a natural gas-fired tank-type water heater, a
double-tank configuration is used, since the gas-fired tank is heated from
the bottom and unable to stratify.
Tankless water heaters sometimes serve as a backup heater. When
integrating a tankless water heater with a SWH system care must be taken
to ensure that the tankless heater is designed to work efficiently with
preheated water. Tankless models that are used with SWH systems must
modulate based on the incoming temperature and produce a fixed outlet
temperature. Models that are flow dependent provide a fixed amount of
heat regardless of the incoming temperature and are inappropriate for use
with preheated water.
Figure 8-45 Earthquake strap for a
standard water heater.
Tankless heaters often have higher installation costs than tank water heaters, especially
if electrical, flue pipe, combustion air, and/or gas pipe upgrades are required. Tankless
heaters with copper heat exchangers are not compatible with hard water. In areas with
hard water, the heat exchanger can accumulate scale and become clogged. Hard water
is defined as tap water with a high mineral content, and the degree of hardness can vary
significantly over distances of less than twenty miles in some areas.
Pressurized storage tanks are available as thermal storage tanks without a heat exchanger
or as indirect tanks with an internal heat exchanger(s) or a wraparound heat exchanger.
Mild steel tanks with a glass lining are the most common pressure tanks in SWH systems.
Stainless steel, fiberglass-lined, and polybutylene-lined tanks are also available.
When thermal storage tanks are used in IFC systems, an external heat exchanger is
required. Two pumps are often required to transfer heat through the heat exchanger
the solar pump and a bronze or stainless steel pump that circulates potable water. This
configuration requires an additional pump, increases labor costs, and increases the
parasitic power required to run the additional pump. The advantage of using a twopump external heat exchange design is that it can increase the heat exchange efficiency
and permit the use of a less expensive storage tank.
The installer must consider several factors when placing a storage tank. Storage
tanks should be installed as near as practicable to the existing water heater in doubletank systems. In areas subject to earthquakes, tanks must be located where they can
be strapped to a wall or otherwise braced or anchored to resist lateral movement in
accordance with state and local code requirements. The tank must be placed on a level
surface that can adequately support the filled weight of the tank. Some plumbing codes
require that the tank be elevated above the floor surface with feet, a concrete pad, or
concrete blocks. If the tank is placed on a floor that can be damaged by leaking, such as
a wood-framed floor, an approved water heater drain pan must be installed underneath
the tank and be drained to an appropriate location. Additional code requirements may
apply for tanks that are installed in garages or attics.
8.4.5 Water heater integration

Many jurisdictions require licensed personnel for the installation of storage
tanks. A licensed plumber is often required by law to connect a SWH system
to the potable water system. If a fossil fuel water heater is being replaced
with a single solar storage tank with a backup element, an adequate electrical
circuit must be provided. This usually requires a licensed electrician. Licensed
professionals must consult and follow the manufacturers instructions and
national and local codes. In some locations, specialty solar contractor licenses
are issued, allowing for all of the scopes of work required to install a solar
heating system to be performed by the license holder.
Integration with the auxiliary water heater depends upon the configuration
of the system. Single-tank systems are plumbed like a standard water heater. In
double-tank systems, including most ICS systems, cold water will normally be
piped to the solar storage tank first. The hot outlet pipe on the solar tank is then
piped to the cold inlet on the auxiliary heater. This method of piping the tanks in
series allows the cold water to be preheated by any available solar energy. Solar
heated water produced in the preheat tank will be transferred to the backup
heater whenever hot water is drawn from any tap. Solar heated water will reduce
or eliminate the actuation of the auxiliary heater, whether it is a standard water
heater or an appropriate tankless model.
Figure 8-46 Drainback tank with a sight gauge and an
internal heat exchanger.
8.4.6 Drainback tanks

Drainback tanks are integrated into a SWH system as a 5 U.S. gallon (20 L) to
10 U.S. gallon (40 L) reservoir in the collector loop piping or as a standalone
solar storage tank for larger systems. Reservoir-only Drainback tanks are often
installed next to the storage tank or on a shelf nearby. Larger drainback tanks
can be utilized as standalone storage tanks. In these systems, the water in the
large drainback tank is circulated through the collector and heat is transferred
to the potable water or heating system through integrated or external heat
exchangers.
A Drainback tank
with an internal heat
exchanger should be
twice the volume of the
collectors and piping
in order to keep the
8.4.7 Install heat exchangers
exchanger immersed
External heat exchangers require two pumpsone for the collector loop and
one to circulate potable water. Stainless steel plate-type heat exchangers are
preferred by most manufacturers and installers because of their high-efficiency
heat transfer properties. The exchangers are able to maximize the heat transfer
surface area through the use of multiple plates and have large wetted heat
exchange surface areas due to the small fluid passages. External exchangers
are also available in a tube-in-shell configuration. Smaller tube(s) immersed in
a larger tube (shell) circulate the HTF, while potable water or pool water to be
heated circulates in the shell. Exchangers that are not already incorporated into
a pump station are usually secured to a wall near the storage tank. Mounting
strut or similar hardware makes a good mounting interface for exchangers,
pumps, expansion tanks and other small balance of systems components.
when the collector loop

is filled with water.
8.4.8 Install meters

Flow meters measure the system flow rate and are extremely helpful in optimizing system
performance, especially if the system is commissioned when temperature differentials
cannot be observed.
While thermometers, flow meters, and pressure gauges are most commonly installed as
analog devices, electronic versions of these components can be connected to an appropriate
controller, calorimeter, or datalogger for system monitoring. These devices are useful for
determining whether the system is operating properly and can be used to estimate the
amount of energy produced by the SWH system. Standard monitoring systems record the
data on a secure digital (SD) memory card or are connected to networks where data can be
recorded by a server or transmitted via the Internet. Several manufacturers offer controllers
or controller accessories that allow for integrated performance monitoring. Other products
are offered as add-on devices that utilize dedicated temperature sensors solely for
monitoring purposes.
The information provided by monitoring systems is valuable only if the meters are
installed properly. Some manufacturers recommend using shielded wire when connecting
flow and pressure meters to the controls in order to reduce signal interference. Heat
quantity calculation requires two reference temperatures and an instantaneous flow rate
measurement. Flow rates vary based upon the fluid viscosity, which varies based on
temperature. Flow rates will also vary based on pump speed variations for systems that
incorporate such a function. If the energy monitoring system is installed on the potable
water lines, flows will vary based on household water use. Some controls allow the
installer to input an average flow rate to estimate the system production; this method
has limited accuracy due to natural variations in flow rate as the temperature of the heat
transfer fluid changes.
Once the appropriate components have been selected, consideration must be made for
the location of reference sensors. If the quantity of energy delivered to the storage tank is
desired, the reference temperatures should be located on either side of the heat exchanger
in IFC systems or where the collector supply and return piping enters the storage tank
in DFC systems. Measurements can also be made across the collector array to determine
collector heat production or across the potable lines of the storage tank to determine solar
heat delivery to the auxiliary tank or to fixtures. The placement of the sensors will determine
what heat is being measured. Installing redundant analog devices is important when using
electronic meters, as they allow the installer to evaluate the accuracy of the electronic devices.
8.5 Wire the system

Wiring in SWH systems is limited to the differential or PV controls in active systems and
the electrical elements used for auxiliary heat. The wiring in SWH systems carry various
voltages and currents and an installer should take steps to ensure that proper safety practices
are followed and that wiring is installed in accordance with local codes. If a PV module is
used to power the pump in a forced circulation system, the provisions of article 690 of the
National Electrical Code must be followed. The photovoltaic wiring should be installed by a
licensed electrician or other qualified individual as required by state or local regulations.
Figure 8-47 Standard

configuration of sensor placement
for a differential controller.
(Image courtesy of SunEarth)
8.5.1 Install controller

Solar water heaters need a fairly sophisticated control to maximize the collection of
available solar energy. The system controls need to accurately turn pumps on and off
under a variety of conditions and water temperatures. Timers and set point controls are
not accurate enough to control SWH systems efficiently. Solar energy is intermittent and
therefore cannot be harvested on demand. In order to capture all available solar energy,
the temperature of the HTF in the solar collector and the potable water in the storage
tank need to be measured simultaneously. Differential controls constantly monitor
system temperatures and turn pumps, and sometimes valves, on and off based on the
temperatures of the sensors. When the temperature of the HTF in the solar collector
is sufficiently warmer than the storage tank, the control energizes the primary solar
pump to circulate the water. When the temperature difference is too small to generate
usable heat, the differential thermostat turns the pump off. Differential controls may also
incorporate digital displays and provide additional functions, such as a high limit setting
for tank temperature control and a vacation mode setting.
An installer must determine an appropriate location for the controller. When possible,
it is best to mount the controller near the storage tank and pump station. This limits the
length of wire required and reduces installation time. Occasionally a client will want the
controller installed in the living space for easier access. Where such placement would create
a significant inconvenience, controllers with remote displays or wireless capability may be
of benefit.
8.5.2 Connect sensors

Sensors are used to monitor system temperatures. An experienced installer is aware of
the different types and styles of sensors used and of the importance of sensor placement
for efficient system performance.
8.5.2a Sensors
Figure 8-48 Pool control and three-port valve.
Pool controls
SPH controls are similar to
SWH differential thermostats.
Pool systems usually have a
much higher flow rate than
SWH systems and the on and
off differentials are adjusted
Two types of differential control sensors are common in SWH systems in North
Americathermistors and resistance temperature detectors (RTDs). Both types
of sensors undergo a change in resistance when their temperature changes.
The most common type of thermistor used in SWH systems is a 10k inverse
thermistor. The sensor has an electrical resistance of 10,000 ohms at 25C (77F).
As the temperature rises, the resistance dropshence the inverse designation.
RTDs provide more precise measurements than thermistors, but their accuracy
is dependent on the length, size, and type of wire used. The standard RTD
used in SWH systems is a platinum, 1,000 ohm (Pt1000) sensor with positive
coefficientas the temperature increases, the resistance also increases. Pt1000
sensors have a resistance of 1,000 ohms at 0C (32F). Pt1000 and 10k sensors
must be used with the appropriate controller and cannot be interchanged.
Manufacturers enclose temperature sensors in metal casings and use an epoxylike substance to encapsulate the delicate electronics to protect them from water
and the outdoor elements. The metal casings may be shaped like a cylindrical
probe or may have a flat section for clamping to the outside of piping or
screwing into a tank stud. If the sensor has a flat section suitable for clamping
with a hose clamp it should be tightened securely. If the sensor is a probe, care
should be taken to avoid crushing the sensor housing.
accordingly. The typical turn-on

temperature differential of a
pool control is about 5F (3C)
and the turn-off differential
is about 2F (1C). Pool differential thermostats normally
control a three-port motorized
8.5.2b Sensor placement

Measurement of the fluid temperatures in a SWH system is the most important
consideration for efficiently controlling pumps. Collector and tank sensors
should be placed in locations that best represent the temperatures to be
measured.
valve that diverts the pool

water to the collectors when
the differential is achieved. The
control also energizes booster
pumps if they are required in
the system. As long as the pool
collectors can add heat to the
pool, the control will keep the
valve positioned to divert water
to the collectors. When the solar
resource cannot add heat to the
pool, the valve moves to allow
normal filtration and shuts
off the booster pump, if used.
Where solar pool heating sys-
Collector sensors are typically installed in a thermal well, secured against

the hot outlet pipe of the collector array, or attached to the absorber plate. In
SRCC OG-300 Certified systems, the sensor location should be specified in the
manufacturers instruction manual. Some collector manufacturers include a
thermal well kit that is installed in the hot outlet piping of the collector array.
Other manufacturers have immersion wells that are in direct contact with the
collector header. Some systems require that the collector sensor be secured to the
hot return pipe of the collector array using a stainless steel hose clamp. When
installed in this location, the collector output sensor should be placed within
an inch of the collector, if possible, and particular attention must be made to
properly insulate the sensor. If the insulation is damaged or is inadequate, the
sensor readings will be inaccurate. If the sensor is attached to the absorber plate,
the temperature differential on the control may need to be increased to ensure
efficient operation.
tems are installed, pool pump

timers are usually set to filter
only in the daylight hours when
the sun can heat the pool.
Tank, or storage, sensors must be installed to measure the coldest temperatures

at the bottom of the tank. Many solar storage tanks have immersion wells or
ports where immersion wells can be installed. When possible, temperature
sensors should be coated in thermal grease and immersed in these wells. Using
silicone sealant to seal the well will isolate the sensor from the ambient air around the
tank and provide the most accurate readings. Alternately, the tank sensor can be placed
against the tank vessel and isolated from the ambient air temperature with the tank
insulation. Some solar storage tanks have a threaded lug at the bottom of the tank where
a sensor can be bolted to the tank.
8.5.3 Install sensor wires

Temperature sensors can typically be wired with 18-gage thermostat wire, unless the
wire length exceeds 100 feet (30m) or the sensor wire could be subject to electrical
noise. Electrical noise can occur when the sensor wire runs close to high voltage wire. If
electrical interference affects sensor readings, shielded sensor wire should be used.
The collector sensor wire will normally be run with the hot collector loop return pipe.
Plastic wire ties can be used to attach the wiring to the pipe insulation.
8.5.4 Wire the pump(s)

