RockMechanics

asa Multtdtsctplinary
Sctence,Roegiers(ed)
1991 Balkerna, Rotterdam ISBN906191

194X

Wellboreinstabilityof shalesusinga downholesimulationtest

cell
D.P.Salisbury
O'Brien-Goins-Simpson
& Associates,
Houston,Tex.
G.G. Ramos & B.S.Wilton

ARCOOil & GasCo., BakersfieM,

Calif.

ABSTRACT: A laboratory-scale
downhole simulation
cell
is a triaxial
drilling
chamber with pore fluid
and mud circulation
systems.
Samples
of outcrop and downhole smectite shales are stabilized,
drilled
using a
microbit
and a fresh
water
lignosulfonate
mud, followed
by mud
circulation.
When the pore pressure is lower than the mud pressure,
the
near-weltbore
clay minerals
hydrate
by imbibing
water from the mud,
resulting
in swelling and weakening.
Elastic-plastic
analyses show that
the rings of gum-like swollen shale may have formed along the locus of
maximum tangential
stress.
The back-calculated
strength
of the mudaltered shale is 10 to tOO times less than the original
shale.
1

INTRODUCTION

In petroleum drilling,
operational
problems are frequently
encountered
when going through formations containing shales. Problems such as high
torque, excessive drag and stuck pipe may be due to swelling of the clay
minerals that expand upon contact with the drilling
mud.
Conventional
diagnostic
tests
to evaluate
drilling
mud and shale compatibility
are
typically
conducted on non-preserved
shales and drill
cuttings
(Dartey
1969)
often
in unstressed
conditions
(Chenevert
1970).
For more
reliable
results,
tests
should use representative
native
shales under
simulated
in situ
environment
because volume expansion
and failure
depend on chemical reactions
as well as temperature,
fluid
pressure and
rock stress.
The optimal
samples are actual
cores of the same formation
but this
is costly
and may require
an oil-base
mud to minimize
core

damage. The alternative,

near-surface
outcrops of similar
shales, are
cheaper but they are usually
saturated
with water and may not behave
like downhole shales.
Current numerical
models for borehole stability
are good for reservoir
sandstones and they ignore mud and shale chemical
interactions
(Addis et at.,
1990).
Development of a shale wellbore
stability
model requires
quantitative
laboratory
data on strength
and
stresses in mud-damaged shales.
To create a laboratory-scale
downhole environment,
a Downhole Simulation
Cell,
or DSC,
was built
to duplicate
bottom
hole
pressures,
temperatures,
rock stress and permit prolonged periods of mud exposure
to a freshly
drilled
surface of shale (Simpson et at.,
1989).
The DSC
is

novel

method

and

the

demonstrate
the mechanisms
wellbore
instability.

results

behind

of

four

mud-induced

tests

described

wellbore

here

damage

and

1015

SHALE

SAMPLES

AND

DOWNHOLE

SIMULATION

CELL

Troublesome shale formations

rich in expandable minerals like the mixlayers
of smectite
and illite
are often encountered
during drilling.
Samples from two shale formations
were used and compared: near-surface
outcrop Pierre
shale (Missouri
River
basin,
South Dakota)
and downhole
Oligocene shale (horizontally
bedded from 2100 m subsea).
Though these
two formations
are from different
localities
and depths, both are marine
deposits and classified
as smectite or "expandable" shales.
The outcrop
Pierre
shale
is mineralogically
similar
to the downhole cores of
Oligocene
shale,
Table 1.
The Pierre
shale in this location
is a
Cretaceous
marine sediment with a maximum depth of burial
of a few
thousand feet and has not undergone depth dagenesis (Schultz
1978).
The source outcrops have horizontal
bedding planes with a slight
dip in
some areas, an indication
of the absence of uplifts
and folds which were
observed in other Pierre
shale outcrops.
To limit
mud effects
when
obtaining
cores,
the outcrop shale was cut with a 3% KC1 solution
and
immediately wiped clean and preserved while an oil mud was used with the
downhole core. The mechanical properties
listed
in Table 1, were derived
from triaxial
tests
on smaller
6.4 cm diameter
samples.
These values
are typical
of shales in that they have low cohesive strengths and low
angles of internal
friction.
The deeper Oligocene shale is about twice
as strong as the shallower
outcrop shale,
probably a consequence of
consolidation
with depth.

