Handbook of Optics: Sponsored by The Optical Society of America
Handbook of Optics: Sponsored by The Optical Society of America
Handbook of Optics: Sponsored by The Optical Society of America
OPTICS
Volume II
Devices, Measurements,
and Properties
Second Edition
Sponsored by the
OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
M i c h a e l BaSS
Editor in Chief
Associate Editor
David R. Williams
Associate
j,
rn , >
Umversuy of Rochester
Rochester, New York
William L. Wolfe
-.
Associate Editor
McGRAW-HILL, INC.
New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogota
Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan
Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore
Sydney Tokyo Toronto
CONTENTS
Contributors xvi
Preface xix
Glossary and Fundamental Constants
xxi
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.
1.11.
1.12.
1.13.
1.14.
1.15.
1.16.
1.17.
1.18.
1.19.
1.20.
1.21.
1.22.
R. Barry Johnson
1.3
Glossary / 1.3
Introduction / 1.5
Basics / 1.5
Stops and Pupils / 1.8
F-Number and Numerical Aperture / 1.9
Magnifier or Eye Loupe / 1.9
Compound Microscopes I 1.9
Field and Relay Lenses / 1.10
Aplanatic Surfaces and Immersion Lenses / 1.10
Single Element Lens / 1.11
Landscape Lenses and the Influence of Stop Position / 1.17
Two-Lens Systems / 1.19
Achromatic Doublets / 1.23
Triplet Lenses / 1.26
Symmetrical Lenses / 7.27
Double-Gauss Lenses / 1.28
Petzval Lenses / 1.29
Telephoto Lenses / 1.29
Inverted or Reverse Telephoto Lenses / 1.30
Performance of Representative Lenses 1.30
Rapid Estimation of Lens Performance / 1.36
Bibliography / 1.41
1.1
William B. Wetherell
Glossary / 2.1
Introduction / 2.1
Gaussian Analysis of Afocal Lenses / 2.2
Keplerian Afocal Lenses I 2.7
Galilean and Inverse Galilean Afocal Lenses / 2.14
Relay Trains and Periscopes / 2.16
Reflecting and Catadioptric Afocal Lenses / 2.19
References / 2.22
2.1
CONTENTS
Glossary / 3.1
Prism Polarizers / 3.2
Glan-Type Prisms / 3.9
Nicol-Type Prism / 3.17
Polarizing Beam-Splitter Prisms / 3.19
Dichroic and Diffraction-Type Polarizers / 3.26
"Non-Normal-Incidence Reflection and Transmission Polarizers / 3.36
Retardation Plates / 3.46
Variable Retardation Plates and Compensators / 3.57
Half-Shade Devices / 3.60
Minature Polarization Devices / 3.61
References / 3.62
3.1
William L Wolfe
Glossary / 4.1
Introduction / 4.1
Inversion, Reversion / 4.2
Deviation, Displacement / 4.2
Summary of Prism Properties / 4.3
Prism Descriptions / 4.3
References / 4.29
Glossary / 6.1
Introduction / 6.2
Device Physics / 6.3
Integrated Optics Materials and Fabrication Technology / 6.72
Circuit Elements / 6.20
Applications of Integrated Optics / 6.28
Future Trends / 6.37
References / 6.38
5.1
Glossary / 5.7
Introduction / 5.7
Prisms / 5.7
Gratings / 5.3
Prism and Grating Configurations and Instruments / 5.4"'
References / 5.75
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
6.7.
6.8.
4.1
Tom D. Milster
Glossary / 7.1
Introduction / 7.2
Uses of Micro-Optics / 7.2
Micro-Optics Design Considerations / 7.2
Molded Microlenses / 7.4
7.1
CONTENTS
7.6.
7.7.
7.8.
7.9.
7.10.
7.11.
Glossary / 8.1
Introduction / 8.2
DesignGeometrical Optics / 8.2
DesignScalar Diffraction Theory / 8.10
DesignVector Diffraction Theory / 8.14
Fabrication / 8.14
References / 8.18
Glossary / 9.1
Introduction / 9.1
Analytic Solutions / 9.2
Mathematical Representation / 9.2
Axial Gradient Lenses / 9.2
Radial Gradients / 9.5
Radial Gradients with Curved Surfaces / 9.7
Shallow Radial Gradients / 9.7
Materials / 9.8
References / 9.9
9.1
Tom G. Brown
10.1
Glossary / 70.7
Introduction / 10.3
Principles of Operation / 70.4
Fiber Dispersion and Attenuation / 70.S
Polarization Characteristics of Fibers / 70.77
Optical and Mechanical Properties of Fibers / 70.72
Optical Fiber Communications / 70.79
Nonlinear Optical Properties of Fibers / 70J7
Optical Fiber Materials: Chemistry and Fabrication / 10.42
References / 10.46
Further Reading / 10.49
8.1
Glossary / 77.7
Introduction / 77.2
Historical Background / 11.3
Optical Performance of X-Ray/EUV Imaging Systems / 77.6
Diffraction Effects of Grazing Incidence X-Ray Optics / 77.5
Ghost Images in Grazing Incidence X-Ray Telescopes / 77.74
Scattering Effects from Optical Fabrication Errors / 77.76
11.1
CONTENTS
12.1
Theresa A. Maldonado
Glossary / 13.1
Introduction / 73.3
Crystal Optics and the Index Ellipsoid / 73.4
The Electro-Optic Effect / 73.6
Modulator Devices / 73.75
Appendix: Euler Angles / 73.33
References / 73.33
14.1
Glossary / 74.7
Introduction / 74.2
Physical Properties of Thermotropic Liquid Crystals / 74.2
Physical Mechanisms for Modulating Light / 74.70
Electro-Optics of Nematic Liquid Crystals / 74.72
Electro-Optics of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals / 74.77
Electro-Optics of Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals / 74.79
Conclusion / 74.23
References / 74.24
Part 2.
