NR 60

International Journal on Public Works, Ports & Waterways Developments
Number 60 - September 1995
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DREDGING COMPANIES
Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995
Terra et Aqua is published quarterly by the IADC, The International Association of Dredging Companies.
The journal is available on request to individuals or organisations with a professional interest in the
development of ports and waterways, and in particular, the associated dredging work.
The name Terra et Aqua is a registered trademark.
Editor
Marsha R. Cohen
Editorial Advisory Committee
R.C.W. Brouwer, Chairman
J. Boeter
P.J.A. Hamburger
H. van Diepen
H. de Vlieger
H. Fiers
E.A.M. Strauss
P.G. Roland
Editorial Address
Terra et Aqua
Koninginnegracht 52
2514 AE The Hague, The Netherlands
Tel. 31 (70) 364 0394
Fax 31 (70) 356 2861
Please address inquiries to the editor.
Articles in Terra et Aqua do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the IADC Board or of individual members.
1995 IADC, The Netherlands
All rights reserved. Electronic storage, reprinting or abstracting of the contents is allowed
for non-commercial purposes with permission of the publisher.
ISSN 0376-6411
Typesetting and printing by Opmeer Boekdruk Offset bv, The Hague, The Netherlands.
Front cover:
Privatisation of dredging in New Zealand has proven cost efficient and profitable. Trailing suction hopper
Pelican can be seen at work day and night, everyday, summer and winter in one New Zealand port or
another. Here she is dredging the approach channel at Tauranga (see page 11).
IADC
Duinweg 21
2585 JV The Hague, The Netherlands
Tel. 31 (70) 352 3334
Fax 31 (70) 351 2654
IADC
International Association of Dredging Companies
CO N T E N T S
2
Editorial
The Wear Sensitive Cutting Principle of a Cutter Suction Dredger

H. Jan Reinhout Deketh
Laboratory experiments demonstrate from a wear point of view the inefficiency of
cutting tools on a cutter suction dredger. Recommendations are made to optimise
the cutterhead design and cutting process.
A Tale of Two Dredgers

Adrian Hunt
A look at the joys of working for a high-tech private dredging company versus
the difficulties of an underfunded state-run organisation.
11
Privatisation of Ports in New Zealand

Heini Evers and Roy Weaver
By shifting from port-operated dredging to privatised contract dredging, three
New Zealand ports have moved from world-ranked laggards to the top echelon
of international ports in terms of profitability and performance.
18
Bess Long Sea Outfall, Barcelona

Bert Dijkstra and Stuart McIntyre
To satisfy EC bathing water quality directives, a new, longer outfall was needed.
Dredgers had to reckon with the recreational importance of Spains beaches, plus
the existence of an operative gas pipeline.
27
Books/Periodicals Reviewed
As the multi-year $25 million Dredging Research Programme of the US Corps
of Army Engineers concludes, several final reports have been published.
Four are abstracted here.
29
Seminars/Conferences/Events
Getting ready for the WODCON in November 1995, CATS II in March and
Hydro in September 1996, as well as an announcement of the new IADC
seminar in Singapore.
E DITORIAL
Bridges, roads, harbours, beaches, tunnels, airports -- would these exist if dredgers with their trusty digging tools were not busy as beavers damming a river?
Dredging started long ago and over hundreds of years has played a significant role
in the development of civilisation as we have come to know it. Often, focussed on
a particular project, we havent the time nor inclination to stop and think of what
the world would be like if dredgers did not dredge.
The articles in this issue of Terra cover a range of subjects, from the technological to the political. Laboratory research provides important technological
information to the dredging industry (page 3). This in turn provides an essential
service when applied to a specific problem. For instance, by applying dredging
technology, dredgers are able to ensure clean water for recreation for swimming
and fishing. Such was the case in Barcelona, Spain (page 18).
As the dredging industry prepares to gather at the WODCON in November in
Amsterdam, the theme of the conference, Dredging Benefits, gives reason to
pause and take inventory of just how important the contribution of dredging has
been and continues to be to our economic and social well-being. And the question
arises: how does the future look?
Governments are being forced to tighten their budgets; cost containment when
considering infrastructure projects is becoming an ever greater factor. It is no
revelation that IADC is of the opinion that the private dredging industry is better
able to meet this challenge through free market competition than are state-run
monopolies. A Tale of Two Dredgers was written tongue-in-cheek to contrast
the differences. Privatisation of Ports in New Zealand presents a case study
which gives concrete support to this point of view. The choice of course lies with
the ports and harbour authorities, but it is certainly worth thinking through.
Marsha R. Cohen
Editor
H.J.R. Deketh
The Wear Sensitive Cutting

Principle of a Cutter Suction
Dredger
Abstract
The operating principle of a rock cutterhead such as
used on cutter suction dredgers is an inefficient excavation process from a wear-point of view, because at
each revolution of the cutterhead a pick-point has to
enter the rock to make a new cut. Especially in the
range of small feed, at the start of each cut, high rates
of wear of the cutting tool are expected.
At least, this is shown by specially designed small scale
rock cutting laboratory experiments. In these experiments high rates of wear were experienced at small
penetration rates (feed) of a chisel cutting into rock.
Mechanical properties and composition of the rock to
be cut determine the range of feed where the high
rates of wear are taking place and they affect the level
of wear in the entire cut. The relevant mechanical
properties are the unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) and the Brazilian tensile strength (BTS). The
compositional features affecting wear are the grain size
and the volume percentage of the abrasive minerals in
the rock; abrasive minerals are those minerals which
are harder than the tool material under the conditions
(stresses and temperature) of cutting.
Considering that wear occurs mainly at the start of a
cut, some recommendations can be made to improve
the cutting method or to optimise the cutterhead
design or the cutting process, for example, by tuning
operational parameters like haulage and rotation velocity of the cutterhead to the type of rock to be cut.
Besides, a better understanding of the different wear
processes and the effect of properties and composition
of the rock on wear provides a better basis to estimate
pick-point consumption in advance of a rock dredging
project.
This research was sponsored by the Technology Foundation (STW), The Netherlands.
In 1991 Jan Reinout Deketh received

his MSc in Mining and Petroleum
Engineering from Technical University Delft, The Netherlands, Engineering Geology Department. Since then
he has been working as a research
officer at the university, studying the
wear of cutting tools on rock excavation machines in relation to the rock
types being excavated. In March 1995
he obtained a PhD on this subject at
TU Delft. At present he is observing
the working performance of rock
cutting trenchers at various construction sites throughout Europe.
Jan Reinout Deketh
Introduction
This article is based on the book Wear of Rock Cutting
Tools, Laboratory Experiments on the Abrasivity of
Rock (Deketh 1995). The book is the result of
research which aimed at getting a better understanding
of the wear processes acting in rock cutting operations
and to determine which factors control these wear
processes. An improved understanding of these processes finally allows for a better basis to predict expected rates of pick-point consumption in rock dredging
practice. The insight in the wear processes can be
useful to optimise the dredging method or dredger
from a wear point-of-view.
In this paper the laboratory test set-up is described and
some experimental results are shown. The relevancy
and application of these experimental results to a rock
cutter suction dredger is discussed and finally some
recommendations regarding wear prediction and optimisation of the dredging process are made.
velocity is automatically increased to keep the cutting

velocity constant. Most experiments are executed at a
cutting velocity of 0.4 m/s.
Cutting forces, feed (displacement of the chisel into the
rock per revolution of the rock disc) and cutting velocity
are automatically recorded and stored by a data acquisition software package on a personal computer. Loss of
mass of the chisel and amount of cut rock material are
measured manually and fed into the computer. Finally
wear phenomena of the chisel are described and photographed.
Figure 1. Scraping test.
L ABORATORY R OCK C UTTING W EAR

E XPERIMENTS
Experiments have been designed to investigate wear
processes resulting from sliding of the wear-flat of a
test chisel over the surface of different rock types with
the variation of the feed of a chisel into the rock, in
such a way that the transition from scraping to cutting
of rock by the test chisels could be investigated.
In Figure 1 the rock cutting wear test (named the
scraping test to stress the feed range at which the
experiments are carried out ) is illustrated. The test is
displacement controlled. A lathe is used to carry the
test arrangement. Rotating rock cores are penetrated
by steel chisels (steel type Fe60 K, relatively soft steel
(Vickers hardness 3000 MPa) or steel type SRO 57N,
hardened steel from dredger teeth (Vickers hardness
6000 MPa)) with a continuous feed. When the chisel
moves to the centre of the disc of rock, the angular
Figure 2. The influence of the unconfined compressive

strength on the rate and type of wear for mortars mc1, mc2
and mc3 for various feeds.
About 1000 different tests were carried out. Natural

and artificial rocks were used. Artificial rocks (mortar)
allowed for a controllable variation of one rock property
at a time. The rock strength, the grain size, the volume
percentage and the shape of the abrasive minerals
(mostly quartz) have been varied. Experiments on
natural rocks (sandstones and limestones) showed to
which rock types the results of the experiments on
artificial rocks could be applied.
Next to the rock properties also the feed, and in some
experiments the cutting velocity, of the test chisel into
the rock has been varied.
The loss of mass of the chisel in one test run per metre
sliding length is taken as a measure for the rate of
wear. The loss of mass of a chisel in one test run per
cubic metre of cut rock material, the specific wear
(SPW) is taken as a measure of the efficiency of the
cutting process with respect to wear specific for this
test.
E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
The following factors showed to affect the wear process of the experiments on the mortars and the sandstones:
- the tensile and compressive strength of the rock.
- the grain size and volume percentage of abrasive
minerals in the rock.
- the feed of the chisel into the rock.
Above a certain value of feed, which was determined
by the properties of the rock to be cut, the type of wear
changed and the rate of wear decreased rapidly.
In Figure 2 the effect of the feed on the rate of wear
can be seen for three mortars, which differ in unconfined compressive strength (UCS), other properties
were approximately the same (the mortars contained
60 % of rounded quartz grains with an average grain
size of 1.5 mm). The unconfined compressive strength
of the mortars mc1, mc2 and mc3 was respectively 30,
18 and 64 MPa. In the graph each dot represents one
test run in which all parameters were kept constant.
At low values of feed, the rock production was relatively low (scraping process) and the level of wear high;
high temperatures and plastic deformation of the steel
at the wear-flat of the chisel occurred, two-body abrasive wear dominated: wear mode I.
At higher levels of feed the rock production was relatively high (cutting process) and the level of wear low;
lower temperatures and less plastic deformation took
place, three body abrasive wear dominated: wear
mode III. The feed at which a transition from the first
type of wear during the scraping process to the latter
type of wear during the cutting process takes place,
was also dependant on rock strength (UCS and BTS),
grain size and volume percentage of abrasive minerals
(quartz) in the rock. The transition from wear mode I to
wear mode III is called wear mode II. In Figures 4 and 5
photographs of chisel wear-flats in wear mode I and in
wear mode III are shown.
The chisel worn in wear mode I shows clean parallel
continuous grooves on the wear-flat, pointing to twobody abrasive wear. High temperatures at the wear-flat
resulted in burs, tempering colours and plastic deformation of the steel, leading to adhesive wear, additional
to the two-body abrasive wear. The chisel worn in wear
mode III shows irregular, sometimes abruptly ending
grooves, which are infilled by crushed rock material,
pointing to three-body abrasive wear. The absence of
burs, tempering colours and plastic deformation of the
steel indicates lower temperatures at the wear-flat and
therefore adhesive wear is not likely to occur.
These results hold for mortars as well as for the tested
sandstones. Limestones behaved differently, probably
due to the fact that the calcite in the limestone was not
hard enough to be abrasive to the tested steel types.
In Figure 3 some scraping test results on a sandstone
are shown. In the left graph both the influence of the
feed and the cutting velocity on the rate of wear is
shown. In the right graph the range of feed and cutting
velocity at which the disadvantageous wear and cutting
mode I is delineated.
R ELATING THE E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS

D REDGING P RACTICE
TO
Before a comparison is made, first the relevancy of the

laboratory experiments to dredging practice are put into
perspective. Pick-point consumption in practice is due
to damage, which is either failure (breakage) or wear of
the pick-points. Whereas wear is a surface process,
failure concerns the whole body of the cutting tool. In
this research only wear has been considered.
The experiments in the laboratory are only remotely
related to rock dredging in practice; in the experiments
Figure 3. Rates of chisel wear in scraping tests on a sandstone

as a function of the feed for different cutting velocities. At a
higher cutting velocity a higher feed is needed for an
advantageous mode of wear.
the chisel cuts continuously, but in practice only for

about 25 % of each revolution of the cutterhead. In the
experiments only wear due to sliding contact between
tool and rock is studied. In dredging also wear due to
impact may play a role. These and other differences
between the experiments and wear in practice make a
quantitative comparison questionable. Still major trends
and wear phenomena observed in the laboratory experiments agree with those experienced in practice of
rock cutting (Giezen 1993).
The pick-points mounted on the cutterhead of a cutter
suction dredger make an arc-shaped cut through the
rock at each revolution. The feed of each pick-point
during a cut gradually increases from 0 at the start of
the cut to a maximum feed at the end of the cut.
The scraping test experiments showed that with an increase of feed the rate and type of wear changes. This
can be applied to a pick-point making a cut in the rock.
occurs (left graph). The rate of wear in this case is

high in the entire cut.
- In case B, and more profoundly in case C, the maximum feed is larger than the feed at which a transition from mode I to III takes place (left graph).
The greater the portion of the cut in mode III the
lower the total rate of wear will be as can be seen in
the right graph. The maximum feed value, at the end
of a cut, depends on the resistance of the rock to
cutting, the ability or power and design of the cutting
machine (number of blades on the cutterhead) and
the conditions of cutting (haulage and rotation velocity of the cutterhead).
back edge of the chisel
0.4 cm
Figure 4. Part of a test chisel wear-flat worn in wear mode I.
R ECOMMENDATIONS
P ICK - POINTS
TO
R EDUCE W EAR
OF
THE
In general the amount of wear can be reduced by

minimising or avoiding the time the cutting process is
taking place in the disadvantageous wear mode, which
is at small feed of the pick-points. This can be achieved
by choosing a type of dredger with a cutting principle in
which the pick-points do not cut at small feed (e.g.
a trailing hopper dredger instead of a cutter suction
dredger).
If we still are dealing with a cutter suction dredger a
solution to decrease wear is to increase the maximum
feed reached by a pick-point at the end of each cut by:
1. increasing the power of the dredger. An increase of

power on the cutterhead and winches results in an
increase of the penetration of the cutterhead (and
therefore also of the pick-points) per revolution of
the cutterhead.
back edge of the chisel
0.4 cm
Figure 5. Part of a test chisel wear-flat worn in wear mode III.
At the start of a cut a pick-point rather scrapes the rock

than that it cuts the rock; there is relatively little production of excavated rock. Moreover, in this range the
friction is high (two-body wear) causing high temperatures which in their turn weaken the tool material
which then becomes vulnerable to abrasive wear.
At a certain feed, the scraping action of the pick-points
changes gradually into cutting with further increase of
feed. At the same feed the mode of wear changes
from mode I to mode III via mode II; two-body wear
changes to three-body wear with lower temperatures
at the wear-flat and lower rates of wear.
In Figure 6 a cut made by a pick-point mounted on a
cutter head is shown for three different situations:
- Case A shows a pick-point which reaches at the end
of the cut a maximum feed which is lower than the
feed at which a transition from mode I to mode III
2. increasing the ratio haulage velocity over rotation

velocity of the cutterhead. This results in a higher
maximum feed of the pick-points. An additional
effect of a lower cutting velocity is that the temperatures at the tool-rock contact will remain lower,
which ensures that the wear resistance of the
cutting tool does not drop, by softening of the steel.
3. changing the cutterhead design such that the
maximum feed of each pick-point increases.
For example a reduction of the number of blades of
a cutterhead would result in a higher maximum
feed per blade (and therefore per pick-point).
A higher feed per pick-point can also be realised by
positioning the pick-points in such a pattern on the
cutterhead that the cutting paths of pick-points on
different blades are not making a cut in the same
groove made by a pick-point positioned on the
previous blade. This can be achieved by situating
the pick-points on the odd and even blades in
staggered positions.
Figure 6. Wear at low feed (start of a cut) is higher than at higher feed (end of a cut). The wear during a cut is determined by the
magnitude of the contribution of wear mode I.
Conclusions: Implementation of
Research Results in Wear Prediction
The experiments showed that wear is mainly occurring
at the start of a cut in wear mode I. To predict the rate
or amount of wear for a specific dredger it is therefore
very important to determine for what part of the total
cut made by a pick-point this disadvantageous wear
mode I will take place.
For that we have to calculate:
1. the maximum expected feed per pick-point of the
chosen dredger in the rock to be dredged. This is a
function of the advance (haulage) rate and rotation
velocity of the cutterhead. These dredging parameters depend in their turn on the dredger characteristics like power on the cutterhead and the winches, cutterhead design etc. and the resistance of
the rock to cutting.
2. the feed at which a transition (mode II) from wear
mode I to III takes place. The transition is a function
of the UCS, BTS, the content (vol.%) and the grain
size of the abrasive minerals in the rock.
- the magnitude of the wear in wear mode I is determined by the same rock properties and by the sensitivity of the tool material to wear.
References
Deketh, H.J.R.
Wear of Rock Cutting Tools, Laboratory Experiments on the
Abrasivity of Rock. A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam ISBN
90 5410 620 4, 1995.
Giezen, M.
Rock Properties Relevant for Tool Wear and Production of
Rock Cutting Trenchers. Memoirs of the Centre for Engineering Geology in the Netherlands, no 110, Technical University
Delft, Faculty of Mining and Petroleum Engineering, 1993.
The total expected wear is approximated by:

- the percentage of the cut at which wear mode I
takes place multiplied by the magnitude of wear in
wear mode I.
Adrian Hunt

A freelance technical journalist specialising in the construction sector,
Adrian Hunt has been writing for and
about the dredging industry for almost
20 years. He is involved in the editing
and production of several periodicals
published by leading contractors in
the dredging and construction fileds.
He is a past winner of the Woodrow
Wyatt Award presented by the British
Association of Industrial Editors.
Adrian Hunt
Barri ER works for the State Legislature of Waterways (SLOW for short). It has responsibility for the
maintenance of one principal port and several minor
ports in a faraway country somewhere. Very little
capital dredging is ever carried out, the work is mostly
maintenance. The small fleet is dated and frequently
in dock.
The Tale
We take up the story one morning quite recently.
This article was originally part of the IADC presentation

at the Dredging 94 Conference in Orlando, Florida,
USA in November 1994.
This is a story about two men, two dredgermen. One
works in the private sector; the other in the public
sector. Eric Van GATT, hes the private sector man; and
Barri ER, hes from the public sector.
Eric Van GATT is employed by the World Dredging
Company which has an international spread of offices
and operations covering more than 30 countries.
Its fleet is substantial and multi-functional, and it is
backed by state-of-the-art R&D, Technical and Logistical Departments.
Damn, said Barri ER as he nicked himself shaving in

front of his hotel mirror. He was rarely in a good mood
these days. Almost two decades with his SLOW
employer had taken their toll. There was little to interest him any more. One cubic metre seemed much like
the other. The same routine, day in day out. Oh, but
there was that one occasion, when was it? six or seven
years ago, when he thought hed found live ammunition in the hopper. As it happened, the bomb turned
out to be the end of a suction pipe that SLOWs principal trailer, the Elderly Statesman, had lost some years
earlier. Was it his fault that the thing had dropped off
because of rust? He had been saying for years that a
replacement trailer was needed.
SLOW agreed that it was needed and had appointed a
committee to look into it. Good progress had been
made in the first 18 months. Several sub-committees
had been formed and these were due to report back
within the year. But then the whole process began to
slow down. The committee members couldnt agree
on the vessels specification. Ideally, two or even three
different types of dredgers were needed. But, there
were only sufficient funds to build one. With all the
bickering and disagreement the replacement ship,
code-named New Statesman, was still not commissioned.
May I join you? said Barri ER fifteen minutes later as
he arrived for breakfast in the busy hotel dining room.
The question was addressed to a man whose bright,
alert expression belied his real age. Eric Van GATT
beckoned the newcomer to sit down.
Figure 1. Introducing Eric Van GATT from the private sector

and Barri ER from the public sector.
He had been deep in thought, scribbling notes and

sketches on his paper napkin. He was intrigued by a
technical problem on his current dredging project.
He liked nothing better than a challenge. The time he

