Chapter 2 WORK

In Mechanics, work is defined as the product of force into distance, given by the scalar
product

W F .ds

. Here s corresponds to the distance by which the point of

application of the force moves. On the other hand, thermodynamic definition of work represents
an energy interaction between the system and the surroundings. Work intrinsically is an interconvertible form- in other words, it is always possible to convert work from one form to another
with negligible losses. Suppose we do work in winding the spring of a wall- clock, almost all of
that energy can be recovered for oscillating a pendulum (against solid friction and air friction).
There are various forms of work: for instance, compression/ expansion of an elastic spring,
gravitational work in lifting a mass, electrical work in charging a capacitor, compression/
expansion of a gas, magnetization of a piece of iron etc. are a few examples of work. Taking
advantage of the inter-convertibility, in the modern day world, we transmit power to most households, offices and factories as electricity, and locally convert it to any other desirable form using
machines or appliances.
Keeping the above ideas in mind, the classical thermodynamic definition of work is given
as follows:
Work is done by a system during an interaction, if the sole effect external to
the system could be reduced to the rise of a weight.
Here, the last phrase rise of a weight, refers to the inter-convertibility aspect of work. Let us
illustrate the above definition by way of a simple example.

Battery
Bulb

Fig. 2.1 Battery connected to an electrical bulb

Figure 2.1 illustrates the powering of an electric bulb by a battery. Let the voltage and
current be 10 Volts and 5 Amps respectively. If the battery is operated for a period of 5 minutes,
the energy consumed during the operation of the battery can be calculated as voltage x current x
time = 10 V x 5 A x 300 s = 15000 Joules = 15 kJ. Considering battery as the system, we can
consider this interaction as a positive work of 15 kJ done by the battery on its surroundings. How
did we conclude that this is work interaction? Now let us remove the bulb and connect an
electrical motor in its place. The electricity from the battery could have been supplied to the
motor and the motor could have rotated a shaft (as is done in a ceiling fan). By tying a rope to
the shaft which in turn is connected to a mass, we could have utilized the electrical energy for
the lifting of a mass against gravity, as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Motor

Fig. 2.2 Raising of weight by motor

The above example illustrates that although the real situation may involve the lighting of a bulb,
the energy interaction from the battery is considered as work because the same energy could
have been utilized for the rise of a weight. Another interesting feature is that in the lighting of
the bulb, we can not identify any macroscopic movement of the point of action of a force by
certain distance. So, the Mechanics definition of force x distance can not be applied here. (If you
think that it may be possible to connect the movement of electrons through the wire to the
amount of work done in this case, you will be in for a surprise. Whether the connecting wire from
the battery to the bulb is 1 meter or two meters or 3 meters long, essentially the same amount
of energy (~ 15 kJ) will be consumed in the process). Therefore, the energy based definition of
Thermodynamics can provide interesting insights which are not possible with the Mechanics

definition of work. Due to inter-convertibility, all forms of work could be reduced eventually to the
rise of a weight. In other words, they could all be converted to gravitational work the work
associated with the rise of a mass.
The phrase sole effect external to the system in the definition of work has the following
implication. When we replaced the bulb with a motor connected to a mass (through a rope tied
to the motor shaft), the process undergone by the system (battery in this case) was left
untouched. The same current of 5 A was drawn from the battery at the same V of 10 V for the
same duration of 5 minutes. The possibility of utilizing the associated energy of 15 kJ completely
for the raising of a mass was looked into. If there are any frictional losses and electrical losses in
the motor, they will result in heat dissipation; then, apart from lifting of the weight, there will
also be slight changes in the temperature of the surrounding objects. Therefore, in order to
satisfy the criterion of sole effect, the motor should be an ideal one- with negligible losses.
Usually, in most cases dealing with the conversion from one form of work to another, losses are
indeed very small and almost 100% conversion is possible as you approach the ideal case. This is
to be contrasted with the conversion from heat to work- where even with ideal processes, only
about a third of the heat supplied gets converted into work.
Now let us look at other important aspects of work. The main concepts in this regard are
listed below.
(i) Work is an energy interaction between the system and the surroundings. In other words,
either system or surroundings should be the donor of energy- and the other should be the
receiver.
(ii) When a system transfers energy in the form of work, it does positive work. At the same time,
surroundings will do an equal amount of negative work. For instance, in the battery example,
battery does positive work ie. Wbattery > 0. The bulb does negative work ie Wbulb < 0.
(iii) In any problem, Wsystem + Wsurroundings = 0 always. Work done by the system on the
surroundings is defined as positive and work done by the surroundings on the system is taken as
negative. That is why work is positive for the battery and negative for the bulb. The sign
convention for work is based on the main interest to develop machines during industrial
revolution, which would give work output by taking in heat input.
(iv) If n different systems are having work interactions with each other, then W sys1 + Wsys2 +
Wsys3 + ...... + Wsysn = 0. Some of these systems may have positive work output and others may

