A Cell Structure

Role of centrioles in animal cell:

1. (during), mitosis / meiosis / nuclear division ; ignore ‘cell division’ / phases

2. replicate, after / before, each division ; A at interphase
3. move / separate, to poles ;
4. assemble / organise, microtubules ;
5. centre for growth of / forms, spindle fibres / for formation of (mitotic) spindle / AW ;
6. modified centrioles found elsewhere such as in flagella / cilia ;

Possibility of seeing internal membranes using EM:

1. (EM has) greater / higher, resolution / resolving power ; ora

2. explanation of resolution as ability to differentiate between two points (close together) ;
3. width of membranes is 7 nm (±1) ;
4. (resolution of) LM is 200 nm (0.2 µm) and EM is 0.5 nm (0.0005 µm) ;
5. A 0.5 to 1 nm (0.001 µm)
6. ref to shorter wavelength ; ora
7. resolution is equal to half the wavelength ;

Typical Size of Eukaryotic cell: 40 µm

Typical Size of Prokaryotic cell: 0.5 – 5 µm

Why smaller structures cannot be viewed using light microscope?

ignore refs to magnification

resolution/resolving power, low(er) ; ora
200 nm compared to 0.5 nm ; A resolution quoted in range 100-300 to 0.2-1.0 nm
ref. to visibility of structure C ; e.gs.
wavelength of light longer than size of, ribosomes/membrane
ribosomes/membrane, cannot be seen as less than 200nm diameter
ribosomes only 20–30 nm diameter A 15–20 nm
membranes 7–10 nm thick
small size linked to explanation of resolution

Disadvantages of EM compared to light microscope:

only dead specimens can be viewed ;

mounted in vacuum/pre-treatment, may distort delicate structures ; A artefacts
expensive, qualified ; e.g. to buy, maintain, increased cost electricity, costs associated with,
time/training
requires, more electrical power ;
requires stable, high voltage supplies/currents ;
sensitive to external magnetic fields ;
difficult to operate/requires technical training ;
samples more difficult to prepare ; A examples e.g. thin sections
lengthy preparation time ;

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monochrome/black and white only ;
not portable/can only be used in specific locations (e.g. with voltage supplies) ;

Advantages of LM:

1. Living cells can be viewed (with light microscope);

2. Can watch the cell cycle happen (in real time / time lapse) / AW ;
3. All chromosomes can be seen (at once) ;
4. Can see, whole chromosomes / all the stages of mitosis or cell cycle;
5. Do not need take sections to see mitosis ;
6. Dyes / stains, can be used ; I ref. to natural colors of specimens
A ref. to fluorescence microscopy

Features of prokaryotes:

1. DNA not surrounded by, nuclear, envelope / membrane ; AW A no (true) nucleus

2. circular DNA ; A loop
3. DNA not complexed with histone proteins ; A naked DNA
4. (only) 70S / smaller / 18nm, ribosomes ; A ribosomes not attached to membranes
5. no double membrane-bound organelles; A no, mitochondria / chloroplasts
6. absence of named organelle ; e.g. Golgi apparatus, ER / RER / SER
if previous mp not given, A no membrane-bound organelles
7. capsule / slime layer ;
8. very small diameter / 0.5 to 5.0μm ;
9. cell wall of, murein / peptidoglycan ;
examples of other relevant points
10. pili / pilus ;
11. no 9+2 microtubule arrangement ;
12. flagellum not covered by cell surface membrane ;
13. presence of plasmids ;
Functions of Organelles:
Nucleus:
Gene(s) / genetic information / DNA, coding for antibody / Protein / polypeptide;
Transcription (occurring) / mRNA synthesis;
Cell surface membrane

Control of movement of substances into and out of the cell

Nucleolus

production of, ribosomes / rRNA / tRNA ;

Mitochondrion

Aerobic respiration;
ATP synthesis/ production / AW;
link reaction;

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Krebs cycle;
oxidative phosphorylation;

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

lipid / sterol / cholesterol / steroid, synthesis ;

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

protein / polypeptide, synthesis;

translation;
modification of protein / described (e.g. folding, glycosylation);
protein transport (to Golgi);

Golgi (body / complex /apparatus)

modification of protein
glycosylation / described
modification of lipid
pack(ag)ing (of), protein / lipids
production of, (Golgi / secretory) vesicles / lysosomes

Lysosome or Golgi / secretory, vesicle

contains /storage of, hydrolytic /
digestive, enzymes
or if Golgi vesicle
transfer / transport, of, protein / lipids ;

Chloroplast(s)

Photosynthesis
Light-dependent reactions / stage (of photosynthesis)
Light, absorption / AW
Light-independent, reactions / stage (of photosynthesis)
Calvin Cycle
Carbon fixation
Photophosphorylation
A ATP synthesis

Cholesterol:
making / components of, membranes;
membrane stability;
regulating the fluidity of, membranes / phosphplipid bilayer;
production of, steroid hormones / name steroid hormone;
AVP ; e.g. helps prevent entry of, ions / polar molecules

3
 B Biological Molecules
Why hemoglobin is called a globular protein with quaternary structure?
1. Soluble/polar/hydrophilic (on outside)/compact/spherical/curled/coiled/folded (into a
ball)/metabolically active;
2. 4 polypeptides;
Difference between structure of DNA and collagen:

Uses of water in Plant Cells:

1. Solvent / medium for reactions ;
2. Transport medium ;
3. Maintaining turgidity / keeping firm / prevents flaccidity / AW ;
4. (raw material / reactant for) photosynthesis / photolysis ;
5. Expansion / elongation / growth ;
6. Maintains, hydrostatic pressure / pressure potential ;
7. Maintains water potential (gradient) ;
8. Stomatal opening ;
9. Hydrophilic interactions of membranes ;
10. (in vacuole) pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell ;
Secondary / Tertiary Structure (description):
Secondary:
1. Regular order / pattern, based on H-bonds ;
2. Between CO- group of one amino acid and NH- group of another ;
3. Alpha-helix and B-pleated sheet ;

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Tertiary:
1. Folding coiling ;
2. Interactions between, R groups side chains ;
3. Two correctly named bonds ; e.g. hydrogen bonds, disulfide, bonds/bridges, ionic bonds,
hydrophobic interactions
4. Further description of bonds ; e.g.
Disulfide between cysteine (S-H) groups
Hydrogen polar groups (NH- and CO-)
Ionic between ionized amine and carboxylic acid groups
Hydrophobic interactions between non-polar side chains
5. Ref. active site, specific/precise, shape
6. ref. globular/AW, shape
7. ref. amino acids with, hydrophilic/polar, R groups facing to outside ; ora
Why fats act as better energy reserve than carbohydrates?
1. more energy released / stored per gram / unit / given mass / smaller mass per unit energy /
higher calorific value;
2. 37kJ vs 17 kJ
3. Fats are highly reduced;
4. More hydrogen / fewer oxygens / higher carbon to hydrogen ratio / more CH bonds;
5. Release / yield more energy when respired / oxidized ;
6. Compact ; can be stored in anhydrous form ( <-- this point relates to the storage advantage of
fats over carbohydrates such as glycogen )
Properties of Water: (arising from presence of hydrogen bonds : )
AVP answers must be in context to a watery external environment
ref to molecules held together / strong attraction / AW ;
A cohesion between water molecules
detail of hydrogen bonding, e.g. slight –ve charge on O, slight +ve charge on H ;
A water molecules are polar
high boiling point / boils at 100oC ;
high latent heat of vaporisation ;
so water is liquid over wide range of temperatures ;
(liquid so) provides, support / buoyancy ;
high (specific) heat capacity ;
stable temperature / temperature of water does not change quickly ;
large amount of energy needed to be transferred from water for it to freeze / high latent heat
of fusion ;
maximum density at 4°C / less dense at 0°C ;
provides surface tension ;
ref solvent ;
e.g. ref to surface dwellers, less need for support tissue,
stable habitat qualified, ref upwelling currents
ice floats / insulates

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Function of collagen in the wall of arteries:

1. withstands pressure ;
2. prevents, overstretching / AW ;
3. prevents, bursting / rupture / AW ;

Structure of collagen vs. Haemoglobin:

1. polypeptides are not identical (v. 2 identical, α / β, polypeptides) ;

2. triple helix or three, polypeptides / helices (v. 4 polypeptides) ;
3. only composed of amino acids or no, prosthetic group / haem / iron ;
4. (fibrous so) not globular ;
5. no complex folding / AW (v. complex folding) ; A no tertiary structure
6. glycine is repeated every 3rd position / more glycine ;
7. repeating triplets of amino acids / large number repeating amino acid sequences (v. greater
variety) ;
8. AVP ; e.g. different primary structure / AW
9. variation in amino acid sequences (v specific sequences)
10. all polypeptides, helical / AW (v. α different to β, polypeptides)
11. hydrogen bonds between polypeptides (v. Van der Waals)
12. covalent bonds between molecules (to form fibrils) (v. none)
13. 300nm long polypeptides (v 5–10nm)
14. each polypeptide over 1000 amino acids (each 141 / 146 amino acids)

C Enzymes

Mode of action of enzymes:

1. catalysts
2. active site, gives specificity;
3. substrate fits into / binds with, active site
4. complementary (shape) / matching shape ;
5. lock & key / induced fit
6. further detail of substrate binding to active site ;
7. forms, enzyme-substrate / E-S complex ;
8. causes stress in substrate / AW ;
9. lowers activation energy / reactions occur at low(er) temperatures ;
10. not used up in reaction / remain unchanged / reusable ;
11. products no longer fit, so leave the active site

Effect of competitive inhibitors:

1. similar/same shape to, substrate

2. occupies/binds/combines/fits into, active site;
3. so blocking/preventing, entry of substrate; (therefore) decreased rate of product/e-s complex
formation (at low substrate concentrations);
4. inhibitors molecules, not permanently bound to active site/bind briefly;
5. reference effect of conc. of substrate e.g. inhibitor less effective at high concentrations of
substrate;

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Effect of non-competitive inhibitors:

1. no competing with substrates

2. fit into, a site other than active site / allosteric site ;
3. shape of enzyme changes / shape of active site changes ;
4. active site no longer complementary shape to substrate ;

Effect of pH on Enzyme activity:

1. (at optimum pH) maximum / peak activity ;

2. Above / below, optimum, activity declines ;
3. Changing pH changes hydrogen ion concentration ;
4. Hydrogen / ionic bonds (between amino acids), break / disrupted ;
5. Hydrogen / ionic bonds, important in maintaining shape of, tertiary structure / active site ;
6. Active site / tertiary, shape altered ;
7. Charges at the active site may be affected ;
8. Further detail ; e.g. transfer of electrons may not be possible
9. The substrate may be altered by pH changes ;
10. (therefore) substrate no longer fits / ES complexes not formed ;

