Camera Lens

Background
The camera lens is an invention that attempts to duplicate the operation of the human eye.
Just like the eye, the lens sees an image, focuses it, and transmits its colors, sharpness, and
brightness through the camera to the photographic film, which, like our memory, records the
image for processing and future use. Lenses are made of optical glass or plastic. They focus
light rays by refracting or bending them so that they meet or converge at a common point.

A simple lens "sees" well through its center, but its vision around the edges tends to blur.
Blurring, color changes, distortion of lines, and color halos around objects are caused by
defects in the lens called aberrations. Some aberrations can be corrected in the simple lens by
shaping one or both surfaces so they are aspheric; aspheric curves vary like the curves of a
parabola, rather than staying constant like the curvature of a sphere. A camera lens reduces
the effects of aberrations by replacing a simple lens with a group of lenses called lens
elements, which are lenses of different shapes and distances of separation. The lens becomes
more complex as greater correction of vision is achieved. The lens will also be more complex
depending on the size of the aperture—the opening that allows light to pass through—and the
range of angles it "sees." Lens design used to rely on the optician's art and considerable
experimentation. Today, computer programs can adjust the shaping and spacing of lens
elements, determine their effects on each other, and evaluate costs of lens production.

Lens elements are usually described by their shape. The convex lens curves outward; a
biconvex lens curves outward on both sides, and a plano-convex lens is flat on one side and
outwardly curved on the other. There are also concave lenes, biconcave, and plano-concave
lenses. The elements are not necessarily symmetrical and can curve more on one side than the
other. Thickening the middle of the lens relative to its edges causes light rays to converge or
focus. Lenses with thick edges and thin middles make light rays disperse. A complex camera
lens contains a number of elements specially grouped. The combination of the composition,
shape, and grouping of the elements maximizes the light-bending properties of the individual
elements to produce the desired image. The lens is focused by moving it nearer or farther
from the film or focal plane. The lens can be twisted, causing the lens elements to move in
and out along a spiral screw thread machined into the casing of the lens. Twisting the lens
also moves a scale on the casing that shows the distance of the best focus.

The stop or diaphragm is a specialized part of the lens. In simple cameras, the stop is a fixed
stop or a ring of black sheet metal that is permanently set in front of the lens. Box cameras,
studio cameras, and some cameras of European manufacture use a sliding stop, which is a
strip of metal that slides across the front of the lens between grooves. It has two or more
holes of different sizes that are the apertures. Lenses with a variable stop have a machined
ring on the outside of the lens mount, printed with f-stop numbers. By turning this ring, the
diaphragm can be opened or closed. This iris diaphragm works much like the iris of the eye in
allowing adjustments for varied light conditions.

The lens in a compact camera is usually a general-purpose lens with a normnal focal length
that takes pictures of an image the way our eyes see it. Lenses designed for special purposes
are used with more advanced cameras. Telephoto lenses work much like binoculars or
telescopes, and make a distant image appear closer. Wide-angle lenses make the image
appear farther away; a panoramic lens is a special kind of wide-angle lens that is useful for
taking pictures of broad expanses of scenery. Some disposable cameras are equipped with
panoramic lenses. A fish-eye lens is also a special kind of wide-angle lens that deliberately
distorts the image so the central part is enlarged and the outer image details are compressed.
Fish-eye lenses cover very wide angles like horizon-to-horizon views. Another special
purpose lens is the variable-focus lens, also called a "zoom" lens. It uses moveable lens
elements to adjust the focal length to zoom closer to or farther away from the subject. These
lenses are complex and may contain 12 to 20 lens elements; however, one variable-focus lens
may replace several other lenses. Some compact cameras also have limited zoom, telephoto,
or wide-angle features. The single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is made so that the photographer
sees the same view as the lens through the viewfinder. This enables the photographer to plan
the image that will appear on film with the flexibility of a variety of interchangeable lenses.

History
The camera lens evolved from optical lenses developed for other purposes, and matured with
the camera and photographic film. In 1568, a Venetian nobleman, Daniel Barbaro, placed a
lens over the hole in a camera box and studied sharpness of image and focus. His first lens
was from an old man's convex spectacles. The astronomer Johann Kepler elaborated on
Barbaro's experiments in 1611 by describing single and compound lenses, explaining image
reversal, and enlarging images by grouping convex and concave lenses.