have negative or zero. While considering any one system, all the other systems put together will
form the surroundings for that system.
(v) A very important aspect of work interaction is that the process carried out by the system,
must be resisted by the surroundings. If the surroundings do not offer any resistance, then the
work done by the system will become zero.
Example 1: Free fall of a mass
Let us now consider the free fall of a particle of mass m in vacuum, under the action of
gravity. If the mass falls by a height h, according to the Mechanics definition, the work done
during this process W = m.g.h. However, according to the Thermodynamic definition, work done
by the mass Wmass = 0. In this case of free fall, although the force of body weight (= mg) moves
the centre of gravity of the mass by a distance of h, actually no energy crosses the system
boundary. As per the Thermodynamic definition, work is an energy interaction between the
system (or CV) and the surroundings. Here, no energy interaction took place- only there was
some internal energy conversion for the mass. The potential energy of the mass at higher
elevation (initial position of the mass) was converted into its own kinetic energy as the mass
accelerated during the fall. It is similar to a situation when a person takes out a 100 rupee note
from one pocket, gets it converted to 10 notes of ten rupees and puts them in another pocket- in
other words, there is money exchange in this transaction. In the case of the free falling mass, the
total energy of the mass, i.e. potential energy + kinetic energy, remains the same. Since there is
no energy interaction, work done has to be zero. An alternative way of understanding this
example is to consider the fact that the surrounding vacuum does not offer any resistance to the
motion of the mass; work exchange between the system and surroundings is possible only when
the process is resisted by the surroundings.
Example 2: Fully resisted expansion of gas

p+dp
gas

p
p
V
Fig. 2.3 Expansion of gas

Let us consider a gas which is enclosed inside a leak-proof frictionless piston-cylinder

device. The gas pressure is slightly higher than the surrounding pressure and hence the piston
starts moving slowly, causing slow expansion of the gas. Let the gas pressure at a particular
instant be p+dp and the corresponding external pressure exerted by the surrounding on the
piston be p, as shown in Fig. 2.3. As the gas pressure varies during the expansion, the external
pressure also varies such that the difference dp 0. The gas expansion is fully resisted by the
surroundings and hence, the piston moves slowly without any acceleration since the forces on
the piston are in equilibrium. Such a slow gas expansion process is known as a fully resisted
expansion process. It can also be termed as a quasi- static process because the system passes
through a series of equilibrium states during the expansion.
Let us now contrast the above process with an unresisted expansion situation,
corresponding to the case when there is vacuum outside the piston. Here, the external pressure
exerted by the surroundings is zero. If the piston which is initially held from movement by an
agent, is suddenly released, will experience a very large acceleration. Both the piston and the
enclosed gas which is adjacent to the piston start accelerating to very high velocities. Let us
imagine a situation when the piston is very light and can be assumed to have negligible mass. In
this case, the kinetic energy gained by the piston during its acceleration is negligible. Also, there
is no matter present in the vacuum for energy exchange with the expanding gas. Thus, work
done during this unresisted expansion case is zero. Note that acceleration of the gas also can not
contribute to energy transfer since no system can do work on itself! Unless some energy transfer
occurs between the system and surroundings, there is no question of any work done. During
unresisted expansion, the pressure within the gas will not be uniform; the pressure near the
close end will be high and the local pressure close to the piston will become nearly zero because
of rapid acceleration. In such a case, the gas which is being considered as the system is not
having internal equilibrium and it is not possible to denote properties such as system pressure,
temperature etc. during the unresisted expansion. If eventually the piston comes to a stop and
its properties become uniform (internal equilibrium is attained at the final state), then we can
indicate the final state in the state diagram as the point 2. However, the intermediate states
between the initial state 1 and the final state 2 can not be shown, because these intermediate
states are not defined during the rapid gas expansion due to lack of equilibrium within the
system. The zero work transfer in unresisted gas expansion can also be understood in an
alternative way. A more precise definition for displacement work during the expansion/
2

compression of a fluid can be stated as:

W pb dVsw
1

Where pb is the boundary pressure and dVsw is the differential swept volume for the moving
boundary. In the case of unresisted expansion, the boundary pressure approaches a value of
zero (because of vacuum on the outside). Thus, when the surroundings do not offer any
resistance for the gas expansion process, it is not possible to have any work interaction.
Example 3: Resisted/ unresisted fall under the action of gravity
In order to illustrate the idea of fully-resisted, partially resisted and unresisted processes
let us consider another example. In the event of an aircraft emergency, a passenger of 60 kg
weight (~ 600 N force) decides to jump out of the aircraft and we are interested to find out the
work done when the person descends by a height of 100 m. Let us consider three cases, namely:
(a) when there is no air resistance (b) when air resistance does not fully meet the force due to
the weight of the person (c) when the person ties himself onto a parachute and descends very
slowly. In cases (a) and (b), since weight is not equal to air resistance, the person will accelerate.
In case (c) when air resistance is equal to the weight, the person will descend slowly without any
acceleration. As regards the amount of work done by the person, in case (a) work = zero, since
no resistance is offered by the vacuum. In case (b), work done = air resistance x distance of fall
= 50 N x 100 m = 5000 J = 5 kJ. In case (c), work done = air resistance x distance of fall =
weight x distance of fall = 600 N x 100 m = 60000 J = 60 kJ.

600 N

600 N

600 N

Air resistance
= zero (vacuum)

(a) unresisted

Air resistance
= 50 N

Air resistance
= 600 N

(b) partially
resisted

(c) fully
resisted

Fig. 2.4 Resisted/ unresisted fall

Displacement work for various processes :

The work done during the fully resisted expansion of a gas can be calculated if the
variations of pressure and volume during the expansion process are completely known. Referring
to Fig. 2.3, the force exerted by the gas on the piston is equal to (p.A) where the instantaneous
gas pressure is p and A is the area of the piston (or cylinder). If the piston moves by a distance
dx, then the amount of work done is equal to W = p.A.dx = p.dV, where dV = A.dx = swept
volume. The total work done during a process 1-2 can therefore be evaluated as:
2

V2

V1

W12 W

p.dV

The work during a process 1-2 therefore is the area under the curve for the particular process in
a p-V diagram. Let us now consider different processes in a p-V diagram.
(i) Constant pressure process (p = constant)

W12

V2

p.dV p(V

V1 ) p.V

V1

(ii) A process with p.V = constant (Or, p1V1 = p2V2 = C).

W12

V2

V2

V
V
V
C
dV C ln 2 p1V1 ln 2 p 2V2 ln 2
V
V1
V1
V1
V1

p.dV

V1

(iii) A process with p.Vn = constant (Or, p1V1n = p2V2n = C).

W1 2

V2

V1

Or,

V2

C
dV C (V21n V11n ) /(1 n) ( p 2V2n .V21n p1V1n .V11 n ) /(1 n)
n
V1 V

p.dV

W12

( p1V1 p 2V2 )
n 1

(iv) A constant process with V = constant.

In this case, since dV = 0, the work done is zero.
A constant pressure process is known as an isobaric process. A process with p.V = constant
becomes a process with constant temperature, in the case of an ideal gas. The constant

temperature process is known as an isothermal process. The process pVn = constant is known as
a polytropic process and n is called as the polytropic index. The case of n = (= ratio of specific
heats, Cp/Cv) is called as an adiabatic process in the case of an ideal gas. This corresponds to the
situation when the heat interaction with the gas is zero. In a special case, this situation also
coincides with the case of constant entropy and therefore, it is also called as an isentropic
process, as will be discussed later. Finally, the process of constant volume is known as an

isochoric process. It is evident from the above discussions that the amount of work done
depends on the process, apart from the end states 1 and 2.
Other forms of work:

(i) Spring work =

1
k .x 2 (for a linear spring) where k is the spring constant and x is the
2

displacement.

(ii) Electrical work of a capacitor :

1
C.V 2 where C is the capacitance and V is the voltage.
2

(iii) Electrical work for a resistor :

i 2 R x t where i is the current through the resistor, R is the

resistance and t is the time of operation.

(iv) Shaft work :

2 NT
x t where N is the shaft speed (in revolutions per minute) and T is the
60

torque. Also t is the time of operation.

(v) Gravitational work : m.g.h where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is
the height by which the mass is raised or lowered.
(vi) Surface tension work: x A, where is the surface tension and A is the increase in area
of the film.
In all the examples discussed above, the expression may be used to calculate only the magnitude
of the work. The actual assignment of positive or negative sign for the work may be given
depending on whether the system gives out or receives energy in the form of work. For instance,
in the case of a linear spring, work is negative whether the spring is extended or compressed.
Spring work can be positive only when an already extended (or compressed) spring return back
to its initial state by releasing the stored energy.