D Cell Membranes and Transport

Channel Proteins:

permits movement of, ions / (small) water soluble molecules / charged/polar/hydrophilic ;

facilitated diffusion / active transport ;
Carrier proteins
allow named substance (e.g. glucose / amino acids) / polar substance / ion(s) /
hydrophilic / water soluble substance (to pass through membrane);
(ref) against concentration gradient / active transport; energy / ATP (req for transport);
(and) facilitated diffusion / faster than simple diffusion (for ions / polar molecules);
Glycoproteins
receptors / receptor molecules;
for hormones / neurotransmitters / named hormone / neurotransmitter (e.g. insulin,
acetyl choline, noradrenaline);
idea of (cell surface) antigens / (cell surface) markers / cell recognition / cell adhesion;
help to stabilise membrane structure / forms H bonds with water molecules;
Cholesterol
maintains / regulates fluidity of membrane / prevents membrane
being too rigid or fluid / mechanical stability (qualified) /
prevent ions / polar / water soluble / named molecule, passing /
leaking through membrane;

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Phospholipids

1. can form a bilayer ;

2. link between, hydrophobic core / AW, and barrier to water-soluble substances ; A polar/ ionic
3. idea of, hydrophilic / phosphate, head, forming H bonds with water ; A facing, water / watery
environment / aqueous environment / cytoplasm / cytosol
4. ref. contribution to fluid nature of membrane ;
5. further detail ; e.g. mainly saturated fatty acids, less fluid e.g. mainly unsaturated fatty acids,
more fluid
6. ref. to control over membrane protein orientation ; e.g. hydrophobic – hydrophobic interaction
for ‘floating’ proteins

Describe the process of exocytosis.

1. Vesicle / vacuole, moves towards, cell, surface / membrane ;

2. Fusion / described, of vesicle with membrane ;
3. ref. to (fluid nature of) phospholipids ;
4. contents / AW, secreted / released / exported / removed / emptied / excreted ;
5. active process / energy-requiring / ATP used / AW ;

Some cells take in bacteria by endocytosis. Explain how endocytosis occurs at cell surface membrane.
1. attachment (of bacteria) to receptor(s) ; AW
2. ref. ability to attach to antibody (bound to antigen on bacterium)
3. infolding / invagination / AW, of membrane ; A membrane engulfs A pseudopodia
4. form (round bacterium)
5. fusion / AW, of membrane ;
6. formation of, vacuole / vesicle ;

How bacteria are engulfed by phagocytosis?

Bacteria or their antigens combine with receptors of the cell surface membrane, antibodies produced by
the B-lymphocytes also bind with bacteria and thus combine with receptors. This process of opsonisation
facilitates in phagocytosis. Membrane engulfs bacteria by enfolding around them. Membrane fuses to
form a phagocytic vesicle or phagosome enclosing bacteria.

Process of Active Transport (ions):

1. Moved against the conc. gradient ;

2. Carrier proteins / transport proteins / pump proteins
3. Ions bind to specific binding site on carrier proteins
4. Carrier proteins undergo conformational changes in their shape
5. ref. to ATP

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“Fluid Mosaic Model”:

The phospholipids move like fluid within their monolayer and proteins float or move with the
phospholipid bilayer. The term mosaic refers to the dispersed/interspersed/scattered arrangement of
proteins with in the bilayer.

Role of ions in living organism:

calcium
1. bone/teeth, formation/strengthening; R calcium in bone
R calcium for healthy bones and teeth
2. enamel/shell, formation/strengthening;
3. reference to muscle/nerve/synapse, function e.g. muscle contraction, generation of
nerve impulse;
4. blood clotting;
5. calcium pectate, in cell wall/middle lamella;
6. spindle formation;
7. for fertilisation/fusion of egg and sperm;

iron
1. forms part of, haem/haemoglobin/myoglobin; A transport of oxygen in haemoglobin
A forms prosthetic group of haemoglobin
2. reference cytochrome(s)/electron carrier(s);
3. important in chlorophyll synthesis;
4. prosthetic group of some/named, enzymes/catalase;

potassium
1. activates enzymes;
2. cofactor in, photosynthesis/glycolysis;
3. reference to nerve/muscle, function e.g. conduction of nerve impulse, muscle
contraction;
4. maintains osmotic balance/water potential of cells;
5. stomatal, opening/closure/turgidity of guard cells;
6. reference to Na+/K+ pump mechanism - qualified;

E Cell and Nuclear Division

Explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in cancer.

ref. to mutation(s) ;
in context of initiating uncontrolled mitosis
proto-oncogenes convert to oncogenes / oncogenes switched on / tumour suppressor genes switched
off ;
(cell division is by) mitosis ;
Formation of tumour / mass of (unspecialized) cells ;
No response to (extracellular / intracellular) signals to control mitosis / AW ;
No contact inhibition / AW
No cell death / no apoptosis ;
Immune system does not recognize the cells as foreign and destroys them ;
Metastasis / described ;

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Prophase and metaphase

1. chromatids / chromosomes / chromatin, condense / become shorter / become thicker / coil /

supercoil / AW ; A ‘become (more) visible’
2. centrioles, move to / reach, opposite poles ; R ends
3. nucleolus disappears ;
4. spindle is formed ; A ‘more developed’ A description in terms of spindle fibres
5. ref to assembly of microtubules ; A ‘makes’ microtubules R 9+2
6. nuclear envelope, disintegrates / breaks down / destroyed / AW ; A membrane
7. chromosomes, move to / at, equatorial plate / equator / metaphase plate / AW ; ignore middle /
centre
8. centromeres attach to, spindle / fibres ;
9. ref to random arrangement of chromosomes ; A ‘not in pairs’ R scattered

Features characteristic of metaphase:

chromosomes / (sister) chromatids, line up at the, equator / equatorial plate / metaphase

plate ; A move to I middle / centre
centromeres attached to, spindle / spindle fibres ;
A (spindle) microtubules A kinetochore
centrioles, reach / located at / AW, poles ; R ends
ref. spindle fully formed ; A spindle fibres extend from poles / AW
R ref. to nuclear envelope absent (in anaphase also)

Importance of mitosis:

replacement of cells ;
repair of tissue ; R repair of cells
growth / increase in cell numbers ;
asexual reproduction / vegetative propagation ; R cloning
maintains / same, number of chromosomes ; A two sets of chromosomes / diploid / 2n
genetically identical to parents ;
A produces daughter cells that are genetically identical A ref. clone(s)
ref to rejection / self vs non-self ;

F Genetic Control

Explain how the structure of DNA enables it to replicate semi-conservatively.