had spent at head office, working in the various project
support offices, and his wide operational experience
had equipped him to deal with most problems that face
todays busy project managers working for international
dredging contractors. There was never time to get
bored, moving from one project to another, from one
country to another and from one dredger to another.
There was real variety to his working life. He was
fascinated by the technological advances that were
being made.
Take, for example, the vessel he was currently working
with, the trailer Free Trader. She is a powerful, big
capacity ship full of sophisticated electronics and gadgetry. It had taken just 18 months from the time that
the Board of Directors decided to invest in a new
dredger, to the time that Free Trader took to the water.
Eric Van GATT was only too aware that to be competitive you need to have modern and efficient equipment.
Figure 2. Barri ER in despair awaits the commission of a

new dredger.
Eric Van GATT and Barri ER chatted happily over breakfast. After all, they had much in common -- dredging.
Eric explained that he had just flown in from the Far
East where he was working on a new petro-chemical
port. He was then scheduled to go to South America
for port maintenance work combined with reclamation.
Barri ER listened enviously in the knowledge that he
would shortly be returning to the same dredger, to the
same port work and to the same old routine. But, for
the time being at least, he had a few days in which to
broaden his mind and to see what was happening in
the real world of dredging. Looking at his conference
programme, he said to Eric Van GATT: Which of the
papers are you most looking forward to hearing?
Why, the IADC presentation of course, came the
reply. Outside, the sun shone on the Buena Vista
Palace grounds.
Figure 3. Eric Van GATT, intrigued by his current

dredging project.
The Conclusion
cies cannot hope to equip themselves other than for

the day-to-day operational duties.
Eric Van GATT and his counterpart from the state

dredging sector, Barri ER, are of course purely fictitious.
The problems faced by the equally fictitious SLOW
organisation, whilst being greatly exaggerated, do
demonstrate some of the difficulties facing state dredging agencies. The lack of public funds is the principal
one. Without a proper investment programme, dredging operations must inevitably suffer which in turn will
affect port efficiency and productivity. For it to survive,
the private sector must be properly equipped with
modern, efficient plant. The range of plant must also be
sufficiently wide and versatile to deal with the wide
variety of dredging challenges facing todays international contractors. The right dredger for the right job is
vital for efficient production. Cash-strapped state agen-
C OMPETITION
IS THE
D RIVING F ORCE
Competition is the driving force in the private sector.

Everything is geared toward dredging that cubic metre
more efficiently and at less cost than the competition.
Overheads and administration are kept to a minimum;
research and development are on-going; personnel
training is fundamental. The independence to react
quickly and positively to market requirements is of
paramount importance.
As the benefits of a competitive trading environment
become better understood, the world dredging market
is steadily becoming more open, more accessible.
Figure 4. Private sector investments in research and

equipment vs. a lack of public funds for state dredgers.
Last year, for instance, we witnessed the sale of the

bulk of the Mexican state-owned fleet and the transfer
of maintenance dredging to the private sector. This
winding-down process is being repeated in Argentina,
and Brazil intends to phase out its state fleet too.
As long ago as the mid-1970s a multi-million dollar
dredger investment plan in the Federal Republic of
Germany was abandoned in the wake of an official
investigation which concluded that it would be less
expensive to delegate part of the annual dredging
programme to the private sector. Not only was the
state relieved of the initial investment burden but the
operational savings amounted to 10 percent.
The introduction of competition was also responsible
for the state-owned dredgers improving performance
substantially.
O PEN D OOR P OLICY
IS THE
T REND
The trend towards increased competition through

privatisation and opening the door on so-called protected markets is worldwide. There are numerous other
examples, such as India and New Zealand, that one
could draw upon.
Figure 5. Legal obstacles are the protective net that state

dredging agencies use to limit competition.
Admittedly there are still notable exceptions, where

certain countries still cast a protective net around
their markets and refuse to permit foreign contractors -- outsiders -- to compete for work openly and
fairly. We trust that more and more such countries will
soon see the error of their ways.
Figure 6. Despite obstacles, when it comes to least-cost,
least-time and most technically sound solutions, the winner is
the private sector dredger.
10
Cost-efficiency is of course not the only consideration

of those countries evaluating a more laissez-faire approach. There are also social implications which need
to be carefully evaluated. Some people in the state
sector would also point to other barriers, such as the
implications for national security, but practice has
proved these to be unfounded worries. Often there is
resistance to abandoning state involvement simply for
historical reasons, because dredging has always been
handled in this way and always with local suppliers.
This attitude cannot continue. As the demands on
public funds become ever greater, so the need for
greater cost-efficiency increases. Specifiers of dredging
services are looking for the least-cost, least-time and
most technically sound solution, and that can only be
provided if there is a competitive, open market.
Heini Evers and Roy Weaver
Privatisation of Ports
in New Zealand
Abstract
The New Zealand economy has undergone significant
change in the last ten years. The Ports Industry is one
of the many areas affected by changed Government
policy since the mid-1980s. This paper sets out how
three ports -- Tauranga, Taranaki and Timaru -- responded to the changing political and economic climate in
one aspect of their business operation: port dredging.
It describes the shift from port-operated dredgers to
contract dredging.
The dredging situation in New Zealand until 1986 is
presented, followed by a summary of the investigation
conducted by the three ports of all options open to
them. Financial and engineering analyses carried out by
independent consultants are reported. The conclusion
of these analyses was that the most cost-effective
option was clearly to pool their dredging workloads and
enter into term contracts with an international dredging
contractor. This was effectuated in 1988.
The contract operation is discussed from the perspectives of the contractor and the port companies including: dredging programme flexibility; plant utilisation;
human resources and industrial relations; long-term
planning of operations; utilisation of port company
resources; and contract benefits and problems. The
paper concludes with an update on the present situation of this cooperative dredging arrangement.
The paper was first presented at the Australasian Port
and Harbour Conference in 1990. The authors wish to
acknowledge the contributions to the original paper of
John Palmer, who was then Engineering Manager of
the Port of Tauranga Ltd. and is presently a consultant
for port planning and development based in of Tauranga; of Peter Atkinson who continues to be Technical
Services Manager of Westgate-Taranaki Port as it is
now known; and of Hadyn Pike, who was Contracts
Manager of Australian Dredging & General Works Pty.
Ltd. at the time the contract was signed.
Introduction
Many ports find the costs of dredging to be one of the
major annual operating costs of the port. Such was the
case of three New Zealand ports -- Tauranga, Taranaki
and Timaru (Figure 1). They investigated in detail the
Heini Evers worked for Volker Stevin

for more than 30 years and was the
Managing Director of both Australian
Dredging & General Works and New
Zealand Dredging from 1982 until
1992. At that time both companies
were part of the Volker Stevin Group
of The Netherlands. He is presently
an independent consultant with his
resident office in Australia.
Heini Evers
Roy Weaver is a member of the

Institution of Professional Engineers
New Zealand and has a Masters
Degree in Business Administration.
He joined the Port of Timaru Ltd. in
1985 and is presently its Deputy Chief
Executive and Manager of Port
Operations.
Roy Weaver
options open to them collectively and individually, and

finally settled on contract dredging as the most costeffective solution.
H ISTORICAL B ACKGROUND
New Zealand ports, where they had significant on-going
maintenance or capital development programmes,
historically owned their own dredgers. This stems
from the geographic isolation of New Zealand with the
consequent very high mobilisation costs of bringing
dredgers from even the closest neighbour, Australia.
Until 1970 dredgers owned by individual harbour
boards were designed, manned and set up for work at
their home port only, and there was no real sharing of
equipment or contracting out of work to other harbour
boards.
11
Tauranga
Taranaki
Tasman
Sea
also with some pump-ashore from trailer dredging

contracts. Using the New Era as a model of the type of
equipment that could be built, the Port compared the
option of building and owning a similar dredger, and
contracting with the W.H. Orbell. This investigation
showed that, given a reasonable on-going annual volume and even allowing for the fact that the Port of
Timaru had been successful in achieving some reductions in the crewing of the W.H. Orbell, ownership was
a more economic option than retaining the services of
the W.H. Orbell.
Since 1959 the Port of Taranaki had owned the 560 m3
trailer suction dredger Ngamotu. In the early 1980s this
vessel was upgraded, first with new dredging equipment, and then with the replacement of the steam
engines with diesel.
In 1983 the Government expressed their concern at
the high cost of getting goods from farm to marketplace and began what became known as the Onshore
Costs Study. This study focussed particularly on ports
and highlighted the need for structural change within the
industry to achieve lower costs and greater efficiency.
Timaru
Pacific
Ocean
Figure 1. The North and South Islands which form New
Zealand, with the three ports involved in contract dredging
indicated -- Tauranga, Taranaki and Timaru.
If a port required capital dredging the practice was to

invite tenders from overseas-based companies and
enter into a contract. Upon arrival of that contract
dredger in New Zealand, it succeeded in picking up
other work around the coast and there was some
sharing of the overall mobilisation costs to New
Zealand.
Port-owned Dredgers
In 1976 the Port of Timaru concluded that the era of
bucket dredging at its port was finished and decided to
convert the bucket dredger W.H. Orbell to a trailer
suction dredger. The conversion was carried out recognising that ports such as Tauranga, Napier, Otago and
others would intermittently require some on-going
trailer dredging work.
In 1985 the Port of Otago constructed the 600 m3
hopper trailer dredger New Era designed for work
particularly in the Port of Otago. During the 1970s and
early 1980s the Port of Tauranga had been undertaking
a major reclamation using material from capital dredging, primarily from its own cutter suction dredger but
12
Port Companies
In 1984 the Government immediately set about eliminating subsidies wherever they were and freeing up
the New Zealand economy from many of the controls
that it had traditionally been under. All industries were
affected in many ways by the changes and the Government took up the Onshore Costs Study and progressed
it vigorously. This eventually led to the formation of Port
Companies to manage the commercial port operations
and probably had the effect, as far as dredging was
concerned, of making all ports more aware of their
dredging costs and more receptive to looking at alternative or new means of reducing them.
In 1986 the question arose as to whether it was economic to have three dredgers in New Zealand doing
work which could be performed by one or perhaps two
of the existing dredgers or by contract. As a result, the
ports of Tauranga, Taranaki and Timaru held a meeting
at which the idea of carrying out a detailed study into
the best option for dredging the three ports in combination was explored. Thus in December 1986 the study
into the optimal dredging method for the three ports
was initiated in a political and economic environment
which encouraged a fresh and more stringently economic approach to dredging policies.
E VALUATION
OF
D REDGING O PTIONS
The study canvassed the following options:

1. Contract dredging by international companies;
2. Replacement vessel, size of the W.H. Orbell
(1200 m3);
3. Replacement vessel, size of the New Era (900 m3);

4. W.H. Orbell in a joint venture; and
5. Ngamotu in a joint venture.
Responsibility for the investigation was awarded to
Deloitte Haskins & Sells, Financial Consultants, with
Becca Carter Hollings & Ferner acting as Engineering
Sub-consultants.
The total costs of the joint venture for the period 19882000 under each option was established, and after
discussions with the engineers from the three participating ports, Option 1 Contract Dredging was selected as the most favourable. The total dredging bill for
the three ports was slashed by over $1,000,000 per
annum as a result of the change to contract dredging.
Their proposal was to undertake the study in three

parts:
- Data collection, port investigations, discussions,
creation of financial models.
- Evaluation of the options, using financial and nonfinancial criteria.
- Establishment of the joint venture, including the
selection of vessel, management, industrial considerations.
T HE C ONTRACTOR
Stage 2 was completed in April 1987 at a cost of

$65,000. It clearly showed that the operation of a joint
venture brought about significant reductions in the total
cost of dredging operations at the three ports. Each
option was considered by using the most likely,
maximum, and minimum volumes to be dredged
as well as three inflation and interest rate scenarios.
To execute the work a 1,000 m3 trailer suction splithopper dredger, Pelican, was mobilised from Europe
(Figure 2). The Pelican is basically stationed in New
Zealand but also makes the occasional side trip to
Australia. Work for third parties is only undertaken
after consultation with the three main client Port
Companies.
The contract was awarded to New Zealand Dredging &

General Works, which at the time in 1988 was a wholly
owned subsidiary of Royal Volker Stevin of The Netherlands. Since 1992 New Zealand Dredging & General
Works is owned by WestHam of Sydney, Australia.
The contract is for a period of fifteen years with a
review every five years.
Figure 2. The Pelican is a split-hopper trailing dredger, equipped with a suction installation allowing the dredged spoil to be
discharged ashore. The dredge pump has been mounted halfway along the suction pipe enabling the vessel to dredge highly
concentrated mixtures at great depths.
13
T HE I NTER P ORT A GREEMENT

D REDGING C ONTRACT
AND
A contract had to be negotiated which would bind the

four parties together. The most practical way to
achieve this was for the three ports to formulate an
agreement to use a common contractor, and under this
Heads of Agreement enter into individual contracts
with the dredging contractor for the work at each port.
Heads of Agreement
This document set out the intention of the three ports
to employ a common contractor for trailer suction
dredging work. It also set out such matters as the
establishment of separate contracts, cross-liability, the
sharing of establishment costs, refunds, contract intelligence and cooperation in dealing with the programming of dredging and urgent dredging.
Dredging Contracts
Each individual contract between the Port Company
and the Dredging Contractor is divided into three parts:
Part A, Special Conditions of Contract; Part B, Specification; and Part C, Schedule.
Part A, Special Conditions of Contract
In this part the most significant section is clause 7,
Payment, which is commerically sensitive and can
therefore not be elaborated upon in depth. Clause 7g is
the market fluctuations clause and contains two elements that merit further comment.
The first element is the labour adjustment factor. At the
negotiating stages of the contract, the manning for the
vessel was not known so the contractor was required
to make the initial offer subject to eventual outcomes of
the labour negotiations.
The three ports were obviously reluctant to enter into a
contract which was open ended in regard to a major
cost component. Eventually both sides agreed to share
a degree of the risk associated with the labour negotiations. For the purposes of the unit rates in the dredging
contract, a nominal manning level was agreed and a
notional gang rate reflecting the cost of manning the
dredger was calculated.
It was then agreed that any variations to the anticipated
manning levels be carried by the ports to a limited
extent and thereafter by the dredging contractor. It was
also agreed that the maximum variation from the
expected cost per crew member that the ports would
meet by way of the adjustment to the notional gang
rate, and hence the unit rate, would be +/- 15 percent.
If the final rate negotiated varied more than this
amount, the cost or savings would be borne by the
contractor.
Thus at the point of contract negotiations, the maximum risk resulting from labour cost variations was
14
prescribed and an incentive to the contractor to hold

these costs was provided.
The second element worth noting is that after two and
a half years of operation of the market fluctuations
formula, a re-assessment of the notional gang rate was
made from base data and substituted in the formula
replacing the value derived by reference to the movement of the wage rate index. This was done to ensure
that actual rates are not overly influenced by statistical
data not directly related to the operation of a dredger.
Clause 9, The Term of Contract, sets out the procedure
for extending the contract beyond the initial period of
five years.
Part B, Specification
In Part B the contract details the work to be carried out
at each port and specifies an annual volume of dredging that each port has contracted to provide to the
dredging company. The rates for this work are specified along with adjustments ot be made if the contract
volume increases or decreases. The contract allows a
port to defer or cancel its dredging, but it must pay a
minimum sum to the contractor in so doing.
Sections 5 and 6 of Part B deal with the measure of the
work and the planning and control of dredging. Tolerances on minimum areas of dredging are presented as
guides.
C ONTRACT O PERATION
Dredging Programme Flexibility
Control of the dredging programme essentially lies with
the Port Companies and is driven by their needs. The
long-term programme of the contractor is reviewed by
all parties on a biannual basis where each Port Companys individual forecast of dredging needs is programmed with other work the contractor may have or
considers likely together with other requirements such
as vessel maintenance.
The Port Companies are able to take advantage of the
contractors ability to be flexible in dredging operations
and programming campaigns. This can enable the port
to be confidently operated with some tolerance or
variation to the port operating parameters, e.g.,
draught, channel, width, and so on.
There are no physical limits as to the volume dredged
each year, therefore each Port Company is able to
choose whether to bring forward, defer or combine
dredging campaigns to meet their own shipping or
cash flow needs. Instead of slavishly following a clear
depth over a clear toeline concept essential for one
off contracts, the Port Companies can tailor each
dredging campaign and time a campaign for a better
Figure 3. The Pelican at work in the evening, dredging the harbour of Timaru. Dredging takes place 24 hours a day, 6 1/2 days per
week.
overall return for the Port. Any urgent or unexpected

need for dredging can be accommodated under the
contract by a variation to the long-term programme.
Co-operative programming between the Ports also
enables the cost of mobilisation and demobilisation to
be kept to a minimum by minimising the inter-port
voyages of the dredger.
Plant Utilisation
By virtue of their co-operation the three Port Companies have:
- eliminated future capital spending on plant for maintenance dredging;
- eliminated a significant part of the operation cost of
the dredging.
By employing a contractor with a modern dredger with
a capacity matching typical dredging needs the Port
Companies do not need to invest in new equipment,
keep existing equipment in operation or modify equipment for specific purposes. In the long-term this means
that capital potential is able to be utilised for other
revenue earning activities.
The benefits to the Port Companies from sharing the
contractors dredger are many:
- The dredging contract is based on working 24 hours
per day 6 1/2 days per week.
- Greater plant utilisation by the contractor reflects in
lower contract prices.
- Port Companies can do away with maintenance and
supervision systems of their own.
- The contractor has broader experience in dealing

with different dredging problems.
- The creation of work is eliminated.
Human Resources and Industrial Relations
Introduction of a dredging contractor working on a longterm basis on the New Zealand coast necessitated the
negotiation of new industrial agreements with the
Maritime Union. Existing industrial agreeements generally only covered vessels working in their home port.
Negotiation of these agreements was not made any
easier by the fact that all facets of port operations in
New Zealand were undergoing dramatic change at the
direction of the Government.
The emergence of the new industrial agreements and
the fact that the contractor has now taken over the roll
of the employer with all its responsibilities meant that
the Port Companies could either free up their own
personnel for other duties or reduce their static workforce and management.
By using the contractors dredger and crew the following benefits are forthcoming:
- Labour costs are reduced in maintenance dredging,
reflected through lower unit contract rates.
- A pool of dredging personnel with a greater diversity
of dredging experience is established.
Long-term Planning of Operations
The long-term contract enables the contractor to view
the employment of the dredger from a more stable
15
position, particularly when considering:

- long-term maintenance and slippings;
- investment in new technology;
- investment in modifications or improvements;
- investment for diverse operations.
Long-term maintenance can now be carried out in the
most preferred manner and location rather trying to fit it
in between projects or for the sake of expediency
when passing a slipway or drydock. This enables the
repair costs to be better controlled and overall cheaper.
Upgrading the technology in the vessel to maintain its
competitiveness can be viewed more rationally knowing its occupancy more accurately for the long-term
contracts.
Modifications or improvements can be more readily
made knowing the expected increased return from the
modification and the pay back period for that return.
Should changing materials or disposal methods be
required by the client, the investment in the dredger to
meet those needs can be explored more rationally than
for the one off situation. All of the above factors
contribute to keeping the maintenance costs to a
minimum and enable the vessel to be kept in competitive condition.
The benefits of the long-term contract to the contractor
ultimately flow to the Port Companies by resulting in
lower contract rates and from the decision-making
process available through the flexibility in programming
dredging campaigns. Conversely the contract term of
5 years is not so long as to remove the incentive of
future renewals.
Utilisation of Port Company Resources
Typically dredging contracts require the contractor to be
self-sufficient in all facets of the execution of a contract.

