Biology Notes 1
Biology Notes 1
Biology Notes 1
Describe the structure of an amino acid molecule and explain how amino acids
link together.
1 Amino acid based on carbon with four groups attached;
2 Amino/ NH2 and carboxyl / COOH;
3 R-group/ side chain + hydrogen;
4 R-group differs from one amino acid to another;
5 Amino acids joined by condensation;
6 Bond formed between NH2 and COOH;
7 Involves removal of molecule of water;
8 H from NH2 and OH from COOH;
as receptor molecules.
Many different sorts of proteins;
Different primary structures/sequences of amino acids;
Tertiary structure;
Shape; allowing formation of receptor/binding site/site into which
substance/substrate fits;
Describe how you would use a biochemical test to show that a solution
contained protein.
Biuret / alkali + copper sulphate;
Lilac/purple/mauve/violet;
With reference to named parts of the diagram, explain the difference between
the terms:
Triglyceride and phospholipid;
Phospholipid has (one) phosphate / Phosphoric acid;
replacing fatty acid;
Saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated all valencies of C filled / saturated with hydrogen / all (CC)
single bonds / no double bonds;
fatty acid 1 is saturated/fatty acids 2 and 3 are unsaturated;
Describe how you could use Benedicts reagent to test a urine sample for the
presence of glucose.
Add (Benedicts) reagent (to urine sample) and heat / heat the mixture;
red/ brown/ orange/ green/ yellow;
Describe a further biochemical test to find out if a substance is a non-reducing
sugar.
Heat with acid, then neutralise / hydrolyse using enzyme;
(heat) with Benedicts (solution);
Explain how three features of a plasma membrane adapt it for its functions.
1. Phospholipid bilayer (as a barrier);
2. Forms a barrier to water soluble / charged substances / allows non-polar substances to pass
OR
Maintains a different environment on each side / compartmentalisation;
3. Bilayer is fluid;
4. Can bend to take up different shapes for phagocytosis / form vesicles / self-repair;
5. Channel proteins (through the bilayer)/intrinsic protein;
6. Let water soluble/charged substances through / facilitated diffusion;
7. Carrier proteins (through the bilayer);
8. Allow facilitated diffusion / active transport;
9 surface proteins / extrinsic proteins, glycoproteins / glycolipids;
10 cell recognition / act as antigens / receptors;
11cholesterol;
12 regulate fluidity / increases stability;
Describe how the distribution of cell membranes in a prokaryotic cell such as a bacterium
differs from that in a cell from a plant leaf. (4)
Absence of nuclear envelope/membrane;
Membrane bounded organelles;
Such as mitochondria/chloroplast/vacuole/lysosome;
and membrane systems/endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi;
Mesosomes in prokaryotes;
Enzymes
Many reactions take place in living cells at temperatures far lower than those required for
the same reactions in a laboratory. Explain how enzymes enable this to happen.
lowers activation energy;
relevant mechanism e. g. brings molecules close together / reaction in smaller
steps / change in charge distribution / proton donation or acceptance / induced
fit ensuring substrates brought in correct sequence;
including relevant reference to active site;
Use your knowledge of protein structure to explain why enzymes are specific and
may be affected by non-competitive inhibitors.
1 each enzyme/protein has specific primary structure / amino acid sequence;
2 folds in a particular way/ has particular tertiary structure;
3 active site with unique structure;
4 shape of active site complementary to/ will only fit that of substrate;
maximum of three marks for inhibition, points 5 8
5 inhibitor fits at site on the enzyme other than active site;
6 determined by shape;
7 distorts active site;
8 so substrate will no longer fit / form enzyme-substrate complex;
Digestion
Describe the role of the enzymes of the digestive system in the complete breakdown
of starch.
Amylase;(salivary/pancreatic)
(Starch) to maltose:
Maltase;(built into the membrane of the small intestine)
Maltose to glucose;
Hydrolysis;
(Of) glycosidic bond;
Explain how the small intestine is adapted to its function in the absorption of the
products of digestion.
Large surface area provided by villi / microvilli;
long / folds increase surface area / time for absorption;
thin epithelium;
short diffusion pathway;
capillary network absorbs amino acids / sugars;
lacteal for absorption of digested fats;
Maintains a steep concentration gradient
mitochondria supply ATP / energy for active transport;
carrier proteins (in membranes);
Describe the processes involved in the absorption of the products of starch digestion.
Glucose moves in with sodium (into epithelial cell);
Via (carrier/channel) protein/symport;
Sodium removed (from epithelial cell) by active transport/sodiumpotassium pump;
Into blood;
Maintaining low concentration of sodium (in epithelial cell) /
maintaining sodium concentration gradient (between lumen
and epithelial cell);
Glucose moves into blood/out of the epithelial cell;
By (facilitated) diffusion;
Describe and explain the roles of diffusion, facilitated diffusion and active transport
in the absorption of digested food by the ileum.