1. base pairing/A-T and C-G; A purine - pyrimidine

2. ref to complementary/explained with ref to H bonds; R complementary in wrong context
3. (free) nucleotides pair with both, strands/each strand/polynucleotides/sides;
4. both strands act as templates;
5. to produce two DNA molecules that are identical to one another;

My answer: In DNA there’s complementary base pairing (A-T and G-C). During DNA replication, the DNA
molecule unwinds and unzips. Both the strands of DNA act as a template for the formation of the new
DNAs. The free nucleotides present in the nucleus bind with both the strands; each nitrogen base in free
nucleotide binding with its complementary base on template strand. As a result, two genetically identical
molecules of DNA are produced.

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Differences between polypeptide chain and DNA:

Polypeptide DNA
Amino acids Nucleotides
One / single strand / chain Two / double strand / chains
Peptide bonds Phosphodiester
20 monomers / sub-units Only 4 monomers / sub-units
No phosphate / PO4 Has phosphate / PO4
2° / 3° structure Double helix

Role of tRNA in protein synthesis:

1. (tRNA) carries amino acid to ribosome ;

2. ref. to specificity of amino acid carried ; A role in ensuring correct primary structure
3. ref. anticodon (on tRNA): codon (on mRNA) binding ;
4. ref. complementary / base pairing ; A A-U, C-G
5. ref to tRNA binding sites within ribosome ;
6. two tRNAs bound to, mRNA / ribosome, at same time ;
7. amino acids held close to each other / AW ;
8. (for) peptide bond formation ;
9. (tRNA) can be reused / binds another amino acid ;

Role of ribosomes in protein synthesis:

 translation (in correct context) / genetic code used to make a sequence of amino acids / AW
 attach / assemble around / moves along mRNA
 tRNA(s) carrying amino acid(s), bind to mRNA
 binding / pairing / AW, between anticodon on tRNA to codon mRNA
 (catalyse) formation of peptide bond (to form polypeptide)
 Any further detail of translation;
e.g peptidyl transferase
ribosome moves along one codon at a time
start codon is AUG
correct roles of P(eptidyl) and A(mino-acyl) sites

Role of mRNA after leaving nucleus:

1. translation ; R if transcription given as well, unless in correct context A use of, nucleotide / base,
sequence, to make, amino acid chain / polypeptide / protein
I protein / polypeptide, synthesis
2. moves towards / combines with, ribosome ;
3. ref to small and/or large sub-units ; I small / large ribosome
4. codon(s) ; only accept in correct context
5. transfer / t, RNA, bringing, amino acid(s), to mRNA / ribosome ;
6. anticodon(s) ; only accept in correct context
7. (complementary) base pairing ;
8. any e.g. of codon:anticodon base pairing ; need six bases
9. ref to polyribosome(s) / used by many ribosomes ;
10. (mRNA short-lived) ref to production of protein for short period of time ;

11
Differences between mRNA and DNA:

Differences between DNA replication and DNA transcription:

12
 G Transport in Plants

Movement of water from Xylem to air surrounding the leaf:

 water moves down the water potential gradient; A high(er) to low(er) water potential / less
negative to more negative water potential
 apoplast pathway / through cell walls;
 symplast pathway / through, plasmodesmeta / cytoplasm;
 evaporation ;
 from spongy mesophyll cell wall ;
 into (substomatal / intercellular) air spaces ;
 diffusion of water vapour ; A diffusion of water if evaporation used in correct context elsewhere
 through stomata ;

How Structure of Xylem is adapted to its function:

cellulose, cell wall / lining ;

allows adhesion of water ;
thick (cellulose) cell wall ;
prevents collapse / idea of providing support (under tension) ;
lignin ;
waterproofing / prevents water loss ;
lignin ; A rings / spirals / thickening / AW (of walls)
prevents collapse / idea of providing support (under tension) ;
no cytoplasm / lack of contents / hollow / empty lumen ; R dead
less resistance to / unimpeded / uninterrupted / unhindered / ease of / AW, flow / AW ;
A greater volume per unit time / faster rate R continuous, smooth
lack of end walls / continuous tube ;
less resistance to / unimpeded / uninterrupted / unhindered / ease of / AW, flow / AW ;
R continuous, smooth
pits / pores ; R holes
lateral movement / movement around air bubbles / supplies (water) to (surrounding), cells /
tissues ;
wide / large diameter / large lumen ;
so large volume of water can be transported ;

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How structure of Phloem is suited to its function:

sieve pores ;
allow easy flow (from sieve tube element to sieve tube element) ; R flow of water
sieve plate ;
(may) prevent sieve tubes from bursting / AW ;
cell (surface) membrane / plasma membrane ;
prevents loss, of sucrose / assimilates / phloem sap ;
little cell contents / AW ; R no cell contents
little resistance / AW, to flow ; R flow of water
plasmodesmata ;
allows flow, to / from, companion cells ;
thin walls ;
for, rapid / easy, entry of water (at source, to build up pressure) ;

Transpiration is sometimes described as an ‘inevitable consequence of gas exchange’ in plants.