Optical Instruments
13.1
Introduction / 75.3
Background / 75.3
Properties of the Final Image / 75.4
Film Choice / 75.5
Resolving Fine Detail / 75.5
Film Sizes / 75.6
Display / 75.6
Distributing the Image / 75.7Video Cameras / 75.7
Instant Pictures / 75.S
Critical Features / 15.8
Time Lag / 75.9
Automation / 75.70
15.1
15.3
CONTENTS
15.14.
15.15.
15.16.
15.17.
15.18.
15.19.
Flash / 75.76
Flexibility through Features and Accessories / 75.77
Advantage of Various Formats / 75.78
Large Format: A Different World / 75.79
Special Cameras / 75.27
Further Reading / 75.28
Introduction / 76.7
Imposed Design Limitations / 76.7
Modern Lens Types / 76.2
Classification System / 76.20
Lens Performance Data / 76.25
Acknowledgments / 76.26
References / 76.26
18.1
Glossary / 78.7
Introduction / 18.1
Glass Varieties / 78.2
Introduction to Catadioptric and Reflective Objectives / 18.2
Field-of-View Plots / 78.38
Definitions / 78.40
References / 78.42
17.1
Glossary / 77.7
Introduction / 77.7
General Optical Considerations / 77.4
Microscope Lenses, Aberrations / 77.72
Contrast Generation / 77.22
Illumination and Imaging Modes / 77.37
Optical Manipulation of Specimen with the Light Microscope / 17.47
Mechanical Standards / 77.4S
*
Acknowledgments / 77.49
References / 77.49
16.1
Glossary / /9.7
Introduction / 79.2
Scanned Resolution / 19.7
Scanners for Remote Sensing / 79.75
Scanning for Input/Output Imaging / 79.26
Scanner Devices and Techniques / 79.34
Scan-Error Reduction / 79.57
References / 79.54
Further Reading / 79.56
19.1
CONTENTS
Brian Henderson
20.1
P. Hariharan
Glossary / 27.7
Introduction / 27.7
Basic Types of Interferometers / 27.2
Three-Beam and Double-Passed Two-Beam Interferometers / 27.7
Fringe-Counting Interferometers / 21.10
Two-Wavelength Interferometry / 27.77"
Frequency-Modulation Interferometers / 27.77
Heterodyne Interferometers / 27.72
Phase-Shifting Interferometers / 27.73
Phase-Locked Interferometers / 27.74
Laser-Doppler Interferometers / 27.75
Laser-Feedback Interferometers / 27.76
Fiber Interferometers / 27.77
Interferometric Wave Meters / 27.79
Second-Harmonic and Phase-Conjugate Interferometers / 27.27
Stellar Interferometers / 27.22
Michelson's Stellar Interferometers / 27.22
Gravitational-Wave Interferometers / 27.23
References / 27.25
21.1
Glossary / 22.7
Objectives / 22.3
Polarimeters / 22.3
Light-Measuring and Sampling-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.3
Sample-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.4
Complete and Incomplete Polarimeters / 22.4
Polarization Generators and Analyzers / 22.4
Classes of Light-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.5
Time-Sequential Measurements / 22.5
Polarization Modulation / 22.5
Division of Aperture / 22.5
Division of Amplitude / 22.6
Definitions / 22.6
Stokes Vectors and Mueller Matrices / 22.8
Phenomenological Definition of the Stokes Vector / 22.8
Polarization Properties of Light Beams / 22.9
Mueller Matrices / 22.70
Coordinate System for the Mueller Matrix / 22.72
Elliptical and Circular Polarizers and Analyzers / 22.73
Light-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.74
22.1
CONTENTS
22.21.
22.22.
22.23.
22.24.
22.25.
22.26.
22.27.
22.28.
22.29.
22.30.
22.31.
22.32.
22.33.
22.34.
22.35.
22.36.
22.37.
22.38.
23.1
Glossary / 23.7
Introduction / 23.2
Background and Basic Principles / 23.2
Holographic Interferometry / 23.5
Holographic Optical Elements / 23.72
Holographic Inspection / 23.77
Holographic Lithography / 23.16
Holographic Memory / 23.25
Conclusion / 23.26
References / 23.26
Part 3.