TABLE

COMPARISON

OF

SHALE

SAMPLES

Outcrop

MINERAL COMPOSITION (Percent

Quartz
Feldspar

Shale

by weight)
23
1

Calcite
Dolomite
Siderite

2
0.5
1

Hematite/Pyrite

Downhole

22
4
5
2
1

Kaolinite
Illite

11
10

2
16

Illite/Smectite,
Mixed-layer
Percent Expandable

48
60-70

52
65-75

Predominant

Sodium

Sodium

CoE.C.,

Shale

Cation

meq/100 gm

36

32

MECHANICAL

Young's Elastic
Poissons

Ratio,

Modulus, GPa
v

Cohesive Shear Strength,

Internal Friction
Angle,

MPa
rad

2.4

3.5

0.4

0.36

0.34
0.26

0.55
0.35

The DSC test system, Figure 1, is a triaxial

confinement cell designed
for drilling
and mud circulation.
The major components are the triaxial
sample vessel, microbit drilling
table, mud handling subsystem (heating,
circulating,
fluid transfer,
flow loop and floating piston accumulator),
servo-hydraulic
pressurization
pumps and a microcomputer
data
acquisition
subsystem.
The four
pressurization
systems
are
independently controlled
for axial (vertical
ram) stress, horizontal
(confining pressure) stress, borehole (mud) pressure, and pore pressure.
1016

Temperature,

axial

strain

and wellbore

closure

are also continuously

measured. Thus, the DSC is drastically

different
from conventional
triaxial
cells because the sample is first
loaded triaxially
to simulate
in-situ
stresses,
then an axial
borehole
is drilled
with mud flow,

followed by mud circulation.

cm diameter

is directed

The two-cone milltooth

upwards to facilitate

microbit with a 3.2

removal of drill

cuttings.

With the primary

control
of pore

aim of studying mud-shale chemical interactions,

fluids
and mud circulation
are paramount.
The
hydraulically pressured mud-transfer vessel permits addition or removal
of some of the mud to ensure its quality without disrupting
circulation
pressures.
The viscosity of the circulating
fluid is monitored within
the flow loop that provides an indication
of mud degradation.
Mud is

kept in laminarflow with an annularshearrate of 500 sec-1

Because of the vertical

impermeability

of shales,

designed for diametral drainage and the pore fluid

for

the volume of fluids

expelled

during

the

core

jacket

is

loop has drain lines

compaction and heating.

The

sample jacket

is a cast polyurethane tube 0.6 cm thick with an inside

diameter

is 0.6 cm larger

that

than the specimen.

The annulus between

the specimen and tubular jacket is filled with Ottawa sand and mineral
oil, Figure 2. When the shale specimen is heated and subjected to
triaxial
stresses, pore fluids are expelled into the jacket annulus, and
settle into a back-pressure pump where expelled fluids can be isolated

and sampled for quantitative analysis.

Micro-processor control of this
back-pressure serves as the regulator of the volume of drained pore
fluids so that pressure within the jacket annulus stays within a desired
level.
When stabilized and equilibrated,
the back-pressure magnitude is
the value of the average pore pressure within

the sample.

. TOP
PLA
'

Figure
2.
Diagram
DSC assembly.

I1[
Of#
OIL-SAND
PACK

of

sample

and

1017

DOWNHOLE

SIMULATION

The emphasis of the experiments

is
prolonged periods of mud circulation.
wellbore
that are in direct
contact

to

study wellbore
behavior during
In the field,
the sections of the
with the mud for extended periods

are the uncased

sections
time-dependent
process in

above the bit.

In order
to duplicate
this
the laboratory,
tests are conducted in three
major phases.
The first
phase returns the shale to pre-drilling
in situ
stresses and temperature.
The second phase is microbit
drilling
using
the candidate
mud, a process that creates
the fresh
surface
of shale
that immediately
contacts
the mud. The third
phase of prolonged
mud
circulation
simulates the extended period of chemical interactions
among
mud components, shale minerals
and pore fluids,
where such reactions
may
promote mechanical instability.