This ensures that the areas of responsibility are clearly
defined. Also, contractors operate with different priorities with regard to time.
Quite often this results in a contractor duplicating resources that already exist within a ports infrastructure.
Therefore whilst such duplication may be necessary for
a single contract, the contractor proposed that if it were
possible for the Port Companies to provide support to
the contractor as a condition of the contract there
would be multiple effects:
1. Direct reduction of the contract price resulting from
reduced capital investment or hire by the contractor.
2. Reduction in the contractors site staff, again providing a reduction in the contract price.
3. Greater utilisation and hence cost benefit of the
Port Companies own personnel, plant and equipment.
4. Reduced mobilisation and demobilsation costs as
the contractor does not have to set up/end dismantle a site infrastructure for each campaign.
Under the long-term contracts the Port Companies are
required to provide all hydrographic surveying support
necessary for both the administration of the contract
and also for the day-to-day operation needs of the
contractor. The Port Companies are also required to
provide a service vessel to support the dredger for
crew changes and day-to-day requirements.
Contract Benefits
The benefits of the long-term contract are for both
parties and are summarised below.
Benefits for the Port Companies are:
- free to tailor maintenance dredging needs and programmes to suit shipping requirments;
- instead of ports having to create additional work or
obtain work outside of the ports to keep personnel
and plant viably occupied the contractor can be used
only as required;
- reduced direct expenditure for maintenance dredging;
- fixed term unit rate contract is an incentive for the
contractor to remain competitive.
Benefits for the contractor are:
- stabilisation of vessel occupancy in the long term;
- smooth regulation of cash flow in the long term;
- increased efficiency from working in the same
environments on a regular basis.
Figure 4. The general layout of the Port of Timaru.
16
Contract Problems
Some difficulties can be met in the execution of the
long-term contracts, and these are summarised
below.
Problems which can arise for the Port Companies are:

- digression from the original concept or intent of the
actual dredging to any large extent that does not
easily fit in with the exisiting unit rate price structure;
- adopting variations to their own dredging programmes should the contractor obtain other work
outside of long-term contracts.
Problems which can arise for the Contractor are:
- logistical problems of short campaigns in personnel
and spare parts;
- short-term peaks and troughs can create difficulties
in manning the vessel and deploying site staff.
O VERVIEW
Since the implementation of this contract in 1988, the
Port of Timaru has dredged 160,000 m3 per annum
(Figures 3 and 4), Westgate-Taranaki 120,000 m3 per
annum, and Tauranga (Figure 5) approximately 350,000
m3. During 1993 Timaru gained ISO 9002 Certification
for a key customer interface, its container yard and
freight station area. It was the first port in Australia or
New Zealand to do so.
Conclusions
New Zealand. Port Companies, with a considerably

different focus, were established. The need for structural change in the industry became apparent immediately, and in several ports the new approach resulted in
a shift from port-owned and -operated dredgers to
contract dredging.
In the ports of Tauranga, Taranaki and Timaru this was
the case, and this re-appraisal resulted in a contract for
a period of fifteen years, with a review every five years.
The contract is now in its eighth year and is without a
doubt of great benefit to the three Port Companies.
In less than ten years time since the study into the
optimal dredging method was made, New Zealand
ports have moved from world-ranked laggards to the
top echelon of international ports in terms of profitability and performance. They have become customer
focussed and flexible. It seems therefore quite likely
that a similar arrangement will continue in the future.
References
Deloitte Haskins & Sells.
Financial Evaluation of the Joint Venture Dredging Options.
Report for the Ports of Tauranga, Taranaki and Timaru.
June 1987.
The waterfront reform in the mid-1980s in New

Zealand resulted in the privatisation of all the ports in
Figure 5. The Pelican dredging the approach channel at Tauranga in 1990. Its modest size and high manoeuvrability make the vessel
ideally suited for operations in smaller harbours as well as for dredging pipeline and cable trenches in shallow coastal waters.
17
Environment
Bert Dijkstra and Stuart McIntyre
Bess Long Sea Outfall,

Barcelona
Abstract
Bess Long Sea Outfall, Barcelona, Spain, is one of
Europes largest long sea outfalls installed by the bottom pull method. The outfall consists of a cement
mortar lined 19 mm thick steel liner pipe with a structural reinforced concrete coating and a total length of
2900 m. This paper provides a brief overview of the
project and discusses in greater detail the somewhat
unusual dredging activities carried out which allowed its
successful installation.
Dredging activities included soil improvement by removal of soft clay and its replacement by compacted sand,
the dredging of a 7 m deep trench beneath a high
pressure gas pipeline located approximately 1 km
offshore and the dredging of a 2900 m long trench in
water up to 55 m deep.
Introduction
In the light of recent EC legislation, EMSSA (the Barcelona sewerage disposal authority) had been reviewing
Figure 1. Location of the outfall at Sant Adri de Bess.
18
the performance of the sewerage disposal system to

Barcelona. They had identified a need for a substantially
improved outfall system to the north of Barcelona that
would replace the existing outfall which was leaking
badly and not long enough to satisfy EC bathing water
quality directives.
An EPIC (Engineer, Procure, Install Commission) contract for the outfall and associated pumping station was
then drafted, and ultimately awarded to a joint venture
company comprising two Spanish contractors, SATO,
and Cubiertas y Mzov, and two Dutch contractors, Smit
Tak and Ballast Nedam Dredging. Two British consultants were engaged; Andrew Palmer and Associates
were responsible for the detail design of the outfall,
and Watson Espaa provided engineering support to
the client. A truly pan-European venture.
The contract was awarded in January of 1994 and by
January of 1995 the outfall had been designed, built
and installed. The final part of the project, Pump Station
Commissioning, was completed in May 1995. Figure 1
shows the outfall location.
O UTFALL D ESCRIPTION
The outfall consists of a cement mortar lined 19 mm
thick steel liner pipe with a structural reinforced concrete coating to produce the following overall dimensions:
Bore
Outside Diameter
Structural Concrete
Total length
Diffuser section
(with 15 diffusers)
Total dry weight empty
Submerged weight
Maximum flow rate
2.10 m
2.62 m
222 mm thick
2900 m
Bert Dijkstra holds a BSc in Civil

Engineering and a BBA in Business
Administration. Since 1964 he has
work all over the world for Volker
Stevin and Ballast Nedam. He is
presently Area Manager Europe at
Ballast Nedam Dredging.
840 m
16,800 T
150 kg/m
12.4 m3/ s.
The outfall was installed to a maximum water depth of

55 m using the bottom pull method. Installation to this,
in the context of outfalls, extreme water depth, with
such a large diameter pipe, required state-of-the-art
pipeline analysis using finite element analysis.
The large diameter of this pipe is considered close to
the practical limits for the bottom pull method of installation because with a submerged weight of only 2 to
3 per cent of its dry weight, factors such as concrete
density, water absorption and construction tolerances
may determine whether the pipe floats or is too heavy
to pull. Recognition of this led to the somewhat unusual step of concrete coating the individual 9 m steel
pipes off site. This ensured that the concrete coating
was of the highest quality.
The high concrete quality achieved will help ensure that
the outfall fulfils its 100-year design life. Further measures used to maximise longevity included coating the
concrete reinforcement with fusion bonded epoxy, and
the liner pipe with a two pack epoxy paint and connecting the liner to an impressed current CP system.
Although the pipe is enormously heavy when dry
(5800 kg/m), because of its large displacement, the
pipe has a low submerged weight (150 kg/m) when
empty. Traditional two-dimensional stability models
indicated that the pipe was only stable in very small
waves, and more sophisticated three-dimensional
analysis was required to determine the limiting installation weather conditions.
L AND -B ASED C ONSTRUCTION

This part of the work was undertaken by SATO and
Cubiertas. The outfall is made up of 9 m long steel
pipes, fabricated near Barcelona. These pipes were
individually concrete coated in a specialist factory,
again near Barcelona.
When the pipes were delivered to site they were
welded together to form strings 117 m long.
Bert Dijkstra
Stuart McIntyre holds a BSc in Civil

Engineering and is a Charter Civil
Engineer. He works as a Senior Engineer with Andrew Palmer and Associates, and was posted to Spain by
them for the duration of the outfall
design and installation as Assistant
Project Manager.
Stuart McIntyre
The strings were then moved sideways into stock and

the joints between pipes completed with the concrete
coating. The temporary works required to allow the
handling of such large pipe strings was one of the
major investments onshore; its successful operation
determines whether welding is completed on time.
Figure 2 shows the partially completed string number
one about to be moved sideways into stock.
During the welding and fabrication process, the offshore trench was being dredged. The dredging of the
trench is the primary focus of this paper.
D REDGING A CTIVITIES
Planning
The dredging works consisted of dredging the 4-m
deep, 2900-m long trench and, after installation of the
pipe, backfilling of the trench with sand. The overall
19
Figure 2. The first pipe string being moved from the welding area to the stock area. The structures on top of the pipe are the
starters for the diffusers.
programme was for construction to begin in February

of 1994, with completion in May 1995.
The critical path for the project lay through:
- welding of the pipe strings on site;
- trench dredging;
- pipe pulling;
- testing;
- backfilling; and
- pumping station construction.
Because of the clients extreme concern that dredging
activities should not cause turbulence which could
arrive on the beaches during the holiday periods, strict
controls were enforced. These included limiting the
dates during which dredging could take place, and
requiring the suction hopper dredger to work without
overflow.The above restrictions effectively resulted in
two periods of dredging activity: a period in the spring
of 1994, prior to the peak summer holiday period, and a
period after summer and into the autumn/winter of
1994.
Figure 3. Cutter dredger Rozenburg, 160 m from cofferdam

and hopper dredger Lelystad, 600 m from cofferdam,
launching preparations on shore side.
20
The first season of dredging work comprised the

dredging, backfilling and compaction of a soil improvement area designed to support a future breakwater
crossing of the outfall. The second season of work
comprised the dredging of the main trench. The activities in these two seasons are discussed below.
Four different dredgers were utilised (Figure 3):

- trailing suction hopper dredger Lelystad to dredge up
to 55 m below seabed;
- trailing suction hopper dredger Poseidon to facilitate
backfilling of the trench through one of the suction
pipes;
- cutter suction dredger Rozenburg to make the
trench in the nearshore shallow waters; and
- submerged jetpump in combination with FLYGT
pump (2 cutter system) operated from the pontoon
Kutxa to allow for very accurate dredging near the
existing pipeline.
S PRING 1994
Breakwater Soil Improvement
The future harbour breakwater will be constructed over
the outfall, in approximately 20 metres of water. To
support this massive construction so that it does not
damage the outfall required the removal of 200,000 m3
of soft clay and mud.
The soft material was removed by the suction dredger
Poseidon, and on acceptance of the dredged area by
the client, was backfilled by the same vessel with sand
with a D50 of 400 m.
The borrowing of sand for this purpose is controversial,
as sand is particularly valuable in Spain for the formation and maintenance of beaches.
After backfilling, the area was compacted using twin
torpedo vibro-compactors supported from the crane
pontoon Kutxa (Figure 4), in a pattern that compacted 5
m2 per point. Design of the soil improvement area to
support the breakwater and protect the outfall, even
during earthquakes, used specialist three-dimensional
consolidation, finite element models developed by
Cambridge University, followed by finite element dynamic earthquake analysis using real earthquake recordings, scaled appropriately to the design criteria at
Barcelona.
A UTUMN / W INTER 1994