Explain this statement.

1. Stomata (must be) open for gas exchange / uptake of CO2

2. Carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
3. Most water vapour diffuses via open stomata

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Xylem and its function:

15
Adaptations of xerophytes:

1. small leaves / needles / needle-like leaves; R ‘spines’ / thorns / narrow / fewer leaves
2. reduce / small surface area;
3. temporary / shed leaves;
4. leaves dry out and then rehydrate;
5. fleshy leaves / succulent leaves / leaves with hypodermis;
6. curled / rolled, leaves; R curved / folded / coiled
7. (very) thick / waxy / impermeable, cuticle;
8. stomata surrounded by hairs / hairy leaves / hairs trap moisture;
9. sunken stomata / stomata in pits / crypts / grooves;
R inverted / few stomata
10. stomata closed during the day / stomata open at night;
max 2 for features given above
11. (so) reduces / slows down (rate of) transpiration / water loss /
evaporation / diffusion of water vapour;
R prevents / avoids water loss
N.B. link to one valid feature above

Pathway of water from root hair cells to xylem vessels:

1. through cortex / via cortical cells ;

apoplast pathway
2. (by) via cell walls (of adjacent cells) ; R if named as symplast pathway ;
symplast pathway
3. via cytoplasm and plasmodesmata ; R if named as apoplast pathway
4. ref. vacuolar pathway ;
5. ref. apoplast to symplast / pathway described, at endodermis ;
6. (via) passage cells ;
7. ref to, suberised / Casparian, strip ; in correct context

Explain how the structure of sieve tube elements helps the translocation of substances in the phloem.

1. little/watery/peripheral, cytoplasm/no tonoplast/no vacuole/ few organelles/few ribosomes/so

little resistance/AW e.g. easy transport/move more easily/minimum obstruction;
2. pores in sieve plate provide little resistance/permit continuous flow/allows movement/AW e.g.
as above;
3. sieve plate braces/prevents cell bulging under pressure/collapsing;
4. plasmodesmata only between sieve tube element and companion cell allows pressure to build
up;
5. plasmodesmata allows loading/AW e.g. sucrose to be transported in from companion/transfer
cell;
6. (strong) cellulose walls prevent, excessive/too much, bulging/expansion;
7. mitochondria (and starchy plastids) for ATP, for repair/maintenance;
R reference to mitochondria in companion cells

16
Describe the role of companion cells in translocation in the phloem.

1. sucrose/sugars/assimilates, are pumped/loaded (by companion cells);

2. reference to pumping H+;
3. reference to co-transport/AW e.g. H+ carry sucrose with them;
4. mitochondria provide, ATP for active transport;

Explain how the sucrose is transported in phloem along the stem from the leaf to the fruit.

1. (sucrose) loaded at, source / leaf;

2. role of companion cells;
3. further detail, e.g. H+ pumped out, sucrose moves in through co-transporter;
4. absorption of water / water enters by osmosis;
5. hydrostatic pressure builds up;
6. mass flow;
7. (sucrose) unloaded at, sink / fruit / root / AW;
8. gives a difference in pressure (between source and sink);

Describe how the assimilate is moved from source to sink.

1. H+ / protons, (move) out of companion cells by, active transport / AW ; R diffuse by active
transport
2. H+ / protons, diffuse (back) in with / cotransport sucrose, into companion cells ; A description of
(facilitated) diffusion R active transport (ref. to companion cell required only once for mps 1 and
2)
3. via, cotransporter / cotransporter described ;
4. sucrose, diffuses / AW, into (phloem) sieve, tube / element, via plasmodesmata ;
5. (entry of sucrose into sieve tube so) water potential lowers ;
6. water enters by osmosis ;
7. (hydrostatic) pressure builds up ; A pressure difference created
8. unloading at, sink / named sink, gives a difference in pressure (between source and sink) ; AW
9. (so) mass flow ; term to be used in context

Function of water stored in the vacuoles of plant cells:

1. (raw material) for photosynthesis; A for photolysis

2. maintains turgidity / provides support;
3. pushes chloroplasts to edge of cell;
4. used in hydrolysis reactions;
5. solvent for, ions / named ion / pigment / named pigment;

17
 G Transport in Animals

Explain why mammalian circulatory system is described as close double circulation.

Double – blood passes through the heart twice during one circulation;
Closed – blood travels inside blood vessels.

Disadvantage of having no nuclei in RBCs:

1. Cannot carry out, protein synthesis/replication/repair;
2. Short life span;
3. Cannot, divide/replace themselves.

Explain how the structure of red blood cells is suited to their function of transporting oxygen to body
tissues.
1. small size / 6-8 μm (diameter), to squeeze through capillaries (7 μm) ;
2. small size / 6-8 μm (diameter), so, haemoglobin (molecules) near to surface (of plasma
membrane) / reduces distance for diffusion (in / out of rbc) ;
3. no nucleus / lack of organelles, so more room for haemoglobin (so more oxygen transported) ; R
more room for oxygen
4. biconcave shape / diagram drawn, increases surface area for, diffusion / uptake / release (of
oxygen) ;
5. flexible / AW ( membrane), to squeeze through capillaries ;

Explain how heart action is initiated and controlled (reference should be made to the sinoatrial node,
the atrioventricular node and the Purkyne tissue).
1. myogenic;
2. SAN, is pacemaker / sends out impulses / waves of excitation / initiates, heart beat / action
potential / contraction; R electrical, messages / waves / signals
3. AVN delays, impulse / contraction (of ventricles);
4. detail e.g. specific time ref (0.1 - 0.2 secs) or to allow ventricles to fill / atria to empty;
5. relays impulse to Purkyne tissue / bundle of His;
6. Purkyne tissue conducts (impulse) to base / apex of heart / septum/ ventricles;
7. ref to papillary muscles contracting;
8. ventricle (muscle) contracts / ventricular, contraction / systole, from base upwards;
9. (blood) into arteries / named artery;

Explain how the structure of haemoglobin aids the uptake of oxygen in the lungs.

