Second Order Linear Partial Differential Equations

Part III
One-dimensional Heat Conduction Equation revisited; temperature
distribution of a bar with insulated ends; nonhomogeneous boundary
conditions; temperature distribution of a bar with ends kept at arbitrary
temperatures; steady-state solution

Previously, we have learned that the general solution of a partial differential

equation is dependent of boundary conditions. The same equation will have
different general solutions under different sets of boundary conditions. We
shall witness this fact, by examining additional examples of heat conduction
problems with new sets of boundary conditions.
Keep in mind that, throughout this section, we will be solving the same
partial differential equation, the homogeneous one-dimensional heat
conduction equation:

2 uxx = ut
where u(x, t) is the temperature distribution function of a thin bar, which has
2
length L, and the positive constant is the thermo diffusivity constant of
the bar. The equation will now be paired up with new sets of boundary
conditions.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 1

Bar with both ends insulated

Now let us consider the situation where, instead of them being kept at
constant 0 degree temperature, the two ends of the bar are also sealed with
perfect insulation so that no heat could escape to the outside environment
(recall that the side of the bar is always perfectly insulated in the onedimensional assumption), or vice versa. The new boundary conditions are
ux(0, t) = 0 and ux(L, t) = 0*, reflecting the fact that there will be no heat
transferring, spatially, across the points x = 0 and x = L. (Hence, this is a
Neumann type problem.) The heat conduction problem becomes the initialboundary value problem below.
(Heat conduction eq.)

2 uxx = ut ,

0 < x < L,

(Boundary conditions)

ux(0, t) = 0, and

ux(L, t) = 0,

(Initial condition)

u(x, 0) = f (x).

t > 0,

The first step is the separation of variables. The equation is the same as
before. Therefore, it will separate into the exact same two ordinary
differential equations as in the first heat conduction problem seen earlier.
The new boundary conditions separate into
ux(0, t) = 0 X (0)T(t) = 0 X (0) = 0 or
ux(L, t) = 0 X (L)T(t) = 0 X (L) = 0 or

T(t) = 0
T(t) = 0

As before, we cannot choose T(t) = 0. Else we could only get the trivial
solution u(x,t) = 0, rather than the general solution. Hence, the new
boundary conditions should be X (0) = 0 and X (L) = 0.
Again, we end up with a system of two simultaneous ordinary differential
equations. Plus a set of two boundary conditions that goes with the spatial
independent variable x:

The conditions say that the instantaneous rate of change with respect to x, the spatial variable (i.e., the rate
of point-to-point heat transfer), is zero at each end. They do not suggest that the temperature is constant
(that is, there is no change in temperature through time, which would require ut = 0) at each end.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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X + X = 0,

X (0) = 0 and X (L) = 0,

T + 2 T = 0 .
The second step is to solve the eigenvalue problem

X + X = 0,

X (0) = 0 and X (L) = 0.

The result is summarized below.

Case 1: If < 0: No such exists.

Case 2: If = 0: Zero is an eigenvalue. Its eigenfunction is the constant

function X0 = 1 (or any other nonzero constant).
Case 3: If > 0: The positive eigenvalues are

n2 2
= 2 ,
L

n = 1, 2, 3,

The corresponding eigenfunctions that satisfy the said boundary conditions

are

X n = cos

n x
L ,

n = 1, 2, 3,

The third step is to substitute the positive eigenvalues found above into the
equation of t and solve:

n 2 2
T+
T =0.
L2
2

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 3

Notice that this is exactly the same equation as in the first (both ends kept at
0 degree) heat conduction problem, due to the fact that both problems have
the same set of eigenvalues (but with different eigenfunctions).