Main Trench Dredging
This season of work comprised dredging of the outfall
trench and was divided into four sections:
1. Beach cofferdam to water depth 15 m (chainage
CH 40 m to 430 m).
2. Water depth 15 m to gasline crossing (chainage
CH 430 m to 1125 m).
3. Gasline crossing (chainage CH 1120 m to 1165 m)
at 35 m water depth.
4. Gasline crossing to end of trench (chainage
CH 1165 m to 2920 m)
Longitudinal Profile
Because of the very high longitudinal stiffness of the
pipe, the trench longitudinal profile had to be very
Figure 4. After backfilling, the area was compacted using twin

torpedo vibro-compactors supported from the crane barge
Kutxa. Kutxa is seen here dredging under the gas line, with a
pull barge behind.
carefully designed and executed, particularly through

sag curves and at the end of the launch ramp. The
analysis ensures that if the pipe is very stiff and light, it
will not lift off in sag bends, particularly underneath
the gas line. Similarly, when soils are very soft and the
pipe is not able to lift, at the end of the launch ramp for
example, it does not plough-in and become embedded.
The high stiffness of the pipe determines that changes
in the longitudinal profile must occur slowly. This meant
that, although the target trench depth was 3.6 m below
original seabed, the trench was frequently deeper than
this in areas of profile change. A major part of the
profile design process was therefore the optimisation
of stresses within the pipe to minimise dredge quantities and ensure that the pipe would follow the design
profile. The trench profile adopted is shown in Figure 5.
To allow accurate dredging of the trench to a maximum
water depth of 55 metres required a large trailing
suction hopper dredger, Lelystad. This vessel uses
extremely sophisticated positioning and control equipment which allows very tight dredge tolerances and
ensured that the position of the suction head was
exactly known at all times.
Trench Section 3: Gas Line Crossing
The first item of work to be started on the dredging of
the main trench was the offshore crossing of a 20 inch
outside diameter high pressure gas pipeline. This was
located 1 km offshore in approximately 26 m of water.
Because of its arterial role in the distribution of gas
21
Figure 5. Basic design, longitudinal profile. Minimum radius at gasline crossing: 4500 m.
around Barcelona, the gas line could not be shut down

to allow dredging of the trench. It was therefore supported on a lattice bridge with a length of 60 m and a
clear central span of 40 m. The bridge was designed in
accordance with API RP2A (Figure 6). Although this
solution worked well, considerable restrictions were
placed on dredging activities.
Before dredging could begin, the owner of the gas

pipeline, Gas Natural SA was provided with detailed
method statements and work procedures. These
procedures considered contingencies and were developed in conjunction with Gas Natural so that risks to
the pipeline were minimised. In this way, should an
unfortunate event have occurred, the dangers to crew
Figure 6. The gas pipeline bridge is lowered into the harbour in preparation for towing out to site.
This support bridge is 60 m overall length.
22
Figure 7. Situation at the pipeline crossing. Window of suction pipe of Lelystad.
were minimised, and the pipeline could have been

returned to service as quickly as possible.
The procedures also placed restrictions on the movement of vessels and required that the suction heads of
the dredger were always at surface when crossing the
gas pipeline (Figure 7). After the pipe bridge had been
installed and the procedures agreed, dredging to remove the 30,000 m3 of material underneath and close
to the pipeline could begin.
The dredging of this gas line crossing section had
originally been planned for an underwater, remotely
controlled vehicle carrying a jet pump. Unfortunately,
production targets could not be met and the work
method was changed to two cutter FLYGT pumps
mounted on a vertical steel tube, supported by a crane
aboard the pontoon Kutxa. High pressure water jets
were also mounted around the pumps to help dislodge
material around the pumps. Figure 8 shows the dredging system used at the gas line crossing.
Because of the nature of the sandy clay encountered,
excavation slopes were steep (approximately 1:1).
This had the advantage of reducing the overall amount
of material to dredge, but as the material was not free
running towards the pump and cutters, every part of
the required trench area had to be thoroughly covered
by the cutters. Figure 9 shows the trench cross-section
near the gas line. It makes clear just how steep the
trench slopes were.
Survey was carried out by survey launch, supported by

divers when necessary. The divers were also required
to manually remove the small amount of material lying
directly underneath the pipe bridge.
Trench Section 1: Cofferdam to 15 m Water Depth
This section of trench was dredged by the cutter dredger Rozenburg on a box cut of 40 m width. The bottom
width required before pipe pulling was 10 m. As the
prevailing wind direction is from the northwest, and
because of a slight coastal drift and the close proximity
to shore and the surf zone, a small amount of trench
maintenance was expected. In the event however, no
maintenance dredging was required. Dredged material
was dumped via a floating pipeline 450 m to the south
of the trench.
Trench Sections 2 and 4: 15 m Water Depth to Gas
Crossing, Gas Crossing to End of Trench
These sections were dredged by the hopper dredger
Lelystad. Bottom width was set at 15 m while the side
slopes were expected to be stable with slopes of 1:4.
Dredge tolerances were determined by the pipe, with
computer analysis on site to verify that the profile was
acceptable. Tolerances were typically plus 10 cm to
minus 40 cm per cross-section.
Difficulties encountered in the dredging of section 4 of
the main trench included the material being very soft,
the requirement for very tight tolerances at great
depths, and being restricted to dredge without over-
23
flow. Overcoming these difficulties required a great

deal of skill and attention.
A difficulty encountered in dredging section 2 was the
presence of a hard spot in the trench at CH 480
(Figure 10). The difficulty with dredging such hard spots
is that the suction head follows the path of least resistance, and the danger arises of overdredging one side
of the trench and leaving the other side high. This again
calls for experience and skill from the crew and the
dredging engineer on the bridge.
Figure 9. CH 1120 cross-section. Progress bridge 19

November 1994.
P IPE P ULL
When dredging of the trench was complete and accepted by the client, the outfall could be pulled out. The
pull out went very smoothly, with the outfall being
pulled into the trench using the Taklift 8 pull barge with
an installed winch capacity of 600 tonne reacting
against four huge anchors placed further offshore (13
Tonne Stevpris type). One 117 metre string was fully
welded, wrapped, concrete coated and pulled out
every 24 hours (Figure 11).
The pull barge was initially anchored 1.5 km offshore
with the pull pennant passing underneath the gas line
only 400 m away. Considerable detailed engineering
and monitoring was required to ensure that the pull
wires did not lift off close to the gas line, threatening
contact with it.
During the pull, continuous survey was carried out to
determine that the pipe was following the correct
profile and monitoring the cable touchdown point.
Installation of the diffusers, traditionally a very weathersensitive and timeconsuming activity also went very
smoothly. All 15 diffusers were installed within 30
hours. This is all the more remarkable considering that
this was carried out by divers in 50 metre water depth
with one metre visibility. The diffusers were installed
using the deck crane aboard the pull barge.
B ACKFILLING
Figure 8. General arrangement of the steel pump; insert: one

pump unit and two cutter units, hydraulic driven.
24
After the pipe and diffusers had been installed and

approved, backfilling could begin. Unfortunately, the
quantity of sand available in the contractual sand bor-
Figure 10. CH 480 cross-section. Preliminary outsurvey

Kp 60-500, 15 November 1994, showing hard spot.
row area was very limited and alternative borrow areas

had to be located. The alternative sand source provided
material of the grading shown in Figure 12.
Backfilling was done in two parts because of the draft
restrictions of the suction hopper dredger Poseidon
mobilised to backfill the trench. The first section was
from the beach cofferdam to CH 400, and the second
from CH 400 offshore.
The shallower section was backfilled using the pontoon
Kutxa supporting a T-shaped fall-pipe which, when
connected with the Poseidon via a floating pipeline,
allowed discharge of the 3000 m3 load over the outfall.
The offshore section was backfilled by the hopper
dredger directly. This was done by pumping the hopper
contents down one of the suction pipes and allowing it
to discharge 5 to 10 m above the outfall.
Unfortunately, because of the fine content of the backfill material and cross-currents, there was a significant
loss of backfill material.
Figure 11. In the foreground, the pipeline is awaiting the pull.

In the background is the pull barge and the pontoon dredging
underneath the gas line. In the middle ground is a sewer
diversion pipe crossing the pipe trench.
25
Figure 12. Particle size distribution of sand for backfilling.
S URVEY
The key to the successful accurate dredging of the
trench was survey. The control system for the survey
comprised two DGPS reference stations, seven microfix stations and an automatic tide gauge. Survey stations were installed on the survey launch La Restinga,
crane pontoon Kutxa, suction hoppers Poseidon and
Lelystad and the cutter dredger Rozenburg. In the later
stages, a station was set up on the pull barge Taklift 8
and another on the anchor handling tug Smit Lloyd 31.
Conclusion
The dredging activities necessary to ensure the successful construction of the new longer outfall at Bess in
Barcelona were defined by several strict requirements.
For instance, dredging activities were not allowed to
cause turbulence which would disturb beaches during
holiday seasons. Therefore work took place during
restricted periods (spring and autumn) and suction
hopper dredgers had to work mostly without overflow.
In addition, utmost care was needed to cross a high
pressure operational gas pipeline. This included devising
contingency plans which had to be approved by Gas
26
Natural SA. Movement of vessels was restricted and

contingency plans required that suction heads were
always on the surface when crossing the gas line.
Although modern engineering works are increasingly
dominated by highly sophisticated technical systems,
the type of precision involved in this project also relied
heavily upon the close cooperation of a large number of
individuals. The collective skills of the crew, the engineers and the divers allowed for the successful completion of this a significant contract within a limited time
span.
Books/Periodicals Reviewed
Charles W. Hummer, Jr.
Books/
Periodicals
Reviewed
The US Army Corps of Engineers is concluding a multiyear $25 million dredging research programme. Many
fine interim technical reports have been produced
periodically during the course of the programme.
Presently a number of final reports are being published
which are of prime interest, and four of these are
abstracted below. The Dredging Research Programme
(DRP) is organised into five technical areas:
Area 1 Analysis of Dredged Material Placed in Open
Waters
Area 2 Material Properties Related to Navigation and
Dredging
Area 3 Dredge Plant Equipment and Systems Processes
Area 4 Vessel Positioning, Survey Controls and
Dredge Monitoring Systems
Area 5 Management of Dredging Projects
Development and Verification of Numerical Models

for Predicting the Initial Fate of Dredged Material
Disposed in Open Water, Report 2. Theoretical
Developments and Verifications Results. Technical
Report DRP 93-1.
US Army Corps of Engineers. February 1995.
Bibliographic references. 74 pp. Illustrated.
B.H. Johnson and M.T. Fong
This research was conducted under the DRP Technical
Area 1. A numerical model called STFATE (Short Term
FATE) for computing the short-term fate of dredged
material disposed in open water has been developed.
STFATE builds upon work of earlier researchers to
provide a more realistic simulation of actual disposal
operations from split-hull barges and multi-bin hopper
dredges. New developments allow for multiple-connecting clouds and stripping of solids fluid from those
clouds to better represent water column effects.
Other developments include the use of the total energy
approach for computing the bottom surge and computations that make the model more applicable at dispersive disposal sites.
STFATE has been applied to simulate disposal tests
conducted at a 1:50 scale in a large laboratory facility at
the US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
Comparison of computed and measured results on
decent and bottom surge speeds, bottom deposition,
and suspended sediment concentrations have been
made. The results show that STFATE can be used to
reliably predict the fate of material disposed at open
water disposal sites. However, an uncertainty analysis
is needed to place accuracy bounds on model results.
Key words: barge, disposal, dredged material, hopper
dredge, mixing zone, numerical model, sediment.
Plume Measurement System (PLUMES), Technical