In the 1800s, the first box cameras had a lens mounted in the opening in the box. The lens
inverted the image on a light-sensitive plate at the back of the box. There was no shutter to
open the lens; instead, a lens cap was removed for several seconds or longer to expose the
plate. Improvements in the sensitivity of the plate necessitated ways of controlling the
exposure. Masks with different sized openings were made for insertion near the lens. The iris
diaphragm was also developed to control the aperture. Its metal leaves open and close
together to form a circular opening that can be varied in diameter.

In 1841, Joseph Petzval of Vienna designed a portrait lens with a fast aperture. Previously,
lenses made for daguerreotype cameras were best suited for landscape photography. Petzval's
lens allowed portraits to be taken ten times faster, and the photograph was less likely to be
blurred. In 1902, Paul Rudolph developed the Zeiss Tessar lens, considered the most popular
ever created. In 1918, he produced the Plasmat lens, which may be the finest camera lens
ever made. Rudolph was followed shortly by Max Berek, who designed sharp, fast lenses that
were ideal for miniature cameras.

Other essential developments in lens history include lens coating technology, use of rare-
earth glass, and calculation methods made possible by the computer. Katharine B. Blodgett
developed techniques for thin-coating lenses with soap film to remove reflection and improve
light transmission in 1939. C. Hawley Cartwright continued Blodgett's work by using
coatings of metallic fluorides, including evaporated magnesium and calcium that were four-
one-millionths of an inch thick.

Design
Design of a camera lens begins by identifying the photographer who will use it. When the
market is identified, the lens designer selects the optical and mechanical materials, the optical
design, the appropriate method for making the mechanical parts, and, for auto focus lenses,
the type of inter-face between the lens and camera. There are conventions or patterns for the
different categories of lenses, including macro, wide-angle, and telephoto lenses, so some
design aspects are standardized. Advancements in materials give designers many challenging

A group of lenses called lens elements, which are of different shapes and distances of
separation, make up the camera lens. Lens design used to rely on the optician's art and
considerable experimentation. Today, computer programs can adjust the shaping and spacing
of lens elements, determine their effects on each other, and evaluate costs of lens production.
options, however. In selecting materials, the engineer must consider a range of metals for the
components and various types of glasses and plastics for the lenses, all the while mindful of
the final cost to the photographer.

When the designer has completed the design, its performance is tested by computer
simulation. Computer programs that are specific to lens manufacturers tell the designer what
kind of image or picture the lens will produce at the center of the image and at its edges for
the range of lens operation. Assuming the lens passes the computer simulation test, the
criteria for performance that were chosen initially are reviewed again to confirm that the lens
meets the needs identified. A prototype is manufactured to test actual performance. The lens
is tested under varying temperature and environmental conditions, at every aperture position,
and at every focal length for zoom lenses. Target charts in a laboratory are photographed, as
are field conditions of varying light and shadow. Some lenses are aged rapidly in laboratory
tests to check their durability.

Additional design work is needed if the lens focuses automatically, because the auto focus
(AF) module must work with a range of camera bodies. The AF module requires both
software and mechanical design. Extensive prototype testing is performed on these lenses
because of their complex functions and because the software is fine-tuned to each lens.

Raw Materials
The raw materials for the lenses themselves, the coating, the barrel, or housing for the camera
lens, and lens mounts are described below in the manufacturing section.

The Manufacturing
Process
Grinding and polishing lens elements

 1 Optical glass is supplied to lens manufacturers by specialized vendors. Usually, it is

provided as a "pressed plate" or sliced glass plate from which the elements are cut.
The glass elements are shaped to concave or convex forms by a curve generator
machine that is a first-step grinder. To reach the specifications for its shape, a lens
goes through a sequence of processes in which it is ground by polishing particles in
water. The polishing particles become smaller in each step as the lens is refined.
 Curve generation and subsequent grinding vary in speed depending on the frailty,
softness, and oxidation properties of the optical materials.