As a result, the solutions of the second equation are just the ones we have
gotten the last time

Tn (t ) = Cn e

n 2 t / L2

2 2

n = 1, 2, 3,

There is this extra eigenvalue of = 0 that also needs to be accounted for. It

has as an eigenfunction the constant X0(x) = 1. Put = 0 into the second
equation and we get T = 0, which has only constant solutions T0(t) = C0.
Thus, we get the (arbitrary) constant function u0(x, t) = X0(x)T0(t) = C0 as a
solution. Therefore, the solutions of the one-dimensional heat conduction
equation, with the boundary conditions ux(0, t) = 0 and ux(L, t) = 0, are in the
form

u 0( x , t ) = C 0,

u n ( x, t ) = X n (t ) Tn (t ) = Cn e

2 n 2 2 t / L2

cos

n x
L ,

n = 1, 2, 3,

The general solution is their linear combination. Hence, for a bar with both
ends insulated, the heat conduction problem has general solution:

u ( x, t ) = C 0 + C n e
n =1

2008 Zachary S Tseng

2 n 2 2 t / L2

n x
cos
L .

E-3 - 4

Now set t = 0 and equate it with the initial condition u(x, 0) = f (x):

u ( x,0) = C0 + Cn cos
n =1

n x
= f ( x) .
L

We see that the requirement is that the initial temperature distribution f (x)
must be a Fourier cosine series. That is, it needs to be an even periodic
function of period 2L. If f (x) is not already an even periodic function, then
we will need to expand it into one and use the resulting even periodic
extension of f (x) in its place in the above equation. Once this is done, the
coefficients Cs in the particular solution are just the corresponding Fourier
cosine coefficients of the initial condition f (x). (Except for the constant term,
where the relation C0 = a0 / 2 holds, instead.)
The explicit formula for Cn is, therefore,

2
C n = an =
L

f ( x ) cos

n x
dx ,
L

n = 1, 2, 3,

C0 = a 0 / 2

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Example: Solve the heat conduction problem

3 uxx = ut ,
0 < x < 8, t > 0,
ux(0, t) = 0, and
ux(8, t) = 0,
u(x, 0) = 9 3 cos(x/4) 6 cos(2x).
2

First note that = 3 and L = 8, and the fact that the boundary
conditions indicating this is a bar with both ends perfectly insulated.
Substitute them into the formula we have just derived to obtain the
general solution for this problem:

u ( x, t ) = C0 + Cn e

3n 2 2 t / 64

n =1

cos

n x
8 .

Check the initial condition f (x), and we see that it is already in the
require form of a Fourier cosine series of period 16. Therefore, there
is no need to find its even periodic extension. Instead, we just need to
extract the correct Fourier cosine coefficients from f (x):
C0 = a0 / 2 = 9,
C2 = a2 = 3,
C16 = a16 = 6,
Cn = an = 0, for all other n, n 0, 2, or 16.
Note that C0 is actually a0 / 2, due to the way we write the constant
term of the Fourier series. But that shouldnt present any more
difficulty. Since when you see a Fourier series, its constant term is
already expressed in the form a0 / 2. Therefore, you could just copy it
down directly to be the C0 term without thinking.
Finally, the particular solution is

u ( x, t ) = 9 3e3( 2

2008 Zachary S Tseng

) 2 t / 64

cos(

x
4

) 6e3(16

) 2 t / 64

cos(2 x)

E-3 - 6

Bar with two ends kept at arbitrary temperatures:

An example of nonhomogeneous boundary conditions

In both of the heat conduction initial-boundary value problems we have seen,

the boundary conditions are homogeneous they are all zeros. Now let us
look at an example of heat conduction problem with simple
nonhomogeneous boundary conditions. The general set-up is the same as
the first example (where the both ends of the bar were kept at constant 0
degree, but were not insulated), except now the ends are kept at arbitrary
(but constant) temperatures of T1 degrees at the left end, and T2 degrees at
the right end. The initial condition, as usual, is arbitrary. The heat
conduction problem is therefore given by the initial-boundary value problem:

2 uxx = ut ,

0 < x < L,

u(0, t) = T1, and

u(L, t) = T2,

t > 0,

u(x, 0) = f (x).