Optical Measurements
Lloyd Huff
24.1
Edward F. Zalewski
24.3
Glossary / 24.3
Introduction / 24.6
Radiometric Definitions and Basic Concepts / 24.8
Radiant Transfer Approximations / 24.75
Absolute Measurements / 24.72
Photometry / 24.40
References / 24.48
Glossary / 25.7
Introduction and Terminology / 25.2
Transmittance / 25.3
Absorption / 25.4
Reflectance / 25.4
Emittance / 25.7
25.1
xii
CONTENTS
25.7.
25.8.
25.9.
25.10.
25.11.
25.12.
25.13.
25.14.
26.1.
26.2.
26.3.
26.4.
26.5.
26.6.
26.7.
26.8.
26.9.
Rasheed M. A. Azzam
Glossary / 27.7
Introduction / 27.2
Conventions / 27.3
Modeling and Inversion / 27.4
Transmission Ellipsometry / 27.70
Instrumentation / 27.70
Jones-Matrix Generalized Ellipsometry / 27.79
Mueller-Matrix Generalized Ellipsometry / 27.20
Applications / 27.22
References / 27.22
28.1.
28.2.
28.3.
28.4.
28.5.
28.6.
21A
Brian Henderson
25.1
Glossary / 28.7
Introductory Comments / 28.2
Optical Absorption Measurements of Energy Levels / 28.2
The Homogeneous Lineshape of Spectra / 28.74
Absorption, Photoluminescence, and Radiactive Decay Measurements / 28.20
References / 28.26
29.1.
29.2.
29.3.
29.4.
29.5.
29.6.
29.7.
26.1
Glossary / 26.7
Introduction / 26.7
Definitions and Specifications / 26.2
Instrument Configurations and Component Descriptions / 26.5
Instrumentation Issues / 26.9
Measurement Issues / 26.77
Incident Power Measurement, System Calibration, and Error Analysis / 26.73
Summary / 26.74
References / 26.75
27.1.
27.2.
27.3.
21 A.
27.5.
27.6.
27.7.
27.8.
27.9.
27.10.
John C. Stover
Glossary / 29.7
Introduction and Definitions /_29.7
Lengths and Straightness Measurements / 29.3
Angle Measurements / 29.72
Curvature and Focal Length Measurements / 29.20
Velocity Measurements / 29.27
References / 29.29
29.1
30.1.
30.2.
30.3.
30.4.
30.5.
30.6.
30.7.
30.8.
30.9.
Daniel Malacara
30.1
Glossary / 30.7
Introduction / 30.7
Classical Noninterferometric Tests / 30.7
Interferometric Tests / 30.6
Increasing and Sensitivity of Interferometers / 30.8 .
Interferogram Evaluation / 30.72
Phase-Shifting Interferometry / 30.76
Measuring Aspherical Wavefronts / 30.22
References / 30.25
31.1.
31.2.
31.3.
31.4.
31.5.
31.6.
31.7.
31.8.
Glossary / 37.7
Introduction / 37.2
Types of CGHs / 37.2
Plotting CGHs / 37.3
Interferometers Using Computer-Generated Holograms / 37.6
Acuracy Limitations / 37.7
Experimental Results / 37.8
References / 37.70
32.1.
32.2.
32.3.
32.4.
32.5.
32.6.
Glenn D. Boreman
33.1
William J. Tropf,
33.3
Glossary / 33.3
Introduction / 33.5
Optical Materials / 33.6
Properties of Materials / 33.7
Properties Tables / 33.38
References / 33.84
34.1.
34.2.
34.3.
34.4.
32.1
Glossary / 32.7
Introduction / 32.7
Definitions / 32.2
MTF Calculations / 32.4
MTF Measurements / 32.7
References / 32.9
33.1.
33.2.
33.3.
33.4.
33.5.
33.6.
31.1
Glossary / 34.7
Introduction / 34.7
Forms / 34.2
Physical Properties / 34.2
John D. Lytle
34.1
CONTENTS
34.5.
34.6.
34.7.
34.8.
34.9.
Roger A. Paquin
35.1
Glossary / 35.7
Introduction / 35.3
Summary Data / 35.12
References / 35.74
Introduction / 37.7
Selection Process for Black Baffle Surfaces in Optical Systems / 37.72
The Creation of Black Surfaces for Specific Applications / 37.75
Environmental Degradation of Black Surfaces / 37.78
Optical Characterization of Black Surfaces / 37.27
Surfaces for Ultraviolet and Far-Infrared Applications / 37.23
Survey of Surfaces with Optical Data / 37.29
Paints / 37.30
Conclusions / 37.63
Acknowledgments / 37.63
References / 37.63
36.1
Glossary / 36.7
Introduction / 36.3
Optical Properties / 36.8
Measurement Techniques / 36.59
Acknowledgments / 36.82
Summary and Conclusions / 36.82
References / 36.92
Chung L. Tang
Glossary / 38.3
Introduction / 38.4
Basic Concepts / 38.6
Material Considerations / 38.20
Appendix / 38.23
References / 38.25
38.1
38.3
CONTENTS
Introduction / 39.7
Materials / 39.7/
Devices / 39.25
References / 39.35
Further Reading / 39.42
I.I
XV