The test
parameters
regarding
the various
pressures,
stresses
and
drilling
variables
are summarized in Table 2.
The maximum vertical
stress of 23.4 MPa for the outcrop shale is based on its maximum depth
of burial.
The total
stresses applied on the downhole shale are below
the in-situ
total
stress magnitudes for a depth of 2100 m but the net
stresses
(applied
stress minus pore pressure)
are close to the presumed
in-situ
values.
The 28.3 MPa mud pressure is based on the mud density
that had been actually
used in the field
for coring.
The confining
pressure is sufficient
to maintain
a small positive
horizontal
stress.
The vertical
stress of 31.0 MPa, is based on prior
test experience

TABLE

DOWNHOLE SIMULATION

TEST MATRIX

Outcrop

Shale

Downhole Shale

Test

and

Test

A1

A2

B1

and

B2

Length

20.3

16.5 cm

Inside radius
Outer radius
Mud pressure

ri
ro
Pi

3.2
15.9
20.7

3.2 cm
13.3 cm
28.3 MPa

Outside

confining

pressure

Po

21.4

29.0 MPa

Axial

23.4

31.0

stress

Pore pressure Pp
Temperature

MPa

22.1 (Test A1)

25.5 MPa

82

66 C

12.1

(Test

A2)

The shale specimen is first

heated to the desired level,
followed by the
gradual application
of vertical
and horizontal
stresses.
The wellbore
is then drilled
at a rate
of 0.6 m/hr,
sufficiently
slow to avoid
rate-induced

rate
that
is
damage.
After
drilling,
a centrally
aligned drill
string is inserted
to provide an
annulus for mud circulation
while maintaining
all
other test pressures
constant.
Surge and swab pressures and "pipe action"
are avoided to
help preserve
the fabric
of the mud-altered
shale
for
post-test
examination.

1018

a penetration
wellbore

4 RESULTS

OF

SIMULATION

To demonstrate DSC results,

four tests are presented here, labeled
Test
A1 and A2 for the outcrop,
and Test B1 and B2 for the downhole shale.
A
fresh water lignosulfonate
drilling
fluid
was selected
for these four
tests because of its recognized inability
to inhibit
shale swelling
and
dispersion,
thus providing
the "worst case" test condition.
Test

A1 simulates

pressure
pressure
stress

undrained

and temperature
equilibrated
at

and

remained

at

and over-presssured

(82C)
a value

this

level

Pierre

stabilization
close to the
for

the

shale.

(phase 1),
horizontal

remainder

of

the

After

the pore
confining

test.

Phase

2 drilling
was followed
by 48 hours of mud exposure (phase 3). There
were no observable
axial
displacements
or strains
that would indicate
shale hydration
during
phase 3, plotted
in Figure
3.
The slight
increase
in axial
strain
at the start
of the phase is attributed
to
thermal
expansion
due to exposure to heated mud.
The test was then
terminated
and the specimen was sliced
through axial
and mid-length
sections

for

visual

examination.

The

shale

at

the

wellbore

surface

is

soft and gummy with

a water
content
of 20.6 percent.
The shale
immediately
behind
this
gummy layer
is friable
with
progressive
fractures
extending
to 1.9 cm of radial
thickness,
Figure 4. Water
content
of this
failed
shale is 19.4 percent
(compared to a pretest
water content
of 19.2 percent).
The remaining
shale appears unaltered
but has a moisture content of 19.1 percent,
indicating
that pore fluid
is slowly moving toward the wellbore in response to pressure gradients.
Test A2 simulates
drained
and normally
pressured
Pierre
shale.
In
actual field
drilling
practice,
most downhole shales will
have a pore
pressure gradient
lower than the mud pressure,
therefore,
pore pressure
control
procedures
were developed.
Figure 5 shows the plot of axial
strain
versus time as the pore pressure
is reduced to 11.0 MPa.
After
draining,
the pore pressure equilibrated
at 12.1 MPa, giving a total

axial compactionof about 2 percent. Nearly 200 cm

3 of pore water were
drained from the specimen.
The drained
and stabilized
shale specimen
was then drilled
and exposed to the mud for 48 hours.
Phase 3 data are
shown in Figure
6 which shows axial
expansion
as the pore pressure
increased.

The net axial stress is plotted against axial strain,

for Test A2, in
Figure 7 from which the measured Young's elastic
modulus during drainage
and compaction
is 485 MPa and the apparent
unloading
modulus during
circulation

is

1380

MPa.