Cord-and-plug connections save time on installations and are NEC-approved disconnects
for motors up to 1 HP. Wire should be sized in accordance with manufacturers
specifications and local code requirements. If a cord is not used between the controller
and line voltage or between the controller and any pump(s) or motorized valve(s), wiring
assemblies must be installed in conduit. Conduit attached to pump wiring should be
flexible to allow for motor vibration.
8.5.5 Make final AC connections

With cord-and-plug connections, the controller simply needs to be plugged into a nearby
outlet. In the case of hard-wired controls and pumps, they should be installed by a
qualified professional. Most jurisdictions require a licensed
electrician, who will be able to determine the best method of
connecting the wiring to the existing electrical service.
8.5.6 Protect wires

All sensor wiring should be installed in accordance with
the NEC or the electrical code adopted by the AHJ. Exterior
sensor wiring must be protected from UV-degradation
by using a wire with UV-protected insulation, by running
the wire through UV-rated conduit, or by placing it on the
outside of the pipe insulation between the insulation and the
weather proofing.
Figure 8-49 Pressurizing an expansion tank with compressed air.
8.6 Pressure test the system

It is most efficient to pressure test the entire collector loop
upon completion. This is not always possible, as portions of
the system may need to be tested intermediately if they are
concealed in walls or chases. The requirements

listed in Section 8.3.6 apply when the entire
collector loop is tested. In order to satisfy code
requirements, the pressure test needs to be
performed prior to installation of the pressure
relief valve. Any other components that are
rated below the system test pressure must be
isolated during the test.
8.6.1 Inspect for leaks
Figure 8-50 Fill/drain assembly with check valve.
Solder leaks are almost always readily

identified. A solution of soap and water can be
used to detect very small leaks as soap bubbles
will appear at the leaking joint(s). The pressure
should be monitored for at least fifteen
minutes to ensure piping integrity.
If leaks are found, the installer must fix them and repressurize the system. A solder leak
requires depressurizing the system and resoldering the fitting. Threaded joints should
be inspected carefully since they can have miniscule leaks that are almost undetectable.
A leak at a threaded joint can sometimes be stopped with another quarter or half turn
of the fitting if the piping permits. Malleable fittings, such as bronze, can sometimes
leak directly through the fitting. The only remedy is to replace the fitting. Leaks can cost
installers significant time on a job, so care must be made when joining piping.
8.6.2 Isolate the expansion tank

Prior to filling the system, the tank needs to be charged to the appropriate pressure.
Expansion tanks are pre-charged by the manufacturer and the charge pressure can
be adjusted by means of the Schrader valve opposite the pipe connection. Charge
adjustments can only be made when the system is empty or before the expansion tank is
installed; the expansion tank charge pressure cannot be accurately determined once the
system has been filled. The tank should be charged to the collector loop system pressure.
If the collector loop pressure will be 15psi, the air cushion in the tank should be 15psi.
Significantly undercharging the expansion tank will result in a reduced volume for fluid
expansion and larger pressure variations. A slight undercharge (23 psi) is preferred by
installers in cold climates to accommodate contraction of fluid in the system and must
be accounted for when the expansion tank is sized. An undersized tank can lead to high
system pressure fluctuations when the HTF is hot and/or the pump is energized.
8.6.3 Flush system

Once the installer is confident that the system will not leak, the collectors and collector
loop piping should be flushed. Flushing the system purges the residue from soldering
and other small foreign objects from the piping and components. A system flush will also
detect any gross flow restrictions in the loop. Flushing the system can be accomplished
with a fill/drain valve assembly as shown in Figure 8-50.
If the collectors will be exposed to bright

sunlight for more than a few minutes while
filling, purging, or charging the system,
they should be covered with a tarp or other
suitable cover to prevent steam production
when introducing fluid into the collectors.
Some system manufacturers require that the
system is initially flushed with a trisodium
phosphate (TSP) solution, which acts as a
degreaser and cleaning agent. An initial
flush with TSP requires a charge pump and
a container large enough to accommodate
slightly more than the system fluid volume.
Figure 8-51 Freeze and burst protection ratings for various concentrations of propylene glycol.
Boiler drain valves installed in the system

piping allow hoses to be used for flushing
and filling the system. Service water pressure
can be used to flush the system and takes a few minutes. After the system is flushed, it
should be drained completely for charging with heat transfer fluid. In some cases, the
piping loop will not completely drain by gravity. Compressed air can be used to help
force out trapped water. If water still remains, the installer must account for it when
charging the system.
8.7 Fill the system

Once the installer is confident that the system is free of leaks and that all debris has
been cleared from the piping, the collector loop can be filled with the heat transfer
fluid. In direct systems, filling the system is as simple as opening an isolation valve
to allow the water supply to flood the system. In indirect systems, the procedure is
more complex.
8.7.1 Antifreeze systems

There are several options for filling an Antifreeze system, but the most common
procedure involves the use of a charge pump. Experienced solar installers typically
have a custom or manufactured filling station that they use for filling and pressurizing
the system. The pump must be large enough to eliminate air in the collector loop and
provide the head required to properly pressurize the system. The cost of a high head
charge pump that can produce system pressures of 50psi to 75psi may be substantial, but
the pump will pay for itself many times over in labor savingsin particular on service
calls that require recharging Antifreeze systems.
Other options that are less common and less effective include filling the system from the
roof, using drill-operated pumps, or using medium-duty pumps available at home centers
that can develop about 15 psi of system pressure. Each of these methods is much more
time consuming, far less effectual at removing air from the system, and should be left to
the do-it-yourself homeowner or used as a backup if the charge pump malfunctions.
The most common antifreeze solution used in SWH systems is a mix of propylene
glycol (PG) and water. The concentration of the PG in the solution is determined by the
minimum ambient temperature at the site; it should be high enough to keep the solution
from developing ice crystals. This is known as the fluids freeze point. Generally, the
higher the concentration of PG, the lower the freeze point. Propylene glycol reaches its
useful limit at a concentration of approximately 60% PG; above this concentration, little
additional freeze protection is gained. Manufacturers suggest a PG concentration that
will prevent freezing at 5F (3C) less than the expected minimum ambient temperature.
If the site falls below this temperature, the pump may not be able to circulate the slushy
PG solution. The system may be damaged if the temperature drops below the burst point.
A variety of manufacturers offer propylene glycol-based antifreeze products advertised
for use in SWH systems. These products are available in both pre-mixed and pure form.
Antifreeze products designed for use in SWH systems must be formulated to be nontoxic. In addition, SWH system antifreeze must be able to withstand repeated episodes at
high temperaturesstagnating solar collectors can easily reach 400F (200C) or higher.
To address this likely occurrence, antifreeze providers add various chemicals that act
as inhibitors, or buffers. The inhibitors allow the antifreeze to better withstand higher
temperatures, while still preserving the nontoxic attributes that are mandatory.
In areas where extremely high summertime temperatures are expected, it is wise to use
an antifreeze product that is rated for the highest possible temperature. Further, it is
advisable to provide for a regular inspection regime for the system, in order to ensure
that the antifreeze has maintained its original chemical composition and freeze tolerance.
Refer to the antifreeze providers instructions for more information about the selection
and maintenance of antifreeze products.
Before filling the system, the installer must verify that all drains are closed and open the
fill/drain valves. A feed hose is attached from the pump to the system fill valve. Another
hose should be connected to the drain valve and routed to the glycol reservoir. The glycol
reservoir may be a five-gallon bucket (or larger), a standard reservoir in a manufactured
filling station, or another suitable, clean container. A third hose is connected to the suction
side of the charge pump and draws the glycol solution from the reservoir.
Consideration must be made for the collector temperature. If an evacuated tube collector
with heat pipes is installed, it is often advantageous to install the tubes after the system
has been charged to avoid the challenge of charging a stagnated system. Alternately, a
cover can be draped over the collectors if the sun is shining.
Glycol can be packaged in containers ranging from 1 U.S. gallon to 55 U.S. gallons, but
is commonly transported to the jobsite in 5 U.S. gallon buckets. The container of pure
glycol is poured into the glycol reservoir and then filled with the correct amount of water.
If the water at the site contains significant mineral deposits or is heavily discolored, the
installer should bring better quality water to the site to mix the solution.
At this point, the installer must estimate the volume of fluid required to fill the system.
Large grid-style flat plate collectors require between 1 U.S. gallon (3.8L) and 1.5 U.S.
gallons (5.7L) of the mixed solution. Serpentine flat plates and evacuated tube collectors
may only need 0.2-0.5 U.S. gallons (0.8-1.1L) per collector. Each
collector manufacturers product documentation will contain this
information. The fluid capacity of the piping can be determined
using the piping volumes below:
Copper size
Type L
Type M
"
1.21 gal (4.58 L)
1.32 gal (5.00 L)
"
2.51 gal (9.50 L)
2.69 gal (10.18 L)
1"
4.29 gal (16.24 L)
4.54 gal (17.19 L)
1"
6.55 gal (24.79 L)
6.81 gal (25.78 L)
1"
9.25 gal (35.01 L)
9.51 gal (36.00 L)
Figure 8-52 Checking propylene glycol

concentration using a refractometer.
To Solar
Collector
The size and type of heat exchanger also influences system

volume. The fluid capacity of the heat exchanger must be
obtained from the manufacturer.
Once the installer has estimated the system volume, the glycol
should be mixed to the desired concentration. The freeze
protection rating of the solution can be checked by using a glycol
refractometer. It is always better to have extra glycol solution
mixed prior to charging the system.
Valve: Fill
Washer
Hoses
Check Valve
Charge Pump
Valve: Drain
From Heat
Exchanger
Bucket
The filling station should then be setup to fill the system. When
using a five-gallon bucket as the glycol reservoir, a carpenters
spring clamp can be used to secure both hoses to the bucket to
avoid spills. If needed, the bucket should be elevated so that both
hoses can reach it. All extra containers of the premixed glycol
solution should be staged near the filling station.
The installer must ensure that the system fill and drain valves
are open all the way before starting the pump. If required, the
pump should be primed with the glycol solution. Once the pump
is on, the return hose will discharge a substantial amount of air,
which is being forced out of the piping as the system is filled. The
end of the return hose should be submerged in the reservoir to
allow visual inspection of air bubbles. The glycol solution should
circulate until the return hose fluid is flowing smoothly without
air bubbles. This may require restricting flow from the drain
valve to increase the system pressure in an effort to force trapped
air from the loop. When the fluid is flowing without bubbles, the
drain valve should be closed. The liquid system pressure should
increase on the pressure gauge. The installer must monitor the
gauge and shut the fill valve once the desired system pressure
(see sidebar) is reached. Once the system is filled the pump can
be shut off.
Antifreeze Solution
Figure 8-53 Filling an antifreeze system with the check

valve between the fill and drain valves.
(Courtesy of homepower.com)
Figure 8-54 Filling the charging station with

a solution of propylene glycol and water.
Figure 8-55 Connecting a glycol filling station to the

pump station fill valve.
Once filled, the system should be tested and purged of any air in
the piping or components. This can be accomplished using the solar
circulator. The wiring of the control, sensors and pump(s) should
have already been completed. The installer should set the controller
to manually turn on the pump while leaving the filling station hoses
connected to the fill and drain valves. The system may still have a small
amount of air at the top of the system, which can be released via the
air vent at the top of the system, if installed. Air is released from the
air vent by unscrewing the setscrew in the coin vent or pushing in the
valve stem of the automatic vent until only liquid appears. If the sun
has come out during this process, the liquid expelled from the vent
might be very hot.
If bleeding the air has caused any pressure drop on the gauge, the fill
valve should be opened and the pump turned back on. Once the system
pressure is reached, the pump should be turned off and the valve
Initial system pressure
The minimum pressure at the collectors is often

based on the contraction of fluid during cold
In direct systems, the initial system pressure will
weather. For example, if a system in a cold, northern
be the pressure of the cold water supply. This pres-
climate is initially pressurized on a hot summer day,
sure will vary over time. For systems connected to
the system pressure can drop significantly in the
the public water supply, the pressure will typically
winter when the collectors are subjected to tempera-
be between 5060psi. For systems connected to a
tures below freezing. In these conditions, an installer
well, the normal operating pressure may vary from
may choose to charge the system with a pressure in
2040 psi.
the collectors between 5psi and 10psi.
Drainback systems are often installed at atmo-
To determine the initial system pressure, the in-
spheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7psi
staller must determine the height that the collectors
at mean sea level and varies by elevation. When
are above the pressure gauge, in feet. The minimum
a system is installed at atmospheric pressure near
initial system pressure is calculated by adding
sea level, the absolute pressure is 14.7psia, but the
0.45psi per foot of height to the minimum desired
gauge pressure is 0psig.
pressure at the collectors.
The initial pressure for antifreeze systems depends
For example, if the collectors are 20 feet above the
upon the height of the system. The pressure varies
pressure gauge at the pump station, the minimum
at various heights in the system. The initial pres-
initial gauge pressure would be 9psi greater than the
sure must be high enough to maintain pressure at
desired minimum collector pressure.
all times in the top of the system. If the pressure at

the top of the system drops to 0psig or less, there is
Some manufacturers require very specific initial
potential for air to enter the system through fittings
system pressures. Installers should consult these
such as air vents.
recommendations prior to filling the system.
closed. When the air is eliminated from the system and there are no leaks, the hoses are
disconnected from the valves and the system is ready to be insulated and commissioned.
8.7.2 Filling a Drainback system