After grinding and polishing, the elements are centered so that the outer edge of the
lens is perfect in circumference relative to the centerline or optical axis of the lens.
Lenses made of plastic or bonded glass and resin are produced by the same processes.
Bonded materials are used to make lenses with non-spherical surfaces, and these
lenses are called "hybrid aspherics." The aspherical surfaces of these lenses are
completed during centering.

Coating lenses

 2 Formed lenses are coated to protect the material from oxidation, to prevent
reflections, and to meet requirements for "designed spectrum transmission" or color
balance and rendition. The lens surfaces are carefully cleaned before coating.
Techniques for applying coatings and the coatings themselves are major selling points
for a manufacturer's lenses and are carefully guarded secrets. Some types of coatings
include metal oxides, light-alloy fluorides, and layers of quartz that are applied to
lenses and mirrors by a vacuum process. Several layers of coating may be applied for
the best color and light transmission, but excessive coating can reduce the light that
passes through the lens and limit its usefulness.

Producing the barrel

 3 The barrel includes the chassis that supports the various lens elements and the
cosmetic exterior. Metal mounts, grooves, and moving portions of the lens are critical
to the performance of the lens, and are machined to very specific tolerances. Lens
mounts may be made of brass, aluminum, or plastic. Most metal barrel components
are die-cast and machined. Metal mounts last longer, maintain their dimensions, can
be machined more precisely, and can be dismantled to replace elements, if necessary.
Plastic mounts are less expensive and of lighter weight. If the barrel is made of
engineering plastic, it is produced by a highly efficient and precise method of
injection molding. The interior surfaces of the barrel are also coated to protect them
and to prevent internal reflection and flare.

Assembling the lens

 4 Other parts of the lens, such as the diaphragm and auto focus module, are produced
as subassemblies. The iris diaphragm is constructed of curved leaves cut out of thin
sheets of metal. The metal leaves are held in place by two plates. One plate is fixed,
the other moves, and has slots for sliding pins. These slide the leaves back toward the
barrel to open the diaphragm or into the center to close the opening as the f-stop ring
is turned. The diaphragm assembly is fastened into place when the lens mount is
attached to the end of the barrel. The auto focus is also added, the optical elements are
positioned, and the lens is sealed. After final assembly, the lens is adjusted and
inspected rigorously. It must meet the design standards for optical resolution,
mechanical function, and auto focus response. Lenses may also be tested by
subjecting them to shocks, dropping, and vibration.
Quality Control
Approaches to lens manufacture vary greatly among companies. Some use full automation
including industrial robot s to make their products, others use large assembly lines, and still
others pride themselves on hand-crafting. Quality and precision are essential to lens
production, however, regardless of manufacturing approach. Incoming materials and
components are rigorously inspected for quality and compliance with engineering
specifications. Automated processes are also inspected constantly and subjected to tolerance
checks. Hand-craftsmanship is performed only by skilled artisans with long years of training.
Quality control and stress tests are incorporated in each manufacturing step, and elements and
components are measured with precise instruments. Some measuring devices are laser-
controlled and can detect deviations of less than 0.0001-millimeter in a lens surface or in lens
centering.

The Future
Camera lenses are enjoying new developments in many areas. The consumer's interest in the
best photos for the lowest cost has led to disposable cameras with simple but effective lenses.
Lenses for professional photographers and for specialized uses such as high-performance
binoculars or telescopes are made with exotic and "non-preferred" glasses that are more
sensitive, expensive, and harder to obtain than traditional materials. These are called
"abnormal dispersion" materials because they merge all the colors in the light passing
through the lens to produce the best images, rather than allowing colors to disperse like a
simple lens. Water and other liquids also bend light, and scientists have identified liquids that
are abnormally dispersive and can be trapped between layers of ordinary glass to produce the
same image quality as exotic optical glass. The ordinary or "preferred" glass (preferred
because of low cost and workability) is bonded around the liquid with flexible silicone
adhesive. The resulting "liquid lens" may replace several elements in a professional-quality
lens. It also reduces the coating required and the amount of lens polishing needed because the
liquid fills imperfections in the glass. The cost of the lens is reduced, and the light
transmission properties are improved. Lens makers in the U.S., Japan, and Europe are
preparing to produce liquid lenses in the near future.