The boundary conditions is now nonhomogeneous (unless T1 and T2 are both

0, then the problem becomes identical to the earlier example), because at
least one of the boundary values are nonzero.
The nonhomogeneous boundary conditions are rather easy to work with,
more so than we might have reasonably expected. First, let us be introduced
to the concept of the steady-state solution. It is the part of the solution u(x, t)
that is independent of the time variable t. Therefore, it is a function of the
spatial variable alone. We can thusly rewrite the solution u(x, t) as a sum of
2 parts, a time-independent part and a time-dependent part:

u(x, t) = v(x) + w(x, t).

Where v(x) is the steady-state solution, which is independent of t, and w(x, t)
is called the transient solution, which does vary with t.

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The Steady-State Solution

The steady-state solution, v(x), of a heat conduction problem is the part of
the temperature distribution function that is independent of time t. It
represents the equilibrium temperature distribution. To find it, we note the
fact that it is a function of x alone, yet it has to satisfy the heat conduction
equation. Since vxx = v and vt = 0, substituting them into the heat
conduction equation we get

2 vxx = 0.
Divide both sides by 2 and integrate twice with respect to x, we find that
v(x) must be in the form of a degree 1 polynomial:

v(x) = Ax + B.

Then, rewrite the boundary conditions in terms of v: u(0, t) = v(0) = T1, and
u(L, t) = v(L) = T2. Apply those 2 conditions to find that:

v(0) = T1 = A(0) + B = B

B = T1

v(L) = T2 = AL + B = AL + T1

A = (T2 T1) / L

Therefore,

v( x ) =

T2 T1
x + T1 .
L

Thing to remember: The steady-state solution is a time-independent

function. It is obtained by setting the partial derivative(s) with respect to t in
the heat equation (or, later on, the wave equation) to constant zero, and then
solving the equation for a function that depends only on the spatial variable x.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 8

Comment: Another way to understand the behavior of v(x) is to think from

the perspective of separation of variables. You could think of the steadystate solution as, during the separation of variables, the solution you would
have obtained if T(t) = 1, the constant function 1. Therefore, the solution is
independent of time, or time-invariant. Hence, u(x, t) = X(x)T(t) = X(x) =
v(x). We can, in addition, readily see the substitutions required for rewriting
the boundary conditions prior to solving for the steady-state solution:
u(0, t) = X(0) = v(0) = T1, and u(L, t) = X(L) = v(L) = T2.
That is, just rename the function u as v, ignore the time variable t, and put
whatever x-coordinate specified directly into v(x).

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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The solution of bar with two ends kept at arbitrary temperatures

Once the steady-state solution has been found, we can set it aside for the
time being and proceed to find the transient part of solution, w(x, t). First we
will need to rewrite the given initial-boundary value problem slightly. Keep
in mind that the initial and boundary conditions as originally given were
meant for the temperature distribution function u(x, t) = v(x) + w(x, t). Since
we have already found v(x), we shall now subtract out the contribution of v(x)
from the initial and boundary values. The results will be the conditions that
the transient solution w(x, t) alone must satisfy.
Change in the boundary conditions:
u(0, t) = T1 = v(0) + w(0, t)
u(L, t) = T2 = v(L) + w(L, t)

w(0, t) = T1 v(0) = 0
w(L, t) = T2 v(L) = 0

Note: Recall that u(0, t) = v(0) = T1, and u(L, t) = v(L) = T2.
Change in the initial condition:
u(x, 0) = f (x) = v(x) + w(x, 0)

w(x, 0) = f (x) v(x)

Consequently, the transient solution is a function of both x and t that must

satisfy the new initial-boundary value problem:

2 wxx = wt ,

0 < x < L,

w(0, t) = 0, and

w(L, t) = 0,

t > 0,

w(x, 0) = f (x) v(x).

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Surprise! Notice that the new problem just described is precisely the same
initial-boundary value problem associated with the heat conduction of a bar
with both ends kept at 0 degree. Therefore, the transient solution w(x, t) of
the current problem is just the general solution of the previous heat
conduction problem (with homogeneous boundary conditions), that of a bar
with 2 ends kept constantly at 0 degree:

w( x, t ) = Cn e

n 2 t / L2

2 2

n =1

sin

n x
L .