Best practice is to use distilled water when filling a Drainback system; in fact, many
system manufacturers require that distilled water be used. Tap water can hinder quick
draining of the system in the future and affect system performance. This occurs when
the controller shuts the pump(s) off in times of high solar irradiance due to the system
reaching the maximum solar storage tank temperature. Water in the risers will drain,
and any water that is left will evaporate. This can cause dissolved solids to adhere to
the inside of the tubes and cause the collector riser tubes to become partially scaled over
years of operation. Reduced efficiency is one result of any deposits as they act as an
insulator on the inside of the tubes or can be the cause of small riser tubes retaining a
column of water within them after years of operation. If this happens, a freeze will likely
burst the restricted tube. This phenomenon will not occur if distilled water is used.
A boiler fill/drain valve should be installed nearor atthe top of the Drainback tank,
and a drain valve should be installed at the low point of the system. A funnel or drill
pump can then be used to add distilled water to the system. The tank should be filled to
the top but not above the fill valve. Some Drainback tanks have an interior dip tube in
Pipe insulation thickness

The minimum thickness of pipe insulation varies
Neither of these codes specifies the minimum
by jurisdiction; in some jurisdictions, the minimum
thickness of pipe insulation used in outdoor
thickness may not be specified.
applications. In the absence of code requirements, when using rubber pipe insulation, a
The International Energy Conservation and
minimum thickness of is recommended. Ex-
Construction Code specifies a minimum R-value of
terior rubber insulation should be a minimum
R-3 for any mechanical piping carrying fluids above
of in thickness for cold climates. Fiberglass
105F in residential systems. In commercial systems
insulation should have a minimum thickness
an R-value of approximately R-5.5 is specified for
of and should only be used indoors.
mechanical piping, but this requirement is only for

systems that are heated primarily with fossil fuels
The R-value for pipe insulation varies by type.
or electricity.
USEC rates rubber at an R-value of approximately R-4.3 per inch and fiberglass at approxi-
The Uniform Solar Energy Code requires a
mately R-3.0 per inch. Manufacturers ratings
minimum R-value of R-2 for piping that is 1 in
may differ.
diameter or less; 1 to 2 piping requires an

R-value of R-4.
Manufacturers of SRCC OG-300 certified

systems are required to specify insulation
thickness in their installation manuals.
the hot return port of the tank. This will quiet the return water returning to the tank
but is only suitable if there is a hole in the dip tube above the water level to allow air
to travel up the pipe and break the vacuum. The installer should verify the presence of
this weep hole prior to installation by removing the dip tube. If the pump is installed
below the level of water in the Drainback tank, it will be primed and ready to start.
The differential control can be used to cycle the pump(s) to ensure the system is free
from leaks. A Drainback tank serves as an expansion tank and the design prevents
thermosyphoning at night, which eliminates the need for a check valve.
8.8 Install insulation

Insulation can be installed either during the installation of the collector loop piping
or once the system is filled and charged. There are benefits and challenges with each
method. If the insulation is installed as the system is piped, leaks are difficult to
detect and may require removal of insulation. If installed at the end of the project,
slit insulation will be required, which also requires significantly more labor to install
correctly. Slit insulation will tend lose its seal at the seams over time.
Piping can be insulated as it is installed by using spring clamps to compress the
insulation and keep it away from any joints during the soldering process. It can then
be slid over the joints to eliminate the need to cut and glue joints at pipe elbows. When
pipe insulation is slid over elbows it is compressed, which reduces the effectiveness of
the insulation. This is preferable to mitered joints, which are difficult to seal properly
and can separate over time.
Pre-slit insulation is a time saver and is available with mastic on the edges to join the
circumference. Ells and Tees should be mitered at 45 angles and the edges sealed with
mastic. After the hot return pipe is insulated, the collector sensor wire can be attached
to the outside of the insulation using plastic wire ties.
8.8.1 Types of insulation

SWH systems require the use of specific types of pipe insulation. Standard
polyethylene pipe insulation is acceptable for domestic hot water piping, but will melt
when exposed to the temperatures present in collector loops. Elastomeric, or closed
cell rubber, pipe insulation is able to withstand collector loop temperatures and is
commonly used in SWH systems. Fiberglass and mineral wool insulation materials
are also appropriately rated for SWH applications, but should only be used for
interior applications due to their tendency to absorb water. Insulation rated for solar
applications can be procured at solar and insulation distributors, as well as large home
improvement retailers.
Required labels and flow direction arrows can be applied to insulated piping.
Other components have unique insulation requirements. Pumps motors should never
be insulated; many depend on air flow to dissipate heat. Tanks are insulated by the
manufacturer, but insulated blankets can be added if the tank insulation does not meet
Figure 8-56 Aluminum cladding used to protect pipe insulation from UV-degradation
local codes. Exterior heat exchangers must be insulated

with closed cell insulation, which is available in sheets.
Other components should be insulated based on the
system manufacturers instructions.
Jobsite cleanup
Keeping a clean jobsite is important
for safety and leaves a positive
impression on the client. Having a
wet/dry vacuum, a whiskbroom,
8.8.2 Exposed piping insulation
and a dustpan on the work truck
All pipe insulation exposed to sunlight needs to be

protected from ultraviolet (UV) radiation for long-term
durability. UV-resistant paint can last from five to ten
years; manufacturers of high temperature closed-cell
insulation will sometimes recommend a particular type of
paint. A maintenance-free, lifetime covering for outdoor
insulation is flat architectural grade aluminum used for
camper shells and rain gutters. It is easily bent around the
insulation and can be fastened with very short screws or
bent to form a self-fastening clip similar to common snap
lock stove pipe. Another option is PVC cladding, which is
available in straight sections and in specially shaped joints
for covering elbows and tees. The cladding is secured with
adhesive and stainless steel tacks. Another solution is to
wrap the pipe insulation with silicone tape.
will assist with most cleanup.

It is beneficial to keep bins or boxes
for trash and recyclables, such as
copper scraps and cardboard, on
the jobsite from the start of the
project. This helps remove clutter
from the work site and minimizes
cleanup time at the end of the
installation.
9 Commission the System

Almost all of the work required to install an SWH system will have been completed once
the system is filled. The final step is to commission the system. While the commissioning
of a system typically takes little time, an installer must be mindful during this process.
An otherwise perfectly installed system can be ineffectual if the system is not commissioned properly.
9.1 Program the controllers

Proper system operation of a forced circulation system depends upon the appropriate
configuration of the differential controller. A system installed following industry best
practices will only function properly if the installer has a full understanding of solar
heating controls.
The features of differential controls vary by model and manufacturer, thus the installer
must review the manufacturers instructions to ensure proper configuration. Though the
selection of a particular controller is the responsibility of the system manufacturer
or designer, an installer should have a well-rounded understanding of various control
options to ensure that the controller selected for the installation is capable of controlling
the pumps, motorized valves, and other outputs required for proper system operation.
All differential controllers require multiple sensors, or inputs. The controller monitors the
resistances from these inputs to determine when to provide power via integrated relays.
Each differential control requires two inputs for functionality a tank sensor and a
Figure 9-1 Programming a differential controller.

collector sensor and operates the solar pump based on a difference in temperature (DT)
readings between the sensors. The controller has adjustments for the DT-on setting that
provides power to the pump and the DT-off setting that shuts off the pump. These settings are dependent upon a variety of factors, including the type of system, the climate,
and the length of the run between the storage tank and the collectors. Additional inputs
may be used as reference sensors. For instance, a third sensor may monitor the water
temperature at the top of the storage tank. Additional sensors may also be used for additional controller functions, such as powering valves to direct heat to multiple storage
tanks, providing power to auxiliary heating components, powering recirculation pumps,
or diverting excess heat. The availability of advanced functions will depend upon the
sophistication of the control. A differential control requires one output to run the solar
pump. The complexity of the control increases as the number of outputs increases.
The method for configuring the controller will depend upon the user interface. There are
three standard types of controller interfaces common to the market analog, digital, and
wireless. Analog controllers use switches and dials to adjust DT settings and use indicator lights to signal whether the controller and pump(s) are operating. Digital controllers
use an LCD display and buttons to navigate through programming menus to adjust
settings. Wireless controls have no direct interface at the controller, but instead require
a computer or handheld device to observe system functionality and adjust controller
settings.
Properly configuring the DT settings is critical for optimal system efficiency. If the DTon setting is too low, it will lead to pump short cycling. Short cycling occurs when the
pump turns on and off because the solar radiation is not sufficient to maintain an operational temperature difference between the collector(s) and the tank. If the temperature
difference drops below the DT-off setting, the controller will turn off power to the pump.
The band between the DT-on and the DT-off is called the hysteresis. The hysteresis needs
to be large enough to limit short cycling but not so large that is causes system inefficiency. These settings will depend upon the type of system and the climate.
Short cycling affects efficiency in two ways. First, it wastes the electricity used during
short cycles because negligible usable heat is added to the storage tank. Second, the cooling down of fluid in the lines between the collector(s) and the storage tank will lead to
cooling of the water in the storage tank. The latter issue is of significant concern in cold
climates with a significant volume of heat transfer fluid in piping that is located outdoors or in unconditioned space. Short cycling can also increase wear on the pump.
During configuration of the controller, the installer must verify that the pump is energized by the controller relay and ensure proper functionality of the DT-on and DT-off.
Most controllers have a manual override to power the pump regardless of the temperature differential. This should be activated to ensure the pump is operational. In digital
and wireless systems with a graphical interface, the temperature readings for the sensors
should be observed and verified. If there is a short-circuit or open-circuit, the controller
will display a code to notify the installer of the error. With analog controllers, the sensor
continuity and resistances should be checked using a multimeter. If there is not sufficient
solar radiation to trigger the differential controller, heat can be applied to the collector
sensor to observe system functionality. This typically requires a two-person work crew
one to place the sensor in the palm of his/her hand and the other to observe the readings
at the controller. If higher temperatures are required, heat from a cigarette lighter can be
applied to the collector sensor. Care should be made to ensure does not melt the protective sheathing on the wire.
While the solar pump is in operation, the flow rate for the system should be optimized.
The installer must verify the design flow rate with the designer or manufacturer and
adjust the pump speed, controller settings, and/or balancing valve accordingly. When
utilizing speed control, the flow rate should be observed for several conditions to ensure
that the minimum and maximum flow rates are appropriate. Some systems may not
include flow meters; in such cases, the installer must verify the appropriate flow rate by
observing the temperature differences in the collector loop. This approach requires the
installer to be on site during normal system operation.
Other controller functions should also be verified during commissioning. This may involve activating other pumps and
valves or simulating conditions that may lead to other functionality of the solar pump, such as nighttime heat dumping or
high limit shutoff.
Figure 9-2 - Sensor for measuring instantaneous flow.
Most differential controllers have settings that will either turn

the pump off or restrict it from turning on under high temperature conditions. These include the collector maximum
temperature and the storage tank maximum temperature.
The purpose of these settings is to limit the formation of steam
in the solar storage tank or collector loop and to maintain the
integrity of the materials and components exposed to these
high temperatures.
While the primary type of input is a temperature sensor, some
controllers may utilize flow meters, pressure gauges, and irradiance sensors to monitor system operation and performance
or to activate specific controller functions. The installer must
verify proper operation of these inputs and ensure that they
are compatible with the differential controller. In systems that
utilize data logging or energy monitoring, the data collection
settings must be configured according to the manufacturers directions, and the installer must verify that the device is wired to
a computer or network or that an appropriate memory storage
medium, such as an SD card, has been installed.
9.2 Verify system operations

Once the differential controller has been configured, the PV control has been installed, or
the thermosyphon system has been filled, the installer must ensure that the system operates as designed. This involves a walk-through visual inspection to ensure that there are
no leaks in the system, listen for air in the system, bleed air vents as required, and monitor the system temperatures and pressure.
Hot water taps should be opened on all systems to verify the operation of the building
DHW system. It is common for there to be air bubbles in the lines of newly-installed
SWH systems, and they should be purged. There should be a difference in the temperature of the cold collector supply and hot collector return pipes if the collector has received
any solar energy. If this isnt noticeable due to cloudy weather or nighttime job completion, any isolation and ball valves should be double-checked to ensure their correct settings. If an adjustable anti-scald or mixing valve is incorporated in the system, its setting
should be checked and set to the desired temperature.
Dont forget
to pick up the
check!
As any supervisor can
attest, picking up the
In more complex systems that feature multiple pumps, parallel loading of tanks, heat
dumps, external heat exchangers, and bypasses, the installer must simulate the range
of operational configurations that the system is expected to perform. This will include
manually activating various components and manipulating sensors to ensure proper
functionality.
payment check at the

time of completion is
VERY important, unless
other arrangements
have been made.
9.3 Conduct customer walk-through