Manual and Data Analysis Procedures: Final Report.
Technical Report DRP-95-1.
M.W. Tubman
The PLUmes MEasurement System (PLUMES) was
developed under the Measurement of Entrainment and
Transport research work unit of the DRP Technical
Area 1 to monitor the transport of suspended sediment
from dredging and dredged material disposal operations. This system can monitor the transport nearly
synoptically, both horizontally and vertically. The report
provides technical information on the overall system,
guidance on locating specific information in the standard technical manuals provided by the manufacturers
of the individual system components, technical information on special features of the system components
not included in the manufacturers manuals, information on system operation and deployment procedures,
27
descriptions of the PLUMES software, and information

on the data analyses procedures.
Key words: acoustic, dredged material, monitoring,
PLUMES, suspended sediment transport
Technologies for Hopper Dredge Production and

Process Monitoring - Laboratory and Field
Investigations: Final Report. Technical Report
DRP-95-2.
S.H. Scott, J.D. Jorgeson,
M.B. Savage and C.B. Cox
This work unit, which falls under DRP Technical Area 3,
was initiated to investigate methods for monitoring
hopper dredge production and operation. Hopper
dredging accounts for a significant portion of the total
amount of material dredging in the United States.
Operating costs for a hopper dredge are significant.
Costs may vary from approximately $30,000 to
$75,000 per 24 hour day, depending on the size of the
dredge and support requirements. Typically, the cost of
efficiency of a dredge is judged by its ability to move
sediments from the project area to disposal with a
minimum of pumping and travelling time. The ideal
hopper load for accomplishing this is referred to as the
economic load. Better methods are needed to monitor dredge processes which will reveal the optimal
operation for achieving the goal of economic load.
Under this work unit, two methods were designed,
fabricated, tested and evaluated for effectiveness in
providing data to dredge personnel for the purpose of
increasing dredge efficiency:
- A resistivity probe was developed to directly measure the vertical density profile of dredge material in
the hopper.
- An instrumentation package which included acoustic
and pressure sensors was developed to monitor the
real time dredge displacement and hopper volume
and indirectly measure the density of dredged material in the hopper.
The data resulting from the application of both systems
can be used for calculating dredge production on a load
by load basis. The report presents the description and
method of the testing programmes and the study
findings. The concept of uncertainty analysis for determining the error potential in hopper dredge production
calculations is presented and discussed with an example calculation.
Key words: dredges, hopper dredge, dredge investigations, economic load, excavating machinery
28
A Technique to Assess the Characteristics of Bottom

and Subbottom Marine Sediments: Final Report.
Technical Report DRP-95-3.
R.G. McGee, R.F. Ballard, Jr
and D.D. Caulfield
The theoretical concept, assembly and field testing of a
waterborne seismic acoustic impedance technique
which has been developed to characterise bottom and
subbottom sediments as they relate to removal by
dredging are presented in this report. This method,
developed under the DRP Technical Area 2, provides
estimates of in-situ density and soil type in rapid, costeffective manner using digital acoustic subbottom
profiling methodology.
In-situ densities obtained by the acoustic impedance
technique to date, when compared to those obtained
by conventional means at several different sites under
a wide varity of marine conditions, have statistically
been within 10 percent. However, only marine sediments considered to be fully saturated, inorganic and
uncontaminated have been investigated and ground
truthed. After comparisons with ground truth information and laboratory testing, a critical analysis of the
acoustic impedance technique reveals it to be a valid
and useful approach to bottom and subbottom material
and density prediction. Athough some development is
still needed to fully establish advantages and limitations, its potential usefulness warrants technology
transfer now provided proper cautions are observed.
This supposition is corroborated by the fact that numerous reimbursable surveys have been successfully
conducted whilst products were still in the development stage. Each site surveyed provided valuable input
to the R&D evolutionary processes, and enabled
researchers to fine tune procedures whilst simultaneously providing a successful and timely service to
clients.
Key words: acoustic impedance, acoustic subbottom
profiling, bottom sediments, subbottom sediments
These reports may be obtained at no cost from:
Mr E. Clark McNair, Jr
Programme Manager, Dredging Research Programme
U.S. Army Engineer, Waterways Experiment Station
3909 Halls Ferry Road
Vicksburg, Mississippi 39180-6199, USA
or at nominal cost from:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22161, USA
Call for Papers
Call for Papers

PIANC Conference on Inland and Maritime
Navigation and Coastal Problems of East European
Countries
Gdansk, Poland
September 1-5 1996
The Marine Civil Engineering Department of the Technical Univesity of Gdansk is the site of the PIANC
(Permanent International Association of Navigation
Congresses) conference on inland and coastal problems in Eastern Europe.
The focus will be on East European waterways and the
topics which will be discussed are:
- inland navigation in East European countries and its
link to other countries;
- maritime navigation with particular consideration of
shipping in the Baltic, Black, Adriatic and other seas;
- competitiveness of navigable waterways;
- pollution of seas due to contaminated rivers in
Eastern Europe;
- coastal problems such as sediment, beach and
harbour pollution in Eastern Europe;
- rehabilitation and modernistation of existing structures; and
- particular areas of shipping such as from Scandinavian ports to Northeast Europe.
Further information is available from:
Prof. B.K. Mazurkiewicz
Technical University of Gdansk
ul. G. Narutowicza 11/12
80 - 952 Gdansk, Poland
tel. +48 58 472611, fax +48 58 471436
telex 0512302 plg pl
maritime country, and water tranportation is crucial for

trade. Investments are being made in the development
of port facilities, deep seaports, export processing
zones (EPZ), ship repair, dredging, ship and marine
equipment and so on.
For further information contact:
RAI Exhibitions Singapore Pte Ltd
1 Maritime Square, #09-49
World Trade Centre, Singapore 0409
tel. +65 272 2250, fax +65 272 6744
Amsterdam RAI
P.O. Box 77777
Hydro 96
De Doelen Congress Centre
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
September 24-26, 1996
The tenth international biennial symposium of The
Hydrographic Society is being organised by The Societys Benelux Branch and will take place in September
1996. The Symposiums topics will address key hydrographic issues affecting port and other applications,
including:
- port and coastal surveys;
- port and coast geodesy and navigation;
- dredging surveys;
- mapping; and
- water management.
The proceedings will be supported by an exhibition of
equipment and services at which the Port of Rotterdam
will be a major participant. Deadline for submission of
abstracts is 1 January 1996. Notification of acceptance
for presentation will be 1 March 1996. Submission of
full papers for proceedings must take place by 1 July
1996.
Prospective speakers and organisations wishing to
participate should contact:
Mrs P.Y. van den Berg
Hydro 96 Organising Committee
Oceanographic Company of The Netherlands
P.O. Box 7429
2701 AK Zoetermeer, The Netherlands
tel. +31 7942 8316
fax +31 7941 5084
1070 MS Amsterdam, The Netherlands

tel. +31 (20) 549 1212, fax +31 (20) 646 4469
C.P. Wulf
Roosens Park 2
22605 Hamburg, Germany
tel. +49 (40) 880 2467, fax +49 (40) 880 7172
RAI Exhibitions London Ltd

Glen House, Suite 509
200/208 Tottenham Court Road
London W1P 9LA, U.K.
Tel. +44 (71) 436 9774, fax +44 (71) 436 5694
31
International Seminar on
Dredging and Reclamation
Place: Singapore
Date: January 15-19, 1996
Venue: Concorde Hotel
Day 1:
Why Dredging?
Day 2:
What is Dredging?
In cooperation with the National University of Singapore

(NUS) and the Applied Research Corporation (ARC),
International Association of Dredging Companies is
pleased to organise, for the second consecutive year,
an intensive, one-week seminar on dredging and reclamation. Last Januarys course met with such enthusiastic response, that IADC, building on this success,
has decided to present this seminar again in 1996. The
course will be held at the Concorde Hotel, Singapore.
The costs are US$ 2650, which includes six nights
accommodation at the Concorde Hotel, breakfast and
lunch daily, one special participants dinner, and a general insurance for the week.
Day 3:
How Dredging?
Day 4:
Preparation of Dredging
Contract
Cost/Pricing and Contracts
The Need for Dredging/Project Phasing

Dredging Equipment/Survey Systems
The seminar includes workshops and a site visit to a

dredging project. Highlights of the programme are:
Dredging Projects
Day 5:
Representatives of port authorities, companies, and

individuals interested in attending are requested to
complete the preliminary registration form below as
soon as possible and prior to November 15 1995, and
return to:
IADC Secretariat, Duinweg 21,
2585 JV The Hague, The Netherlands
tel. 31 (0)70 352 3334, fax 31 (0)70 351 2654
telex 31 102 (dune nl)
(please print)
Name ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Title ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Company ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Address ..........................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................................
Tel. ................................................................................... Fax ...............................................................................
Signature ..........................................................................................................................................................................
Do not send payment with this form. Upon receipt of this form, we will send you further detailed information
about the seminar, final registration forms and an invoice for the correct amount.
11th International Harbour Congress