1. 4 polypeptides/4 globins/4 amino acid chains;

2. outwardly pointing hydrophilic (R) groups, maintain solubility/AW;
3. each with a haem group;
4. ref to iron/Fe2+ ( ion); R Fe3+/iron atom
5. temporary attachment to oxygen; A readily attaches/binds combines with
R oxygen binds to haem
6. 4 molecules of oxygen; A 4 O2/8 oxygen atoms R 4 oxygens unqualified
7. oxyhaemoglobin; A HbO8
8. ref to cooperative binding;

Explain how CO2 stimulates the release of oxygen from the blood.
1. carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid;

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 2. catalysed by carbonic anhydrase;
3. dissociates to hydrogen carbonate and hydrogen ions;
4. hydrogen ions combine with haemoglobin; R hydrogen ions replace oxygen in haemoglobin
5. forms haemoglobinic acid/HHb;
6. so releasing oxygen;
ignore ref to Bohr shift (question says ‘explain’)
A from equations.
Transport of CO2

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-

1. (catalyses very) fast / AW, reaction ;

2. (carbon dioxide as) hydrogen carbonate ions / bicarbonate ions ;
3. diffuse / move / leaves, out of the (red blood) cell ;
4. in(to) the plasma ; R ‘into blood’
5. (so that) blood can transport more than could be transported as carbon dioxide (in
6. solution) / 80 – 90% CO2 transported this way ;

1. reaction maintains concentration gradient for CO2 from, tissues / tissue fluid, to blood ;
2. if carbon dioxide transported then pH would decrease ;
3. (therefore) maintains pH / prevents pH decreasing / acts as a buffer ;

Describe and explain how carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen ions (H+) play a role in the unloading of
oxygen from haemoglobin.
1. diffusion of, carbon dioxide / CO2;
2. into red blood cell from correct source ;
3. description of carbonic acid formation
followed by H+ production ;
4. ref. carbonic anhydrase ) fast reaction; A ecf
from (d)
5. haemoglobin has a higher affinity for
hydrogen ions than oxygen ; A haemoglobin
releases oxygen more easily in acidic
conditions accept idea of H+ binding to
haemoglobin bringing out oxygen release
6. ref. to, allosteric effect / change in tertiary
structure / AW, in (oxy)haemoglobin,
causes, release / AW, of oxygen ;
7. formation of haemoglobinic acid ; must
refer to, H+ binding / decreased pH
8. ref. higher partial pressures / AW, CO2,
linked to (oxy)haemoglobin releasing, more
oxygen / oxygen more readily ; Bohr shift
9. formation of carbamino-haemoglobin ; R carboxyhaemoglobin
10. chloride shift, qualified ;
e.g. as hydrogen carbonate ions move out of cell, chloride ions move in e.g. to maintain,
electroneutrality / a balance of charge / ions ;

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Composition of blood at venule end, compared to that at the arteriole end:

Blood at venule end has:

less pressure ; A low pressure

less oxygen ; A deoxygenated
less glucose ; only accept more glucose if identified as liver
fewer / more, amino acids / fatty acids ;
less water / lower water potential / lower solute potential / higher osmotic pressure / higher
concentration of solutes and / or rbcs ;
A ‘blood is more concentrated’
fewer ions ;
more of named cell product ; e.g. insulin / glucagon / albumen / AW
(more), urea / excretory waste ; R waste unqualified

The percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen decreases as the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide increases. Explain how this happens.

1. hydrogen ions / protons ; A H+

2. either
react or combine with haemoglobin / form haemoglobinic acid / form HHb ; A ‘picks up’ / absorb
or
carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin / forms carboxyhaemoglobin ;
3. (so) stimulate haemoglobin to release more oxygen (in areas of low pO2) ;
ref. to, allosteric effect / change in tertiary or quaternary structure or shape ; A conformational
change
4. either
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for hydrogen ions than oxygen = 2 marks
or
haemoglobin has a higher affinity for carbon dioxide than oxygen = 2 marks

Explain how the structures labelled on Fig. 5.1 ensure that blood flows in the correct direction
(Structures were: atrioventricular valve, valve tendon papillary muscle)

valve opens to allow blood flow from atrium into ventricle/ when pressure in atrium is greater than
pressure in ventricle/ during atrial systole ;

valve closes when ventricle contracts/ when pressure in ventricle is greater than pressure in atrium/
during ventricle systole ;

during contraction of ventricles

papillary muscles contract to ‘pull on’ tendons ; R if tendons are said to open the valve tendons prevent
valve, inverting/ going inside out/ everting/AW ;

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 H Gas Exchange

Effect of carbon monoxide on cardio-vascular system:

Combines with haemoglobin / forms carboxyhaemoglobin / higher affinity for haemoglobin than oxygen;

Reduces oxygen carrying capacity

Promotes release of damaging free-radicals / peroxides / super oxides / oxidizing agents;

Causes platelets and neutrophils to stick together / platelets to stick to endothelium;

Hypoxia can damage heart muscles;

Describe the role of elastic fibers in the wall of the alveolus.