Once the installer has verified that the system is operating properly, s/he must provide
documentation to the client and demonstrate proper system operation and monitoring.
Documentation should include all appropriate installation manuals, component documentation, and the controller manual. These documents should be affixed in a conspicuous area for the client and/or future service technicians. Inserting the O&M manuals in a
document protector and taping them to the solar storage tank adds a professional touch.
In the case of an ICS system, the document protector can be attached to the backup water
heater or the isolation/bypass valves.
A thorough walk-through is critical to the success of the system. If the client has a thorough understanding of the system, any servicing issues are likely to be identified in a
timely manner. During the walk-through any routine maintenance, such as draining the
solar storage tank or monitoring system pressure, must be explained.
9.4 Request final inspection

To ensure code compliance, the installer must notify the appropriate building code
inspector(s) to arrange for inspection of the system. In some jurisdictions an inspection
must be performed by a third-party agency to verify that the installation meets the requirements for local financial incentives. The installer must be aware of the procedure for
inspection and ensure the proper documentation is available for the inspector(s). It saves
significant time and trouble if the homeowner is made aware that someone will likely
need to be present for an inspection to be completed.
10 Service and Maintain the System

The service and maintenance required for solar water heating systems is dependent on
the type of system, the quality of the design and installation, the quality of components
used in the installation, and various site-specific factors including water quality, power
reliability at the site, and homeowner interaction with the system.
Service calls may be performed under an installation companys standard service plan
overscheduled due to a component failure, an apparent decrease in system performance,
or routine maintenance that is required by the manufacturer.
Under favorable site conditions, systems that are designed and installed properly
can operate for 2530 years with minimal attention, however all systems will require
occasional servicing and maintenance. An experienced installer is well-versed in the
issues and conditions that lead to service and maintenance calls and strives to minimize
the potential for servicing through proper installation practices and education of the
client on proper maintenance procedures.
10.1 Ensure OSHA compliance

System service and maintenance will require an installer to perform work similar toor
exactly the same asthe tasks required for system installation. As such, a site safety plan
and personal protection equipment should be used in accordance with OSHA standards.
Because maintenance and repair work is often performed by a single individual, extra
precautions must be observed. The hazards associated with system maintenance include,
but are not limited to: ladder use, roof work, working with hot fluids, working with
pressurized fluids, electrical hazards, and soldering and brazing. See Section 8 for more
details on proper safety practices.
10.2 Perform scheduled maintenance

SWH systems can often benefit from routine checkups. Many companies offer this service
as part of an ongoing service contract or as a scheduled visit at routine maintenance
intervals. The scope of the checkup will depend upon the type of system, its age, and
issues discovered during an inspection. These visits also provide an opportunity for an
installer to discuss possible upgrades in technology, such as controls and pumps that
could increase system performance.
During a scheduled maintenance inspection, the entire SWH system should be checked
for any visual indications of degradation. The service technician should also verify
proper operation. This may require manual override of the controller to verify correct
operation of the controller and the pump(s). Other standard inspection items may include
determining flow rate, system pressure, pH, fluid levels, and operating temperatures.
Exterior pipe insulation should also be inspected for signs of degradation.
10.2.1 ICS and Thermosyphon systems

The storage tank is the only component that has a shorter lifetime than the collectors in
thermosyphon systems and in ICS systems that do not utilize copper progressive tubes.
Figure 10-1 Batch solar water heater.
Damage can necessitate repair of glass, insulation, and enclosures, but collectors have
long service if not abused. The systems can suffer freeze damage but this is usually a
case of being installed in an unsuitably harsh climate. Visual inspection and testing of
the valves should be performed annually. Draining and flushing the tank is sometimes
recommended by manufacturers; this is a simple but time-consuming task. If any tank
with an electric element is to be drained, ensure the breaker supplying power to the
tank is in the off position. Energizing an electric element not immersed in water will
damage it beyond repair and require a replacement. Air needs to be introduced at the
top of any tank in order for it to drain. T & P valves are often handy for this operation,
however if a valve is manually actuated it may develop an unstoppable small leak.
Local water quality is probably the most significant factor affecting the lifetime of a glasslined steel tank. In some locations, normal lifetimes are as little as ten years; in others
the same tank can last at least twice as long. Anode rods are the reason manufacturers
can offer extended tank warranties. Almost all glass-lined steel water heater and storage
tanks have anode rods found in one of two locations: under a large hex plug labeled
Anode, or attached under the hot pipe nipple on top of the tank. Removing the large
hex plug can be very difficult after a few years of tank service, and many seasoned
installers leave it in place and install a new anode rod under the hot nipple. Stainless
steel and polybutylene-lined tanks will probably not have an anode rod.
10.2.2 DFC systems
Figure 10-2 The hot water

heater breaker at the electrical
panel must be shut off prior to
any service work. Energizing
a water heating element that
is not submersed in water will
immediately damage it.
Figure 10-3 A replacement

electrical element.
An infrared thermometer can be used to quickly check any system indoors if the sun
is shining. Once the installer verifies that the pump is running, the thermometer can
be used to check the temperature of the supply and return pipes to the collectors
(temporarily slide the insulation back if necessary). The return pipe from the collectors
should be 10F to 30F (or 5C to 15C ) warmer than the cold supply from the pump.
If there is no difference in temperature, a flow problem exists. This could be a control
malfunction, lack of electricity, pump failure, or, in rare instances, a blocked pipe.
Possible causes and solutions are discussed later in this section.
DFC systems include the same ICS maintenance checks as well as visual inspections
of the control and pump. Noisy pumps are often an indication of impending failure.
This is particularly true if the noise is a high-pitched squealing sound that typically
Figure 10-4 An infrared

thermometer is handy for
quick temperature readings.
results from worn bearings. Extraordinarily hot pump bodies are also cause for concern.
A pumps body that is near or slightly above the same temperature as the fluid is normal.
Excessive pump body temperatures can indicate friction problems that will soon result in
failure. The pump may have already failed if the body is extremely hot and a temperature
check of the piping indicates a no-flow condition.
10.2.3 IFC systems

The heat exchanger and other components necessary for freeze protection in IFC systems
make troubleshooting and repair more complex. Checking the collector loop piping for
collector supply and return temperature differential can quickly provide a technician
useful information. If the sun is shining and the system is functioning normally, the two
pipes should have a noticeable temperature differential. If the system isnt too hot, many
technicians prefer to check the pipes with their hands. The pipes should have a noticeable
DT of up to 30F (15C) or more. If both pipes are cold and/or there is no difference in
temperature, there is likely no flow to the collectors. If both pipes are hot but at the same
temperature, this would indicate that the heat exchanger is not transferring heat. This
symptom is associated with two two-pump Drainback and Antifreeze systems with a
failed domestic hot water circulator pump.
10.2.3a Drainback systems
Figure 10-5 The flow meter on the left can be used as a sight glass in a
drainback system when placed at the proper level.
In addition to the components in DFC systems, Drainback systems

have the Drainback reservoir and a heat exchanger that should
be inspected at least annually. Adequate water level is critical in
Drainback systems. Adding water to a Drainback tank with a heat
exchanger should be an annual maintenance task with smaller tanks.
Low water level in the tank can result in a loss of efficiency from the
exchanger coil not being completely immersed in the HTF. If the tank
runs completely dry, the high head pump will fail from excessive
heat since these pumps are lubricated by the pumped fluid. Checking
the level is straightforward if the Drainback tank has a sight gauge
or the supply piping has a transparent flow meter at the high tank
water level. Some Drainback tanks are filled to a level of overflowing
through a fitting plumbed for that purpose. Some have no provision
to check the water level. A dipstick needs to be fashioned for systems
without water level monitoring devices. The water level on larger
atmospheric tanks can sometimes be visually observed. Collector
loop piping can sag over time and should be inspected closely for
any places that could trap water and lead to freezing. In particular,
look for horizontal lengths of pipe being used as a clothes hanger,
which will cause sagging.
10.2.3b Antifreeze systems

Figure 10-6 - Glycol test equipment Litmus litmus paper, propylene
glycol freeze tolerance tester, and pH meter.
Antifreeze system maintenance includes inspection of storage

tanks, pumps, heat exchangers, valves, controls, and the condition
of the antifreeze solution. Antifreeze solutions can last for decades
if maintained at correct operating temperatures. It is prudent to
test the solution every few years to ensure that its freeze protection level and acidity
are within design parameters. Chemical companies that make non-toxic propylene
glycol add chemical buffers to the mixture to raise the pH. Seven is neutral on the pH
scale and anything below it is acidic. The higher pH provided by the buffers gives the
glycol a margin of safety from turning acidic. Anything below seven can be harmful to
copper tubing, and solutions below a pH of 6.5 will start to corrode the tubing in solar
collectors and their piping systems first evidenced by pitting and then pinhole leaks.
Temperatures above about 285F (140C) break down the buffers in most brands of
propylene glycol, and fluid acidity is a probable result. Some solar-specific propylene
glycols have a 325F(160C) buffer breakdown temperature.
Litmus paper and the color chart included in the test kit can easily be found with an
Internet search engine (cost $8 to $12). A litmus test requires just a drop or two of the
solution from the drain/fill valves that are installed with antifreeze systems. Carefully
cracking the valve slightly can supply the test drops that are needed. The litmus paper
will turn color and the paper is then compared with the chart to ascertain the solutions
pH. This test is accurate to about two-tenths of a unit of pH.
An electronic pH meter is more expensive and also more accurate. A larger sample of
antifreeze is needed to immerse the tip of the meter in the solution than with pH paper,
however the test is simpler and quicker. The pH meter will provide a digital readout of
the pH calibrated in tenths of each unit on the pH scale. Neglecting to test the pH of the
solution in an antifreeze solar water heater has ruined many collectors. For each whole
digit on the pH scale, the acidity rises or falls by a factor of ten. Any antifreeze system
solution below a pH reading of seven should be changed.
The freeze level of the solution should also be checked. A propylene glycol hydrometer
tester with tiny balls that float at various levels depending on the freeze point is the
least expensive. These testers look exactly like the devices used to test car antifreeze
(ethylene glycol) but are made specifically for propylene glycol. Refractometers produced
specifically for propylene glycol may also be used to test freeze levels. These are more
expensive and more accurate than hydrometer testers.
If testing indicates that the solution no longer provides the required level of
freeze protection for a given climate, however the pH is still acceptable, some
of the solution must be drained to accommodate more propylene glycol. A
30% solution (30% glycol, 70% water) is used in mild climates, a 50% solution is
used in most of the United States, and extremely harsh climates require a 60%
solution.
Propylene glycol antifreeze solutions have different freeze and burst points. The
burst point is the temperature at which the solution will rupture copper pipe.
A 50% solution gives freeze protection to -30F (-34C) and burst protection to
below -60F (-50C). A 30% solution gives freeze protection to a few degrees
above 0F (-18C) and burst protection to -20F (-29C).
SPH systems have few components that can fail and require little maintenance
if installed correctly. SPH collectors can last over 20 twenty years. Most SPH
Percent (volume) Glycol Concentration Required

Temperature F For Freeze Protection For Burst Protection
20
18%
12%
10
29
20
36
24
-10
42
28
-20
46
30
-30
50
33
-40
54
35
-50
57
35
Figure 10.-7 Freeze and burst protection ratings for

various concentrations of propylene glycol and water
solutions. (Courtesy of SunEarth)
collectors can be field-repaired. The most common valve failure is the vacuum relief
valve, which is installed at the top of the collectors. In some circumstances, the valve may
appear to fail, but the actual problem is a pool pump that is losing its pumping capability
due to age. Visual inspection will detect any deterioration in the collectors, the mounting
systems, piping, control, and valves. Adequate water flow through SPH collectors can
usually be determined with an infrared thermometer or by placing a hand directly on
the collector surface, in various locations around the collector array. All locations should
be at about the same temperature, and should be relatively cool to the touch. If the SPH
collectors are hot while the pump is operating, this means that there is inadequate water
flow through the collectors.
10.3 Troubleshoot and repair system