The

third

phase

produced

swelling

and

hydration of the inside wall, as indicated

by the photograph shown in
Figure 8.
The shale at the wellbore
was altered
and exhibited
concentric
rings of 0.25 to 0.5 cm of radial
thickness
which appeared
detached and expanded into the borehole.
The shale at the wellbore
surface

has a moisture

has 17.9
which

is

evidence

percent.
based

content

of 18.6

The pre-drilling
on

the

of filter-cake

amount

of

deposition

percent

moisture
water

drained.

in this

while

the unaltered

content
There

or any other

is

17.2
was

shale

percent,
no

visual

shale tests.

Test B1 is a 48-hour mud exposure of the downhole shale.

This test with
a mud-exposure
time of 48 hours exhibited
concentric
rings
in the
immediate vicinity
of the borehole, Figure 9.
There are about 6 rings
of 0.25 cm thickness.
The moisture
content
at the skin is 16.6 percent

1019

o
[LAP,ED

Figure
strain

T['IE

5[NC

CORE SI:C[PIN

DRILLED.

3.
Pore pressure
during circulation,

o
ELAPSED T[HE

minte

and axial
Test A1.

Figure
strain
Pierre

Phase

4.

Post-test

photograph

l
185
225e
25
CORE SPEC[ffiEN DRILLED.
minutes

6.
Pore pressure and axial
during
mud circulation
of
shale, Test A2, Phase 3.

Figure 7.
of outcrop

Figure

112
SINCE

Stress-strain
shale,
Test

plot
A2,

1! and 3.

of

axial section, Pierre shale, Test A1

-._

'

.L'

.'

.,;..

...................................................................
.......

Figure
strain

5. Pore pressure and axial

during draining
of Pierre

shale,

Test

1020

A2,

Phase 1.

:. ,

,-

.?

.Ytgu:e 8.
ost-test
photograph
x-secttoD
through
mtd-[eDgth
outc:o p shale, Tes A2.

o[
o[

which decreases to 15.4 percent away from the bore.

The pore pressure
increased to 27.6 MPa while a very small increase
in axial
compactionstrain
(O.02Z) was noted.
The smaller axial compaction of the Oligocene
shale,
in comparison to the outcrop shale (0.4%) is a function
of the
difference
between the shales' Youngs elastic
moduli.
Test B2 is a 75-hour mud exposure of the downhole shale.
At 60 hours
into the third phase the pore pressure has increased steadily
from its
stabilized
value of 25.5 to 28.3 MPa (equal to the bore pressure),
where
it

remains

until

the

termination

of

the

test.

Prior

to

the

conclusion

of phase 3, the procedure

was modified
by reducing
only the bore
pressure until
the sample fails,
thus providing
a relative
strength
of
the mud-altered
shale.
The reduction
in mud pressure from 28.3 MPa was
done in increments
of 0.7 MPa, until
collapse
of the whole sample
occurred at a bore pressure of 24.8 MPa. Figure 10 is a photograph of
the sample showing the tell-tale
concentric
rings of failed
shale.
At
failure,
the differential
stress
between the vertical
stress
and mud
pressure
is 6.2 MPa.
5

IMPLICATIONS

ON FAILURE

MECHANISMS

The test using an over-pressured

(undrained)
shale,
Test A1, shows that
there is little
or no axial swelling during mud circulation
because the
water saturation
and excess pore pressure
prevent
hydration
of clay
minerals.
There is a net flow into the wellbore,
at a very slow rate.
At the vicinity
of the wellbore,
as the pore pressure dissipates,
the
net axial stress increases and induces a spalling
mode of failure
along
shear planes inclined
at an angle to the bore axis (Figure 4).

The drained outcrop shale behaved similar

to the native downhole shale:
the clay hydrates
and is weakened by imbibing
water
from the mud.
Quantitative
evaluation
of the exchangeable cations in the near-wellbore
shale shows that
in these two shale formations,
some of the Ca++ and
Mg++ are replaced with Na+.
The source of Na+ is the sodium hydroxide
originally
used to adjust
the mud's pH to a range of 10.0-10.5
to
enhance the dispersive
performance of the lignosulfonate.
Although axial
swelling may be limited
under actual field
conditions
these tests were
conducted without vertically
restraining
the shale, as tensile
fractures
were observed in tests of drained outcrop shales that were restrained.
Other