Stretch / expand / lengthen, on inspiration and recoil / shorten on expiration;

(stretch) to increase, surface area / volume of air, for, diffusion / gas exchange ;

(recoil) to (help), expel air / force air out;

Prevent alveoli, bursting / breaking / AW

Symptoms of Emphysema:

1. Shortness of breath (when exercising) / breathlessness ;

2. Wheezing (on inspiration)
3. Rapid breathing rate / hyperventilation / decreased ability to hold breath ;
4. Chest tightness / pain
5. Cyanosis / bluish appearance to skin;
6. Coughing up blood ;
7. Lots of mucus produced / much phlegm ;
8. Expanded / barrel, chest

Common signs and symptoms of COPD include:

 An ongoing cough or a cough that produces a lot of mucus (often called "smoker's cough")
 Shortness of breath, especially with physical activity.
 Wheezing (a whistling or squeaky sound when you breathe)
 Chest tightness.
Signs and symptoms of lung cancer:
 A cough that does not go away or gets worse
 Coughing up blood or rust-colored sputum (spit or phlegm)
 Chest pain that is often worse with deep breathing, coughing, or laughing
 Hoarseness
 Weight loss and loss of appetite
 Shortness of breath
 Feeling tired or weak
 Infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia that don’t go away or keep coming back
 New onset of wheezing

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Goblet cells found in trachea and bronchus/bronchiole.

Role of mucus in the gas exchange system:

1. Lines surface (of epithelium);

2. Sticky;
3. Traps, dust/spores/bacteria/AW;
4. Moved by cilia;
5. Towards throat/away from lungs;
6. Protects, alveoli/gas exchange surface.

Mucus is sticky and therefore helps to trap dust and bacteria thereby protecting the alveoli against
damage and pathogens. The cilia sweeps out the mucus away from the lungs.

Effects of tar on lining of the gaseous exchange system:

1. destroys / paralyses / inhibits / weakens cilia; R. kill

2. mucus glands / goblet cells produce more mucus;
3. tar contains carcinogens / chemicals which damage DNA /
genes / oncogenes;
4. ref cancer / tumour;
5. epithelium / lining replaced by scar tissue;

Outline the effects of atherosclerosis in coronary arteries on the blood flow through these coronary
arteries and the resulting effects on the heart itself.

1. fat / cholesterol / deposited in, plaque / atheroma formed in, wall / endothelium / epithelium /
lining, of artery; R dead cells
2. (so) narrows lumen of artery;
3. (so) blood flow reduced / restricted (in coronary arteries); R constricted / stop
4. (this) creates higher blood pressure;
5. less oxygen / glucose, supplied to heart muscle; R no oxygen A blood sugar
6. less wastes removed;
7. anaerobic respiration;
8. build up of lactic acid;
9. fibrillation / heart muscle contracts less strongly;
10. angina / CHD / heart attack / MI / heart failure;
11. (risk of), thrombosis / clot / thrombus;
12. cardiac, cell / tissue / muscle, death;

Effects of nicotine on the cardio-vascular system:

1. increases heart rate;

2. increases blood pressure;
3. constricts, arterioles/arteries; A narrows diameter/lumen R ref to blood vessels
4. reduces blood flow to, periphery/hands/fingers/AW;
5. increases ‘stickiness’ of platelets; R blood cells
6. ref to atheroma, plaque, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, damage to endothelium;
June 2011 ms

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 1. ref. to coronary arteries ; in correct context
2. makes platelets sticky, so causing blood to clot ;
3. increases risk of thrombosis in, coronary arteries / arteries to heart (muscle) ;
4. leading to plaque / atheroma / atherosclerosis / AW ;
5. increases heart rate ;
6. increased blood pressure ;
7. damage to, tunica intima / endothelium /endothelial lining / arterial lining ;

Describe the appearance of a section through the wall of a bronchus in a person with chronic
bronchitis.
1. no / few / damaged / destroyed / AW, cilia / A ; R killed / dead
2. scar tissue ;
3. fewer / damaged / AW, (columnar) epithelial cells / epithelium ; A ciliated cells epithelial cells
replaced by scar tissue = 2 marks
4. goblet cells, enlarged / AW ;
5. enlarged mucous glands ;
6. more (smooth) muscle ;
7. large numbers of white blood cells ; A macrophages, phagocytes
8. inflammation ; A swelling in context of inflammatory response

I Infectious Disease

Why it is difficult to develop an effective vaccine for malaria?

(malarial) parasite/pathogen/Plasmodium, has many antigens;

Eukaryotic/many genes ;

Many different stages of life cycle;

Mutation changes antigens (over time)/antigenic shift/antigenic drift;

Parasite only vulnerable at certain stages of life cycle/free in plasma;

Antigenic concealment/described;

Disease

1. ill-health / absence of well-being / abnormal condition / AW, (affecting an organism) ;

2. reduced effectiveness of, functions / named function ; AW
3. (illness with a set of) symptoms ; AW A signs
4. poor / AW, physical, mental or social, well-being ; A two out of the three
absence of well-being for two of the three = 2 marks

Non-infectious disease

1. not transmissible from one person to another / AW ;

2. not caused by a pathogen ; R bacterium / virus / fungus / AW / ‘worm’

Describe how TB is transmitted from infected to uninfected people.