The most valuable resource for an installer when troubleshooting systems is a thorough
understanding of the system and its components. Often, it is valuable to keep an
open mind and assume nothing about the system installation or operation in order to
effectively diagnose problems.
Standard installation tools may be required if service issues are discovered during the
inspection. For purposes of troubleshooting, the following items are often used:
Multimeter
Small screwdriver(s)
An infrared thermometer
Antifreeze test kit
System schematic, if available
If the system has data logging capabilities, observation of trends in temperature, flow,
and pressure can be valuable for diagnosing problems. Portable data logging equipment,
which can be installed temporarily to monitor system trends, can help pinpoint difficult
to identify issues.
The following list describes common maintenance issues that may arise in SWH systems
and explains methods for identifying and solving these problems:
Anode rods
Figure 10-8 The anode rod on the left will no longer

protect the tank from corrosion and must be replaced by
a new anode rod (right).
Glass-lined steel tanks typically have a sacrificial anode to protect the

vessel from corrosion. This cathodic protection works by introducing
another metal (the galvanic, or sacrificial anode) with a much more anodic
surface, so that all the current will flow from the introduced anode and
the metal to be protected becomes cathodic in comparison to the anode.
This effectively stops the oxidation reactions on the metal surface by
transferring them to the galvanic anode, which will be sacrificed instead
of the metallic tank wall. Common metals associated with tank corrosion
are copper, steel, aluminum, and magnesium. The four metals are listed
in the order of resistance to corrosion in relation to the other metals in the
group. The metal least subject to corrosion in the group, copper, will act as
a cathode in relation to metals lower on the list; the more electrochemically
active metal will be the sacrificial anode and corrode. Steel and copper
together in a piping system will always create a situation where the steel is
constantly undergoing deterioration. Aluminum and magnesium will

corrode before the steel if present in the system. A magnesium rod
immersed in a tank will act as a sacrificial anode by corroding in place
of the steel.
Anode rods usually last five to seven years or more depending
on the local water conditions. Salty water and heavily softened
water accelerate the deterioration of anode rods. After the anode is
completely corroded, the next metal present in the system on the list
becomes the anode. In this case it will be the steel tank. Any flaw in the
glass lining will be subject to deterioration. New anode rods are smooth
cylinders about one-half inch in diameter. To facilitate installations
where space above a water heater or storage tank is limited,
replacement rods are available in a chain-like configuration (Figure 1010). Aluminum anodes are used in some locations where the dissolved
solids in the water are not compatible with magnesium. A symptom of
anode rod incompatibility is a sulfurous, rotten egg smell.
Figure 10-9 The anode rod may have a separate port

on the top of the tank.
Collectors
Unglazed Flat Plates
Pool collectors can easily last more than twenty years when plumbed
in such a way as all water drains from the collector when not in
operation. After many years the collectors can develop leaks in
individual riser tubes; these can be repaired with factory-supplied
repair kits. Polypropylene products are thermally welded and normal
sealants like silicone and epoxy are not suitable for collector repair
since virtually nothing adheres to polypropylene. The factory repair
plugs will fit tightly into a riser tube. The repair procedure requires
cutting the leaking riser tube close to the bottom and top headers,
leaving enough room for the plug. Plugs are inserted into the riser
tube near both headers to seal off the leaking riser. A leaking riser
in an older collector may indicate that the collector is nearing the
end of its useful life. It is probably more economical to replace an
older collector that has developed multiple leaks unless there is
an identified reason for the leaks. When polypropylene panels are
replaced, the mounting system must allow for expansion/contraction
of the collector. The age of the panel can be verified through
documentation or the stamped manufactured date on some panels to
determine if the collector is still under warranty.
Figure 10-10 - Chain-style anodes can be used for locations where

there is not sufficient clearance to replace an anode rod.
Figure 10-11 - Leaking pool collector (note the water on the

riser tubes).
Glazed Flat Plates

A flat plate collector constructed by a reputable manufacturer should have a lifetime
exceeding thirty years. Possible maintenance issues include:
Collector condensation Water leaking into the collector and gathering at the collector
bottom can be a maintenance item in high humidity areas. Moisture that enters a
Figure 10-12 This collectors frame is no longer holding

the glazing in place and needs repair.
Figure 10-13 Failure to promptly repair broken glass

can cause absorber damage from the wind.
collector must be able to vent, thus efforts to seal them tight can cause perpetual
condensation on the inside of the collector glass. A standard solution is to drill 1/8
weep holes in the bottom corners of the collector to allow drainage. Care must be
taken to avoid breaking the glass or drilling into a header tube. Drilling near the back
of the collector helps avoid these components and is more effective at draining water
due to the tilt angle of the collectors.
Broken glazing Severe weather conditions, vandalism, or mishandling can lead to
broken glass. Low-iron tempered glass is available from solar manufacturers and
distributors, or by special order at specialty glass shops. Single sheets are difficult to
ship. As a result, shipping charges are often more expensive than the glass itself. If the
glass size required isnt available or economical, tempered glass can be used with a
small loss of efficiency. Most large cities have a tempering facility that can furnish any
size for collectors.
Glass cannot be cut once it has been tempered, so it is important to measure twice or
more for replacement glass. A mismeasurement of a fraction of an inch can make a
replacement glass unusable. All broken glass should be removed prior to replacement
of the glazing. A powerful wet/dry vacuum cleaner with a narrow attachment is an
effective tool for quick cleanup. A five-gallon bucket is handy to carry away the broken
glass. The frame or trim will need to be taken apart in order to access the gasket holding
the glass. It should be carefully removed, stored, and reused. Any deterioration to the
absorber coating or insulation should be addressed while the glass is off. A spray can
of flat, black, high high-temperature paint (engine or barbeque paint) can be used if the
absorber coating has deteriorated to the extent that the absorber metal is visible in spots.
Although the black paint will not have the superior properties of a selective surface, it is
far superior to bare or nearly-bare metal.
Absorber repair and replacement Any absorber maintenance requires glass removal.
Extreme care should be taken to avoid striking the edge of tempered glass, as it can
easily shatter. Absorber repair may be required due to a freeze break or leaks at the
joint between the header and riser. If a freeze break occurs on the back of a riser, the
absorber plate will need to be removed. In this case, or if there are multiple breaks,
it may be more economical to replace the entire absorber. Replacement absorbers are
available from some manufacturers and distributors. Any repairs to collectors should
be brazed or silver soldered, which is best accomplished with an oxyacetylene torch
because of the temperatures required. Silver soldering is easier than regular soldering
in many ways since cleaning and fluxing is not required. For repair of pinhole leaks
in older collectors, radiator stop leak with dissolved copper granules may provide
a short-term solution. Although this is not a best practice, it has been successful in
giving a few more years of service life. If used, the stop leak must be applied using
the manufacturers repair procedure, the solution should be introduced into the
system via the fill valves, and the system must have a double-wall heat exchanger.
Evacuated Tubes
Evacuated tubes are made from borosilicate or soda lime
glass. The glass is not tempered and will break into shards,
as opposed to tempered glass, which shatters into small
pieces. Gloves should be worn when handling any glass,
including intact evacuated tubes. Because evacuated
tubes are not tempered, they are prone to breakage during
shipping, handling, and operation.
Once the glass is broken or cracked, the vacuum that
insulates the tube is lost and the tube should be replaced.
Single-wall evacuated tubes require replacement of the
entire tube, including the heat pipe. The glass in doublewall evacuated tubes can be replaced independently of the
absorber and heat pipe. New tubes can be procured from
the manufacturer or distributor. Vacuum loss is possible
with any evacuated tube collector. Most manufacturers
utilize a metallic barium coating inside the vacuum that
turns white when the vacuum is lost to indicate when a
tube needs to be replaced.
An infrared thermometer can also assist in detecting
vacuum loss. Under sunlight, a tube that has lost the
vacuum will be hotter than an adjacent tube with an intact
vacuum. Collector glass temperature is not an accurate
indicator of collector performance, but is a valid method for
determining the relative operating efficiencies of different
tubes or collectors. A tube without a vacuum has virtually
no insulation and exhibits significantly diminished
performance.
Figure 10-14 - Evacuated tube with failed vacuum.

(Courtesy of Jay Pozner, nunatakenergy.com)
Figure 10-15 - Cutaway view of an evacuated tube collector manifold. The tube
on the right is fully inserted into the dry socket of the manifold. The condenser
bulb of the heat pipe on the left is visible prior to insertion into the dry socket.
The heat pipes in evacuated tubes are also susceptible to failure, which may occur if the
heat pipe loses its vacuum or if the solution inside the heat pipe freezes. A heat pipe that
has lost its integrity can no longer produce the vapor/condensation cycle essential for
heat transfer, resulting in negligible heat production. Heat pipe failures can be diagnosed
by removing individual tubes from the collector and measuring the temperature of
the condenser bulb. Twenty minutes of direct sunlight should produce condenser bulb
Figure 10-16 - Using a lighter to test the functionality of a

sensor and controller.
Figure 10-17 - A differential controller with the face removed to

check sensor and pump wiring.
temperatures approaching 300F. When measuring the temperature with an infrared

thermometer, silicone tape should be applied to the condenser bulb and the temperature
of the tape should be measured. This alleviates the challenges of measuring the surface
temperature of shiny materials such as copper that will reflect surrounding heat or cold
and cause discrepancies in temperature readings.
Controls and sensors

When diagnosing control problems, care should be taken to minimize the risks of
working with electricity. If the system is not functioning correctly, the power supply
should be tested with a multimeter. For a PV-controlled system, the output of the module
should be checked and compared to the requirements of the pump. For a differential
controller, the supply voltage to the controller should be verified. If sufficient power is
being provided, the internal fuse should be checked with a multimeter and replaced if it
lacks continuity. If the controls are powered properly, the settings should be checked to
ensure they are within the tolerances recommended by the manufacturer.
Care must be taken when diagnosing sensor errors due to the different styles of sensors
used in SWH systems. RTD sensors have an increase in resistance with an increase in
temperature; thermistors have a decrease in resistance with an increase in temperature.
It is important to verify that the sensors used in the system correspond to the sensors
required by the manufacturer.
Figure 10-18 Thermistors

are available in various
styles, including a typical
10 K sensor on the left, two
immersion sensors with pipe
threads, and a pool immersion sensor on the right with
an O-ring seal.
Sensors can be tested by either observing the temperature readings on the controller
display or checking the electrical resistance with a multimeter. A source of heat, such as
a lighter, can be used to manipulate temperatures for testing sensors. The installation
manual for the controller often includes a table of temperatures and the corresponding
resistances for the particular sensor being used. A close approximate temperature of any
sensor can be determined using an infrared thermometer. Open or shorted sensor wiring
can also cause control failure and can be checked with an ohmmeter. Many modern
controllers will indicate an open or shorted circuit on the display.
Excessive temperature and/or pressure

Chronic excessive temperature and/or pressure can result in repeated actuation of
pressure relief valves, resulting in system maintenance. Expansion tank problems are
one cause of excessive pressure but are easily diagnosed (see Tanks section below). Other
causes of excessive pressure are an incorrect design or a flawed installation. Hot water
load changes, caused by vacant homes, extended summer vacations, and reductions in
family size, are also possible causes of excessive temperatures.
Systems that have too much collector surface area compared to the volume of storage
often experience excessive temperature. This is particularly true if the collectors are
installed at a low tilt angle that increases production under the intense summer sun.
A system that develops too much heat in the summer can often be corrected with a
steeper tilt angle favoring the winter sun. Space heating systems without a summer load
can be installed vertically to mitigate the excessive summer heat production. Installers
and designers usually favor Drainback designs for space heating systems because the
collectors drain once the storage tank has reached its high limit. Where arrays are easily
accessible, individual collectors can be covered in the summer as an alternative.
Flow diversions
Using any excess summer production for heating
a swimming pool or hot tub can solve excessive
temperature conditions. Should these useful loads
not be available, a non-productive flow diversion,
typically referred to as a heat dump or shunt load,
can be considered. Examples of heat dumps
include:
Fin tube emitters Finned tube baseboard
radiators or similar proprietary designs can be
used to emit heat to the outside or into areas
where excess heat can be used or dissipated.
These designs typically incorporate a threeport valve that is actuated by the controller,
an aquastat, or a thermostatic actuator at the
valve. The valve diverts the antifreeze solution
through the fin tube emitter before returning
to the collector array.
LESS THAN 170 DEGREES F.
MORE THAN 170 DEGREES F.
FROM COLLECTOR(S)
3 PORT
VALVE
TO STORAGE OR HEAT
EXCHANGER
FROM COLLECTOR(S)
3 PORT
VALVE
TO STORAGE OR HEAT
EXCHANGER
Figure 10-19 - Heat dissipator used to disperse excess heat.
Fan coils Alternately, a radiator-style heat exchanger with a fan can be used to
dissipate heat. These units are able to dispel more heat per square foot of heat
exchange surface area than fin tube emitters, but they require a significantly higher
electrical draw to run the fan.
Nighttime cooling Home occupancy is reduced on occasion and can be a cause of
excessive system temperatures. When using flat plate collectors, it is possible to
radiate excess heat through the collectors to the night sky. Due to their minimal
thermal losses, evacuated tube collectors are ineffective for this purpose. Nighttime
cooling can be accomplished by installing a short pipe with a normally-closed ball
valve parallel to the check valve. The valve is manually opened in the summer or
whenever the system is subject to overheating. When open, the system will bypass
the check valve and thermosyphon the hot fluid at night from the storage tank to the
collectors, where the heat is radiated to the night sky. The valve must be closed after
the period of low DHW use to prevent heat loss at night.
This process can be automated through the use of the vacation mode feature that
is available on select controllers. When set in this mode, the control monitors the
storage tank temperature and will turn the pump on at night to move hot fluid to the
collectors when the storage temperature is too high.
Overflow reservoir Another proprietary solution uses an automobile radiator cap
to cool an Antifreeze system as it approaches excessive temperature. The unit is
installed at the top of a collector and contains a capsule consisting of a finned tube
radiator, a radiator cap, and an overflow reservoir. In case of excessive temperatures
that would normally actuate a pressure relief valve on an Antifreeze system, the HTF
flows into the unit. High-temperature fluid moves into the capsule and dissipates
heat to the outside air. If the system pressure increases to 16 psi, the radiator cap
actuates and allows fluid to flow to the small tank. The fluid and steam that enters
the overflow reservoir returns to the system upon cooling at night. Installers should
follow the manufacturers instructions closely. The system operates at low normal
pressure (23 psi) and expansion tanks need to be removed or isolated for the unit to
operate correctly.
Figure 10-21 Differential controllers can also be used to dissipate

