WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 2.1
Basic Magnetism
Introduction
The operating principles of direct reading compasses are based on the fundamentals of
magnetism, in particular the interaction between the magnetic field of a suitably suspended
magnetic element, and the earths magnetic field.
Magnetic Properties
The three principle properties of a simple permanent bar magnet are that:

It will attract other pieces of iron and steel.

Its power of attraction is concentrated at each end of the bar.

When suspended so as to move horizontally, it will always come to rest in an

approximately north - south direction.

A region of influence, called a magnetic field also extends outside a magnet into the
surrounding space, which is made up of invisible lines of magnetic force, or magnetic flux. This
is best demonstrated by sprinkling iron filings on a piece of paper placed over a magnet.

This experiment illustrates that magnetism is concentrated at a magnet's extremities, which are
called poles. Additionally a freely suspended magnetised rod will always align itself
approximately in a north-south orientation. The end, which seeks north, is called the north
seeking or red pole, and the end, which seeks south, is called the south seeking or blue pole.

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The earliest known form of magnetism was the lodestone, which was a natural mineral found in
Asia. It was discovered that if a piece of this ore was suspended horizontally by a thread, or
floated on wood in water, it would automatically align itself in a north-south direction, as shown
on the next page.

This characteristic led to its use as a compass, and the name lodestone, meaning leading
stone. This occurs because the earth itself is a huge magnet with it's own magnetic field.

The fields interact with each other and the lodestone will align itself according to the
fundamental laws of magnetism. Other than the earth itself, lodestone is the only natural
magnet; and all other magnets are produced artificially. For example magnetism can be
induced in an iron bar by stroking it with a piece of lodestone. Another type of magnet is the
electromagnet, where an electric current produces the magnetic field. Magnets are also often
classified by their shape, and can exist as either horseshoe, bar or ring magnets.
A magnet can be demagnetised by:

heating it to a temperature known as its Curie Point.

hitting it with a hammer.
degaussing it with an alternating magnetic field.

Fundamental Laws of Magnetism

The fundamental laws are as follows:

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Red or blue poles cannot exist separately.

Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract.

The force of attraction or repulsion between the two magnets varies inversely as the
square of the distance between them.

A line joining the poles is called its magnetic axis.

Characteristics of Lines of Magnetic Flux

The region in which the force exerted by a magnet can be detected is known as the magnetic
field. This field consists of magnetic flux, which is measured in Webers (Wb), and may be
represented, in direction and intensity by lines of flux.

The lines of flux have direction or polarity. They flow from the north pole to the
south pole outside the magnet, but flow from the south pole to the north pole within
the magnet. These lines are continuous and always form complete loops.

The lines of flux will not cross one another, like poles repel, as shown on the next
page

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Lines of flux tend to form the smallest possible loops, ie. unlike poles attract.

Magnetic flux is established more easily in some materials than in others. All
materials, whether magnetic or not, also have a property called "reluctance" which
resists the establishment of magnetic flux, and equates to the resistance found in
an electrical circuit.

Lines of magnetic flux can also be distorted by the interaction with other lines of
flux, as shown below.

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Magnetic Materials
Theoretically all materials are affected to some extent by a magnetic field, and are categorised
as follows:
Ferromagnetic. This is the property of a material, which enables it to become a
permanent magnet, ie. when placed in a magnetic field the material will become
magnetised. The most common materials are iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys of these
materials. Ferromagnetic materials can also be divided into two further categories:Hard Iron. This is a material, which is difficult to magnetise, but when it is
removed from the magnetic field, it will retain the magnetism for a considerable
length of time, unless it is subject to a strong demagnetising force, eg. cobalt
and tungsten steel. This is known as a permanent magnet.
Soft Iron. This is a material, which is easily magnetised, but once removed
from the magnetic field easily loses its magnetism, eg. silicon iron. This is
known as a temporary magnet.
The above terms are also used to describe the magnetic effects, which occur in aeroplanes.
Paramagnetic. This is the property of a material, which when placed in a magnetic
field slightly attracts the lines of magnetic force, but once removed loses its magnetism.
The most common materials are platinum, manganese and aluminium.
Diamagnetic. This is the property of a material, which when placed in a magnetic field
slightly repels the lines of magnetic force. The most common materials are copper and
bismuth.
Permeability
Permeability () is the ease by which magnetic flux can be induced into a material, and can be
compared to conductance in an electrical circuit. It is the ratio of B/H, where B is the induced
magnetic flux, and H is the magnetising force.

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Electromagnetism
When current flows through a conductor a magnetic field is produced around it, whose
magnitude is directly proportional to the amount of current flow.

The direction of the field around the conductor is determined by the direction of the conventional
current flow, which can be established by using the Right Hand Grasp Rule, as shown on the
next page. By pointing your thumb in the direction of the current flow, and gripping the
conductor, your fingers will indicate the direction of the magnetic field.

The magnetic field produced by a straight piece of wire is relatively weak and is of no practical
use. It has direction, but no north or south poles and, unless the current is extremely high, the
resulting magnetic field will have little useful strength. Its magnetic characteristics can however
be greatly improved by shaping the wire into a loop.

This will cause:-

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The lines of magnetic flux to move closer together.

The majority of the lines of magnetic flux to be concentrated at the centre of the
loop.

North and south poles to be created at the ends of it, and for it to assume the
magnetic characteristics of a permanent magnet. Lines of magnetic flux will
emerge from the north pole and return via the south pole.

An Electromagnet
A strong magnetic field can be produced if the wire is formed into a coil, which is commonly
known as a Solenoid, as shown on the next page. Also the larger the magnitude of the current,
or the higher the number of turns the greater the magnetic strength.
The strength of the magnetic flux around a coil can be further increased if a soft iron bar is
inserted into the coil. This has the affect of concentrating the lines of magnetic flux, and the
polarity of the coil can be determined if the direction of the current through the coil is known, by
using the Right Hand Grasp Rule. Your thumb will point in the direction of the north pole if the
fingers of your right hand are wrapped around the coil in the direction of the current flow.

Magnetic Moments
The magnetic moment of a magnet is the tendency for it to turn or be turned by another magnet.
It is a requirement of any aeroplane compass design that the strength of the moment is such
that the magnetic detection system will rapidly respond to the directive force of the magnetic
field.

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The diagram above shows a pivoted magnet of pole strength "S" and length of magnetic axis
"L", which is positioned at right angles to a uniform magnetic field "H". In this situation the field
will be distorted and will "pass through" the magnet. The distortion will be resisted and the field
will try to align the magnet with the magnetic field. The forces being applied to the magnet will
act in opposite directions, and the resulting magnetic moments (m = S x L) will produce a
couple, which will swing the magnet into line with the magnetic field.
The greater the pole strength and the longer the magnetic moment, the greater will be the
magnet's tendency to align itself quickly with the applied field.
Period of Oscillation of a Suspended Magnet
If a suspended magnet is deflected from its position of rest in a magnetic field, the magnet will
immediately be subject to a couple urging the magnet to resume its original position. When the
deflecting influence is removed, the magnet will swing back, and if undamped the system will
continue to oscillate about its equilibrium position before coming to rest. The time taken for the
magnet to swing from one extremity of oscillation to the other and back again is known as the
period of the magnet. As the magnet approaches its aligned position, the amplitude of the
oscillations will gradually decrease, but the period will remain the same, and will not be altered
by simply adjusting the amplitude. The period of a magnet depends upon its shape and size or
mass (the factors which effect its moment of inertia), the magnetic moment, and the strength of
the field in which it is oscillating. The period of oscillation will be increased if the magnet's mass
is increased, and will become shorter if its field strength is increased.

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