Antwerp, Belgium
June 17-21 1996
Organised by the Royal Flemish Society of Engineers,
this five-day congress will be held together with the 8th
International Harbour Exhibiton.
Topics will include all aspects of port and harbour
technology such as:
- port planning: extension, renovation, future policy
making, environment, financing through privatisation;
- port infrastructure design: reducing wave agitation;
quality control and care; measurements, instrumention; design in third world situations;
32
- port construction: innovative techniques, new ship

types, protection of water bottom;
- port access: approach channels, capital dredging and
maintenance in rivers;
- maintenance: planning, reducing work on piers,
breakwaters, etc.; maintenance dredging; emergency intervention; third world ports.
For further information contact:
11th International Harbour Congress
att: Ms Rita Peys
c/o Ingenieurshuis, Desguinlei 214
B-2018 Antwerp 1, Belgium
tel. +32 (3) 216 0996, fax +32 (3) 216 0689
Membership List IADC 1995

Through their regional branches or through representatives, members of IADC operate directly at all locations worldwide.
Africa
Boskalis Togo Sarl., Lom, Togo
Boskalis Westminster Cameroun Sarl., Douala, Cameroun
Dredging and Construction Finance NV, Libreville, Gabon
Dredging International Services Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria
HAM Dredging (Nigeria) Ltd., Ikeja, Nigeria
Nigerian Dredging and Marine Ltd., Apapa, Nigeria
Westminster Dredging Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria
Zinkcon Nigeria Ltd., Lagos, Nigeria
The Americas
ACZ Marine Contractors Ltd., Brampton, Ont., Canada
Beaver Dredging Company Ltd., Calgary, Alta., Canada
Gulf Coast Trailing Company, New Orleans, LA, USA
HAM Miami Office, Miami, Florida, USA
Obras Portuarias de Coatzacoalcos SA de CV., Coatzalcoalcos,
Mexico
Stuyvesant Dredging Company, Metairie, LA, USA
Uscodi, Wilmington, DE, USA
Asia
Ballast Nedam Malaysia Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Ballast Nedam Dredging, Hong Kong Branch, Hong Kong
Boskalis International BV., Hong Kong
Boskalis International Far East, Singapore
Boskalis Taiwan Ltd., Hualien, Taiwan
Dredging International N.V., Hong Kong
Dredging International N.V., Singapore
Far East Dredging Ltd., Hong Kong
HAM Bangladesh Office, Dhaka, Bangladesh
HAM Hong Kong Branch, Wanchai, Hong Kong
HAM Singapore Branch, Singapore
HAM Taiwan Office, Taipei, Taiwan
HAM Thai Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand
Jan De Nul Singapore Pte. Ltd., Singapore
PT Penkonindo, Jakarta, Indonesia
Tideway DI Sdn. Bhd., Selangor, Malaysia
Van Oord ACZ B.V., Hong Kong
Van Oord ACZ B.V., Singapore
Zinkcon Marine Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Zinkcon Marine Singapore Pte. Ltd., Singapore
Middle East
Boskalis Westminster Al Rushaid Ltd., Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Boskalis Westminster M.E. Ltd., Abu Dhabi, UAE
Dredging International N.V., Middle East, Dubai
Dredging International N.V., Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran
Gulf Cobla (Limited Liability Company), Dubai
HAM Dredging Company, Abu Dhabi, UAE
HAM Saudi Arabia Ltd., Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Jan De Nul Dredging, Abu Dhabi, UAE
Van Oord ACZ Overseas BV., Abu Dhabi, UAE
Australia
Condreco Pty. Ltd., Sydney, NSW, Australia
Dredeco Pty. Ltd., Bulimba, QUE., Australia
Jan De Nul Australia Pty. Ltd., Brisbane, QUE., Australia
New Zealand Dredging & General Works Ltd., Wellington
Van Oord ACZ B.V., Victoria, Australia
WestHam Dredging Co. Pty. Ltd., Sydney, NSW, Australia
Europe
ACZ Ingenirer & Entreprenrer A/S, Copenhagen, Denmark
Almagi S.p.A., Rome, Italy
Anglo-Dutch Dredging Company Ltd., Beaconsfield,
United Kingdom
A/S Jebsens ACZ, Bergen, Norway
Atlantique Dragage S.A., Nanterre, France

Baggermaatschappij Boskalis B.V., Papendrecht, Netherlands
Baggermaatschappij Breejenbout B.V., Rotterdam, Netherlands
Ballast Nassbaggergesellschaft, Hamburg, Germany
Ballast Nedam Dredging, Zeist, Netherlands
Ballast Nedam Dragage, Paris, France
Boskalis Dolman B.V., Dordrecht, Netherlands
Boskalis International B.V., Papendrecht, Netherlands
Boskalis Oosterwijk B.V., Rotterdam, Netherlands
Boskalis Westminster Aannemers N.V., Antwerp, Belgium
Boskalis Westminster Dredging B.V., Papendrecht, Netherlands
Boskalis Westminster Dredging & Contracting Ltd., Cyprus
Boskalis Zinkcon B.V., Papendrecht, Netherlands
Brewaba Wasserbaugesellschaft Bremen mbH, Bremen, Germany
CEI, Bagger- en Grondwerken, Zele, Belgium
Delta G.m.b.H., Bremen, Germany
D.O.S. Dredging Company Ltd., Greenock, United Kingdom
Draflumar SA., Neuville Les Dieppe, France
Dragados y Construcciones S.A., Madrid, Spain
Dragomar International AG., Vaduz, Liechtenstein
Dragomar SpA., Rome Italy
Dravo S.A., Madrid, Spain
Dredging International N.V., Madrid, Spain
Dredging International N.V., Zwijndrecht, Belgium
Dredging International Scandinavia NS, Copenhagen, Denmark
Dredging International (UK), Ltd., Weybridge, United Kingdom
Enka-Boskalis, Istanbul, Turkey
Espadraga, Los Alczares (Murcia), Spain
HAM Dredging Danmark Aps, Korsr, Denmark
HAM Dredging Ltd., Camberley, United Kingdom
HAM, dredging and marine contractors, Capelle a/d IJssel,
Netherlands
HAM-Van Oord Werkendam B.V., Werkendam, Netherlands
Heinrich Hirdes G.m.b.H., Hamburg, Germany
Holland Dredging Company, Hardinxveld, Netherlands
Holland Dredging Iberica S.L., Tarragona, Spain
Holland Dredging Co. (Irl.) Ltd., Cork, Ireland
Holland Dredging Co. (U.K.) Ltd., Farnham, United Kingdom
Impresa SIDER SpA., Rome, Italy
Jan De Nul N.V., Aalst, Belgium
Jan De Nul Dredging N.V., Aalst, Belgium
Jan De Nul (U.K.) Ltd., Ascot, United Kingdom
Nordsee Nassbagger- und Tiefbau GmbH, Wilhelmshaven,Germany
N.V. Baggerwerken Decloedt & Zoon, Brussels, Belgium
Philipp Holzmann Aktiengesellschaft, Hamburg, Germany
S.A. Overseas Decloedt & Fils, Brussels, Belgium
Skanska Dredging AB, Gothenborg, Sweden
Sociedade Portuguesa de Dragagens Lda., Lisbon, Portugal
Sociedad Espaola de Dragados SA., Madrid, Spain
Societ Italiana Dragaggi SpA. SIDRA, Rome, Italy
Socit de Dragage Holland (France) S.A., Bondues, France
Socit de Dragage International S.D.I. S.A., Marly le Roi, France
Sodranord Sarl, Paris, France
Tideway B.V., Breda, Netherlands
Van Oord ACZ B.V., Gorinchem, Netherlands
Van Oord ACZ Ltd., Newbury, United Kingdom
Van Oord ACZ B.V., Zwijndrecht, Belgium
Volker Stevin Baggermaatschappij Nederland B.V.,Rotterdam,
Netherlands
Volker Stevin Dredging B.V., Rotterdam, Netherlands
Wasserbau ACZ GmbH, Bremen, Germany
Westminster Dredging Co. Ltd., Fareham, United Kingdom
Zanen Verstoep B.V., Papendrecht, Netherlands
Zinkcon Contractors Ltd., Fareham, United Kingdom
Zinkcon Dekker B.V., Rotterdam, Netherlands
Zinkcon Dekker Wasserbau GmbH, Bremen, Germany
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DREDGING COMPANIES

Duinweg 21 - 2585 JV The Hague - The Netherlands

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International Journal on Public Works, Ports & Waterways Developments

Number 60 - September 1995

INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF DREDGING COMPANIES

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

International Association of Dredging Companies

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

The Wear Sensitive Cutting Principle of a Cutter Suction Dredger

A Tale of Two Dredgers

Privatisation of Ports in New Zealand

Bess Long Sea Outfall, Barcelona

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

The Wear Sensitive Cutting Principle of a Cutter Suction Dredger

The Wear Sensitive Cutting

In 1991 Jan Reinout Deketh received

Jan Reinout Deketh

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

velocity is automatically increased to keep the cutting

Figure 1. Scraping test.

L ABORATORY R OCK C UTTING W EAR

Figure 2. The influence of the unconfined compressive

About 1000 different tests were carried out. Natural

The Wear Sensitive Cutting Principle of a Cutter Suction Dredger

R ELATING THE E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS

Before a comparison is made, first the relevancy of the

Figure 3. Rates of chisel wear in scraping tests on a sandstone

the chisel cuts continuously, but in practice only for

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

occurs (left graph). The rate of wear in this case is

back edge of the chisel

Figure 4. Part of a test chisel wear-flat worn in wear mode I.

In general the amount of wear can be reduced by

1. increasing the power of the dredger. An increase of

back edge of the chisel

Figure 5. Part of a test chisel wear-flat worn in wear mode III.

At the start of a cut a pick-point rather scrapes the rock

2. increasing the ratio haulage velocity over rotation

The Wear Sensitive Cutting Principle of a Cutter Suction Dredger

The total expected wear is approximated by:

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

A Tale of Two Dredgers

This article was originally part of the IADC presentation

Damn, said Barri ER as he nicked himself shaving in

Figure 1. Introducing Eric Van GATT from the private sector

He had been deep in thought, scribbling notes and

A Tale of Two Dredgers

He liked nothing better than a challenge. The time he

Figure 2. Barri ER in despair awaits the commission of a

Figure 3. Eric Van GATT, intrigued by his current

cies cannot hope to equip themselves other than for

Eric Van GATT and his counterpart from the state

Competition is the driving force in the private sector.

Terra et Aqua Number 60 September 1995

Figure 4. Private sector investments in research and

Last year, for instance, we witnessed the sale of the

O PEN D OOR P OLICY

The trend towards increased competition through

Figure 5. Legal obstacles are the protective net that state

Admittedly there are still notable exceptions, where

Cost-efficiency is of course not the only consideration