heat at night by turning on the
system pump when the tank is too
hot. This feature is called vacation
mode in some controls.
Figure 10-20 - Check valve bypass for nighttime cooling. Under normal
operation the gate valve in this photo is closed. When opened, the valve
allows reverse flow by thermosyphoning. Heat can be re-radiated to the
colder sky if flat plate collectors are utilized.
Figure 10-22 Overflow reservoir

used as a heat dump above an
evacuated tube collector.
Flow problems
Correct flow in the collector loop and DHW loop, if present, is required for a SWH
system to operate at peak efficiency. Too little flow will result in the collectors losing
more heat to the outdoors than necessary; excessive flow rates will cause short cycling
of the pump. Collector supply and return temperature differences will vary with solar
irradiance, ambient temperature, and collector inlet temperature. The temperature
differential in collector loops should be less than about 30F under cloudless conditions.
Higher temperature differences may indicate an undersized pump or high frictional
head loss. In IFC systems, this could also be caused by an inefficient or undersized heat
exchanger. A Drainback system may experience high temperature differences if the pump
cannot completely fill the upper header of a collector. In
this scenario, the water slowly trickles down the return
pipe and the flow rate remains low because the fluid
siphon in the collector loop cannot be created.
High frictional head loss can be caused by too many
collectors in a row, piping that is too small, or an
undersized heat exchanger. Since frictional loss increases
with flow, a larger pump will not necessarily create the
required flow rates. If this is the case, large collector arrays
may need to be re-piped into parallel banks or the surface
area of the heat exchanger may need to be increased.
Hard water solutions

Water is considered hard when it has more than
approximately 200 parts per million (ppm or milligrams
per liter mg/L) of dissolved solids, which causes scaling
on collectors, heat exchangers, tank interiors, tankless
water heaters, and valves. Scaling reduces system
Figure 10-23 - Large systems may require that collector arrays

are plumbed in multiple banks to limit frictional head loss.
(Courtesy of SunWater Solar)
SHUT OFF THE UNIT

CLOSE THE BALL VALVES
TO ISOLATE THE HEATER
CIRCULATE A MILD ACIDIC
SOLUTION THROUGH THE
BOILER DRAIN VALVES
TANKLESS
WATER
HEATER
efficiency and can lead to component failures.

Deep underground aquifers are one source of
hard water. Figure 10-24 illustrates a piping
configuration that can be used to isolate
and clean expensive components without
draining the system or removing the part.
Heat Exchangers
Heat exchanger effectiveness depends on
the surface area of the exchanger, the ratio of
surface area to volume of the fluid passages,
flow rates, and the temperature difference
between the two fluids. Higher flow rates
and large temperature differentials result in
more efficient heat exchange. Smaller fluid
passagesincluding solar pool panel riser
tubes are also favorable for heat exchange
because a larger portion of the fluid flowing
through the passage is able to absorb heat
from the tube or plate material.
BOILER
DRAIN
VALVES
BALL
VALVES
Figure 10-24 A valve configuration for flushing a tankless water heater.
Internal, or tank-integrated, exchangers are configured as coils. The coil can be

constructed of copper or any other suitable metal. Copper coils are rarely used as internal
heat exchangers in glass-lined steel storage tanks due to local water quality issues that
result in premature tank failures. Glass-lined steel tanks are often
fitted with porcelain-covered copper or cupronickel heat exchangers.
Failures in coil-type exchangers are rare, however interior scaling
from deposits of hard potable water can sometimes occur. When
accessible, leaks in heat exchangers can be brazed and the scaling
can sometimes be reduced or eliminated by circulating a mild acidic
solution in the coil.
External liquid-to-liquid heat exchangers are manufactured in
tube-in-tube, also known as shell-and-tube, and plate configurations.
Copper tube-in-tube exchangers can develop scale in a manner
similar to internal coil exchangers. These exchangers can be
treated for scale removal in the same way as coils. Stainless steel
plate-type heat exchangers are usually more efficient than the tubein-tube type. The small fluid passages in the plate exchangers have
substantial surface surface-to to-volume areas resulting in superior
heat transfer efficiency. Copper plate exchangers are rarely used
Figure 10-25 A copper heat exchanger and a stainless flat plate heat exchanger. The tube in
the tube exchanger couldnt heat the indoor pool and was replaced with the smaller plate heat
exchanger. The plate exchanger was more effective and heated the pool year-round with the
same eight collectors due to the increased exchanger surface area and much higher surface-tovolume ratio.
since the small waterways will scale over

in hard water areas. Stainless exchangers
require little or no maintenance or repair.
Pumps
Most AC circulators are lubricated by the
fluid they are pumping and use a capacitor
to start the motor for better efficiency.
Inoperable pumps are diagnosed by
first connecting the pump directly to an
appropriate AC electrical source. If the pump
does not start once it is connected, either the
pump windings/stator have failed or the
capacitor is open.
Figure 10-26 Corrosion in a copper tube heat exchanger.
Capacitors have charge and discharge cycles

and can be checked with an ohmmeter.
Once the capacitor is removed from the
housing and the wiring is disconnected,
the two capacitor leads should be shorted
to discharge the capacitor. The ohmmeter
should be connected to the two leads on
the capacitor. This charges and discharges
Figure 10-27 A bronze pump suitable for potable water with the volute separated from
the motor. The capacitor is contained in the metal box with the label.
the capacitor and a visible bounce will be
observed in the needle on an analog meter. A
digital meter will also show movement by displaying resistance for a very short time. The
leads can be reversed and a good capacitor should again show movement. A capacitor
that doesnt bounce the needle or display numbers momentarily should be discarded.
Replacing the capacitor is sometimes the only repair needed on AC pumps.
If the capacitor is functional, the pump probably needs replacement. Some pumps only
require replacement of the motor and impeller cartridge; others may require replacement
of the entire pump. If the impeller housing on the new pump is bolted too tightly to the
pump body, the pump may fail to start. Loosening the bolts slightly may be the repair
solution as long as it does not cause the pump to leak.
AC circulators used in small SWH systems are often interchangeable with pumps
available from other manufacturers if the pumps have a flange piping connection. When
substituting pumps, consideration must be taken to assure that the replacement pump
has equal or similar flow and head curves. Systems certified under OG-300 must specify
allowable brand and model substitutions designated by the system manufacturer.
DC circulators are available in three types: brush motors, brushless motors, and static
impeller- drive motors. Brush-type pumps require that the pump motor brushes are
replaced periodicallynormally every three to ten years depending on usage. Brush
replacement is a simple procedure. Brushless and static impeller drive pumps require no
maintenance.
Solar Pool Systems
Controllers
Some controllers allow
for pump speed control,
which can be used to
improve system efficiency
and limit pump cycling.
This setting varies voltage
Solar pool heating systems have only a few components that may require repair or
service, including the three-port valve and differential controller. Designs of the valves
vary by manufacturer. The valves and controls are often supplied as a kit and the installer
or service technician should consult the manufacturer for specific repair procedures. SPH
systems usually include a vacuum breaker to allow the collectors and piping to drain.
Vacuum breakers can develop leaks after years of service and are probably the easiest
system component to replace. For outdoor pool systems installed in cold climates, the
piping configuration should allow for complete draining of the collectors by gravity.
When winterizing seasonal pool heating systems, care must be taken to completely drain
pool collectors to protect them from freezing. After draining the collectors by gravity, a
compressor or vacuum should be used to remove any residual pool water.
to the pump based on the
Tanks
temperature difference
Pressurized storage tanks do not lend themselves well to repair. Maintenance is limited
to periodic tank flushing and anode replacement (see below). Electric elements used for
auxiliary heat may require replacement, as well.
between the collectors

and the solar storage
tank. As the temperature
differential increases, the
voltage output from the
controller increases. This
increases the flow rate in
the system and maximizes the electrical energy
consumed by the pump.
Fiberglass, polypropylene, metal, and bladder-lined unpressurized storage tanks can

be repaired. Metal tanks are repaired with appropriate welding or brazing procedures.
Polypropylene tanks require welding with a plastic welder and rod. Fiberglass tanks with
poly liners can be repaired with common silicone. Leaking bladder tanks require bladder
replacement. A common material for the bladder is EPDM rubber. EPDM is suitable for
212F water storage. EPDM pond liners with a maximum service temperature in excess of
300F are available from at least one supplier.
As the differential begins

to drop, the pump speed
and corresponding flow
Drainback tanks are usually made from mild or stainless steel and can be repaired with
welding or brazing.
rate decrease. By utilizing

a target temperature differential that is above the
DT-on setting, this strategy can minimize pump
cycling by limiting the
heat that is transferred
from the collector during
low sun conditions.
Figure 10-28a Cutaway of a tank with

two immersed coils.
Figure 10-28b Cutaway view of an indirect

tank with a wraparound
heat exchanger.
(Courtesy of Viessmann)
(Courtesy of SunEarth)
Figure 10-29a and b - Internal view of a bladder tank with heat exchangers and external view of a similar tank installed in a garage. The unpressurized
atmospheric tanks are the least expensive method of storing large quantities (hundreds of gallons) of hot water for commercial systems or home space heating.
Expansion tanks
The failure of an expansion tank or the loss of air cushion pressure can be indicative of
excessive system pressure, bladder failure, or Schrader valve failure. If the bladder has
failed, air will likely have entered the system. The air can lock the pump impeller or
gather at the highest point in the system. Prior to replacing an expansion tank, check the
system pressure at the Schrader valve. If water sprays from the valve, the tank bladder
has failed and the tank needs to be replaced. If no water is evident, the expansion tank
should be isolated from the system and the pressure of the air cushion should be checked.
Schrader valves on expansion tanks leak over time, just as they do on tires. A tire valve
tool is needed to tighten the Schrader valve if it is leaking. After tightening, a compressor
or bicycle pump should be used to pressurize the air cushion formed by the bladder to
the same pressure as the solar loop when the system is cold.
LIQUID
AIR
EQUAL AIR
AND LIQUID
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
UP DUE TO
INCREASED
TEMPERATURE
AS THE
TEMPERATURE
INCREASES
THE BLADDER
ALLOWS
EXPANSION
BLADDER TYPE EXPANSION TANKS

Figure 10-30 Illustration of solar expansion tank during operation.
Valves
Often T&P valves will not re-seat and will leak continuously if actuated manually.
Tapping on or manually actuating the valve a few times can sometimes stop the leak.
Very small leaks, such as a drop every thirty or sixty seconds, will sometimes seal
themselves in hard water areas.
Pressure relief valves often dont have a manual actuator and, if leaking, the only remedy
is tapping on the valve or replacing it if the leak cant be stopped.
Automatic air vents can cause problems if located outdoors. On very cold winter nights,
an automatic air vent can allow air into an antifreeze system as the system fluid contracts
and system pressure decreases. Also, outdoor automatic air vents on antifreeze systems
have been known to develop leaks prematurely. It is common practice to install a manual
shutoff valve at the air vent to prevent these issues from occurring. Automatic air vents
are specified on many SRCC OG-300 Certified systems and, unless an alternative
such as a manual air vent is approved for substitution, the automatic air vent must be
installed to comply with the certification. Manual air vents are often used to replace
malfunctioning automatic vents.
Check valves prevent nighttime thermosyphoning and the resulting heat loss from the
storage tank. Failed check valves in Antifreeze systems in harsh climates can cause the
glycol to thermosyphon and freeze the potable water in an external heat exchanger,
causing it to burst. Positioning the drain fill valves on either side of a check valve can aid
in diagnosing a failure when filling the system after maintenance and repair.
Ball valves are usually reliable, although they may need replacement if leaking or frozen.
One issue that may arise on ball valves is the packing nut at the top of the valve. If there
is a leak at the packing nut, the handle can be removed and the packing nut tightened.
Gate valves have much higher failure rates than ball valves and are rarely used in
modern SWH systems. The connection to the gate on the valve is a common source of
failure. A failed gate valve usually results in the valve remaining closed or partially
closed. Many installers replace gate valves with ball valves.
Boiler drain valves have a pipe thread at one port and a hose thread on the other port.
The hose thread facilitates filling and draining the system with washing machine or
garden hoses. A boiler drain that develops a very small leak can be stopped with a
gasketed hose thread cap.
Anti-scald or tempering valves are subject to heavy scaling in hard water areas. Scaling
will normally cause the valve to remain partially open, which permits cool to tepid water
to flow to the hot water taps. The valves can sometimes be cleaned with a mild acidic
solution.
Freeze protection valves are actuated by different passive mechanisms. They are
designed to allow relatively warm water to flow through a collector to prevent the
riser and header tubes from freezing during infrequent harsh weather in mild climates.
Type System
Maintenance Required
SPH Outdoor
Low
SPH Indoor
Moderate
ICS
Minimal
Thermosyphon
Minimal
DFC
Low
IFC DB
Moderate
IFC AF
Moderate
Any DB or AF system
with space heating
High
The valves are also known as dribble valves. The valve actuators allow flow through
the collectors when temperatures approach freezing. Standard models actuate at 35F
(2C) and 45F (7C). Hard water can quickly compromise the reliability of these valves,
particularly when installed in climates where they activate frequently. There are several
other possible causes for freeze valve failures, including high summertime temperatures.
Reliance on these valves for system freeze protection has resulted in many thousands of
collector failures.
Maintenance and repair work on SWH and SPH systems requires the highest technical
proficiency of installers or repair technicians. Troubleshooting is a logical, methodical
problem-solving process that includes reviewing the symptoms of malfunction,
evaluating potential solutions, and selecting and implementing the correct repair(s).
Most older systems requiring repair will have little or no documentation on site available
to the installer. The fact that OG-300 system certifications exist is evidence that solar
manufacturers are cognizant of this flaw in prior practices. Modern guidelines require
operation and maintenance manuals and appropriate system labeling.
Hall of Shame
These systems were NOT installed by NABCEP
certified installers spot any problems? If you do,
can you cite a reference?
Figure 10-32 Antifreeze systemroof work.
Figure 10-34 Smoke and Mirrors.
Figure 10-36 Right into the groundknow the rules.