Diffusion
movement along / down concentration gradient;
monoglycerides / micelles/fatty acids move into epithelial cells;
monoglycerides move from epithelium into blood;
chylomicrons move into lacteals / lymph;
Facilitated diffusion
Movement along / down concentration gradient;
reference to carrier / channel proteins;
monosaccharides or named / amino acids move into epithelial cells;
Active transport
movement against concentration gradient;
energy / ATP required;
reference to carrier proteins;
monosaccharides or named / amino acids moved into epithelial cells;
Describe how the structure of the lungs and the red blood cells enable
efficient diffusion and transport of oxygen.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Pulmonary fibrosis: when scars form on the epithelia that are damaged, increasing the
diffusion pathway, loss of elasticity in lung tissue, which reduces the concentration
gradient, narrowing of vessels, reducing air flow and concentration gradient. Results in
shortness of breath, dry cough, tiredness (insufficient oxygen for respiration)
Asthma is caused by physical factors called allergens in the environment. These
allergens include pollen, dust mites faeces and fur.
These allergens trigger an inflammatory response by the immune system.
White blood cells called mast cells release histamines, which cause the smooth circular
muscles of the bronchioles to contract, narrowing the airways (bronchoconstriction).
The epithelial cells also secrete more mucus, which further blocks the airways.
The constricted bronchioles stimulate wheezing and coughing as the lungs try to loosen
the mucus. The constrictions reduce the tidal volume, so alveolar air is only replaced
slowly. The oxygen concentration gradient across the alveolar epithelium is reduced, so
the rate of diffusion in the alveoli is reduced by Ficks law. Less oxygen diffuses into the
blood, so less oxygen is available for cellular respiration throughout the body.
Describe the parts played by the sinoatrial node (SAN) and the atrioventricular
node (AVN) in controlling the heartbeat.
1SAN initiates / sends heart beat;
2Myogenic / beats spontaneously / does not require nerve impulse;
3Rate of beating influenced by nerves:
4Wave of electrical activity / impulses / excitation passes over atrium;
5Triggers contraction of atrium;
6Electrical activity can only pass to ventricles / along bundle of His by way of AVN
7Fibrous tissue prevents passage elsewhere;
8 Delay at AVN;
9 Allows blood to empty into ventricles / atria to empty;
What is atheroma? (2)
Plaque/ fatty material/ cholesterol/ foam cells/ lipoprotein build up;
In artery/ blood vessel wall;
Describe how atheroma can lead to an aneurysm. (2)
Weakens artery wall;
So that it swells/ bursts;
Describe how atheroma may form and lead to a myocardial infarction.(6)
1 fatty substance / foam cells / cholesterol in artery wall / under endothelium;
2 formation of plaques / atherosclerosis / atheroma narrows lumen of
artery;
3 atheroma creates turbulence / damage to lining of artery;
4 (turbulence) increases risk of blood clot / embolus;
5 blood clot / thrombus breaks off;
6 (blood clot) lodges in coronary artery;
7 reduced blood supply to heart muscle;
8 reduced oxygen supply;
9 leads to death of heart muscle;
Cigarette smoking and a diet high in saturated fat increase the risk of
Immunity
Phagocytes and lysosomes are involved in destroying microorganisms. Describe how.
Phagocytes engulf pathogens/microorganisms;
Enclosed in a vacuole / vesicle/ phagosome;
Fuses with lysomsome to for a phagolysosome
Lysosomes have enzymes;
That digest/hydrolyse molecules/proteins/lipids/microorganism;
What is an antigen?
Molecule/part of molecule/protein/glycoprotein;
Stimulates immune response;
What is an antibody?(2)
Protein/immunoglobulin;
specific to antigen;
idea of fit/complementary shape;
Antibodies are protein molecules. Explain why protein molecules are particularly well
suited to carry out the role of antibodies.
Large variety of different molecules;
range of shapes;
Tertiary shape;
locks onto / complements specific antigen;
Vaccines protect people against disease. Explain how.(5)
1. Vaccines contain antigens / antigens are injected;
2. Dead pathogens / weakened pathogens;
3. Memory cells made;
4. On second exposure memory cells produce antibodies / become active / recognise pathogens;
5. Rapidly produce antibodies / produces more antibodies;
6. Antibodies destroy pathogens;
7. Herd effect / fewer people to pass on disease;
What is vaccination?
Injection of antigens/toxoids;
(Antigen from) attenuated microorganism/non-virulent microorganisms/dead
Microorganisms/isolated from microorganism;
Stimulates the formation of memory cells;
Give two other methods used to prepare vaccines.
Killed microorganism;
modified toxin;
attenuated/heat treated/UV treated microorganism;
genetically engineered antigens;
isolated antigen;
Vaccines protect against disease by stimulating the production of memory cells.
Describe how memory cells protect the body from disease.
Explain the role of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes in the defence of the body
against a virus infection.
B lymphocytes produce antibodies/involved in humoral response;
T lymphocytes involved in cell mediated immunity;
Macrophages present antigens;
(specific) B lymphocytes recognise/bind to antigen;
increase in numbers by mitosis;
produce plasma cells (which make antibodies);
antibodies bind to and clump/ agglutinate virus;
st
nd
memory cells produced by 1 exposure/cloned on 2
exposure;
T lymphocytes(helpers) produce lymphokines/chemicals;
which aid B lymphocyte cloning;
encourages phagocytes to engulf clumped virus;
killer T cells kill virus infected cells;