Where the coefficients Cn are equal to the corresponding Fourier sine

coefficients bn of the (newly rewritten) initial condition w(x, 0) = f (x) v(x).
(Or those of w(x, 0)s odd periodic extension, of period 2L, if it is not already
an odd periodic function of the correct period.) Explicitly, they are given by

2
Cn = bn =
L

( f ( x) v( x) )sin
0

n x
dx , n = 1, 2, 3,
L

Finally, combining the steady-state and transient solutions together, the

general solution of the temperature distribution of a bar whose ends are kept
at T1 degrees at the left, and T2 degrees at the right, becomes

u ( x, t ) = v( x) + w( x, t )
2 2 2
2
n x
T2 T1

=
x + T1 + Cn e n t / L sin
.
L
L

n =1

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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Example: Solve the heat conduction problem

8 uxx = ut ,
0 < x < 5,
t > 0,
u(0, t) = 10,
u(5, t) = 90,
u(x, 0) = 16x + 10 + 2sin(x) 4sin(2x) + sin(6x).
2

First we note that = 8 and L = 5. Since T1 = 10 and T2 = 90, the

steady-state solution is v(x) = (90 10)x / 5 + 10 = 16x + 10. We then
subtract v(0) = 10 from u(0, t), v(5) = 90 from u(5, t), and v(x) = 16x +
10 from u(x, 0) to obtain a new set of initial-boundary values that the
transient solution w(x,t) alone must satisfy:
w(0, t) = 0, and
w(5, t) = 0,
w(x, 0) = 2sin(x) 4sin(2x) + sin(6x).
2

Base on = 8 and L = 5, we write down the general solution:

w( x, t ) = Cn e8n
2

t / 25

n =1

sin

n x
5

The new initial condition, f (x) v(x), is already an odd periodic

function of the period T = 2L = 10. Therefore, just extract the correct
Fourier sine coefficients from it:
C5 = b5 = 2,
C10 = b10 = 4,
C30 = b30 = 1,
Cn = bn = 0, for all other n, n 5, 10, or 30.
Add together the steady-state and transient solutions, we have

u ( x, t ) = v( x) + w( x, t ) = 16 x + 10 + 2e8(5
4e

8(10 2 ) 2 t / 25

2008 Zachary S Tseng

sin(2 x) + e

8 ( 30 2 ) 2 t / 25

) 2 t / 25

sin( x)

sin(6 x)

E-3 - 12

Back to the Steady-State Solution

A thing to remember: the steady-state solution of the one-dimensional
homogeneous heat conduction equation is always in the form v(x) = Ax + B.
Since it is independent of t, the effects of boundary conditions on v(x) are
also simplified as: u(x0, t) = v(x0), and ux(x0, t) = v(x0).
Nonhomogeneous heat conduction equations (that is, the equations
themselves contain forcing function terms; not to be confused with the
homogeneous equation with accompanying nonhomogeneous boundary
conditions that we have just seen), however, could have different forms of
v(x).

Fact: The steady-state temperature distribution satisfies the property:

lim u ( x, t ) = v( x) .

This relation is true only for the solution of heat conduction equation
(modeling diffusion-like processes that are thermodynamically irreversible).
Physically speaking, v(x) describes the eventual state of maximum entropy
as dictated by the second law of Thermodynamics.

Caution: The above relation is not true, in general, for solutions of the wave
equation in the next section. This difference is due to the fact that the wave
equation models wave-like motions which are thermodynamically reversible
processes.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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Further examples of steady-state solutions of the heat conduction equation:

Find v(x), given each set of boundary conditions below.

1. u(0, t) = 50,

ux(6, t) = 0

We are looking for a function of the form v(x) = Ax + B that satisfies

the given boundary conditions. Its derivative is then v(x) = A. The
two boundary conditions can be rewritten to be u(0, t) = v(0) = 50, and
ux(6, t) = v(6) = 0. Hence,
v(0) = 50 = A(0) + B = B

B = 50

v(6) = 0 = A

A=0

Therefore, v(x) = 0x + 50 = 50.