DSC

tests

which

used

oil-base

muds

on

similar

downhole

shales

demonstrate
the beneficial
effects
of an inhibitive
drilling
fluid
(Salisbury
and Deem 1990).
Oil muds can dehydrate the shales,
thereby
strengthening
the immediate vicinity
of the wellbore.
This seems to be
an osmotic mechanism whereby an oil-base
mud, whose internal
water phase
contains
an adequate quantity
of dissolved
salts,
can extract
shalebound interstitial
water.
The theoretical
aspects of ion concentration,
pore pressure, osmosis and hydration pressure on the mobilized strength
of clay interfaces
have been reviewed (Hayatdavoudi and Apande 1986).
6 ELASTIC-PLASTIC

ANALYSIS

Wellbore
instability
is considered
here
to be a function
of the
stresses,
strains
and strength.
The mud-filled
shale sample may be
represented
am a thick-wall
cylinder
for which the elastic
stresses
in

cylindrical
coordinates,
1980) are given by:

Figure

11,

(See for

example Hoek and Brown

1021

Figure 9.
Post-test
photograph of cross-section
downhole shale, 48 hour mud exposure, Test B1

through mid-length

Figure 10.
Post-test
photograph of cross-section
of downhole shale, 75 hour mud exposure, Test B2

of

through mid-length

DIMENSIONLESS
STRESSot/p o
1.5

-- m=l

1.4

4.3
1.2

--- m=100

1.1

.............

'"-

'

0.9

.....

'~

0.8

-- m=10

....

0.7
Radius
i.
to
elastic-pl
bound
0.6

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

RADIAL DISTANCE, r/internal radius

Figure

il.

Two-dimensional

representation

plastic

wellbore.

of

elastic-

Figure 12.
Tangential
stresses
in
elastic
and plastic
zones. F.lastic
ease,
m=l,
elastic-plastic
when
m=10

1022

and

m=100.

Or = Po - (Po - Pi)(ri/r) 2
t = Po + (Po - Pi)(ri/r) 2
where r= radial

distance,

Or= radial

(1)
(2)
stress,

and ot= tangential

stress.

Initially,
the cylinder
is stable
(elastic)
because all the stresses,
the radial,
tangential
and axial,
are below the strength
of the rock.
As the mud reacts with the shale, the near-wellbore
may be weakened as
demonstrated in the photographs (Figure 8,9,and
10) and in this case,
the tangential
stress would exceed the strength
of the mud-altered
portion of the shale.
The mud-altered
region in the vicinity
of the
wellbore
is in a plastic
state.
To derive
the stresses
and radial
thickness of the plastic
region,
the method of (Hoek and Brown 1980) is
convenient
to apply here because it separates
the strength
of the
plastic
zone from that of the elastic
region.
However, it requires

reformulation

of the

linear
regression
strength tests'

shale

strength

coefficients

of

in

terms

data

(Ol-O3) = toUoo 3 + souo

(Ol-O 3) = tmUmo
3 + smUm

of

from

s o and t o which are

conventional

triaxial

unaltered
shale
mud-altered shale

(3a)
(3b)

where the subscripts

1 and 3 refer
to a maximum and minimum stress-pair
and Uo is the unconfined compressive strength.
For the unaltered shales

the assumed values are to=l and So=0.1.

The strength parameters Um, t m
and Sm, with the subscript m referring
to the mud-altered
shale, are
unknown and would be difficult
to measure using conventional
triaxial
strength
tests.
These may be back-calculated
by assuming that the
measured radius
of the plastic
rings as the radius
to the elasticplastic
interface,
r e (Figure 11).
Hoek's

derivation

of the

radius

to the

elastic-plastic

boundary

re/r i = exp { C - 2J [Pi/(tmUo) Sm/(tm)2]-i

where

C = 2 7{[(Po - DUo)/(tmUo)]+ Sm/(tm)

2}

and

D = (1/2)[(to/4) 2 + (toPo/Uo)+ So] + to/8

is'

(4)

__

C and D are integration

constants.