1. (infected) person, sneezes/coughs/sputum/spitting/breathes out;

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 2. aerosol/droplets, in the air/moist air, inhaled/breathed in by (uninfected person);

2014/23 Mark Scheme:

1. infected person, coughs/ sneezes/ breathes out/AW, droplets ;

2. droplets containing, bacteria/ pathogen/ M. tuberculosis ;
3. airborne droplets/ droplets in air/ moist air, inhaled/ inspired/ breathed in (by uninfected
person) ;
4. consumption of, milk/ meat, containing, bacteria/ pathogen/ M. tuberculosis/ M. bovis ;

Reason for increase in the cases of TB in developed countries now:

1. development of antibiotic resistance (by organism) ; A drug resistance R immunity

2. ref. impact of HIV infection ;
3. higher rate of immigration from countries with high incidence / AW ;
4. increase in tourism to countries with high incidence ;
5. reduced surveillance leading to undetected cases (and hence spread) ;
6. (detected cases, MDR) unwillingness / AW, to maintain drug regimen / AW ;
7. ref. to vaccination programmes no longer taking place ;
8. ref. to poor / overcrowded, housing (in cities) / AW ; must be in context of developed countries

Transmission of HIV:

1. Sexual intercourse;
2. Infected, blood/blood products;
3. Sharing/re-using, hypodermic needles;
4. Across placenta/from mother to foetus;
5. Breast milk;
6. AVP.

Explain why cholera remains a significant infectious disease in some parts of the world.

1. poor sanitation / no treatment of faecal waste;

2. contamination of (drinking) water supply;
3. poverty / poor living conditions / poor hygiene / poor (health) education;
4. ref to natural disasters; e.g. assistance / aid / medical help / AW, cannot arrive in time
5. no rehydration therapy available (at time when needed);
6. no (effective) vaccine;
7. further detail; (bacteria live in gut, where immune system is not effective)

Discuss the reasons why vaccination has not eradicated cholera and sickle cell anaemia.
cholera up to max 4
1 transmission cycle is difficult to break; A described with example(s)
2 ref. difficulty in administering e.g. refugee camp, displaced, disaster ;
3 poor diet, lowered immune response ;
4 more than one strain (needs more than one type of vaccine) ; A more than one
type (that causes cholera) R constantly mutating

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5 vaccine, only gives short-term protection / requiring boosters ;
6 antigenic concealment ;
7 qualified ; e.g. organism in intestines, difficult for antibodies to reach
8 ref. (older or newer oral) vaccine, not successful for everyone / variable (60–65% up
to 90% depending on population group) protection ;
9 no requirement by health authorities (for vaccine) / vaccine not used by health
authorities ; AW
sickle cell
1 no vaccine available ; A cannot vaccinate against sickle cell
2 not caused by pathogen / non-infectious / non-transmissible / non-communicable ;
3 genetic / inherited, disease / AW ; A caused by a mutation
4 affects all red blood cells so vaccine would lead to their destruction ;

J Immunity

Specificity of antibody:

1. variable region;
2. binding region to antigen;
3. shape is specific to, choleragen / antigen;
4. complementary;
5. ref to R groups on amino acids (in polypeptide / protein);
6. different, sequences of amino acids / primary structures;
7. ref to, folding of the molecule / secondary structure / tertiary structure;

Explain the roles of the cells, A [macrophage], B [B lymphocyte] and C [T lymphocyte] in an immune
response. In your answer use the terms antigen and non-self.
1. foreign / AW, antigens are non-self ;
2. non-self / foreign antigens, induce immune response ; AW ora
macrophage / APC (A)
3. phagocytosis / described ;
4. cuts up / AW, bacterium / pathogen ;
5. presents antigens / becomes antigen presenting cell / antigens on cell surface ;

B/T, cells (B and C)

6. antigen recognition by lymphocytes ;
7. (with) complementary / specific, receptors / immunoglobulins (B) / antibodies (B) ;
8. divide by mitosis ; A clonal expansion
9. ref. formation of memory cells (for secondary response);

Th cells (C)
10. secrete cytokines to stimulate B cells ;
11. cytokines stimulate macrophages ;

Tc/k cells (C)

12. ref. destroy pathogen / AW ;
13. produce perforin / AW ;

B cells (B)

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 14. B cells become plasma cells ;
15. (plasma cells) secrete antibodies ;
16. AVP ; e.g.
macrophages, non-specific / faster response
ref. specificity of, lymphocytes / B and T cells
antibody variable region is the antigen binding site ;

Describe the role of T lymphocytes in fighting an infectious disease.

helper cells
1. secrete / release / produce, cytokines / lymphokines / hormones;
2. to stimulate B cells to, divide / develop into plasma cells;
3. (which) produce antibodies;
4. (and) stimulate macrophages to carry out phagocytosis / (idea of);

cytotoxic / killer T cells

1. seek out / find / bind to (foreign) antigens on host cells / pathogens;
2. destroy, host cells / intracellular parasites / virally infected cells / viruses;
3. attach to surface of cells / ‘punch holes’ into cells;
4. release toxic substances / interferons / hydrogen peroxide (into cells); R enzymes

Antigen is a foreign molecule that stimulates an immune response.

Memory cell:
1. Remains in, lymph node/blood/lymph/lymphatic system/body;
2. Recognises next infection by same, antigen/(measles) virus;
3. Secondary response;
4. (More) rapid (than primary);
5. Immunological memory;
6. AVP.

Explain how active immunity differs from passive immunity.

1. immune response ; A ‘immune system responds’

2. to antigen ;
3. clonal selection occurs / ref to B cells or T cells activated ;
4. antibodies made ; A ora for passive
5. memory cells produced ;
6. long-lived / long-term effect / permanent ;
7. not immediate / slow ; one week minimum
8. passive only – antibodies removed from circulation ;

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