2. u(0, t) 4ux(0, t) = 0, ux(10, t) = 25

The two boundary conditions can be rewritten to be
v(0) 4 v(0) = 0, and v(10) = 25.
Hence,
v(0) 4 v(0) = 0 = (A(0) + B) 4A = 4A + B
v(10) = 25 = A

A = 25

Substitute A = 25 into the first equation: 0 = 4A + B = 100 + B

B = 100
Therefore, v(x) = 25x + 100.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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3. u(0, t) = 35,

u(4, t) + 3ux(4, t) = 0

Rewriting the boundary conditions:

v(0) = 35, and v(4) + 3 v(4) = 0.
Hence,
v(0) = 35 = A(0) + B = B

B = 35

v(4) + 3 v(4) = 0 = (A(4) + B) + 3A = 7A + B

0 = 7A + 35
A = 5

Therefore, v(x) = 5x + 35

Comment: Notice how in each example we have seen, the steady-state

solution is uniquely determined by the boundary conditions alone. In
general this is true that the steady-state solution is almost always
independent of the initial condition. The lone exception is the insulatedends problem (with boundary conditions ux(0, t) = 0 = ux(L, t) ). In this
special case, the boundary conditions only tell us that the steady-state
solution should be a constant, which turns out to be the constant term of the
general solution. As we have seen, that constant is indeed dependent on the
initial condition it is just the constant term of the initial condition, as the
latter is expanded into a Fourier cosine series of period 2L. In all other
cases the boundary conditions alone determine the steady-state solution
(therefore, the limiting temperature) of a problem.

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 15

Summary: Solving Second Order Linear Partial Differential

Equations
The Method of Separation of Variables:
0. (If the boundary conditions are nonhomogeneous) Solve for the
steady-state solution, v(x), which is a function of x only that satisfies
both the PDE and the boundary conditions. Afterwards rewrite the
problems boundary and initial conditions to subtract out the
contribution from the steady-state solution. Therefore, the problem is
now transformed into one with homogeneous boundary conditions.
1. Separate the PDE into ODEs of one independent variable each.
Rewrite the boundary conditions so they associate with only one of
the variables.
2. One of the ODEs is a part of a two-point boundary value problem.
Solve this problem for its eigenvalues and eigenfunctions.
3. Solve the other ordinary differential equation.
4. Multiply the results from steps (2) and (3), and sum up all the
products to find the general solution respect to the given
homogeneous boundary conditions. Add to it the steady-state solution
(from step 0, if applicable) to find the overall general solution.
5. Expand the initial condition into a suitable (e.g. a sine or a cosine
series, depending on whichever type the eigenfunctions are) Fourier
series. Then compare it against u(x, 0) to find the coefficients for the
particular solution.

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Summary of Heat Conduction Problems

Here is a list of heat conduction problems and their solutions. All solutions
obey the homogeneous one-dimensional heat conduction equation

2 uxx = ut .
They only differ in boundary conditions (which are given below for each
problem). The initial condition is always arbitrary, u(x, 0) = f (x).
1. Bar with both ends kept at 0 degree (boundary conditions: u(0, t) = 0,
u(L, t) = 0)

u ( x, t ) = Cn e

2 n 2 2 t / L2

n =1

n x
sin
L .

Expand f (x) to be a Fourier sine series, then Cn = bn.

Steady-state solution is v(x) = 0.
2. Bar with both ends perfectly insulated (boundary conditions:
ux(0, t) = 0, ux(L, t) = 0)

u ( x, t ) = C 0 + C n e

2 n 2 2 t / L2

n =1

n x
cos
L .