Stresses

in the plastic

ring

are:

Or = (1/4)tmUo[ln(r/ri)] 2 + ln(r/ri)J[tmUoPi + sm(Uo)

2] + Pi (5)
ot = or + 7[tmUoo
r + so(Uo)2]

(6)

For the mud-altered

ring,
its strength parameters may be expressed in
terms of the original
strength
reduced by a magnitude m, a strength
reduction

factor:

m = to/t m and m = So/S m

(7)

Using a strength reduction factor of m=10, Eqn 4 gives the r e = 1.7, the
outer radius of the plastic
ring.
Behind this interface
is the elastic
(not weakened, m=l) zone whose stresses are those given by the elastic
relations
of Eq. 1 and 2 for r i = r e . The tangential
stresses are
plotted in Figure 12.
For the elastic-plastic
boundary re, there is a
sudden increase in the tangential
stress (or a stress jump) while the
radial

stresses

are

continuous.

1023

With extended periods of mud exposure, the strength factors t m and sm of

the

mud-altered

zone

are

further

reduced

and

the

locus

of

maximum

tangential
stress
migrates
outward.
The effects
of time-dependent
strains
(creep) and strain-softening
(Cheatham et al.,
1986) are ignored
here.
In order to match Test B2's ring thickness of 1.3-1.5
cm, using
Eqn. 4, the strength
parameters of the mud-altered
shale would have to

be reduced by 100 (relative

to the native shale) which gives an r e of
2.0 cm, Figure 12.
This implies that the lignosulfonate
mud may have
reduced the shales
original
strength
by at least
two orders
of
magnitude.
This range of strength
reduction
plastic
rings are very soft and gummy, unlike
of
7

the

unaltered

is reasonable
since the
the hardness and modulus

shale.

CONCLUSIONS

The Downhole Simulation

Cell can reliably
simulate
the stresses
and
temperatures
in uncased wellbores
at depth.
The outcrop shale requires
draining to simulate normally pressured downhole shale.
With prolonged
exposure to a non-inhibitive
lignosulfonate
mud, the normally-pressured
smectite
shales are de-stabilized
due to swelling
and hydration.
The
expanded mud-altered
shale is weaker than the native shale by at least
two orders
of magnitude.
The thickness
of the mud-damaged shale
increases

with

time

and if

not

arrested,

this

would

lead

to

excessive

hole enlargement and collapse.

For over-pressured
shales,
the failure
of the wellbore
is a function
of the net stresses during pore pressure
dissipation
with
little
or no hydration.
The DSC can be used for
annular mud-flow tests,
moduli and strength
measurements, and to study
the effects
of other types of muds on shales and other weak rocks.
REFERENCES

Addis, M.A.,
Barton,
N.R.,
Bandis,
S.C. and Henry,
J.P.,
"Laboratory
Studies
on the Stability
of Vertical
and Deviated
Boreholes,"
SPE
paper 20406 Proc. 63rd Tech. Conf, New Orleans,
La, Sept. 23-26, 1990.
Cheatham, J.B.,
Lin,
Y.H.,
and Patillo,
P.D.,
"Analysis
of Borehole
Stability
Using A Strain Softening Model," Proc. 27th
Symp. on Rock
Mechanics, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama, June 23-25,
1986,
pp. 552-561.
Chenevert,
M.E.,
"Shale Alteration
by Water Adsorption,"
J. Pet. Tech.
(Sept. 1970).
Darley,
H.C.H.,
"A Laboratory
Investigation
of Borehole Stability,"
J.
Pet. Tech. (July 1969).
Hayatdavoudi,
A., and Apande, E.,
"A Theoretical
Analysis of Wellbore
Failure
and Stability
in Shales,"
Proceedings
to the 27th Symposium
on Rock Mechanics, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama, June 23-25, 1986, pp. 571-579.
Hoek, E, and Brown, E. T. Underground Excavations
in Rock, Institution
of Mining and Metallurgy,
London, 1980.
Salisbury,
D.P. and Deem, C.K., "Tests Show How Oil Muds Increase Shale
Stability,"
World Oil (October,
1990).
Schultz,
L.G.,
"Mixed-Layer
Clay in the Pierre
Shale and Equivalent
Rocks, Northern Great Plains Region," Geological
Survey Professional
Paper 1064-A, (1978).
Simpson, J.P.,
Dearing,
H.L. and Salisbury,
D.P.,
"Downhole Simulation
Cell Shows Unexpected Effects
of Shale Hydration
on Borehole Wall,"
SPE Drilling
Engineering
(March 1989).

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11. Design