Figure 10-31
Poorly secured
collectors are
victims of the
wind.
Figure 10-33 Same system above the storage tank.
Figure 10-35 Self-leveling ICS system.
Figure 10-37 Insulation doesnt stay on piping without protection; will the
collector stay on the roof?
Hall of Shame continued
These systems were NOT installed by NABCEP certified installers spot any problems?
Figure 10-38 Stacking collectors with wood mounts?
Figure 10-40 Use factory supplied mounts.
Figure 10-42 What happens when the wood rots?
Figure 10-44 How long will this pump last?
Figure 10-39 Pipe snakewhat problems could this detail cause?
Figure 10-41 Two pipe snakes prior to mating?
Figure 10-43 Know your ladder set up rules
Figure 10-45 Maybe too steep without fall protection?
Case Study A:
Solar Domestic Water Heating System

Project Description
A homeowner in Ingraham, NY would like to purchase a SWH system to offset oil used
by an existing oil boiler. Two adults and two children, aged 6 and 9, live in the residence.
During the site evaluation, the following information on the project was collected:
Existing Roof:

Slope: 8:12

Material: Architectural shingles

Age of roofing: 10 years

Usable area: 16-0 width x 16-0 height
Existing Water Heater:

Fuel type: Oil

Type of heater: Direct coil in 140,000 BTU high mass oil boiler

Age: 5 years
Hot Water Use:

Appliances: dishwasher, clothes washer

Frequency: 6 loads of laundry per week on warm cycle

Showers: Average of three per day, total
Shading Analysis:
Figure A-1 Shading profile of project site
Other notes:

Roof azimuth is 30W of south

Piping run from proposed tank location to proposed collector location: 60 one way
System design
Based on the site evaluation, the system designer estimated an average daily use of approximately 65 gallons/day. The existing hot water heater an oil boiler required to stay
above 160F all year to provide hot water is extremely inefficient, so the designer opted
to utilize a dual-coil tank. This design allows the solar collectors to heat the bottom of
the tank and allows the boiler to provide auxiliary heat at the top of the tank through the
installation of an additional heating zone in the distribution system. By using an indirect
tank for the boiler, the boiler controls can be upgraded so that the boiler will only turn on
during the non-heating season when the solar is unable to provide 100% of the hot water
for the home.
The designer had previously decided to utilize an SRCC OG-300 Certified system.
After researching SRCC OG-300 Certified systems on the SRCC website (www.solarrating.org), the designer selected an antifreeze system that utilizes two (2) 4 foot x 10 foot
collectors and a 110 US gallon dual coil indirect storage tank. Based on OG-300 ratings,
this system should provide an annual savings of 5010 kWh, or 17,000,000 BTU under
standard conditions. This represents 68% of the expected household hot water demand
based on OG-300 conditions.
Since the roof slope is 8:12 (approximately 34 degrees) and the latitude is roughly 45
degrees, the designer chooses to flush-mount the collectors. This slightly favors summer production, which is suitable for the site since the auxiliary heating source the oil
boiler has a lower combustion efficiency in the summer when the only heating load is
for water heating.
Expected performance
Since OG-300 Ratings are estimates under standard conditions, the designer utilized the
Solar Pathfinder Assistant software package to estimate the expected performance for
this system at this particular site.
The shading results in a 15% decrease
in annual system performance. Based
on orientation, water heating loads,
and other factors particular to the
site, the estimated system production
is approximately 10,500,000 BTU/yr,
which equates to a solar fraction of
67%. The solar fraction is roughly 95%
during the non-heating season.
Figure A-2 Monthly performance

estimates for system based on Solar
Pathfinder Assistant model
Pump and pipe sizing

The recommended flow rate for this system is 2.5 gallons per minute. The pump
provided by the manufacturer is a three-speed model that has the following head
loss characteristics:
Figure A-3 Performance curves for the three-speeds of the circulator pump in the pump station
(Courtesy of Heliodyne)
At the recommended flow rate, the head loss in the various system components when
using water as the heat transfer fluid is as follows:

Collectors: 0.3 ft of water column

Heat exchanger: 1.2 ft of water column

Piping, fittings, valves, etc.:
14.4 ft of water column in copper tubingor
2.8 ft of water column in copper tubing

For copper, the total head loss
would be 15.9 ft of water column
when using water. Since glycol is
more viscous, the designer increases
the head loss by 23%; this results in an
equivalent head loss of 19.6 ft of water
column. The pump is unable to overcome this dynamic head, therefore
copper should be used. For copper,
the total head is 5.3 ft of water column
after adjusting for the use of glycol as
a heat transfer fluid. The pump supplied with the system can achieve the
recommended flow rate in tubing
on Speed 1.
Figure A-4 OG-300 diagram for system selected by the

designer (Courtesy of SRCC)
Case Study B:
Residential Solar Pool Heating

System in California
Project Description
A family in Fontana, California has a backyard pool at
their residence. The pool is unheated and has a pool cover.
The pool is a 16 x 32 rectangle with an average depth of
5 feet. It is filtered with a one horsepower, 240-volt pump
that is controlled with a timer. The pump and filter are
located in a small shed adjacent to the back wall of the
home. The owners would like to heat the pool with solar
energy for about nine months a year.
The residence is a single-story ranch style home with a
4:12 pitched roof that faces 190 degrees on a compass.
True south in Fontana is about 12 degrees east of magnetic
south. Therefore, the roof faces very close to true south.
Figure B-1 Magnetic and true south at Fontana, CA

(Courtesy of Google Maps and NOAA)
System sizing
Roughly 70% to 75% of a swimming pools heat loss is due to evaporation. Residential
solar pool heating systems are sized using a multiplier derived from the pools surface
area. The multiplier for the amount of collector surface area needed to heat a pool varies
from about 0.5 in desert areas with intense solar radiation to 1.0 in colder areas. These
ratios of collector area to pool surface area are designed to heat pools from 4-10 months
of the year depending on the
VACUUM
outdoor pool season. The
BREAKER
multiplier of 1.0 is used to heat
pools throughout the almost
SENSOR
nonexistent winters in very
mild climates. The multiplier
often used in southern California for a long season is 0.7 for
south facing collectors.
CONTROL
This system has a pool surface
area of 512 square feet. To obtain a collector-to-pool surface
area ration of 0.7, 358 square
feet of pool collector area is
SENSOR
FILTER
3 PORT
MOTORIZED
VALVE
HEATER
OPTIONAL
PUMP
POOL
Figure B-2 A typical pool heating system
needed. This is the equivalent of nine (9) 4 x 10 pool panels. The system will be installed
as given in Figure B-1.
System controls
The system will use a differential control specifically manufactured for SPH systems.
The control will divert the pool water through the panels by energizing a valve when
the collector sensor is five degrees warmer than the pool water as measured by a sensor
immersed in the pool water piping. When the water is only two degrees warmer, the
valve allows the water to flow directly back to the pool in some cases through an
auxiliary heater. The solar control does not regulate the operation of the pool pump it
is controlled by a clock timer set to operate during sunlight hours (typically 9 or 10 AM
until 3 or 4 PM).
If the solar collectors are not configured to drain by gravity once the pool pump turns
off, the system must be winterized each year to prevent water left in the solar collectors
from freezing.
Figure B-3 Differential control and 3-way valve
Case Study C:
Residential Combination SWH

and Space Heating System
Southern Oregon near the Oregon/Nevada border
The building
The main floor is 1800 sq ft, as is the unheated basement. There is also a 600 sq ft loft
area. The main floor has 100% radiant heating divided into 2 heating zones. Most of the
area is tile; the bedroom is carpeted.
The roof is metal over wood with 16 insulation and an interior ceiling of 2x6 tongue and
groove paneling. The pitch is 14/12 and the roof faces true south. There is some early
morning shading, but the owner plans to remove some trees to the south of the house.
The elevation of the installation is 5000 feet. The closest station with solar and climate
data is Reno, Nevada.
The utility room

There are no problems with floor space for hardware, including storage tanks. The home
has a double-door access from outside into the walkout basement. All utilities are located
in a utility area in the corner of the basement.
Existing heating system

The boiler and water heater are propane. The propane boiler is rated for 175,000 BTU/
hour. The average propane usage in mid-winter is 9-10 gal/day. The boiler feeds a primary boiler manifold, which then feeds three (3) separate distribution loops. Each loop
feeds one of the heating zones in the house (two radiant zones and a zone in the loft).
Each zone has its own pump, thermostat, and zone valve; when the thermostat calls for
heat, the zone valve opens and power is provided to the pump to allow flow through the
distribution loop. The boiler controls also send power to the propane burner when any
zone calls for heat.
The average load for the home during the heating season is approximately 600,000 BTU/
day, which equates to a usage of 10 gallons of propane per day. This estimate is based on
an average boiler efficiency of 65%, which is probably high for a 5000-foot elevation.
The domestic hot water load for the home is approximately 50 gallons per day.
Expected system performance

The solar energy system will displace approximately 70 to 75% of this load based on the
solar and climate data for Reno, Nevada. At $3.00 per gallon of propane, the fuel displacement cost is on the order of $600 per month during the heating season. During the
non-heating season, the system should provide 95 to 100% of the domestic hot water.
Space Heating Considerations

When installing a solar space heating system that is integrated into the buildings auxiliary
heating system, the systems effectiveness will depend heavily on the efficiency of the building
envelope and the type of heating distribution used in the building.
The building envelope must limit infiltration and exfiltration, which is the leaking of air in
and out of the building structure. If a solar heating system is installed in a leaky house, the
heat produced by the system will quickly be lost. Sealing air leaks is fairly inexpensive and
has significant economic payback. A professional energy auditor is able to identify locations
that require particular attention by using a blower door, which is a device that uses a large fan
to exaggerate air flow in and out of a building. Buildings should only be air-sealed to a point;
homes that are too tight will have air quality issues and may require automated ventilation.
The building envelope should also be well-insulated. Basements and attics are fairly easy to
address if there is a lack of sufficient insulation. Recommended insulation levels are available
from Energy Star.
Air-sealing and increasing insulation levels are cost effective measures. Addressing deficiencies
in the building envelope first will increase the portion of the heating load that can be provided
by the solar heating system. If building envelope improvements are performed in conjunction
with the installation of a solar space heating system, the energy savings will reflect favorably on
the system and the installer.
The heating system distribution is also a critical consideration. Solar space heating integrates
well with high-mass distribution systems that are able to operate at low temperatures. The
best example of this type of system is in-floor radiant heating. Many of these systems can
provide significant heat with floor supply temperatures of 95F to 100F (35C to 40C). This is
in stark contrast to baseboard systems, which typically operate at temperatures of 160F (70C)
and greater. Lower distribution temperatures allow the solar collectors to operate at lower
temperatures, which increases efficiencies, and increases the heat storage capacity of the solar
storage tank. In a space heating system, the tank can only contribute heat to the system if it is
above the operating temperatures of the heating system. For example, if a system required 160F
supply temperatures, a 1000-gallon tank filled with 140F water would be unable to contribute.
Conversely, the same storage tank could provide significant heat to a radiant floor system that
requires 95F supply temperatures.
The installation of solar space heating systems requires significant knowledge of solar heating
systems and traditional heating systems. Installers involved in this work often are involved in
the traditional heating trades or collaborate with heating professionals.
Figure C-1 Radiant floor Drainback system
Retail equipment costs (2010 pricing)