Expand f (x) to be a Fourier cosine series, then C0 = a0 / 2, and Cn = an,

n = 1, 2, 3,
Steady-state solution is v(x) = C0.
3. Bar with T1 degrees at the left end, and T2 degrees at the right end
(boundary conditions: u(0, t) = T1, u(L, t) = T2)

n x
T2 T1

2 n 2 2 t / L2
u ( x, t ) =
x + T1 + Cn e
sin
L .
L
n =1
Expand (f (x) v(x)) to be a Fourier sine series, then Cn = bn.
Steady-state solution is v( x) =

2008 Zachary S Tseng

T2 T1
x + T1 .
L

E-3 - 17

Exercises E-3.1:
1 7 Find the steady-state solution v(x) of the heat conduction equation,
given each set of boundary conditions below.
1. u(0, t) = 200, u(10, t) = 100
2. u(0, t) = 100, ux(10, t) = 50
u(10, t) = 100
3. ux(0, t) = 8,
4. ux(0, t) = 30, ux(10, t) = 10
5. u(0, t) + ux(0, t) = 10, u(10, t) = 100
6. u(0, t) + ux(0, t) = 0, u(10, t) ux(10, t) = 200
7. u(0, t) 10ux(0, t) = 30, u(10, t) 5ux(10, t) = 0
8. Solve the heat conduction problem of the given initial conditions.
2 uxx = ut
,
0 < x < 6, t > 0,
ux(0, t) = 0, and ux(6, t) = 0,
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

u(x, 0) = + 3cos(x) 4cos(3x / 2) cos(3x),

u(x, 0) = 4,
u(x, 0) = x2,
u(x, 0) = 0.

u ( x, t ) .
9. For each particular solution found in #8, find lim
t
10. Solve the heat conduction problem of the given initial conditions.
2 uxx = ut
,
0 < x < 6, t > 0,
u(0, t) = 40, and u(6, t) = 10,
(a)
(b)

u(x, 0) = 5x + 40 + 5sin(2x) 2sin(5x / 2),

u(x, 0) = 0.

u (4, t ) .
11. For each particular solution found in #10, find lim
t

2008 Zachary S Tseng

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12. Consider the heat conduction problem

9 uxx = ut
,
0 < x < 4, t > 0,
u(0, t) = 32, and u(4, t) = 32,
u(x, 0) = f (x).
(a) Find its general solution.
(b) Write an explicit formula to determine the coefficients.
u ( x, t ) .
(c) Base on (a), find lim
t
13. Consider the heat conduction equation below, subject to each of the 4
sets of boundary conditions.
9 uxx = ut
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

u(0, t) = 0,
ux(0, t) = 0,
u(0, t) = 0,
u(0, t) = 100,

0 < x < 10, t > 0,

and
and
and
and

u(10, t) = 0,
ux(10, t) = 0,
u(10, t) = 100
u(10, t) = 50.

Given the common initial condition u(x, 0) = 300, determine the temperature
at the midpoint of the bar (at x = 5) after a very long time has elapsed.
Which set of boundary conditions will give the highest temperature at that
point?

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 19

Answers E-3.1:
1. v(x) = 10x + 200
4. v(x) does not exist.
7. v(x) = 2x + 10

2. v(x) = 50x + 100

5. v(x) = 10x

u ( x, t ) = + 3e 2 t cos(x) 4e 9 t / 2 cos(3x / 2) e 18 t cos(3x) ,

u(x, t) = 4,
u(x, t) = 0.
lim u ( x, t ) = ; (b) lim u ( x, t ) = 4 ; (c) lim u ( x, t ) = 25 / 3 ;
t
t
t
2

8. (a)
(b)
(d)
9. (a)

3. v(x) = 8x + 20
6. v(x) = 25x 25

u ( x, t ) = 0 .
(d) lim
t
8 t
sin(2x) 2e 25
10. (a) u ( x, t ) = 5 x + 40 + 5e
11. (a) and (b) lim u (4, t ) = 20 .
2

t/2

sin(5x / 2) .

9 n
12. (a) u ( x, t ) = 32 + Cn e

2 2

t / 16

n =1

(b) C n =

1
2

sin

n x
4

n x
(
f
(
x
)

32
)
sin
dx ,

n = 1, 2, 3,

u ( x, t ) = 32
(c) lim
t
13. Boundary conditions (ii) will give the highest temperature.
u (5, t ) = v(5) = 300.
At x = 5, the temperature is lim
t

2008 Zachary S Tseng

E-3 - 20