12
12
1
1
1
3
6
1
15
1
1
1
5
1
1
2
1

4x10 Collectors
$1,195.00
Mounts for collectors
$145.00
DHW storage tank, 80 gallon
$682.50
1000 gallon unpressurized tank
$2,250.00
Bronze Taco 0011 high-head pump
$573.26
GL-30 Differential controller
$129.00
10 K sensors
$19.00
Relays 120v coil DPDT
$26.00
Inhibited Propylene glycol (gallons)
$29.40
Flanges for solar pump - 1 FIP
$18.50
Bronze Taco 006 DHW pump - 3/4 sweat
$187.00
1 Motorized valve
$221.90
Thermometers - 1/2 MIP
$16.00
Expansion Tank
$60.80
Drain, fill, check, pressure relief valve package
$58.00
100 ft coiled 1 copper heat exchangers
$942.00
100 ft. coiled 1/2 copper heat exchanger
$411.00

Freight Estimate

Materials total:
$14,340.00
$1,740.00
$682.50
$2,250.00
$273.26
$387.00
$114.00
$26.00
$441.00
$18.50
$187.00
$221.90
$80.00
$60.80
$58.00
$1,884.00
$411.00

$800.00
$24,274.96
Case Study D:
Domestic Solar Water Heating System

with Natural Gas Auxiliary Heat
Project Description
A family of four near Palo Alto, California lives in a single family home with a natural gas
50-gallon water heater located in their garage at the southeast corner of the house. The
water heater location will permit a storage tank to be placed next to the gas water heater
this location is the preference of the owner. The home has a low-sloped roof with a 3
in 12 pitch. Due to tree shading, the only suitable location for the solar collectors will be
on the extreme southwest roof, which faces due south. Calculations indicate there is not
enough clearance in the attic to allow for the slope (1/4 per foot minimum) of a drainback system. An antifreeze system is proposed and designed based on the estimated daily
usage of the family.
System Design
Using standard estimates for household size, the expected hot water usage is
approximately 65 gallons per day. The family would like to use a specific manufacturer
recommended by a relative and also requests that the system pump is powered by
photovoltaics.
Based on these requests, an SRCC
OG-300 Certified system is selected. The minimum storage tank
size available that meets the parameters listed above is 80 gallons,
which is adequate for the estimated
daily load. The selected system
(SRCC number 2001003F, see Figure
D-1) consists of two 32 square foot
selective surface absorber flat plate
collectors and a storage tank with
a wraparound double wall heat exchanger. The pump is powered by a
PV module. The manufacturer gives
the system a freeze tolerance level
at minus 60F, which is more than
adequate for Palo Alto.
Figure D-1 Drawing of the system (Courtesy of the SRCC)
System Performance
California is divided into 16 building climate zones as given in Figure D-2. Palo Alto is in
zone 4; this information is utilized to estimate the performance of the system chosen for
this project.
Based on SRCC OG-300 estimates, the system has an estimated savings potential of
166 therms per year with a solar fraction of 0.76. The solar fraction is an estimate of the
percentage of energy supplied by the solar energy system in this case the estimate is
76%. The system installation will comply with the drawing in Figure D-1 and all other
requirements of the manufacturer including tags, labels and a copy of the operation and
maintenance manual to be given to the system owner.
Figure D-2 - Building Climate Zones of California
12 Study Guide Review Questions

The content of the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Exam is based upon the Solar
Heating Installer Job Task Analysis (JTA) and the list of Primary References available
at www.nabcep.org. The exam consists of 60 multiple-choice questions that cover the
following content areas:
Exam Blueprint
The table below shows the blueprint (test specifications) for the NABCEP Certified Solar
Heating Installer Examination. It is provided for candidates and educators use to determine
which specific knowledge areas to focus on when preparing for the examination.
NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer Exam Blueprint

% of exam
# of items
A. Prepare for project
12%
B. Evaluate the site
13%
C. Plan system installation
19%
1112
D. Install the system
30%
18
E. Commission the system
14%
89
F. Service and maintain the system
12%
100%
60
TOTAL
An exam applicant should reference the JTA and this blueprint in preparation for
the exam.
The exam questions have been prepared by a committee of Subject Matter Experts in
collaboration with a psychometrician, who is responsible for ensuring that the exam
items are clearly written, are properly constructed, and that each item has one definitive
correct answer that can be defended based on content in one of the Primary References.
In order to maintain its relevance and integrity, the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer
Exam is extremely rigorous. Applicants must be thoroughly versed in the requirements
of various building codes and OSHA regulations, understand the details relating to
the installation of systems used throughout North America, be able to competently
troubleshoot and maintain these systems, and be well-versed in the factors that affect
the performance and durability of solar water heating systems.
For those individuals who have limited experience with SWH systems and are not yet
prepared to seek NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Certification, NABCEP offers a Solar
Heating Entry Level Exam. It is not a certification program, but instead an acknowledge-
ment that a successful candidate has demonstrated a basic understanding of SWH. The
Entry Level program is based on the Solar Heating Entry Level Learning Objectives,
available at www.nabcep.org.
Sample NABCEP Exam Questions

The following questions are indicative of the rigor and scope of items that may be
encountered on the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Exam. These questions are from
previous versions of the Exam and have been retired. A discussion of the correct answers
follows the sample questions.
Important note: These items do not represent the full content of the Exam. Their inclusion
is for illustrative purposes only. Refer to the NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer
Exam Blueprint and the NABCEP Solar Heating Installer JTA to determine the scope of
the content that is included on the Exam.
1. Which classification of fire extinguisher should be used on flammable liquids,

gas, and grease?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
2. What is the water pressure at the base of a 65 vertical column of type M copper?

A.
B.
C.
D.
10.6 psi
22.3 psi
28.2 psi
129.4 psi
3. 250 of 1 type M copper (0.0454 gallons/linear foot) is installed horizontally for

a water distribution line, and the pipe weighs 0.843 lbs/foot. How much would the

pipe and its contents weigh?

A.
B.
C.
D.
222 lbs.
305 lbs.
425 lbs.
1751 lbs.
4. When drilling a pilot hole in a rafter for a lag bolt, which is the MAXIMUM

percentage of lag bolt diameter that the hole should be drilled?

A.
B.
C.
D.
25%
50%
85%
75%
5. Which of the following has the HIGHEST thermal conductivity?

A. iron
B. copper
C. aluminum
D. galvanized
6. An 80-gallon storage tank has a dry weight of 180 pounds. How much MORE

will it weigh when it is full?

A.
B.
C.
D.
667 pounds
847 pounds
915 pounds
1020 pounds
7. Which type of pressure-rated copper pipe has the THINNEST wall?

A.
B.
C.
D.
Air conditioning and refrigeration tubing (ACR)

Type K
Type L
Type M
Answers:
1. B. Fire extinguishers are rated by OSHA for their ability to extinguish certain types of fires.
Table F-1 in 29 CFR 1926.150(c)(1)(x) distinguishes these different classes and the types of fire
extinguishers that are appropriate for each class of fire.
2. C. The pressure at the bottom of one foot of water column is 0.43psi. This means that for every
2.31 feet of water column, the pressure increases by 1psi. The size of the tubing is irrelevant.
3. B. One method for determining the answer to this question is to first determine the filled weight
of the tubing per foot. This requires using the volumetric capacity of the tubing to determine the
weight of the water in the tubing. Since water weighs 8.33 pounds per gallon, the weight of fluid in
one foot of 1 Type M copper is 0.378 pounds per foot. This means that the filled weight of 1 Type
M copper is 1.22 pounds per foot. This value is multiplied by the total length of tubing to determine the total filled weight.
4. D. In Section 3 of the Florida Solar Energy Centers Solar Water and Pool Heating Manual, it
states that the pilot hole should be 50-75% of the lag bolts diameter.
5. B. In The Copper Tube Handbook, it states that Copper is the logical material for solar energy
systems because it has the best thermal conductivity of all engineering metals (p. 15).
6. A. The total weight of water can be determined by multiplying the volume of water by the
waters density, which is 8.33 pounds per gallon.
7. D. The wall thicknesses of the various types of copper tubing is given in the Technical Data
section of The Copper Tube Handbook.
13 Additional Study Resources

PRIMARY REFERENCES:
The following reference list identifies training materials, reports, and codes and standards associated with
the design and installation of solar heating systems. Studying these training materials will help prepare
candidates for the Solar Heating Installer Certification exam. Please refer to the NABCEP Solar Heating
Study Guide for additional direction on preparing for the NABCEP examination.
Active Solar Preheat Systems: Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC 3-440-01.pdf), U.S. Department of Defense,
www.wbdg.org
Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter 29 Part 1926 Safety and Health Regulations for Construction,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, www.osha.gov
The Copper Tube Handbook, Copper Development Association, www.copper.org
Planning and Installing Solar Thermal Systems: A guide for installers, architects and engineers (2nd Edition),
2010, by Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Sonnenenergie. ISBN 978-1-84407-760-1, James & James (Science
Publishers) Ltd., www.earthscan.co.uk
Solar Water and Pool Heating Manual: Design and Installation & Repair and Maintenance, January, 2006.
Florida Solar Energy Center, www.fsec.ucf.edu
SRCC Document OG 300, Operating Guidelines and Minimum Standards for Certifying Solar Water Heating
Systems, May 2002, Solar Rating and Certification Corporation, www.solar-rating.org
Uniform Plumbing Code, 2009. International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials,
http://www.iapmo.org
Uniform Solar Energy Code, 2009. International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials,
http://www.iapmo.org
SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES:
Roofing Construction and Estimating, 2006, by Daniel Atcheson. ISBN1-57218-007-2, Craftsman Book Co.,
http://craftsman-book.com
Solar Domestic Water Heating, 2010, by Chris Laughton. ISBN 978-1-84407-736-6, James & James (Science
Publishers), Ltd., www.earthscan.co.uk
Solar Thermal Systems, Successful Planning and Construction, 2002, by Felix A. Peuser, Karl-Heinz
Remmers, Martin Schnauss. ISBN1-902916-39-5, James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd.,
www.earthscan.co.uk
Solar Hot Water Systems Lessons Learned 1977 to Today, 2004. Tom Lane Energy Conservation Services,
www.ecs-solar.com/lessons_learned.htm
Solar Water Heating: A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Water and Space Heating Systems, 2010, by Bob Ramlow
with Benjamim Nusz. ISBN 978-0-86571-668-1, New Society Publishers, www.newsociety.com
The examination reference list is updated periodically, and may include new editions, new references,
or removal of references from prior lists. It is your responsibility to ensure that you have the references
effective for the examination date for which you are scheduled. The Board has approved these references for
the examination, and answers to the questions are based on the editions listed.
The North American Board of Certified Energy Practitioners provides these resources for your use. Please
contact us for further information on these topics, or to let us know about other resource information on
these topics that you find beneficial.
Notes
Notes
69560 NYSERDA Solar ad for NABCEP 7.5 x 9.5, 4-c, high res pdf, non bleed
Applying to become a NYSERDA-eligible Solar Thermal

installer is good for your business. And the benefits are
even better.
Pass savings to your customersup to $4,000
for residential systems and $25,000 for commercial
installations.
Give your business a competitive edge.
Receive marketing support from a respected partner.
Visit nyserda.ny.gov/solar-thermal-application
RES-AT-nabcep-ad-1-v1
69560_NYSERDA_SolarAd_NABCEP.indd 1
160 160
NABCEP
NABCEP
SolarSolar
Heating
Heating
Installer
Installer
Resource
Resource
Guide
Guide
Copyright
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NABCEP

Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide

Chuck Marken and Vaughan Woodruff

Raising Standards. Promoting Confidence

2 NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide

Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1

on the NABCEP website. These resources

Thank you to our Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide Sponsor

Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1

NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide 3

to the 2012 edition of the NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer

9 Commission the System......................................120

10 Service and Maintain the System..............124

3 Basic Solar Principals and Knowledge........10

6 Evaluate the Site............................................................55

7 Plan System Installation.......................................68

12 Study Guide Review Questions..................154

8 Install System. .................................................................72

13 Additional Study Resources...........................157

4 Collectors, Systems, and Applications. ....18

4 NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide

Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1

Case Study A .......................................................................144

In late 2011, NABCEP decided to begin using Solar

clarity regarding the scope of NABCEPs work. Solar

Given basic instructions, manufacturer installation

scale technology that utilizes heat generated by the

schematics and drawings, the installer is required

pool heating. NABCEP believes that Solar Heating

in the United States and Canada by incorporating

applicable codes, standards, and safety practices.

Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1

NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide 5

NABCEP Certified Solar Heating Installer Exam Blueprint

A. Prepare for project

B. Evaluate the site

C. Plan system installation

D. Install the system

E. Commission the system

F. Service and maintain the system

The content of this guide is

6 NABCEP Solar Heating Installer Resource Guide

Copyright 2013 NABCEP v. 1.1

The JTA was constructed and reviewed with the

condenser bulb heat exchanger at the top of a heat pipe in

conduction the transfer of heat through a solid or fluid

albedo radiation solar radiation that is reflected off the

counter flow heat exchanger type in which two fluids flow

through the heat exchanger in opposite directions

altitude angle measure of the angle formed between the

anode rod a sacrificial metal component installed in coated

datalogger a device used to measure system properties,

Antifreeze system (AF) indirect forced circulation system

period of time; may be integral to the differential

aquastat a mechanical device that opens and closes a

differential controller control that provides power to a

switch based on the temperature of a fluid

relay based on the difference in temperature between

azimuth the orientation of a collector array, expressed in